1-1

1 Introduction

1.1 Requirements, Parameters, Constraints and Objectives

The task of aircraft design in the practical sense is to supply the "geometrical description
of a new flight vehicle". To do this, the new aircraft is described by a three-view drawing, a
fuselage cross-section, a cabin layout and a list of aircraft parameters.

The parameters of aircraft design can be subdivided into requirements and design
parameters (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Parameter grouped into "requirements" and "design parameter"

requirements; also called design parameters; also called
known parameters unknown parameters
independent parameters dependent parameters
given parameters free parameters

The design of an aircraft is based on requirements which have to be met by the aircraft being
designed. These requirements are determined by the planned use. The list of requirements is
also called a performance or contract specification. Many requirements arise from the flight
mission. The mission specification is produced from market surveys and contact with
potential customers. The design engineer cannot rely on market researchers placing finished
specifications on her1 desk. Therefore, it is crucial that the design department offers
economically attractive designs. These initial designs and trade-off studies then serve as a
basis for discussions with market researchers and customers (Fig. 1.1).

The following requirements, at least, should be met when aircraft design begins:
• Cruise performance:
• Payload mPL ,
• Range R ,
• Mach number M CR

Note: The cruise Mach number M CR is not actually a requirement, but rather arises from the economic
optimization of the aircraft. In order to start iteration of the design parameters, the cruise Mach
number is, however, treated as a requirement to begin with.

1 The female form is used here to refer to both male and female persons.
 1-2

• Airport performance:
• Take-off field length sTO ;
• Landing field length sL ;
• Climb gradient γ CLB (2nd segment);
• Missed approach climb gradient γ MA .

Fig. 1.1 The mission specification in civil

aviation follows from joint work of the
aircraft design department, market
research and customer requests.
Requirements for the aircraft depend
on the mission specification.

The key design parameters are:

• Take-off mass mTO ;
• Fuel mass mF ;
• Operating empty mass mOE ;
• Wing area SW ;
• Take-off thrust TTO .
These parameters are initially determined when conducting the preliminary sizing of the
aircraft. The configuration and geometry of the aircraft are defined more closely in the
conceptual design. Thus, additional design parameters are determined in the conceptual
design.

A distinction must then be made between continuous design parameters and discrete design
parameters. Continuous design parameters can take on a real number as a value. The discrete
design parameters describe alternative aircraft configurations. Table 1.2 lists examples of
both types of design parameters.
 1-3

Table 1.2 Examples of discrete and continuous design parameters

discrete design parameters continuous design parameter
wing position wing area
tail configuration wing aspect ratio
number of engines wing taper ratio
engine configuration wing thickness
fuselage cross-section wing sweep
... tail area (and geometry as for the wing)
(if not given as a requirement:)
cruise speed
...

In aircraft design, continuous and discrete design parameters are expediently determined in
two steps:
Step 1: The discrete design parameters are chosen.
(Thus, an aircraft configuration is selected.)
Step 2: The continuous design parameters are varied for each aircraft configuration
received.

In addition to the requirements, constraints must be taken into account. The following three
examples are intended to explain the principle of constraints.
• A wing must be built so as to ensure that sufficient fuel can be accommodated in it. This
gives a lower limit for the design parameter wing area.
• The wing aspect ratio of a passenger aircraft cannot be chosen arbitrarily for reasons of
material strength and weight. This gives an upper limit for the parameter wing aspect ratio.
• An aircraft that is designed for subsonic speeds experiences a limit to the achievable Mach
number. This gives an upper limit for the parameter payload Mach number.
Many constraints arise from the certification regulations, limits of technology or the existing
airport infrastructure.

The aircraft design aims to meet one or more objectives optimally. In this process of
optimization, the free parameters of the aircraft design are varied (while, naturally, always
meeting the requirements and constraints).

As a rule, the design objective in civil aircraft manufacture is to generate a profit with the
aircraft. Profit is generated if the revenues are larger than the expenses. If a payload is
transported over a specific distance at a specific speed, revenues are obtained within a
specific fare structure. Expenses are incurred through fixed costs (irrespective of the aircraft’s
use, e.g. depreciation) and variable costs (depending on the aircraft’s use, e.g. fuel costs).
Another important factor is maintenance costs, which contain both fixed and variable
elements. Profit is maximized if the ratio between the flow of revenues and the flow of
expenses is maximized. The requirements must therefore be met at minimum cost.
 1-4

It should be noted that there is no hard and fast rule for deciding what constitutes a
requirement, free parameter, constraint or design objective. Thus, for example, the
requirement: "take-off distance = 1000m" (under given conditions) can also be interpreted as:

• constraint take-off distance = 1000m or

• design objective take-off distance ≤ 1000 m or
• design parameter take-off distance = ?

if the optimization of the design objective is not to be unnecessarily restricted initially and the
parameter take-off distance is only to arise from the optimization.

The task of aircraft design in an abstract sense is to determine the design parameters so as
to ensure that

1. the requirements and constraints are met

(then we have a permissible design) and, furthermore,

2. the design objectives are optimally met

(then we have an optimum design).

1.2 Aircraft Design: Part of Aircraft Development

In the literature and in practice, aircraft development has been repeatedly broken down into
different elements with different technical terms. In Table 1.3 an attempt has been made to
summarize frequently recurring terms in an orderly fashion. Examples of the work carried out
in the respective phases are intended to create a link with actual practice. Fig. 1.3 shows the
time-based sequence of the phases of aircraft development combined with key milestones,
taking the development of large civil aircraft as an example. The aircraft design lecture only
deals with the project phase. The project phase comprises the preliminary sizing and the
conceptual design.
 1-5

Table 1.3 Phases during aircraft development

Phase Project Phase Definition Phase Development Phase

Activity • Preliminary Sizing • Preliminary design • Detail Design

• Conceptual Design

Example • Market Analysis • Preliminary Development • Construction

Deliverables • Configuration Structure • System Development
• Engine Selection o Design, Manufactering • Engine Integration
Process • Test Structure and
• Definition System System
• Flight-mechanical Simulation • Flight Test

Fig. 1.3 Phases of aircraft development

1.3 General Approach to Aircraft Design

In principle, the aim of aircraft design is to create something new through synthesis. This
contrasts with the analysis of the aircraft by a large number of specialized disciplines in
aircraft construction. Flight mechanics, as an example of one of the disciplines, focuses on
aircraft geometry and uses this to determine flight performance and flight characteristics.

In aircraft design various approaches are adopted:

• Statistics and experience are applied.
• The design of aircraft takes place in a large number of iterations.
• Inverse methods of analytically precedent specialized disciplines are used.
Example: Flight mechanics calculates the take-off distance from wing loading m / S
and thrust-to-weight ratio T / ( m ⋅ g ) . Conversely a function T / ( m ⋅ g ) = f ( m / S ) can be
 1-6

calculated from a required take-off distance. Therefore, the thrust T can be expressed as
a function of wing area S .
• Formal optimization algorithms provide a purely mathematical approach to solving
problems of aircraft design. In practice this approach is gaining more and more in
importance.

The engineer in aircraft design must always remind herself that she is not actually building
the aircraft. Rather, the situation is as follows: aircraft design must try to supply the best
possible specifications for the specialized disciplines and to predefine the best possible
framework for the detailed work. This framework and these specifications must
• be realistic, on the one hand,
• but, on the other hand, they should also serve to get the best out of, for example, the
aerodynamics or lightweight construction.
Specifications may only diverge from empirical values if new technologies justify these new
specifications. In this case, it must be possible for the new technologies to be incorporated in
the development of the new aircraft without taking too great a risk. If an aircraft design
cannot be implemented at a later stage of aircraft development, it is often due not to the
inadequacies of the specialized departments, but rather to over-optimistic specifications
stemming from the aircraft design.

The mark of a good design is that detailed studies by specialists do not require any changes to
be made to the design, or only minor changes which do not have a retroactive effect on the
work of other specialists. At the end of the day, optimum results from aircraft development
are based on multidisciplinary cooperation. This optimum result can, however, only be
achieved if all the experts involved have an equal say in the design process and the joint work
is characterized by mutual understanding and consideration.

Unfortunately, practice has shown that the battle for money, influence and recognition
between nations, companies, departments and people often prevents an optimum design being
achieved – or, at least, makes a smooth and efficient work flow impossible. Fig. 1.4 gives a
(somewhat exaggerated) impression of what happens if one discipline dominates in the
development process and is not sufficiently aware of the problems of other specialized
departments.
 1-7

Fig. 1.4 Results of aircraft development if one technical discipline strongly dominates the
others (Nicolai 1975)
 2-1

2 Aircraft Design Sequence

The sequence of activities during the project phase (see Fig. 1.3) can be divided in two steps:
1.) preliminary sizing
2.) conceptual design.

Beyond this, there is not much agreement in the literature about which systematic way should
be followed in aircraft design. Many authors do not make much of an attempt to provide the
reader with a design sequence at all. This Section proposes one design strategy. Please note: It
is only one of many possible ways. Those who are new to aircraft design should stick to the
given sequence. With growing design experience deviation from the set path becomes
feasible. This Section builds on ideas from Loftin 1980 and Roskam I.

2.1 Preliminary Sizing

Preliminary sizing of an aircraft is possible without knowledge of an aircraft geometry. In

preliminary sizing the aircraft is more or less reduced to a point mass. However concrete ideas
about the aircraft need to exist:
• What type of configuration will be selected?
• What aspect ratio can be expected?
• What cruise Mach number and type of propulsion system will be selected?

With these first considerations, requirements can be formulated. These requirements will
enter the preliminary sizing phase:
• Payload mPL ,
• Range R ,
• Mach number M CR
• Take-off field length sTOFL ,
• Landing field length sLFL ,
• Climb gradient γ during second segment,
• Climb gradient γ during missed approach .

Preliminary sizing will be done in these steps:

Step 1: Define all requirements, sort and evaluating the requirements according to their
significance! Which requirements may substantially drive the design?
 2-2

Examples of requirements that might have a significant impact on the design are:
• Extremely short take-off or landing fields
• Take-off or landing fields with soft ground
• Heavy or huge payload
• Large range or endurance.

Step 2: Perform trade-off studies with aircraft designed to comparable requirements!

Sources that can be used for these comparative studies:
• "Jane's all the World's Aircraft" (see Lambert 1993),
• Aeronautical literature,
• Information of manufacturers,
• Internet
• Flight International (UK, weekly),
• Aviation Week and Space Technology (USA, weekly)
Learn from strength and weaknesses of other successful or unsuccessful designs!

Step 3: Choose an aircraft configuration! (Section 4)

Step 4: Choose a propulsion system! (Section 4)

Step 5: Execute the preliminary sizing method! (Section 5)

These assumptions will need to be made during Step 5:
• Maximum lift coefficient (take-off), CL ,max ,TO
• Maximum lift coefficient (landing), CL ,max , L
• Maximum glide ratio: ( L / D) max ,CR , ( L / D) max ,TO , ( L / D) max ,L
during cruise flight, take off and landing.

Tables, figures und approximate equations are given in Section 5 to make an "intelligent guess"
towards these parameters. Only feasible or manageable values may be selected, otherwise later
design steps run into problems. Pre-select:
• Wing aspect ratio, AW
• Wing sweep (quarter chord line), ϕ 25,W

Loftin 1980 was chosen as baseline text for this sizing process. These flight phases are
considered together with their required aircraft performance: take-off, 2nd segment climb,
cruise, landing and missed approach. Everything will be considered simultaneously in a
matching chart. The matching chart helps to perform a two-dimensional optimization
algorithm. Optimization variables are:
• Thrust-to-weight ratio, TTO / ( mTO ⋅ g)
• Wing loading, mMTO / SW .
 2-3

The optimization has to assure:

• 1. Preference: Low thrust-to-weight ratio,
• 2. Preference: Suitable (high?) wing loading.

Using these optimized values the design parameters can be calculated:

• Take-off mass mMTO ,
• Fuel mass mF ,
• Operating empty mass mOE ,
• Wing area SW ,
• Take-off thrust TTO .
Additionally the sizing process defines the cruise altitude hCR .

The preliminary sizing process generates results without iteration. Applying "trial & error"
and "playing around" with the spreadsheet-based method however is very helpful and
revealing. The next step is the conceptual design and builds on these results from preliminary
sizing.

2.2 Conceptual Design

The design process can be performed on different detail levels. The accuracy but also the
amount of time necessary to do the calculations determines the "Class". A Class I method is
an easy but less accurate method. A Class II method requires a lot of input but will hopefully
produce more accurate results. Results from a Class I method can be improved by using a
Class II method that builds on the Class I answers. The conceptual design described here may
be rated Class I and requires an involvement that can be handled by one person (in a project or
thesis). These further steps should be followed:

Step 6: a) Draw a fuselage cross section! (Section 6)

b) Define a cabin layout!
c) Make a drawing of the fuselage to scale!

Step 7: a) Definition wing parameters! (Section 7)

b) Choose the number, the size and position of the ailerons und the spoilers!
These parameters will be known at the end of Step 7:
• Aspect ratio, AW (already pre-selected during preliminary sizing)
• Taper ratio, λW
• Sweep angle, ϕ 25,W , (already pre-selected during preliminary sizing)
 2-4

• Thickness ratio, ( t / c) W
• Airfoils
• Incidence angle, iW
• Dihedral angle, vW
• Wing twist, εt .
These parameters need to be assigned a value in such a way that the maximum lift coefficient
during landing CL ,max , L may be feasible with an appropriate high lift system (from Step 8).

Step 8: a) Choose a high lift system! (Section 7 and 8)

b) Calculate maximum lift coefficients CL ,max ,TO , CL ,max , L !
c) Compare the results with the assumptions from Step 5!
d) If the maximum lift coefficient does not reach values from Step 5,
than the high lift system and/or the wing geometry (Step 7) has to be changed.

Step 9: a) Design the horizontal tail and vertical tail! (Section 9)

b) Design elevator und rudder!
The parameters for the empennage will be determined from statistical data and the tail volume.
These parameters will be known at the end of Step 9 for the horizontal tailplane and the vertical
tailplane (fin):
• Tail area, S H , SV
• Aspect ratio, AH , AV
• Taper ratio, λ H , λV
• Sweep angle, ϕ 25,H , ϕ 25,V
• Thickness ratio, ( t / c) H , ( t / c) V
• Airfoils
• Incidence angle , iH
• Dihedral angle , vH

Step 10: a) Make a preliminary side- and top-view drawing of the aircraft! (Section 10)
b) Calculate aircraft mass and
position of the center of gravity (weight and balance calculation)
c) Analyze the results from b)
d) If the center of gravity is not suitably placed or within a permissible range,
then the arrangement of the aircraft components has to be changed.
 2-5

Step 11: a) Analyze stability & control! (Section 11)

b) Calculate the empennage areas with results from a)!
c) Compare the empennage areas from b) with the areas from Step 9!
d) If the derivation from c) is higher than 10%,
then Step 10 and Step 11 have to be repeated until convergence.

Step 12: Define and integrate the landing gear! (Section 12)
These parameters will be known at the end of Step 12:
• Landing gear type and configuration of wheels and struts
• Number, type and size of wheels and floatation details
• Principle landing gear retraction
Landing gear extension and retraction must be without conflict to other components. The landing
gear attachment to the aircraft should be structurally sound. Attention: Without a defined and
integrated landing gear, the overall aircraft design is not finished, because the landing gear can
have a considerable impact on overall aircraft design.

Step 13: a) Calculate of the aircraft polar for (Section 13)

cruise flight, take-off and landing!
b) Calculate of the lift-to-drag ratio using the polar!
c) Calculate of the fuel mass mF using the lift-to-drag ratio and the equations
from Step 5.
d) Calculate the take-off mass mTO = mOE + mF + mPL
Hint: mF from c), mOE from Step 10 und mPL (requirement)
e) If the derivation of mTO (calculated in d) and mTO (calculated in Step 5)
exceeds 5 %,
than Step 5 has to be repeated and the values of wing area SW and take-off
thrust TTO have to be corrected.

Step 14: Make a final check on aircraft performance! (lecture: flight mechanics)
a) Take-off field length sTOFL ,
b) Landing field length sLFL ,
c) Climb gradient γ (second segment),
d) Climb gradient γ (missed approach).

Step 15: a) Calculate the operation costs! (Abschnitt 14)

b) Optimize the aircraft with respect to the operation costs!
An adequate iteration loop has to be defined. Iteration steps could include:
Step 7 ↔ Step 6 ↔ Step 3 ↔ requirements.
Also the cruise Mach number has to be adjusted.
 2-6

Step 16: a) Prepare a 3-view drawing of the aircraft to scale based on the calculated
parameters.
b) Prepare a final cabin cross section and seat layout!
c) Prepare a table with all aircraft parameters that have been generated!

1. Requirements

2. Comparative Studies

3. Aircraft Configuration

4. Propulsion System

5. Preliminary Sizing

6. Cabin and Fuselage

7. Wing, Aileron, Spoiler

8. High Lift System

9. Empennage, Elevator, Rudder

10. Mass & Center of Gravity

11. Stability & Control

12. Landing Gear

13. Polar, L/D, Take-Off Mass

14. Aircraft Performance

15. Operating Costs / DOC

16. Three-View Drawing

Fig. 2.1 The proposed aircraft design sequence including

preliminary sizing and conceptual design and iteration
loops
 3-1

3 Requirements and Certification

3.1 Origin of Requirements for Aircrafts

Requirements for aircrafts originate from the flight mission the aircraft has to achieve. The
flight mission follows from market research, customer requests and through consultations
with potential customers (see Section 1). Apart from the aircraft performance, most important
are two figures that are key to civil aircraft requirements: payload, mPL and range, R.

Payload – as the name implies – is everything that gets transported for money. Payload com-
prises of
1. number of passengers to be transported (number of seats in each class)
2. mass and volume of carry on baggage per passenger (in each class)
3. mass of check in baggage per passenger (in each class)
4. mass of (additional) cargo as there is:
• cargo on main deck
• cargo on lower deck
i. in container
ii. on pallet
iii. as bulk cargo

Range is the distance that an aircraft can fly under defined (practical) conditions considering
sufficient fuel reserves. Required range depends on the average and longest stage length the
aircraft is intended for.

There are different ways to determine payload/range requirements. Three approaches are dis-
cussed here. In practice these three approaches are not strictly separated, but are rather differ-
ent sides of the same object.

1. Analysis of the seat-range diagram,

2. Analysis of the route network of an airline,
3. Analysis of a full market survey.
 3-2

3.1.1 Analysis of the Seat-Range Diagram

Fig. 3.1 Seat-range diagram of Boeing aircraft (Boeing 2007)

The seat-range diagram (Fig. 3.1) shows the number of seats of an aircraft versus its aircraft
range. Many aircrafts are shown in the same seat-range diagram. A quick view on the diagram
reveals which combinations of "number of seats" and "range" is not covered. These void areas
may warrant a newly designed aircraft or a variant of an existing one in form of a stretch or
shrink. However, reasons may be present for a void in the diagram. So these questions de-
mand an answer:

1. Are there technical or economic reasons for the void?

2. Is it possible to overcome these past problems?
3. Are there enough city pairs for the identified range?
4. How many passengers are likely to fly these city pairs?
5. How much are these passengers prepared to pay for the flight?
6. Can enough traffic be generated that a new aircraft design is justified?

A large aircraft manufacturer will try to cover the whole seat-range design space with its
products. Starting from limited aircraft types and limited fuselage cross sections the design
space will be covered with stretched and shrunk derivatives to account for different payloads
(number of seats). Extended range versions will account for range requirements. In this way
an aircraft family is generated that offers much flexibility to customer's needs.
 3-3

In order to offer optimal fitting products, the difference in seat numbers from one aircraft in
the family to the next may not be too big. On the other hand, it is not economic to built to
many different types. Therefore note:

Aircraft families have proved to be economical if

the number of seats is increased from one model to the next bigger one by
20 % ... 25%.

3.1.2 Analysis of the Route Network of an Airline

Looking just at one or a few airlines, it may be a good idea to analyse a selected part of the
route network and to derive requirements for a proposed new aircraft from the findings. Of
interest could be either the regional, internationalen oder inter-continental route network de-
pending on the proposed aircraft in question.

Data of interest are passenger demand and distance of the city pairs. The demand has to be
divided by the number of flights per day to yield the average passenger demand per flight. If
for regional flights several flights are offered during the day, flights in the morning and the
evening are under heavy demand, whereas flights in the middle of the day are less sought af-
ter.

Load factor
It would be unrealistic to expect that an aircraft is always 100 % occupied. This is simply not
possible for logistic reasons. Reversely this means that an aircraft has to be selected can carry
more than the average number of passengers to be transported. An important economic figure
is:

load factor = sold payload / offered payload

The load factor is higher with longer range. Long haul flights are more economical. The load
factor also depends on general traffic demand and hence on the global economy (Fig. 3.2).

Range flexibility
We need some flexibility when it comes to the number of seats. Very similar also range flexi-
bility is needed. The airlines wish to have aircraft that can not only fly the average mission but
also some missions with longer flight distances.

range flexibility = aircraft range / demanded flight distance

 3-4

Range flexibility is quite large on short range aircrafts: up to 4 or 5. Long range aircrafts make
better use of their capabilities and show range flexibilities of only 2 to 3.

Fig. 3.2
Average load factor calculated
from all ICAO - airlines 1960 bis
1988 (Doganis 1991)

3.1.3 Analysis of a Full Market Survey

Detailed market studies yield the best data for strategic company decisions for or against an
new product. These studies are based on large computer models consisting of two main parts:

• generic forecast,
• product forecast.

Generic forecast
The generic forecast estimates the demand of new aircrafts for the worldwide fleet of aircrafts.
The results are published for different aircraft sizes, and time intervals. A generic forecasts is
built up in 6 steps:
1. traffic forecast expressed in revenue passenger-kilometers (RPK). RPK depend on the
gross national product (GNP) and the estimated future revenues of the airlines in
US$/RPK.
2. different growth rates on different routes
3. growth limits due to capacity limits at airports
 3-5

4. replacements of older aircraft?

5. larger aircraft or more flights?
6. with 1 to 5: calculation of required number of new aircraft:
1. in each seat category
2. during selected time interval

Continuous growth also for the next years will be at 5% for passenger flights and even a little
more for cargo flights.

Product forecast
The product forecast estimates the percentage one aircraft manufacturer will claim from the
global demand for new aircrafts. The product forecast consists of 6 steps:
1. Evaluation of aircraft performance (payload, range, take-off distance, ...)
2. Evaluation of aircraft economics (DOC, ...)
3. Evaluation of sales support (export garanties, lease possibilities, ...)
4. Evaluation of product development (aircraft family, reported new aircraft types, ...)
5. Evaluation of manufacturer (image, product support, ...)
6. Evaluation of political sales support.

3.2 Calculation of Required Payload

Payload mPL is calculated from:

1. number of seats nseat
2. mass of cargo mcargo

mPL = mPAX ⋅ nseat + mbaggage ⋅ nseat + mcargo ( 3.1 )

Table 3.1: Assumptions on mass of passengers und their baggage (Roskam I)

short and long range
average mass of medium
range
passenger, m 79.4 kg 79.4 kg
PAX

baggage, mbaggage 13.6 kg 18.1 kg

Sum 93.0 kg 97.5 kg

 3-6

3.3 Payload-Range Diagram

The dependencies of payload and range are depicted in the payload-range-diagram. It is based
on
mTO = mOE + mF + mPL ( 3.2 )
with
mTO take-off mass,
mF fuel mass,
mOE operating empty mass.

A generic payload-range diagram is Fig. 3.3

MZFW limited
A B
max. payload MT
OW
lim
it e
full passenger load
X d
payload

C
payload at max. range

D
range range at range max. ferry
maximum at max. range range
payload passenger
load

Fig. 3.3 Generic payload-range diagram

MZFW limits between points A and B

An aircraft must not exceed a maximum payload, m MPL . Otherwise loads, like the wing bend-
ing moment at the wing root, would get too high.

Point A: Range = 0 NM (theoretical), no fuel is necessary. Take-off mass would equal

maximum zero fuel mass, mMZF .
 3-7

Point B: Maximum take-off mass, m MTO may not be exceeded. The fuel mass is
mF = mMTO − mOE − m MPL . The fuel yields the range at maximum payload.

MTOW limits between point B and C

Payload gets exchanged for fuel: with increased fuel to longer range.

Point C: maximum fuel mass, m MF is on board. m MF depends on available tank volume.

Payload at this point is payload at maximum range and is calculated from
mPL = m MTO − mOE − m MF . The longest range for a commercial flights.

OEW limits at point D

The aircraft can fly further even without additional fuel. This is possible because a lighter air-
craft uses less fuel.

Point D: Of importance for ferry flights (without payload)

Point X: Range at full passenger payload.
This is in general the design point for preliminary sizing.

The payload-range diagram is constructed by drawing straight lines from point A to B, C

and D.

3.4 Certification

Certification requirements are important for aircraft design. An aircraft may only be operated
if it is certified. That in turn demands the observation of certification requirements.

After World War II German aircraft were certified based on US-American regulations the
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR). The other European countries had there own certifica-
tion regulations. In order to reduce expenditure of time and money, Europe started to harmo-
nize its certification specifications in the 70s. The Joint Aviation Regulations (JAR) were
written based on the FAR with some modifications especially by the British Civil Airworthi-
ness Requirements (BCAR). In 1983 the BAe 146 has been the first aircraft certified by
JAR-25. Table 3.2 shows a list of JAR. Recently the European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA) was founded. The certification standards stayed the same but are now called CS.
 3-8

Table 3.2 Regulations of the Joint Aviation Authorities

Most important for aircraft design are JAR-23 and JAR-25 (today: CS-23 and CS-25). The
sub-division of these certification specifications are:
1. Subpart A--General
2. Subpart B--Flight
3. Subpart C--Structure
4. Subpart D--Design and Construction
5. Subpart E--Power plant
6. Subpart F--Equipment
7. Subpart G--Operating Limitations and Information.

Table 3.3 shows the correct choice of the relevant certification specifications depending on
the characteristics:
1. number of passengers
2. maximum take-off mass
3. type of power plant
 3-9

Table 3.3 Selection of the certification specifications by the characteristics of the aircraft
aircraft type normal, utility and commuter aeroplanes large aeroplanes (JAR)
aerobatic
aeroplanes transport category
airplanes (FAR)
characteristics passenger seats = 9 passenger seats = 19
MTOW = 5700 kg MTOW = 8600 kg MTOW > 5700 kg
propeller driven
twin-engined

airworthiness standard CS-23, FAR Part 23 CS-25, FAR Part 25

interpretative material EASA:

Advisory Circular Joint
(ACJ)
Advisory Material Joint
(AMJ)
included in CS-25
FAR: FAR:
Advisory Circular Advisory Circular
AC23-? AC25-?

To register an all new aircraft the following procedure has to be followed in Europe:
1. A certified design organisation develops and manufactures a new Aircraft. The organisa-
tion has to hold a Design Organisation Approval in accordance with CS-21 Subpart J. The
organisation has to show the conformity of the aircraft with certification specifications and
environmental requirements. If this was successfully shown the organisation becomes the
type certificate holder (TCH).
2. A production organisation, holder of a Production Organisation Approval can now pro-
duce the aircraft in series accordance to the standards of the type certificate. The manufac-
turer himself certifies the airworthiness and compliance with the type certificate in a
“Statement of Conformity” (EASA Form 52).
3. An Aircraft will be certified for traffic, if it has:
• A certificate of airworthiness
• A statement of conformity
• A noise certificate
• An ensured holder
4. During operation of an aircraft a certified maintenance organisation has to keep the air-
craft airworthy.

Fig. 3.4 shows the design organization, production organization and maintenance organiza-
tion.
 3 - 10

Fig. 3.4 Design organization, production organiza-

tion and maintenance organization.

For type certification in the USA the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) will be engaged.
The type certificate will based on the Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR, see Table 3.4). Be-
cause of the fact that the JAR and CS are based on the FAR the changes for a US American
type certificate will be comparatively marginal. Differences between the CS and the FAR are
marked in the CS.
 3 - 11

Table 3.4 Federal Aviation Regulations

Federal Aviation Administration
TITLE 14 OF THE U.S. CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
PARTS 1 THROUGH 199 INDEX OF FAR PARTS

FAR PART 1--DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

FAR PART 11--GENERAL RULE-MAKING PROCEDURES
FAR PART 13--INVESTIGATIVE AND ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES
FAR PART 14--RULES IMPLEMENTING THE EQUAL ACCESS TO JUSTICE ACT OF 1980
FAR PART 15--ADMINISTRATIVE CLAIMS UNDER FEDERAL TORT CLAIMS ACT
FAR PART 16--RULES OF PRACTICE FOR FEDERALLY-ASSISTED AIRPORT ENFORCEMENT PROCEEDINGS
FAR PART 21--CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES FOR PRODUCTS AND FAR PARTS
FAR PART 23--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL, UTILITY, ACROBATIC, AND COMMUTER CATEGORY AIRPLANES
FAR PART 25--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIRPLANES
FAR PART 27--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL CATEGORY ROTORCRAFT
FAR PART 29--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY ROTORCRAFT
FAR PART 31--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: MANNED FREE BALLOONS
FAR PART 33--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: AIRCRAFT ENGINES
FAR PART 34--FUEL VENTING AND EXHAUST EMISSION REQUIREMENTS FOR TURBINE ENGINE POWERED AIRPLANES
FAR PART 35--AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: PROPELLERS
FAR PART 36--NOISE STANDARDS: AIRCRAFT TYPE AND AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATION
FAR PART 39--AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
FAR PART 43--MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING, AND ALTERATION
FAR PART 45--IDENTIFICATION AND REGISTRATION MARKING
FAR PART 47--AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION
FAR PART 49--RECORDING OF AIRCRAFT TITLES AND SECURITY DOCUMENTS
FAR PART 61--CERTIFICATION: PILOTS AND FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS
FAR PART 63--CERTIFICATION: FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS OTHER THAN PILOTS
FAR PART 65--CERTIFICATION: AIRMEN OTHER THAN FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS
FAR PART 67--MEDICAL STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION
FAR PART 71--DESIGNATION OF CLASS A, CLASS B, CLASS C, CLASS D, AND CLASS E AIRSPACE AREAS; AIRWAYS; ROUTES; AND REPORTING POINTS
FAR PART 73--SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
FAR PART 77--OBJECTS AFFECTING NAVIGABLE AIRSPACE
FAR PART 91--GENERAL OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES
FAR PART 93--SPECIAL AIR TRAFFIC RULES AND AIRPORT TRAFFIC PATTERNS
FAR PART 95--IFR ALTITUDES
FAR PART 97--STANDARD INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES
FAR PART 99--SECURITY CONTROL OF AIR TRAFFIC
FAR PART 101--MOORED BALLOONS, KITES, UNMANNED ROCKETS AND UNMANNED FREE BALLOONS
FAR PART 103--ULTRALIGHT VEHICLES
FAR PART 105--PARACHUTE JUMPING
FAR PART 107--AIRPORT SECURITY
FAR PART 108--AIRPLANE OPERATOR SECURITY
FAR PART 109--INDIRECT AIR CARRIER SECURITY
FAR PART 119--CERTIFICATION: AIR CARRIERS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS
FAR PART 121--CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: DOMESTIC, FLAG, AND SUPPLEMENTAL AIR CARRIERS AND
COMMERCIAL OPERATORS OF LARGE AIRCRAFT
FAR PART 125--CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: AIRPLANES HAVING A SEATING CAPACITY OF 20 OR MORE PASSENGERS
OR A MAXIMUM PAYLOAD CAPACITY OF 6,000 POUNDS OR MORE
FAR PART 129--OPERATIONS: FOREIGN AIR CARRIERS AND FOREIGN OPERATORS OF U.S.- REGISTERED AIRCRAFT ENGAGED IN COMMON CARRIAGE
FAR PART 133--ROTORCRAFT EXTERNAL-LOAD OPERATIONS
FAR PART 135--AIR TAXI OPERATORS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS
FAR PART 137--AGRICULTURAL AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
FAR PART 139--CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: LAND AIRPORTS SERVING CERTAIN AIR CARRIERS
FAR PART 141--PILOT SCHOOLS
FAR PART 142--TRAINING CENTERS
FAR PART 145--REPAIR STATIONS
FAR PART 147--AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN SCHOOLS
FAR PART 150--AIRPORT NOISE COMPATIBILITY PLANNING
FAR PART 151--FEDERAL AID TO AIRPORTS
FAR PART 152--AIRPORT AID PROGRAM
FAR PART 155--RELEASE OF AIRPORT PROPERTY FROM SURPLUS PROPERTY DISPOSAL RESTRICTIONS
FAR PART 156--STATE BLOCK GRANT PILOT PROGRAM
FAR PART 157--NOTICE OF CONSTRUCTION, ALTERATION, ACTIVATION, AND DEACTIVATION OF AIRPORTS
FAR PART 158--PASSENGER FACILITY CHARGES (PFC'S)
FAR PART 161--NOTICE AND APPROVAL OF AIRPORT NOISE AND ACCESS RESTRICTIONS
FAR PART 169--EXPENDITURE OF FEDERAL FUNDS FOR NONMILITARY AIRPORTS OR AIR NAVIGATION FACILITIES THEREON
FAR PART 170--ESTABLISHMENT AND DISCONTINUANCE CRITERIA FOR AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICES AND NAVIGATIONAL FACILITIES
FAR PART 171--NON-FEDERAL NAVIGATION FACILITIES
FAR PART 183--REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ADMINISTRATOR
FAR PART 185--TESTIMONY BY EMPLOYEES AND PRODUCTION OF RECORDS IN LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, AND SERVICE OF LEGAL
PROCESS AND PLEADINGS
FAR PART 187--FEES
FAR PART 189--USE OF FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
FAR PART 191--WITHHOLDING SECURITY INFORMATION FROM DISCLOSURE UNDER THE AIR TRANSPORTATION SECURITY ACT OF 1974
FAR PART 198--AVIATION INSURANCE
 4-1

4 Aircraft Configurations
Aircraft can be categorized by several aspects. One way is to divide into:
• homebuilt
• single engine propeller driven airplane
• twin engine propeller driven airplane
• agricultural airplane
• business jet
• regional turboprop
• jet transport
• supersonic civil transport, SCT
• seaplane
In addition there are several categories of military aircraft.

4.1 Three-View Drawings of Conventional Aircraft

Configurations

Three-view drawings are the most important medium to communicate within aircraft design.
In the following, some examples of three-view drawings of conventional aircraft
configurations are shown as an animation for own design ideas.

Fig 4.1
Single engine piston
prop.
Cessna 182S Skylane:
Pax: 4,
v CR : 140 kt,
R : 820 NM,
MTOW: 1.4 t.

(Roskam II)
4-2

Fig 4.2
Single engine piston
prop.
Aerospatiale, Socata
TB 10 Tobago:
Pax: 4,
v CR : 127 kt,
R : 688 NM,
MTOW: 1.1 t.

(Roskam II)

Fig 4.3
Twin engine piston
prop. Piper Seminole
- PA - 44 - 180:
Pax: 4,
v CR : 162 kt,
R : 770 NM,
MTOW: 1.7 t.

(Roskam II)

Fig 4.4
Twin engine regional.
Pilatus BN-2A:
piston engine.
Pilatus BN-2T:
turboprop engine.
Pax: 9, v CR : 170 kt,
R : 140 NM,
MTOW: 3.1 t.

(Roskam II)
 4-3

Fig 4.5 Business jet. Learjet 45: Pax: 9, v CR : 464 kt, R : 1849 NM, MTOW: 4.0 t.
(Lambert 1993)

Fig 4.6
Turboprop regional.
Fokker 50:
Pax: 50,
v CR : 278 kt,
R : 1610 NM,
MTOW: 20.8 t.

(Green 1988)
 4-4

Fig 4.7
Turboprop regional.
Shorts 330:
Pax: 30,
v CR : 190 kt,
R : 473 NM,
MTOW: 10.3 t.

(Green 1988)

Fig 4.8
Jet transport.
BAe 146, later: Avro RJ85:
Pax: 96,
v CR : 423 kt,
R : 1176 NM,
MTOW: 42.1 t.

(Green 1988)

Fig 4.9
 4-5

Jet transport.
Boeing 737-300:
Pax: 128,
v CR : 490 kt,
R : 1387 NM,
MTOW: 61.2 t.

(Green 1988)

Fig 4.10 Airbus A380-800, Jet transport. Pax: 555, MTOW: 560 t. (Trahmer 2000)
 4-6

Fig 4.11
Supersonic civil transport.
Concorde:
Pax: 100,
v CR : 1160 kt, M CR : 2
R : 3209 NM,
MTOW: 185 t.

(Roskam II)

Each configuration has its advantages and disadvantages. In general, advantages in one
place mean disadvantages elsewhere. Therefore, advantages and disadvantages have to be
assessed during trade-off studies. For someone who was not involved in an aircraft’s design
process it is not easy to find out for which reason a particular design feature was chosen.
When discussing advantages and disadvantages of several configurations one should always
keep in mind that each person has its own subjective preferences. These personal views must
not preclude to perfom an assessment as objective as possible.

4.2 Three-View Drawings of Unconventional Configurations

Though conventional configurations differ in many aspects they all have a fuselage, wings
and an empennage at their rear end. This configuration is called tail aft aircraft.

Unconventional aircraft configurations differ in at least one attribute from these main
attributes of a conventional configuration. Examples of unconventional configurations are:
• The canard (Fig 4.12) has its horizontal tail at its front instead of its rear end.
• The three-surface aircraft (Fig 4.13) has in addition to its conventional empennage at its
rear end an additional horizontal tail at its front end.
• The flying wing (Fig 4.14) has no fuselage. It only consists of a wing which also carries
the payload.
• Unlike the conventional pivoting wing aircraft, the pivoting oblique wing aircraft
(Fig 4.15) has only one swivel joint.
• The oblique flying wing aircraft, OFW (Fig 4.16) combines the ideas of a flying wing a
swept wing.
 4-7

• The joined wing aircraft (Fig 4.18) can be advantageous due lower mass at same
stiffness.
• The double fuselage aircraft (Fig 4.19) can be advantageous due to e.g. the
economically more efficient fabrication of twice the number of fuselages.

Fig 4.12
Canard:
Beech Starship

(Roskam II)

Fig 4.13
Three-surface
aircraft:
Gates Piaggio
GP-180

(Roskam II)
4-8

Fig 4.14
Flying wing:
Northrop XB-35

(Roskam II)

Fig 4.15
Pivoting oblique
wing aircraft:
NASA AD-1
Experimental
aircraft. Sweep
adjustable from
0° to 60°.

(Barnard 1991)

Fig 4.16
Oblique flying
wing aircraft,
OFW
Study:
DaimlerChrysler
Aerospace
Airbus.
Pax: 250,
M CR : 1.6,
Sweep:
45° ... 68°

(Li 1996)
 4-9

The following figure holds a list of keywords for the description of several aspects of an
aircraft configuration.

• Overall configuration
• Land based aircraft
• Sea plane
• Amphibian plane

• Conventional, also called: tail aft

• Canard
• Three-surface aircraft
• Flying wing
• Pivoting oblique wing aircraft

• Fuselage configuration
• Conventional Fuselage
• Double fuselage aircraft
• Double boom central fuselage

• Engine type
• Piston prop
• Turbo prop
• Turbo jet
• Turbo fan
• Propfan, unducted Fan

• Engine integration
• Engine in nacelles on the wing or on the fuselage
• Engine inside the wing or inside the fuselage

• Wing
• Cantilever
• Braced

• High wing position

• Low wing position
• Mid wing position

• Straight wing
• Aft swept wing
• Forward swept wing
• Pivoting oblique swept wing

• Wing with or without winglets

 4 - 10

• Horizontal tail
• on the fuselage
• on two tail booms
• T-tail
• V-tail, butterfly tail

• Vertical tail
• on the fuselage
• on two tail booms
• on each tip of the horizontal tail

• Landing gear
• Fixed or retractable gear
• Tail-wheel or nose-wheel landing gear

• Landing gear integration

• in the wing
• in the engine nacelles
• in the fuselage
• in fairings
Fig 4.17 Aircraft configuration aspects

Fig 4.18
Joined wing aircraft.

Study

(Roskam II)
4 - 11

Fig 4.19
Double fuselage
aircraft.

Exemplary design
for aircraft design
lecture

Fachhochschule
Hamburg

(Marckwardt 1997)
 5-1

5 Preliminary Sizing
The preliminary sizing of an aircraft is carried out by taking into account requirements and
constraints (see Section 1). A process for preliminary sizing proposed by Loftin 1980 is
shown in Fig. 5.1 and detailed in this section. The procedure refers to the preliminary sizing
of jets that have to be certified to CS-25 or FAR Part 25. The procedure could in general also
be applied to other aircraft categories as there are

• very light jets certified to CS-23/FAR Part 23

• propeller aircraft certified to CS-25/FAR Part 25
• propeller aircraft certified to CS-23/FAR Part 23
• propeller aircraft certified to CS-VLA
• ...

if the respective special features and regulations are taken into account. For propeller-type
aircraft the engine thrust T must be replaced by engine power P in Fig. 5.1. Many changes in
the equations result from this modification.

Fig. 5.1 Flow chart of the aircraft preliminary sizing process for jets based on Loftin 1980
 5-2

Fig. 5.1 needs some explanation: The blocks in the first column represent calculations for
various flight phases.

Block 1 "LANDING DISTANCE" provides a maximum value for the wing loading m / S
(reference value: m MTO / SW ). The input values of the calculation are the maximum lift
coefficient with flaps in the landing position CL,max , L as well as the landing field length sLFL
according to CS/FAR. The maximum lift coefficient CL,max , L depends on the type of high lift
system and is selected from data in the literature.

Block 2, "TAKE-OFF DISTANCE" provides a minimum value for the thrust-to-weight ratio
as a function of the wing loading: T / ( m ⋅ g ) = f ( m / S ) with reference value: TTO / ( m MTO ⋅ g ) .
The functional connection T / ( m ⋅ g ) = f ( m / S ) is dependent on the maximum lift coefficient
with flaps in the take-off position CL,max ,TO and the take-off field length sTOFL . The maximum
lift coefficient CL,max ,TO is selected with the aid of data in the literature.

Blocks 3 and 4 examine the "CLIMB RATE IN THE SECOND SEGMENT" and the
"CLIMB RATE DURING THE MISSED APPROACH". The blocks provide minimum values
for the thrust-to-weight ratio T / ( m ⋅ g ) . The input value for the calculations: the lift-to-drag
ratio, 'L over D') L / D is estimated on the basis of a simple approximation calculation.

Block 5 "CRUISE" represents the cruise analysis that provides a minimum value for the
thrust-to-weight ratio as a function of the wing loading: T / ( m ⋅ g ) = f ( m / S ) . The thrust-to-
weight ratio thus determined is sufficient to facilitate a stationary straight flight with the
assumed Mach number for the respective wing loading. The calculation is carried out for the
design lift coefficient CL , DESIGN . The cruise altitude is also obtained from the cruise analysis.
Input values are the lift-to-drag ratio E = L / D during cruise, the assumed cruise Mach
number M = M CR , engine parameters and the characteristics of the atmosphere.

The output values of the blocks in the first column of Fig. 5.1 provide a set of relationships
between the thrust-to-weight ratio and the wing loading. Taken together, these relationships
give, in a "MATCHING CHART" (Blocks 6 and 7), a single pair of values: thrust-to-weight
ratio and wing loading that meets all requirements and constraints in an economical manner.

The thrust-to-weight ratio (also referred to as the maximum take-off mass or range by other
authors) are the input values for a mass estimate according to statistics. In Blocks 8 and 9,
first the OPERATING EMPTY MASS mOE / mMTO or the RELATIVE USEFUL LOAD u is
estimated, defined as
 5-3

mF + mPL m
u= = 1 − OE . (5.1)
m MTO m MTO

The useful load is mF + mPL , maximum take-off mass mMTO and operating empty mass mOE .

In Blocks 10 and 11 the RELATIVE FUEL MASS mF / mMTO is calculated, using the
"Breguet range equation", from the range requirement (Block 12). Other input values are the
assumed cruise Mach number M = M CR , the lift-to-drag ratio during cruising E = L / D and
the specific fuel consumption during cruising c = SFCCR .

"MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF MASS mMTO ", "TAKE-OFF THRUST AND WING AREA": in
Block 14 the maximum take-off mass mMTO is calculated from relative useful load u, relative
fuel mass mF / mMTO and the payload requirement mMPL (Block 13). With the maximum take-
off mass mMTO the necessary take-off thrust T = TTO and the wing area S = SW can then be
calculated in Block 15 from thrust-to-weight ratio T / m ⋅ g and wing loading S = SW .
 5-4

5.1 Landing Distance

The basis for analyzing the landing distance are the aviation regulations. The key passages are
reproduced here from CS. Further details can be found in the regulations.

CS 25.125 Landing
(a) The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete stop from a point 50 ft above the landing surface must be
determined
(1) The aeroplane must be in the landing configuration.
(2) A stabilised approach, with a calibrated airspeed of not less than 1·3 VS, must be maintained down to the 50 ft height.

CS - OPS 1.515 Landing - Dry Runways

(a) An operator shall ensure that the landing mass of the aeroplane ... allows a full stop landing from 50 ft above the threshold:
(1) Within 60% of the landing distance available at the destination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome for turbojet powered
aeroplanes; or
(2) Within 70% of the landing distance available at the destination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome for turbopropeller
powered aeroplane ...

Fig. 5.2 Definition of the landing field length according to CS and FAR

An aircraft may land at an airfield if the landing field length sLFL is shorter than the landing
distance available, LDA sLDA . The landing field length is calculated according to CS/FAR
from the landing distance sL and a safety factor. This safety factor is 1/0.6 = 1.667 for jets
and 1/0.7 = 1.429 for turboprops. Fig. 5.2 shows the landing procedure.

Loftin 1980 contains a statistic that gives the relationship between the landing field length
and the approach speed for aircraft with jet engines. This is summarized as follows
(Loftin 1980, Fig. 3.4)

V APP = k APP ⋅ sLFL (5.2)

with k APP = 1.70 m / s² .

The wing loading at maximum landing mass is

 5-5

ρ ⋅ V S2, L
m ML / SW = ⋅ C L,max, L . (5.3)
2⋅ g

ρ is the atmospheric density. To simplify subsequent calculations, we want to relate the

atmospheric density ρ to the atmospheric density at sea level ρ 0 =1.225 kg/m³ under standard
atmospheric conditions first of all.
ρ = σ ⋅ ρ0 . (5.4)

If we now insert equation (5.2) and equation (5.4) into equation (5.3), we get

m ML / SW = k L ⋅ σ ⋅ C L,max , L ⋅ s LFL (5.5)

with kL = 0.107 kg/m³ .

Empirical values for maximum lift coefficients CL,max are contained in Table 5.1, Fig. 5.3 and
Fig. 5.4. Table 5.3 and Table 5.2 contain the ratio of maximum landing mass mML to
maximum take-off mass mMTO , which gives

m ML / SW
m MTO / SW = . (5.6)
m ML / m MTO

This wing loading must not be exceeded if the aircraft is to meet requirements.

Table 5.1 Maximum lift coefficients for take-off (TO), landing (L) and cruise configuration (based
on Roskam I)
type of aircraft C L , max C L , max ,TO C L ,max , L
business jet 1.4 – 1.8 1.6 – 2.2 1.6 – 2.6
jet transport 1.2 – 1.8 1.6 – 2.2 1.8 – 2.8
single engine propeller driven 1.3 – 1.9 1.3 – 1.9 1.6 – 2.3
twin engine propeller driven 1.2 – 1.8 1.4 – 2.0 1.6 – 2.5
fighter 1.2 – 1.8 1.4 – 2.0 1.6 – 2.6
supersonic cruise 1.2 – 2.8 1.6 – 2.0 1.8 – 2.2
 5-6

Fig. 5.3 Maximum lift coefficient of profiles with different high-lift devices (based on data from
Dubs 1987)
 5-7

Fig. 5.4 Maximum lift coefficient of aircraft with different high-lift devices as a function of wing
sweep. For take-off configuration the given values have to be reduced by 20 percent
(based on data from Raymer 1989)

Table 5.2 Statistical values of maximum landing mass over maximum take-off mass mML / mMTO
for different types of aircraft (based on Roskam I)
type of aircraft mML mML mML
mMTO ,min mMTO ,av mMTO ,max
business jet 0.69 0.88 0.96
short range jet transport 0.9 0.93 0.97
medium range jet transport 0.76 0.88 0.95
long range jet transport 0.65 0.78 0.95
ultra long range jet transport 0.65 0.71 0.73
fighter 0.57 - 1
supersonic cruise 0.63 0.75 0.88

Table 5.3 Statistical values of maximum landing mass over maximum take-off mass mML / mMTO
for jets of different design range (based on Loftin 1980)
design range classification design range (NM) design range (km) mML / mMTO
short range up to 1000 up to 2000 0.93
medium range 1000 – 3000 2000 – 5500 0.89
long range 3000 – 8000 5500 – 15000 0.78
ultra long range more than 8000 more than 15000 0.71
 5-8

5.2 Take-off Distance

The basis for analyzing the take-off distance are the aviation regulations. The key passages are
reproduced here according to CS-25. Further details can be found in the regulations.

CS 25.113 Take-off distance and take-off run

(a) Take-off distance is the greater of -
(1) The horizontal distance along the take-off path from the start of the take-off to the point at which the aeroplane is 35 ft above the
take-off surface, determined under CS 25.111 (d.h. mit Triebwerksausfall und Geschwindigkeit V2); or
(2) 115% of the horizontal distance along the take-off path, with all engines operating, from the start of the take-off to the point at
which the aeroplane is 35 ft above the take-off surface, as determined by a procedure consistent with CS 25.111.

CS 25.111 Take-off path

(a) ...
(2) The aeroplane must be accelerated on the ground to VEF, at which point the critical engine must be made inoperative and
remain inoperative for the rest of the take-off; and
(3) After reaching VEF, the aeroplane must be accelerated to V2.
(b) During the acceleration to speed V2, the nose gear may be raised off the ground ... However, landing gear retraction may not be
begun until the aeroplane is airborne.
(c) During the take-off path determination in accordance with sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) of this paragraph -
(2) The aeroplane must reach V2 before it is 35 ft above the take-off surface *

CS 25.109 Accelerate-stop distance

(a) The accelerate-stop distance is ...
(2) The sum of the distances necessary to -
(i) Accelerate the aeroplane from a standing start to V1 and continue the acceleration for 2·0 seconds after V1 is reached with all
engines operating; and
(ii) Come to a full stop from the point reached at the end of the acceleration period prescribed in sub-paragraph (a)(2)(i) of this
paragraph, assuming that the pilot does not apply any means of retarding the aeroplane until that point is reached ...

* nach CS 25.107 (take-off speeds) muss V2 auf jeden Fall größer sein als 1.2 VS.

Should an engine fail during take-off before the take-off decision speed V1 has been reached,
the pilot must reject take-off and brake. The distance from the take-off point to the point at
which the aircraft comes to a standstill again is the accelerate-stop distance and must be
shorter than the accelerate-stop distance available, ASDA.

If the pilot notices an engine failure after the take-off decision speed V1 has already been
exceeded, she must continue the take-off with the remaining engine(s). This results in the
take-off distance OEI, which must be shorter than the take-off distance available, TODA. OEI
stands for one engine inoperative.

If engine failure is noticed precisely when the take-off decision speed V1 has been reached, the
pilot has both possibilities, namely either to continue the take-off or to reject the take-off.

The take-off decision speed V1 can be set arbitrarily, but there is only one take-off decision
speed V1 where the following applies:
 5-9

Accelerate-stop distance = take-off distance OEI.

The take-off distance produced from meeting this condition is called balanced field length.
Fig. 5.5 shows the take-off procedure without clearway and without stopway.

Fig. 5.5 Definition of the balanced field length according to CS and FAR (engine failure
after V1)

According to CS 25.113 (a)(2), the take-off distance AEO is 115% of the distance required to
fly over an obstacle of 35ft. AEO stands for all engines operating. It must be shorter than the
take-off distance available, TODA. The take-off field length sTOFL is the larger distance in a
comparison of balanced field length and take-off distance AEO.

Assuming that the thrust T, air resistance D and lift L are constant during take-off, the
following applies to the take-off ground roll1:

mTO ⋅ (VLOF − VW )
2
1
sTOG = ⋅ . (5.7)
2 TTO − DTO − µ ⋅ ( m ⋅ g − LTO ) − mTO ⋅ g ⋅ sin γ

VLOF Lift-off speed, VLOF ≈ V2 ≈ 12

. ⋅ VS ,TO
VS ,TO Stall speed in take-off configuration
VW Wind speed
µ Rolling friction
γ Runway slope

Equation (5.7) is simplified to make it usable for the aircraft design. First we calculate the lift-
ρ 2
off speed from the formula mTO ⋅ g = L = VLOF ⋅ CL , LOF ⋅ SW
2

1
See "Flight Mechanics" lecture
 5 - 10

2 g mTO 1
VLOF = ⋅ ⋅ . (5.8)
ρ SW CL, LOF

The following assumptions are made:

• VLOF is only slightly less than V2 . Therefore, we calculate VLOF = 12
. ⋅VS ,TO .
• The take-off takes place on a level runway with no wind.
• The thrust T is much greater than resistance D and rolling friction.

We are taking into consideration the assumptions and insert equation (5.8) in equation (5.7)
and obtain a simplified equation for the take-off ground roll:

g ⋅ m2MTO 1 m MTO / SW
sTOG = = ⋅ . (5.9)
ρ ⋅ CL , LOF ⋅ SW ⋅ T ρ ⋅ CL, LOF TTO / ( m MTO ⋅ g )

This equation provides values which are too small for the take-off ground roll, as the drag has
been ignored. However, the equation is suitable as a basis for statistical evaluations: it is
assumed that the take-off field length sTOFL is proportional to the take-off ground roll sTOG .
Furthermore, the lift coefficient CL,LOF is replaced by the maximum lift coefficient with flaps
in take-off position CL,max ,TO . In a statistical evaluation (Loftin 1980, Fig. 3.7) for aircraft with
jet engines the following is produced in conjunction with equation (5.4)

TTO / ( m MTO ⋅ g ) k TO
= (5.10)
m MTO / SW sTOFL ⋅ σ ⋅ C L,max ,TO

with kTO = 2.34 m³/kg

Table 5.1 contains values for the maximum lift coefficient with flaps in take-off position
CL ,max ,TO . The ratio from thrust-to-weight ratio and wing loading pursuant to
equation 5.10 must not be undershot if the aircraft is to meet requirements.
 5 - 11

5.3 Climb Rate during 2nd Segment

The take-off path is defined in several paragraphs of the certification regulations. The climb
path is shown clearly in Fig. 5.6. The key passages regarding requirements in the second
segment are quoted here according to CS-25. Further details can be found in the regulations.

CS 25.121 Climb: one-engine-inoperative

(b) Take-off; landing gear retracted.
In the take-off configuration existing at the point of the flight path at which the landing gear is fully retracted, ... the steady
gradient of climb may not be less than
2·4% for two-engined aeroplanes,
2·7% for three-engined aeroplanes and
3·0% for four-engined aeroplanes,
at V2 and with -
(1) The critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines at the available maximum continuous power or thrust; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight existing at the end of the take-off path ...

Fig. 5.6 Take-off path, definitions and nomenclature (based on Brüning 1993)

In the climb with climb angle γ thrust T is required to overcome drag D and weight m ⋅ g .
The following equation gives the sum of the forces in the flight direction

T = D + m ⋅ g ⋅sin γ . (5.11)

In addition, the following equation gives the force balance vertical to the flight direction (with
simplification for small climb angle)

L = m ⋅ g ⋅ cos γ ≈ m ⋅ g . (5.12)

Equation (5.11) divided by m ⋅ g and equation (5.12) gives

 5 - 12

T 1
= + sin γ . (5.13)
m⋅ g E

If the climb is also to be possible with a failed engine, the thrust-to-weight ratio – relative to
the thrust of all the engines – must be correspondingly greater. For a number of nE engines,
at least a thrust-to-weight ratio of

TTO  n  1 
=  E  ⋅  + sin γ  (5.14)
mMTO ⋅ g  nE − 1   E 

must be stipulated.

The climb angle is used in equation (5.14). However, in the regulations, the climb gradient is
stated as a percentage. A conversion is simple. As

climb gradient
tan γ = (5.15)
100
follows
climb gradient
γ = arctan (5.16)
100

where climb gradient means the value from the regulations as a percentage. In the present
calculations, the angle is small and so one can dispense with the task of conversion and
directly insert the value from the regulation (e.g. for 3 % climb rate, insert 0.03) in equation
(5.14), as

climb gradient
sin γ ≈ (5.17)
100
 5 - 13

5.4 Lift-to-Drag Ratio with Extended Landing Gear and

Extended Flaps

In equation (5.14) the lift-to-drag ratio E = L / D , which is to be calculated here with an

approximation procedure, is still unknown. It is

CL
E = L/ D = (5.18)
CD

The drag is comprised of profile drag and induced drag. The induced drag depends on the lift
coefficient, the wing aspect ratio and Oswald's efficiency factor

CL 2
CD = C D , P + (5.19)
π ⋅ A⋅ e

CL
E= 2
. (5.20)
CL
C D,P +
π ⋅ A⋅e

The profile drag is comprised of the zero-lift drag and the additional drags due to the high lift
system and, if applicable, the landing gear.

CD , P = CD , 0 + ∆CD , flap + ∆CD ,slat + ∆CD , gear . (5.21)

The approximation procedure according to Loftin 1980 applied to normal passenger aircraft
makes the following assumptions to estimate lift-to-drag ratio:

e 0.7 due to extended flaps and slats

CD,0 0.02
∆CD , flap for CL = 1.3 : flaps 15° => ∆CD , flap = 0.01
for CL = 1.5 : flaps 25° => ∆CD , flap = 0.02
for CL = 1.7 : flaps 35° => ∆CD , flap = 0.03
∆CD ,slat negligible
∆CD , gear 0.015 in case landing gear is extended.

The maximum lift coefficients in the case of the three stated flap positions are naturally higher.
In the climb after take-off at V2 = 12. ⋅VS ,TO , the CL,max ,TO = 144
. ⋅ CL and during the missed
approach after the landing approach at V MA = 13
. ⋅ VS ,L , the CL ,max , L = 1.69 ⋅ CL . In this case the
procedure is such that the following conversion is used to estimate the maximum lift
coefficient from the predefined maximum lift coefficients:
 5 - 14

2
V 
C L = C L,max  s 
V  (5.21a)

The values according to Loftin 1980 for ∆CD , flap can also be summarized in a formula

∆C D , flap = 0.05 C L − 0.055 (5.21b)

for C L ≥ 1.1 .
 5 - 15

5.5 Climb Rate during Missed Approach

During a missed (discontinued) approach the aircraft is in the process of making the final
approach. For some reason a decision is taken not to land. Take-off thrust is applied, the
aircraft climbs and makes a new approach according to a predefined procedure. The aircraft
climbs, although it is still in the landing configuration – with considerable drag: the landing
gear has already been extended and the flaps are in landing position. The regulations require
sufficient installed thrust to carry out this maneuver safely. The key passages relating to
requirements for the missed approach are quoted here according to CS-25. Further details can
be found in the regulations.

CS 25.121 Climb: one-engine-inoperative

(d) Discontinued Approach. ... the steady gradient may not be less than
2·1% for two-engined aeroplanes,
2·4% for three-engined aeroplanes and
2·7% for four-engined aeroplanes, with -
(1) The critical engine inoperative, the remaining engines at the available take-off power or thrust;
(2) The maximum landing weight; and
(3) A climb speed established in connection with normal landing procedures (these are 1·3 VS), but not exceeding 1·5 VS.
(4) Landing gear retracted. *

* (4) is only contained in CS-25 not in den FAR Part 25 !!!

The calculation method for the missed approach is very similar to the method used for the
second segment. When estimating the lift-to-drag ratio E = L / D it must be borne in mind that
(according to FAR Part 25, but not according to CS-25!!!) the landing gear is still extended.
The necessary thrust-to-weight ratio is

TTO § n · §1 ·
= ¨¨ E ¸¸ ⋅ ¨ + sin γ ¸ (5.22)
mML ⋅ g © nE − 1 ¹ © E ¹

and in this case relates initially to the maximum landing mass. However, as all the
calculations in the matching chart (Blocks 6 and 7) use parameters which relate to take-off,
the thrust-to-weight ratio has to be converted to the maximum take-off mass.

TTO TTO m
= ⋅ ML . (5.23)
m MTO ⋅ g m ML ⋅ g m MTO

For the missed approach the equation to determine the minimum value of the thrust-to-
weight ratio is as follows:

TTO § n · §1 · m
= ¨¨ E ¸¸ ⋅ ¨ + sin γ ¸ ⋅ ML (5.24)
mMTO ⋅ g © nE − 1 ¹ © E ¹ mMTO
 5 - 16

5.6 Cruise

For calculations in the cruise phase, a stationary straight flight at cruise altitude is assumed.
Therefore two equations can be used:

a) lift is equal to weight;

b) drag is equal to thrust.
With these two equations a statement can then be made on:
a) the wing loading;
b) the thrust-to-weight ratio.

The connection between the wing loading and the thrust-to-weight ratio is determined in
such a way that both parameters are initially calculated separately as a function of altitude.
The connection between the two parameters is then obtained automatically from the individual
results via the connection with the altitude.

5.6.1 Thrust-to-Weight Ratio

In cruise flight – i.e. in a stationary straight flight – the following applies to the thrust TCR and
the drag DCR

mMTO ⋅ g
TCR = DCR = . (5.25)
E

Strictly speaking, the performance requirement in cruise flight is that of a climb. The reason
for this is the definition of the service ceiling. The definition states that when flying at service
ceiling, a jet still has to reach a climb speed of 500 ft/min. Accordingly, for flights at any
other, lower altitude, at least the same climb speed of 500 ft/min would be expected. The
formula TCR = DCR is therefore not a conservative estimate, but has the advantage of
producing a simple equation. However, this is balanced out in (5.25) by the fact that the
maximum take-off mass is assumed as the aircraft mass. The actual mass in cruise flight is
less than mMTO due to the consumption of fuel since take-off. At this point this leads to a small
safety margin. It is assumed that this safety margin balances out the non-conservative
assumption TCR = DCR for the cruise flight.
 5 - 17

The equation (5.25) is divided by the take-off thrust TTO . This gives

TCR mMTO ⋅ g
= (5.26)
TTO TTO ⋅ E
or

TTO 1
= . (5.27)
mMTO ⋅ g (TCR / TTO ) ⋅ E

Lift-to-drag ration E is estimated from the wing aspect ratio, as is explained below in
Section 5.7.

TCR / TTO can be read off engine diagrams for a given altitude and Mach number. For normal
cruise Mach numbers of jet transports ( M CR ≈ 0,8 ) a simplified equation is given: Depending
on the cruise altitude hCR and by-pass ratio, BPR µ the thrust ratio is

TCR 1
= (0,0013 µ − 0,0397) hCR − 0,0248 µ + 0,7125 (5.28)
TTO km

or with a cruise altitude in ft:

TCR 1
= (3,962 ⋅10 −7 µ − 1,210 ⋅10 −5 ) hCR − 0,0248 µ + 0,7125 (5.29)
TTO ft

5.6.2 Wing Loading

In cruise flight the lift is equal to the weight and the following applies:

mMTO CL ⋅ q CL ⋅ M 2 q
= = ⋅ 2 . (5.30)
SW g g M

q is the dynamic pressure calculated from q = 1 / 2 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 , M is the Mach number. The actual
mass in cruise flight is less than mMTO due to the fuel consumption since take-off. If we
calculate with mMTO here too, this again leads to a small safety margin with regard to the
dimensioning.
 5 - 18

Here the question arises as to what lift coefficient CL is demanded in (5.30). The cruise phase
must take place at an altitude where it is possible to reach the design lift coefficient specified
for the profile. Often the design lift coefficient C L , DESIGN = C L ,md is chosen for jets. C L ,md is the
lift coefficient for minimum drag or for maximum lift-to-drag ratio. This lift coefficient is
reached if the aircraft is flown at the speed of the lowest drag Vmd . However, the speed V is
practically already fixed due to the requirement for a cruise Mach number. We therefore
choose a ratio V / Vmd and therefore ultimately fix Vmd and CL . For a flight with maximum
lift-to-drag ratio V / Vmd = 1.0 . A flight that produces the biggest range for a jet – and thus
meets the range requirement most easily – requires V / Vmd = 1.316 (see Flight Mechanics). If
an aircraft has been optimized for slow flight, then its wing might be too big for cruise flight.
The lift coefficient in cruise flight CL is then less than C L ,md and V / Vmd > 1.316 . However,
the following should apply to many aircraft: V / Vmd = 1.0 ... 1.316 . Thus, by choosing V / Vmd ,
the lift coefficient CL in cruise flight is established, see equations (5.39) and (5.40). The
practical significance of choosing V / Vmd is that ultimately one has the option of moving the
cruise flight curve in the matching chart (Fig. 5.9) and thus optimizing the design!

For q / M 2 in (5.25) the following is obtained:

1
q ⋅ ρ ⋅V 2 1
=2 = ⋅ρ ⋅ a2 . (5.31)
M 2 V 2 / a2 2

We take the correlation for the sound velocity a from the thermodynamics

p
a2 = γ ⋅ (5.32)
ρ

γ is the ratio of specific heats (known as κ in the relevant German literature). For air, γ = 1.4
applies. When equation (5.32) is inserted in equation (5.31) this gives:

q γ
2 = ⋅ p( h ) . (5.33)
M 2

The pressure p( h ) is determined from the standard atmosphere (see Flight Mechanics). Here
it is important to bear in mind that the equation for the troposphere has to be used for an
altitude h up to 11 km, and at an altitude h of between 11 km and 20 km the equation for the
stratosphere applies.
 5 - 19

Equation (5.33) inserted in equation (5.30) finally gives the wing loading as a function of the
chosen parameters: lift coefficient CL , Mach number M and altitude (h).

m MTO CL ⋅ M 2 γ
= ⋅ ⋅ p( h ) . (5.34)
SW g 2

The results of a separate calculation of wing loading and the thrust-to-weight ratio are
entered at the end of the cruise analysis in a table like Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Example table for the collection of cruise performance data
altitude wing loading thrust-to-weight ratio T / ( m ⋅ g )
h m/ S
... ... ...
… … …
5000 m ... ...
... ... ...
… … …

The values can then be transferred from this table to the matching chart, thus producing the
function T / ( m ⋅ g ) = f ( m / S ) .
 5 - 20

5.7 Lift-to-Drag Ratio during Cruise

Lift-to-drag ratio not only increases with increasing wing aspect ratio, but also with a small
wetted area of the aircraft relative to the wing area S wet / SW . Fig. 5.7 shows that the lift-to-
drag ratio is a function of the

"Wetted Aspect Ratio" = A / ( S wet / SW ) . (5.35)

Fig. 5.7 Estimation of glide ratio, wetted area and wing area (based on Raymer 1989)

The relationship of Fig. 5.7 can also be expressed by equations. Takings a closer look at
underlying principles, it becomes apparent that one is dealing with functions y = x in
Fig. 5.7. This can be derived, but it will be dispensed with at this point. It is then

A
Emax = k E . (5.36)
S wet / SW
 5 - 21

A derivation would yield

1 πe
kE = (5.37)
2 cf

Loftin 1980 chooses e = 0.85 for all jet aircraft in the cruise configuration. c f = 0.003 is a
common value in literature for jet transports. Thus, giving

1 πe
kE = = 14.9 .
2 cf

kE, according to the data used by Raymer 1989 (Fig. 5.7 evaluated) gives

kE = 15.8 .

Fig. 5.8 Aircraft plan forms and their relative wetted area Swet / SW (based on Raymer 1989)
 5 - 22

Fig. 5.8 illustrates which aircraft categories have which ratio S wet / SW and shows for
conventional aircraft configurations:

S wet / SW = 6.0 ... 6.2 (5.38)

Lift coefficient in cruise flight for flight with minimum drag, i.e. with Emax :

π Ae
C L ,md =
2 Emax (5.39)

Actual lift coefficient devided by lift coefficient for flight with minimum drag

C L / C L ,md = 1 / (V / Vmd )
2
and therefore

C L ,md
CL =
(V / Vmd )2 (5.40)

The actual lift-to-drag ratio in cruise flight is

2 Emax
E=
1  C 
+  L 

 C L   C L ,md 
 
C 
 L ,md  (5.41)
 5 - 23

5.8 Matching Chart

In the matching chart a two-dimensional optimization problem is solved graphically. The two
optimization variables are:

• thrust-to-weight ratio, TTO / ( mTO ⋅ g) and

• wing loading, mMTO / SW .

In previous sections it was demonstrated how, from the various performance requirements,
either the wing loading or the thrust-to-weight ratio can be calculated. For all calculations it
was ensured that wing loading and thrust-to-weight ratio always refer to take-off with
MTOW, which made it possible to compare the values of different flight phases. The results
are plotted on the matching chart. Fig. 5.9 shows such a hypothetical matching chart.

Fig. 5.9 Hypothetical matching chart

The aim of optimization is to achieve the following:

• Priority 1: to achieve the smallest possible thrust-to-weight ratio;
• Priority 2: to achieve the highest possible wing loading.
 5 - 24

The resultant pair of values with the elements "wing loading" and "thrust-to-weight ratio"
constitutes a solution to the design problem which meets the examined constraints and also
involves a comparatively low weight.

The results thus gained should still be examined for plausibility. To do this, statistical values
of designed aircraft can be referred to, as contained in Fig. 5.10 and Fig. 5.11, as well as in
Table 5.5 and Table 5.6.

0,40

2 3
0,30

TTO 4
mMTO ⋅ g
0,20

2 Engines y = -3,584E-05x + 3,803E-01

3 Engines y = -4,976E-05x + 4,194E-01
0,10 4 Engines y = -2,085E-05x + 3,176E-01

0,00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Take-off distance (ISA sea level) m

Fig. 5.10 Thrust-to-weight ratio as a function of balanced field length (data from
Jenkinson 1999)
 5 - 25

1000
kg
m2 900

800

700

600
mMTO
SW 500 y = 6,798E-04x + 5,033E+02

400

300

200

100
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000
mMTO kg

Fig. 5.11 Wing loading as a function of maximum take-off mass (data from Jenkinson 1999)

Table 5.5 Thrust- respectively power-to-weight ratio of different types of aircraft (based on
Raymer 1989)
type of aircraft typical value unit
jet transport 0.25 - TTO / mMTO ⋅ g
single engine piston propeller 12 W/N PTO / mMTO ⋅ g
twin engine piston propeller 28 W/N PTO / mMTO ⋅ g
twin turboprop 34 W/N PTO / mMTO ⋅ g

Table 5.6 Wing loading of different types of aircraft (based on Raymer 1989)
type of aircraft mMTO / SW (kg/m²)
glider 29
homebuilt 54
single engine piston propeller 83
twin engine piston propeller 127
twin turboprop 195
jet transport 586
 5 - 26

5.9 Maximum Take-Off Mass

The maximum take-off mass mMTO is comprised of payload, fuel mass (for a specific range R
at a specific payload mPL ) and the operating empty mass:

mMTO = mPL + mF + mOE . (5.42)

If we recast this, we get

mMTO − mF − mOE = mPL (5.43)

 m m 
mMTO ⋅ 1 − F − OE  = mPL (5.44)
 mMTO mMTO 

mPL
mMTO = . (5.45)
m m
1 − F − OE
mMTO mMTO

The relative fuel mass mF / m MTO and relative operating empty mass mOE / mMTO are discussed
in two sub-sub sections that follow.

5.9.1 Relative Operating Empty Mass

The relative operating empty mass mOE / m MTO or relative useful load u are estimated from
aircraft statistics. Definitions are

mF + mPL m
u= = 1 − OE . (5.46)
m MTO m MTO

Two approaches are given here to calculate mOE / m MTO .

Approach 1:
Marckwardt 1998a uses a regression calculation for jet transports:

−0.113 0.0572
mOE  R [km ] m [kg ]
= 0.591⋅   ⋅  MTO  ⋅ n E − 0.206 . (5.47)
m MTO  1000   1000 
 5 - 27

Equation (5.47) provided mOE / m MTO for all aircraft examined by Marckwardt 1998a with an
error rate of less than 10%. Note: equation (5.47) has to be used iteratively:

1. select a starting value mOE / m MTO = 0.5

2. insert mOE / m MTO into equation (5.45) and obtain (with mF / m MTO from 5.9.2) mMTO
3. calculate a new value for mOE / m MTO from equation (5.47)
4. go back to step 2 and repeat until convergence.

Approach 2:
Loftin 1980 (unlike other authors) uses the thrust-to-weight ratio obtained in the preliminary
sizing procedure to determine the relative operating empty mass or the relative useful load u
from a statistical analysis. Various civil jets from a business jet to a Boeing 747 were included
in the analysis, and a thrust-to-weight ratios of between 0.23 and 0.46 was taken into account.
The result can be summarized (Loftin 1980, Fig. 3.21)

TTO
u = 0.77 − 104
. ⋅ (5.48)
m MTO ⋅ g
or

mOE TTO
= 0.23 + 104
. ⋅ . (5.49)
m MTO m MTO ⋅ g

Equation (5.49) provided the relative operating empty mass mOE / mMTO for virtually all
aircraft examined by Loftin 1980 with an error rate of less than 10%. The relative operating
empty mass mOE / mMTO increases with increasing thrust-to-weight ratio. As a high thrust-to-
weight ratio requires high-performance and therefore heavy engines, equation (5.49) reflects
the expected tendency. Furthermore (5.49) is in very good agreement with independent
statistical data from Fig. 5.12.
 5 - 28

0,7

-
0,6

0,5

0,4
y = 0,996x + 0,245
mOE
mMTO
0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0
0,00 0,10 0,20 TTO 0,30 0,40 0,50
mMTO ⋅ g -

Fig. 5.12 Relative operating empty mass mOE / m MTO as a function of thrust-to-weight ratio
(data from Kallmeyer 1999, Jenkinson 1999)

Fig. 5.13 and Fig. 5.14 give further inside into dependencies of mOE / m MTO .

0,75

Jet Airliners Long-Range y = -1,584E-07x + 5,382E-01

-
Jet Airliners Medium-Range y = -7,777E-07x + 6,064E-01
0,70 Airliners Short-Range y = -5,819E-07x + 6,196E-01
Business Jets Medium-Range y = -7,777E-07x + 5,969E-01
Business Jets Long-Range y = -1,913E-06x + 5,930E-01
0,65

0,60
mOE
mMTO
0,55

0,50
The curves are
best-fit straight lines
shown in a linear-
0,45
logarithmic diagram.

0,40
1000 10000 100000 1000000
mMTO kg

Fig. 5.13 Relative operating empty mass mOE / m MTO as a function of maximum take-off mass
mMTO (data from Jenkinson 1999, www.wikipedia.de)
 5 - 29

0,8

-
0,7

0,6

0,5
mOE
mMTO
0,4 y = -9,690E-06x + 6,045E-01

0,3

Jet Airliners Long-Range

0,2
Jet Airliners Medium-Range
Airliners Short-Range
0,1 Business Jets Long-Range
Business Jets Medium-Range

0,0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Design Range km

Fig. 5.14 Relative operating empty mass mOE / m MTO as a function of design range (no fuel
reserves) (data from Jenkinson 1999 and www.wikipedia.de)

5.9.2 Relative Fuel Mass

The relative fuel mass mF / mMTO is inserted in equation (5.45) to estimate the maximum take-
off mass mMTO . Fuel is required during all flight phases from starting the engines to taxiing
off after landing. The flight phases can be named as shown in Fig. 5.15. To simplify the
calculation the descent (DES) is often omitted. Instead it can be assumed that the distance
covered during descent is already covered during cruise flight.

mi is the mass at the beginning of a flight phase (i = TO, CLB, CR, ...). mi +1 is the mass at the
start of the next flight phase. mL is the mass at the beginning of the landing phase, mT mass
at the beginning of "taxi to apron". Lets call mSO the mass at the end the flight "after switch
off". The parameter mi+1 / mi refers to flight phase i and is called mission segment mass
fraction. The parameter 1 − mi+1 / mi is then the relative fuel consumption in the respective
flight phase i. The flight phases engine start (ES) and taxi (T) can be omitted if only the
take-off mass has to be calculated. This is the case here. All mission segment mass fractions
 5 - 30

taken together then provide a parameter for calculating the fuel consumption for the entire
flight: This parameter is called mission fuel fraction M ff .

Fig. 5.15 Typical flight phases of a civil transport flight mission

mSO mT mL mDES mCR ,alt mCLB mMA mDES mLOI mCR mCLB mSO
M ff = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = (5.50)
mT mL mDES mCR ,alt mCLB mMA mDES mLOI mCR mCLB mTO mTO

The entire mass of the fuel consumed on the flight is then calculated from the mission fuel
fraction M ff

mTO − mSO
mF = mTO − mSO = mTO ⋅ = mTO ⋅ (1 − M ff ) . (5.51)
mTO

The relative fuel mass for equation (5.45) follows from the mission fuel fraction

mF
= 1 − M ff . (5.52)
mTO

The mission segment mass fractions mi+1 / mi first have to be determined in order to be able to
work with equation (5.50) and (5.52):

• The mass ratios for cruise and loiter must be determined according to Breguet (see below).
• For the remaining flight phases it is scarcely possible or worthwhile to calculate the mass
ratio with the resources available here, so that the data in Table 5.9 has to be resorted to.
 5 - 31

For the cruise flight of a jet, the Breguet range factor is

L / D ⋅V
Bs = . (5.53)
SFCT ⋅ g

For the cruise flight of a propeller aircraft the corresponding Breguet range factor is

L / D⋅η
Bs = . (5.54)
SFCP ⋅ g

In equation (5.54) c = SFCT is the thrust-specific fuel consumption. In equation (5.55) SFCP
is the performance-specific fuel consumption and η is the propeller efficiency. The mission
segment mass fraction for the cruise phase then comes to the following with the Breguet range
factor Bs
sCR
mLOI −
= e Bs . (5.55)
mCR

sCR is the distance covered in the cruise phase. Table 5.7 and Table 5.8 provide information
on the specific fuel consumption.

More details to the calculation of fuel mass (taking into account the regulations on fuel
reserves) are given in a spreadsheet based method for aircraft preliminary sizing that
accompanies these lecture notes.

Table 5.7 Specific fuel consumption c = SFCT for jets (based on Raymer 1989)
cruise loiter
SFCT lb/lb/h mg/N/s lb/lb/h mg/N/s

turbojet 0.9 25.5 0.8 22.7

turbofan, low bypass ratio 0.8 22.7 0.7 19.8
turbofan, high bypass ratio 0.5 14.2 0.4 11.3

Table 5.8 Specific fuel consumption SFC P and propeller efficiency η for propeller aircraft
(based on Raymer 1989)
cruise loiter
SFC P η SFC P η
lb/hp/h mg/W/s - lb/hp/h mg/W/s -
piston, fixed pitch propeller 0.4 0.068 0.8 0.5 0.085 0.7
piston, variable pitch propeller 0.4 0.068 0.8 0.5 0.085 0.8
turboprop 0.5 0.085 0.8 0.6 0.101 0.8
 5 - 32

Table 5.9 Generic mission segment mass fractions (based on Roskam I)

type of aircraft engine start taxi take-off climb descent landing
business jet 0.99 0.995 0.995 0.98 0.99 0.992
jet transport 0.99 0.99 0.995 0.98 0.99 0.992
fighter 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.96 – 0.9 0.99 0.995
supersonic cruise 0.99 0.995 0.995 0.92 – 0.87 0.985 0.992

5.10 Take-off Thrust and Wing Area

Take-off thrust and wing area can easily be calculated with the now known maximum take-off
mass m MTO from the thrust-to-weight ratio TTO / ( mMTO ⋅ g ) and the wing loading mMTO / SW

 TTO 
TTO = mMTO ⋅ g ⋅   (5.56)
 mMTO ⋅ g 

m 
SW = m MTO /  MTO  . (5.57)
 SW 

Landing mass mL , operating empty mass mOE , fuel mass mF and some other parameters can
now easily be calculated.
 6-1

6 Fuselage design
In conventional aircraft the fuselage serves to accommodate the payload. The wings are used to
store fuel and are therefore not available to accommodate the payload. The payload of civil
aircraft can consist of passengers, baggage and cargo. The passengers are accommodated in the
cabin and the cargo in the cargo compartment. Large items of baggage are also stored in the
cargo compartment, whereas smaller items are taken into the cabin as carry-on baggage and
stowed away in overhead stowage compartments above the seats. The cockpit and key aircraft
systems are also located in the fuselage.

6.1 Fuselage cross-section and cargo compartment

Today’s passenger aircraft have a constant fuselage cross-section in the central section. This
design reduces the production costs (same frames; simply instead of doubly curved surfaces, i.e.
a sheet of metal can be unwound over the fuselage) and makes it possible to construct aircraft
variants with a lengthened or shortened fuselage. In this section we are going to examine the
cross-section of this central fuselage section.

In order to accommodate a specific number of passengers, the fuselage can be long and narrow
or, conversely, short and wide. As the fuselage contributes approximately 25% to 50 % of an
aircraft's total drag, it is especially important to ensure that it has a low-drag shape. A fuselage
fineness ratio l F / d F of approximately 6 provides the smallest tube drag1. However, as a longer
fuselage leads to a longer tail lever arm, and therefore to smaller empennages and lower tail
drag, a fineness ratio of 8 is seen as the ideal according to [ROSKAM III]. Stretched versions of
an aircraft can have fineness ratios of 14, and shorter versions will scarcely be less than 5. If one
opts for a fineness ratio of 8 for the first version of a new type of aircraft, one obtains a low-drag
fuselage that leaves the option open of constructing shorter or stretched versions at a later stage.
The average fineness ratio for passenger planes is about 9.

If we work on the basis of this average fineness ratio, the number of seats abreast is as shown in
equation (6.1). Fig. 6.1 also gives the number of seats per row for other fineness ratios.
nSA = 0.45 ⋅ nPAX . ( 6.1 )

A circular or near-circular cross-section is suitable for a pressure cabin for reasons of strength.
If no baggage is to be transported under the cabin floor, the fuselage can be flattened out at the
bottom (Fokker 50, for example). The fuselage cross-section can also be composed of two
overlapping circular cross-sections. Thus, special requirements in terms of the ratio of

1
This only applies to the subsonic range. In the case of supersonic passenger aircraft, the fineness ratio must
be just as large as necessary to provide acceptable passenger comfort. Concorde has a fineness ratio of
16.7.
 6-2

dimensions for the cabin and cargo compartment can be met. The two circles can be on top of
each other or next to each other. Such a fuselage cross-section is called a double bubble. An
alternative to the double bubble is an oval fuselage. For an aircraft without a pressure cabin, a
rectangular cross-section is cheaper to produce. Furthermore, in small aircraft, a rectangular
cross-section also provides more space for passengers sitting in the window seats (Shorts 330
and 360, for example).

Fig. 6.1: Number of seats per row as a function of passenger numbers and the
fineness ratio of the fuselage [MARCKWARDT 98a]

Cabin dimensions are defined in Fig. 6.2. Fig. 6.3 and Fig. 6.4 give typical values for cabins
and seat dimensions. As cabin dimensions are stated in inches internationally (1 inch = 2.54 cm),
it is easier to note characteristic values in this unit and convert them as required.
6-3

Fig. 6.2:
Definition of key cabin and seat
dimensions
[RAYMER 89]

Fig. 6.3:
Some key dimensions for passengers, seats,
cabin and cargo compartment.
[SCHMITT 98]

Fig. 6.4:
Typical cabin and
seat dimensions
according to [RAYMER
89]
 6-4

The certification regulations define minimum requirements for the width and number of aisles.
However, the figures in the certification regulations should be seen as minimum safety
standards, which are, for example, intended to allow successful emergency evacuation. Today’s
comfort standards require larger aisle widths and fewer seats at the aisles than prescribed.

JAR 25.815 Width of aisle

The passenger aisle width at any point between seats must equal or exceed the values in the
following table:
Passenger seating Minimum passenger aisle width (inches)
capacity
Less than 25 inches from floor 25 inches and more from floor
10 or less 12 * 15
11 to 19 12 20
20 or more 15 20
* A narrower width not less than 9 inches may be approved
when substantiated by tests found necessary by the authority.

A trolley has a width of approximately 12 inches. If the width of the aisle is 24 inches, it is
possible to steer the trolley past a person standing in the aisle. This increases passenger comfort.

JAR 25.817 Maximum number of seats abreast

On aeroplanes having only one passenger aisle, no more than 3 seats abreast may be placed on
each side of the aisle in any one row.

JAR 25.817 says:

nSA ≤ 6 : one aisle
6 < nSA ≤ 12 : two aisles

Current comfort requirements are stated in Fig. 6.4, Fig. 6.5 and Table 6.1.

Fig. 6.5: Definition of cabin standards [SCHMITT 98]

 6-5

Table 6.1: Definition of cabin standards (Airbus Industrie)

Economy Class Business Class First Class
3-er Bank mit Lehne 60 72 -
2-er Bank mit Lehne 40 48 50
Einzelsitz mit Lehne 21 25 25.5

This data makes it possible to draw the cross-section through the cabin. Fig. 6.7 to Fig. 6.11
show examples of fuselage cross-sections.

It is immediately noticeable that the cabin floor (with a thickness of approximately 0.2 m) is
located below the center line of the fuselage. The typical values for this lowering of the cabin
floor in relation to the center line are 0 m to 1 m, and the average is 0.6 m. With Fig. 6.6 or
equation (6.2) the outer diameter d F ,O of the cabin can be deduced from the inner diameter d F , I :

∆d = d F ,O − d F , I = 0.084 m + 0.045 ⋅ d F , I . ( 6.2 )

Fig. 6.6: Calculation of the outer width of the fuselage from the inner width
[MARCKWARDT 98a]
 6-6

Fig. 6.7:
Airbus A340, twin aisle, widebody aircraft
[SCHMITT 98]

Fig. 6.8: Fuselage cross-sections according to [ROSKAM III]

 6-7

Fig. 6.9: Fuselage cross-sections according to [ROSKAM III]

 6-8

Fig. 6.10: Fuselage cross-sections according to [ROSKAM III]

 6-9

Fig. 6.11: Fuselage cross-sections according to [ROSKAM III]

 6 - 10

The fuselage must have adequate volume to accommodate baggage and cargo in addition to
passengers. After the cabin cross-section has been drawn, the volume of the cargo
compartment can be checked:

1.) The necessary volume can be calculated from the required mass of the cargo and the
baggage (see Table 3.3) with the aid of the density. Average densities according to
[TORENBEEK 88] are:
• Baggage: 170 kg/m³,
• Cargo: 160 kg/m³.

2.) On more modern planes, 0.05 m³ to 0.065 m³ per passenger is available for carry-on
baggage, in the form of overhead stowage compartments. In practice it has been shown
that this volume is in fact utilized because especially business passengers insist on taking
their baggage into the cabin with them. The required cargo compartment volume
VCARGO _COMPARTMENT is consequently calculated from the required volume for baggage and
cargo (VBAGGGAGE + VCARGO ) minus the volume of the overhead stowage compartments
VOVERHEAD _ STOWAGE

V C ARG O _ C O M PARTM EN T ≥ (V BAG G AG E + V C ARG O ) − V O VERH EAD _ STO W AG E . ( 6.3 )

3.) The available cargo compartment volume can be roughly calculated. The following
applies:

lF
VCARGO _COMPARTMENT = d F ⋅ ⋅S ⋅k . ( 6.4 )
d F CARGO _COMPARTMENT CARGO _COMPARTMENT

S CARGO _COMPARTMENT is the usable cross-section area of the cargo compartment,

measured according to the drawn fuselage cross-section.
k CARGO _COMPARTMENT defines how much of the total length of the fuselage can be used as
a cargo compartment. k CARGO COMPARTMENT assumes values of
between 0.35 and 0.55. The smaller value applies to regional planes
and the larger values to widebody airliners.

4.) To permit fast loading and unloading, standardized containers (Fig. 6.12) should be used
wherever possible. Therefore, the shape of the cargo compartments is important in addition
to their volume. The drawn cabin cross-section must consequently be adapted to allow the
use of standard containers (as far as possible).
 6 - 11

Fig. 6.12: Dimensions of containers and pallets [MARCKWARDT 98a]

If the cargo compartment is not the required size (or the cargo is less dense), the maximum
payload might be limited by the available volume instead of by the MTOW or MZFW. This is a
situation that should be avoided.
 6 - 12

6.2 Cockpit, cabin and fuselage tail section

The cockpit must provide sufficient space for the pilot and any additional crew. The rough
layout of the cockpit can be shown in a view according to Fig. 6.13. Information on the layout
of the cockpit is contained in [ARP 4101] (Aerospace Recommended Praxis (ARP) No. 4101 of
the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) ).

Fig. 6.13:
Airbus A340,
View of the cockpit
(Airbus Industrie)

JAR 25.771 Pilot compartment

(b) The primary controls ... must be located with respect to the propellers so that no member of the minimum flight crew ... or part of the
controls, lies in the region between the plane of rotation of any inboard propeller and the surface generated by a line passing through the
centre of the propeller hub making an angle of 5º forward or aft of the plane of rotation of the propeller.

According to JAR 25.771, the pilots' seats in propeller aircraft should not be at rotor level.

The cockpit windows must provide pilots with an adequate view to the outside:

JAR 25.773 Pilot compartment view

(a) Non-precipitation conditions...
(1) Each pilot compartment must be arranged to give the pilots a sufficiently extensive, clear, and undistorted view, to enable them to
safely
perform any manoeuvres within the operating limitations of the aeroplane, including taxying, take-off, approach and landing.

[ARP 4101/2] defines what a “sufficiently extensive view” means. Each pilot must have a view
to the outside from the design eye position, encompassing a certain angle range upwards,
downwards, to the left and to the right. Fig. 6.14 defines the necessary angle. Fig. 6.15 shows
how this requirement was met in the Airbus A340.

The following also applies according to [ARP 4101/2]:

 6 - 13

3.3 Impairments: Impairments to Vision within the Vision area ... , when using arnbinocular Vision shall meet the following requirements:
NO obstructions to vision between 20 degrees right and 20 degrees left.
It must be possible for the pilot to eliminate any obstruction to Vision using arnbinocular vision with head movement of 32 mr;i (1.25 in)
left and right.

Therefore, the pilot’s view must not be inadmissibly restricted by struts between the cockpit
windows.

The cockpit windows should produce as streamlined a fuselage contour as possible, but they
should not be flatter than approximately 30° because the pilot’s vision might otherwise be
impaired due to reduced transparency and potential reflections from the instruments. Flat cockpit
windows are cheaper than curved cockpit windows, but curved ones produce less drag.

Fig. 6.14: Pilot’s required field of vision according to ARP 4101/2

 6 - 14

Fig. 6.15: The pilot’s field of vision from the cockpit of an Airbus A340 (Airbus
Industrie). Please note: ARP580B no longer exists. The necessary field
of vision is defined in ARP 4101/2, see Fig. 6.14

The cabin must accommodate the following items:

• seats for passengers and flight attendants,
• lavatories,
• galleys,
• wardrobes.
For a given fuselage cross-section, the length of the cabin lCABIN is calculated from the sum of
the areas of all the parts to be accommodated. An initial estimate is provided by
k CABIN ≈ 10
. m ... 11
. m for single-class seating.

nPAX
lCABIN = kCABIN ⋅ . ( 6.5 )
nSA

According to Fig. 6.5, the total number of passengers nPAX is split into the classes FC, BC and
YC. The required area (or length) for all passenger seats in the cabin is determined from the
distance between the seats in these categories. It is important to bear in mind that the distance
between the seats and the dividing walls (which are used to separate individual classes) must be
greater because the foot space under the seat in front that would otherwise be available is
missing.
 6 - 15

The seats of flight attendants are designed as folding seats to save space. They are preferably
placed near (emergency) exits. The details can be found in [ARP 583]. The number of flight
attendants, as employed in practice, can be found in Fig. 6.4 and Fig. 6.5. The minimum number
of flight attendants is specified in JAR-OPS and FAR Part 91. At least one flight attendant is
required per 50 passengers, or fraction of 50, on board.

JAR - OPS 1.990 Number and composition of Cabin Crew

(a) An operator shall not operate an aeroplane with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of more than 19, when carrying
one or more passengers, unless at least one cabin crew member is included in the crew for the purpose of performing duties, specified in
the Operations Manual, in the interests of the safety of passengers.
(b) When complying with sub-paragraph (a) above, an operator shall ensure that the minimum number of cabin crew is the greater of:
(1) One cabin crew member for every 50, or fraction of 50, passenger seats installed on the same deck of the aeroplane; ...

FAR 91.533 Flight attendant requirements.

(a) No person may operate an airplane unless at least the following number of flight attendants are on board the airplane:
(1) For airplanes having more than 19 but less than 51 passengers on board, one flight attendant.
(2) For airplanes having more than 50 but less than 101 passengers on board, two flight attendants.
(3) For airplanes having more than 100 passengers on board, two flight attendants plus one additional flight attendant for each unit (or
part of a unit) of 50 passengers above 100.

The number of lavatories required is also stated in Fig. 6.4 and Fig. 6.5. The floor space taken
up by one lavatory is:
• [RAYMER 89] : 1.03 m²,
• [MARCKWARDT 98a] : 1.20 m².

The required floor space for the galleys is [MARCKWARDT 98a]

n PAX 1
S GALLEY = k GALLEY ⋅ + m² ( 6.6 )
1000 2

with k GALLEY from Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Factor k GALLEY for estimating the floor space of the galleys as a function of the
routes on which the aircraft is operated
Routes k GALLEY [m²]
Südatlantik, Fernost, Südafrika 41
Nordatlantik, Nahost 32
Europa 23
Innerdeutsch und Nachbarschaft 16

According to [MARCKWARDT 98a] the floor space of the wardrobes is approximately

⎛ n ⎞
SWARDROBE = 0.03 m² ⋅ ⎜1 − 3 ⋅ AISLE ⎟ ⋅ n PAX . ( 6.7 )
⎝ n PAX ⎠
 6 - 16

The number of emergency exits is stipulated by JAR 25.809 as follows:

JAR 25.807 Emergency exits

(a) Type. For the purpose of this JAR-25, the types of exits are defined as follows:
(1) Type I. This type is a floor level exit with a rectangular opening of not less than 24 inches (609·6mm) wide by 48 inches (1·219 m)
high, with corner radii not greater than one-third the width of the exit.
(2) Type II. This type is a rectangular opening of not less than 20 inches (508 mm) wide by 44 inches (1·12 m) high, with corner radii not
greater than one-third the width of the exit. Type II exits must be floor level exits unless located over the wing, in which case they may
not have a step-up inside the aeroplane of more than 10 inches (254 mm) nor a step-down outside the aeroplane of more than 17 inches
(431·8 mm).
(3) Type III. This type is a rectangular opening of not less than 20 inches (508 mm) wide by 36 inches (914·4 mm) high, with corner radii
not greater than one-third the width of the exit, and with a step-up inside the aeroplane of not more than 20 inches (508 mm). If the exit
is located over the wing, the step-down outside the aeroplane may not exceed 27 inches (685·8 mm).
(4) Type IV. This type is a rectangular opening of not less than 19 inches (482·6 mm) wide by 26 inches (660·4 mm) high, with corner
radii not greater than one-third the width of the exit, located over the wing, with a step-up inside the aeroplane of not more than 29
inches (736·6 mm) and a step-down outside the aeroplane of not more than 36 inches (914·4 mm).
(5) Ventral. This type is an exit from the passenger compartment through the pressure shell and the bottom fuselage skin. The dimensions
and physical configuration of this type of exit must allow at least the same rate of egress as a Type I exit with the aeroplane in the normal
ground attitude, with landing gear extended.
(6) Tail cone. This type is an aft exit from the passenger compartment through the pressure shell and through an openable cone of the
fuselage aft of the pressure shell. The means of opening the tail cone must be simple and obvious and must employ a single operation.
(7) Type A. This type is a floor level exit with a rectangular opening of not less than 42 inches (1·067 m) wide by 72 inches (1·829 m)
high with corner radii not greater than one-sixth of the width of the exit.
(b) Step down distance. Step down distance, as used in this paragraph, means the actual distance between the bottom of the required
opening and a usable foot hold, extending out from the fuselage, that is large enough to be effective without searching by sight or feel.
(c) Over-sized exits. Openings larger than those specified in this paragraph, whether or not of rectangular shape, may be used if the
specified rectangular opening can be inscribed within the opening and the base of the inscribed rectangular opening meets the specified
step-up and step-down heights.
(d) Passenger emergency exits. Except as provided in sub-paragraphs (d)(3) to (7) of this paragraph, the minimum number and type of
passenger emergency exits is as follows:
(1) For passenger seating configurations of 1 to 299 seats - Passenger seating Emergency exits for each side of the fueslage configuration
(crewmember seats not included)

Passenger seat
configuration (crew Emergency exits for each side of the fuselage
member seats not included)
Type I Type II Type III Type IV
1 to 9 1
10 to 19 1
20 to 39 1 1
40 to 79 1 1
80 to 109 1 2
110 to 139 2 1
140 to 179 2 2

Additional exits are required for passenger seating configurations greater than 179 seats in accordance with the following table:

Additional emergency exits (each side of fuselage) Increase in passenger seating configuration allowed
Type A 110
Type I 45
Type II 40
Type III 35

(2) For passenger seating configurations greater than 299 seats, each emergency exit in the side of the fuselage must be either a Type A
or a Type I. A passenger seating configuration of 110 seats is allowed for each pair of Type A exits and a passenger seating
configuration of 45 seats is allowed for each pair of Type I exits.
(3) If a passenger ventral or tail cone exit is installed and that exit provides at least the same rate of egress as a Type III exit with the
aeroplane in the most adverse exit opening condition that would result from the collapse of one or more legs of the landing gear, an
increase in the passenger seating configuration beyond the limits specified in sub-paragraph (d)(1) or (2) of this paragraph may be
allowed as follows:
 6 - 17

(i) For a ventral exit, 12 additional passenger seats.

(ii) For a tail cone exit incorporating a floor level opening of not less than 20 inches (508 mm) wide by 60 inches (1·524 m) high, with
corner radii not greater than one-third the width of the exit, in the pressure shell and incorporating an approved assist means in
accordance with JAR 25.809(h), 25 additional passenger seats.
(iii) For a tail cone exit incorporating an opening in the pressure shell which is at least equivalent to a Type III emergency exit with respect to
dimensions, step-up and step-down distance, and with the top of the opening not less than 56 inches (1·422 m) from the passenger
compartment floor, 15 additional passenger seats.
(4) For aeroplanes on which the vertical location of the wing does not allow the installation of over-wing exits, an exit of at least the
dimensions of a Type III exit must be installed instead of each Type IV exit required by sub-paragraph (1) of this paragraph.
(5) ...
(6) ...
(7) For an aeroplane that is required to have more than one passenger emergency exit for each side of the fuselage, no passenger
emergency exit shall be more than 60 feet (18·288 m) from any adjacent passenger emergency exit on the same side of the same
deck of the fuselage, as measured parallel to the aeroplane's longitudinal axis between the nearest exit edges.
(e) Ditching emergency exits for passengers. Ditching emergency exits must be provided in accordance with the following requirements
whether or not certification with ditching provisions is requested:
(1) For aeroplanes that have a passenger seating configuration of nine seats or less, excluding pilots seats, one exit above the waterline in
each side of the aeroplane, meeting at least the dimensions of a Type IV exit.
(2) For aeroplanes that have a passenger seating configuration of 10 seats or more, excluding pilots seats, one exit above the waterline in a
side of the aeroplane, meeting at least the dimensions of a Type III exit for each unit (or part of a unit) of 35 passenger seats, but no less
than two such exits in the passenger cabin, [ with one on each side of the aeroplane. The passenger seat/exit ratio may be increased
through the use of larger exits, or other means, provided it is shown that the evacuation capability during ditching has been improved
accordingly.
(3) If it is impractical to locate side exits above the waterline, the side exits must be replaced by an equal number of readily accessible
overhead hatches of not less than the dimensions of a Type III exit, except that for aeroplanes with a passenger configuration of 35 seats
or less, excluding pilots seats, the two required Type III side exits need be replaced by only one overhead hatch.
(f) Flight crew emergency exits. For aeroplanes in which the proximity of passenger emergency exits to the flight crew area does not
offer a convenient and readily accessible means of evacuation of the flight crew, and for all aeroplanes having a passenger seating
capacity greater than 20, flight crew exits shall be located in the flight crew area. Such exits shall be of sufficient size and so located as
to permit rapid evacuation by the crew. One exit shall be provided on each side of the aeroplane; or, alternatively, a top hatch shall be
provided. Each exit must encompass an unobstructed rectangular opening of at least 19 by 20 inches (482·6 by 508 mm) unless
satisfactory exit utility can be demonstrated by a typical crew member.

The emergency exits must not be obstructed by seats. Therefore, the distance between the seats
may have to be increased in the area of the emergency exits.

The design of the cabin can be drawn with the data now available. Fig. 6.16 and Fig. 6.17 give
examples.

Fig. 6.16: Cabin design of the Fokker 50. Baggage and cargo are also
accommodated in the cabin. A: attendant seat, B: baggage, C: cargo,
G: galley, S: stowage, wardrobe, T: toilet. [LAMBERT 93]
 6 - 18

Fig. 6.17: Three different cabin designs of the Airbus A320.

A: attendant seat, G: galley, T: toilet. [GREEN 88]

Fig. 6.18: Lockheed L-1011. Distribution and use of the fuselage [Wild 90]
 6 - 19

Fig. 6.18 shows how the cabin and the underfloor area are utilized based on the example of the
Lockheed L-1011. The rear cargo compartment in the area leading to the tail cannot be loaded
with containers, but is only available for loose baggage items. Other underfloor areas are
occupied by aircraft systems. By moving galleys or crew rest facilities to the underfloor area,
space is created in the cabin for additional passenger seats.

Fig. 6.19: The length of the cockpit, fuselage nose, cabin at the rear and the
fuselage tail as a function of the fuselage diameter [SCHMITT 98]

Fig. 6.20: Dimensions of nose sections according to [SCHMITT 98]

 6 - 20

A side view of the fuselage can now also be drawn with the data from Fig. 6.19 to Fig. 6.22. It is
important to bear in mind that the cabin takes up space in the nose and in the tail. In other words
(with the formula symbols of this lecture) Fig. 6.19 gives the total fuselage length as

l F = l CABIN + 1.6 ⋅ d F + 4m . ( 6.8 )

If the length of the tail is too short, this will result in additional drag. A longer tail is
characterized by low drag, but such a long tail will increase the operating empty mass and thus
lead to an increase in drag.

The tail angle must be chosen so that the aircraft achieves a sufficiently high angle of attack
when rotating during take-off. Otherwise the take-off distance would increase. There would also
be a danger of the tail hitting the runway (tail strike). When choosing the tail angle it is
important to bear in mind that stretched versions might be developed at a later date. Therefore,
the tail angle should still have some reserves for the future.

Fig. 6.21: Dimensions of tail sections according to [SCHMITT 98]

 6 - 21

Fig. 6.22: Fuselage dimensions according to [ROSKAM II]

Now that the side view of the fuselage, including the doors and emergency exits, has been
drawn, the distribution of the underfloor area should be sketched in one section. This is the
oportunity to recheck the volume of the cargo compartment, which has only been roughly
estimated so far with equation (6.4).
 7-1

7 Wing Design
During the preliminary sizing, the wing was merely described in terms of the wing area SW
and the wing aspect ratio AW . When designing the wing, other wing parameters are determ­
ined. This involves the definition of the wing section and the planform.

7.1 Wing Parameters

Fig. 7.1
Definition of the wing
sections

Wing sections are positioned parallel to the plane of symmetry of the aircraft (Fig. 7.1). A
wing section is produced by scaling up an airfoil section. The airfoil section is described by
the section coordinates of the top of the section y u = f ( x ) and the bottom of the section
y l = f ( x ) with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 . Sections can also be described by the thickness distribution
t = f ( x ) combined with the camber y c = f ( x ) . Fig. 7.2 contains additional parameters for
describing the section geometry:

Chord c
Thickness t
Camber ( y c ) max / c
Position of maximum thickness xt
Position of maximum camber x ( yc )max
Leading edge radius r
Trailing edge angle Φ TE
 7-2

Fig. 7.2 also defines the following:

Chord line
(Mean) camber line
Leading edge LE
Trailing edge TE

Fig. 7.2: Airfoil geometry (DATCOM 1978)

For simplicity of production, planforms with a curved leading and trailing edge are rare.
Wings can therefore very often be described as double tapered wings (Fig. 7.3). The simple
tapered wing and the rectangular wing can be seen as special versions of the double tapered
wing. The sweep angle ϕ depends on the % line1 on which it is measured. Normally the
sweep angle of the leading edge ϕ LE , trailing edge ϕ TE , 25% line ϕ 25 (quarter chord sweep)
and 50% line ϕ 50 are stated.

The point where the inner and outer taper meet is called the kink. At this kink, the local chord
is called c k . In contrast to the chord at the wing tip c t a chord does not actually exist on the
wing root cr , but is only created by graphically extending the leading and trailing edge as far
as the plane of symmetry – and therefore into the fuselage. The mean aerodynamic chord
c MAC is the chord of an equivalent untwisted, unswept rectangular wing that achieves the
same lift and the same pitching moment as this wing. The aerodynamic center, AC lies on the
mean aerodynamic chord. The aerodynamic center is characterized by the following feature: if

1
n% point: point on a local chord that is located n% of the local chord behind the leading edge.
n% line: line formed by the geometric locations of the n% points of the chords.
Note: In this case “n%” is replaced by a percentage (e.g. 25%) or another figure symbolizing the per ­
centage (e.g. c/4).
 7-3

we take an axis that is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the aircraft and passes
through the aerodynamic center, the pitching moment of the wing about this axis is constant
and independent of the lift. The position of the aerodynamic center X AC on a rectangular wing
with a thin symmetrical section is 0.25 ⋅ c MAC . Torenbeek 1988 (Fig. E10) contains details of
the position of the aerodynamic center on simple tapered wings.

Fig. 7.3 Geometry of the double tapered wing

Wing area SW does not just include the visible part of the wing. The wing area also includes
the area of the inner taper in the fuselage. The exact size of the wing area is not really import­
ant. All that is needed for the calculations is a standard reference wing area S ref . Why is this?
Let’s take a look at the calculation for lift in cruise flight, for example:
m ⋅ g = L = 1 / 2ρ v 2 ⋅ CL ⋅ S ref . If S ref is changed, only the lift coefficient CL changes (by defini­
tion). For this reason, aircraft manufacturers often use their own in-house definition of the
(reference) wing area. Fig. 7.4 and Fig. 7.5 show such differing definitions of the wing area.
 7-4

Fig. 7.4
a)
y '1 y' Definition of the refer­
S ref = S + S1 ⋅ + S2 ⋅ 2 ence wing area accord­
y 'T y 'T
ing to Boeing.

Note: The Boeing B-747

has a different definition
of the reference wing
area: Sref = S.

b)
Definition of the refer­
S ref : Basic Wing Trapeze ence wing area accord­
ing to Focker and Mc­
Donnell Douglas.
 7-5

Fig. 7.5
Definition of the reference wing area according to Airbus

Wing parameters in aircraft design

The following have already been determined (to a large extent) (see Section 5):
• Wing area SW
• Wing aspect ratio AW .
When searching for a suitable aircraft configuration (see Section 4) consideration was already
given to transmitting the forces from the wing to the fuselage by means of the following con­
figuration:
• cantilever wing
• braced wing

and to the position of the wing in relation to the fuselage

• low wing position
• mid wing position
• high wing position
 7-6

Fig. 7.6 (Positive) dihedral angle of the wingν W

Fig. 7.7 (Positive) incidence angle iW : angle between the chord line of the wing root and a
reference line of the fuselage (e.g. cabin floor)

The following still have to be determined (here in Section 7):

Taper ratio, λ W
Sweep angle, ϕ 25,W
Thickness ratio, ( t / c ) W
Airfoils
Dihedral angle, vW (Fig. 7.6)
Incidence angle, iW (Fig. 7.7)
Wing twist, ε t (Fig. 7.8)

Subsections 7.2 and 7.3 below contain equations and estimates for these parameters. It is im­
portant to compare and check the calculation results with the values from the aircraft statistics.
Tables with wing parameters are, for example, included in Roskam II (Section 6) and Toren­
beek 1988 (Section 7). Further comprehensive information can be found in “Jane's All The
World's Aircraft” (Lambert 1993).
 7-7

Fig. 7.8 Wing twist ε t . The twist shown in the diagram is negative. There are two types of wing
twist:
1.) Geometric twist:
change in the angle between the chord lines.
2.) Aerodynamic twist:
change in the zero-lift line along the span of an airfoil.
The diagram shows the typical case of reduced lift at the wing tip, i.e. “wash out”.
The opposite effect is called “wash in”.

The following must be taken into account when choosing parameters:

• Take-off/landing: maximum lift coefficient, required high lift systems, lift-to-drag ratio, at­
titude, lift curve slope dCL / dα
• Cruise: lift-to-drag ratio L/D, drag divergence Mach number M DD , buffet onset boundary
• Fuel tank volume
• Flight characteristics, stalling behavior, flight in turbulence
• Landing gear actuation and stowage
• Wing mass
• Production costs
These characteristics, which depend on the choice of the above-mentioned wing parameters,
are discussed in Subsection 7.3.

Definitions
Aspect ratio
b2
A= , ( 7.1 )
S
with Span b.

Mean aerodynamic chord

b/ 2
2
c MAC =
S ∫ c dy
0
2
, ( 7.2 )
 7-8

Area
b/ 2

S = 2 ∫ c dy , ( 7.3 )
0

Spanwise location of mean aerodynamic chord

b/ 2
2
S ∫0
y MAC = c ⋅ y dy . ( 7.4 )

with y spanwise location.

Relative span position

y
η = , ( 7.5 )
b/2

Taper ratio
ct
λ = , ( 7.6 )
cr

The following additionally applies to double tapered wings:

c
on the inner wing (index: i) λi= k , ( 7.7 )
cr

ct
on the outer wing (index: o) λo= . ( 7.8 )
ck

Equations for the geometry of the simple tapered wing

b2 2b
A= = , ( 7.9 )
S c r (1 + λ )

2 1+ λ + λ 2
c MAC = c , ( 7.10 )
3 r 1+ λ

b
S= c (1+ λ ) , ( 7.11 )
2 r

c MAC
1−
y MAC cr 1  1 + 2λ  , ( 7.12 )
= =  
b/ 2 1− λ 3  1+ λ 
 7-9

Conversion of the sweep of an m% line to the sweep of an n% line (m and n are the % values):

4  n − m 1− λ 
tan ϕ n = tan ϕ − ⋅ . ( 7.13 )
m
A  100 1 + λ 

Equations for the geometry of the double tapered wing

b2 2b
A= = , ( 7.14 )
S cr [ (1 − λ ) ⋅ η k + λ i + λ ]

yk
with ηk = .
b/2

c MAC ,i ⋅ S i + c MAC ,o ⋅ S o
c MAC = , ( 7.15 )
S

b2 b
S = Si + So = = cr [ ( 1 − λ ) ⋅ η k + λ i + λ ] , ( 7.16 )
A 2

y MAC =
( )
y MCA ,i ⋅ S i + y k + y MAC ,o ⋅ S o
. ( 7.17 )
Si + So

Please note: The index ( )W for wing was omitted in equations 7.1 to 7.16 because the equa­
tions are thus also applicable to a horizontal tailplane. When calculating the geometry of a
vertical tailplane, it is important to take into account that the tailplane only consists of half the
area. Thus, for example, equation (7.3) can be used to produce the definition for the area of
the vertical tailplane SV :

b/ 2

SV = ∫ c dy
0
. ( 7.17 )

7.2 Basic Principle and Design Equations

Pressure coefficient
The flow configurations around an airfoil are shown with the aid of the pressure coefficient
(see Fig. 7.12). The pressure coefficient is defined as
 7 - 10

p − p∞
cp = . . ( 7.18 )
q∞

The index “ ∞ ” refers to a parameter of the free flow (undisturbed by the airfoil section). By
1 2 1 2 1
definition: q∞ = ρ V∞ and for incompressible flow (Bernoulli) p∞ + ρ V∞ = p + ρ V 2
2 2 2

hence p − p∞ =
2
(
1 2
)
V∞ − V 2 . With the local super velocity v= V-V∞

1
2
(2
ρ ⋅ V∞ − V 2 ) V 
2
2⋅ v
cp = = 1 −   ≈ − . ( 7.19 )
1 2  V  V
ρ V∞ ∞ ∞
2

The approximation ( ≈ ) applies for v much smaller than V∞ . The local velocity at the airfoil is

V = V∞ ⋅ 1 − c p . ( 7.20 )

For compressible flow, the equation is as follows, with the ratio of specific heats γ :

 γ

2   2 + [ γ − 1] ⋅ M ∞ 
2 γ −1
 2⋅ v
cp =   − 1 ≈ − . ( 7.21 )
γ ⋅ M   2 + [ γ − 1] ⋅ M 2  V∞
 

The derivation and background to equation (7.21) can be found e.g. in Anderson 1991.

Mach number correction

From a flow speed of approximately M = 0.3, it is necessary to correct coefficients such as c p ,
c L , c D . This can be done with the aid of the Prandtl-Glauert compressibility correction, as is
shown here using the example of the pressure coefficient:

c p,M = 0
cp = . ( 7.22 )
1− M∞ 2

1
The Mach number correction factor according to Prandtl-Glauert is therefore ,
1− M∞ 2
but it only applies to
 7 - 11

• 2-dimensional flow (i.e. for airfoils),

• thin airfoil sections,
• small angles of attack,
• pure subsonic flow, i.e. for M < M crit . (See below for a definition of M crit ).

Despite these restrictions, the Mach number correction according to Prandtl-Glauert is often
used as the first approximation.

Lift curve slope

The lift curve slope gives the increase in the list coefficient with the angle of attack

dC L
C L ,α = . ( 7.23 )
dα

The lift curve slope of a wing is calculated here according to DATCOM 1978 (Sec­
tion 4.1.3.2). Corrections will be necessary for the combination of wing-fuselage and wing-fu­
selage-empennage. C L ,α is calculated from the equation in 1/radian [1/rad].

2⋅ π ⋅ A
C L ,α =
A2 ⋅ β 2
 tan 2 ϕ 50  ( 7.24 )
2+ ⋅  1 + + 4
κ 2  β 2 

β is the reciprocal of the Mach number correction factor

β = 1− M 2 ( 7.25 )
and
cL ,α
κ = . ( 7.26 )
2π / β

Some authors use κ = 1for simplicity’s sake and obtain the following from equation (7.24)

2⋅π ⋅ A
C L ,α =
2+ (
A 2 ⋅ 1 + tan 2 ϕ 50 − M 2 + 4 ) . ( 7.27 )

In equation (7.26) for equation (7.24), c L ,α is the lift curve slope of the airfoil section. c L ,α
can be estimated from
 7 - 12

1.05  c L ,α 
c L ,α = ⋅  ⋅ ( c L ,α ) ( 7.28 )
β  ( c L ,α ) theory  theory
 

with data from Fig. 7.9 and with the theoretical lift curve slope of the airfoil

(c ) L ,α theory
= 2 ⋅ π + 4.7 ⋅ ( t / c ) ⋅ [1 + 0.00375 ⋅ Φ TE ] . ( 7.29 )

In equation (7.29), Φ TE is the trailing edge angle according to Fig. 7.2 in degrees. Equation
(7.29) gives the result ( c L ,α ) theory in 1/radian [1/rad].

Fig. 7.9 Calculating the lift curve slope of an airfoil section according to DATCOM 1978

Critical Mach number and shock wave

If the flight Mach number M is increased to close to M = 1, the flow speed in the vicinity of
the airfoil will at some point exceed the speed of sound (i.e. exceed M = 1). The flight Mach
number achieved at this point is called the critical Mach number M crit . The critical Mach
number is smaller than 1 because, due to the super velocities v, the local flow speeds may be
 7 - 13

higher than the airspeed. According to equation (7.21), one would expect the super velocities
to occur where there are negative pressure coefficients – i.e. on the suction or upper surface of
the airfoil. After the critical Mach number has been exceeded a localized area with M > 1 ap­
pears first on the upper surface of the airfoil and only later on the lower surface as well (see
Fig. 7.10). As this local flow M > 1 finally recombines with the free stream behind the airfoil,
it has to be reduced to M < 1 again at some point. This reduction involves an increase in pres­
sure. A shock wave occurs. In the shock wave, the local Mach number drops from an initial
value of M > 1 to a value of M < 1. The shock wave leads to an increase in the drag and to
the separation of the boundary layer. As the Mach number increases, the shock waves
above and below the airfoil section move more and more to the rear. If the flow speeds in­
crease even further, the shock waves are finally located at the end of the airfoil section and
form the so-called “wake”.

Fig. 7.10 Airfoil section subjected to subsonic flow speed M crit < M < 1 . After the flow has
passed through the supersonic area, the flow is then decelerated in the shock wave
from a local speed M > 1 to a speed M < 1

Drag divergence Mach number

The parameters of a wing must be chosen so as to ensure that the drag increase of the aircraft
is not too high at the required cruise Mach number M CR . As the Mach number increases, the
critical Mach number M crit will first be reached. This is the flight Mach number where the
speed of sound occurs locally at the wing for the first time (see above). The drag divergence
Mach number M DD is – according to a definition applied by Airbus and Boeing – the Mach
number where the wave drag (that is the additional drag due to Mach effects) amounts to
0.0020. M DD is larger than M crit . How much bigger depends on the type of airfoil section.
Typically, M DD is 0.08 Mach higher than the critical Mach number M crit (Raymer 1989).
 7 - 14

The increase in drag, caused by the wave drag, is shown in Fig. 7.11. At M = 1.0, the drag is
only approximately half as big as at M = 1.2 or at M = 1.05. The wave drag at M = 1.05 is ap­
proximately as big as the wave drag at M = 1.2 .

Fig. 7.11
A typical progression of
the wave drag C D ,wave
as a function of the
flight Mach number M

0.0020

The drag divergence Mach number M DD rises with

• decreasing lift coefficient CL ,
• decreasing relative thickness ( t / c) ,
• increasing leading edge radius,
• increasing sweep ϕ .

Transonic airfoils
Special transonic airfoils (called “supercritical airfoil” by NASA) increase the cruise Mach
number or allow the use of a larger relative thickness. Through a larger relative thickness, the
wing weight can be reduced and therefore, at the end of the day, the operating costs are also
cut.

During the Second World War, airfoils were already being developed with a view to increas­
ing the critical Mach number. In particular, NACA 6-series sections (Abbott 1959) showed
improvements in the drag increase at high Mach numbers without having too detrimental an
effect on the slow flight characteristics. These airfoils were used in the first generation of sub­
sonic jet aircraft, such as for the Caravelle.
 7 - 15

The first airfoils for the supercritical area were the sections with peaky pressure distribu­
tion from PEARCY in England. It was already known that by means of thinner sections, M crit
could be increased. The idea was to increase the distance between M crit and M DD . This was
achieved by a virtually isentropic pressure increase prior to a weak shock wave. The drag in­
crease could thereby be delayed by M = 0.02 to 0.03 compared to the airfoils of the NACA 6
series. This type of airfoil was used, for example, in the BAC 1-11, VC-10 and DC-9.

At the start of the sixties, WHITCOMB at NASA was working on supercritical sections. His
work still forms the basis for the airfoils used in civil transports and business jets.

Fig. 7.12 compares a conventional airfoil with a supercritical airfoil. With the conventional
airfoil, the flow on the upper surface of the airfoil section is accelerated even more after the
speed of sound has been exceeded locally, so that a strong shock wave is created approxim­
ately in the middle of the airfoil. Due to the strong increase in pressure in the shock wave, sep­
aration of the flow occurs with a large increase in drag and stochastic force fluctuations on the
wing. This phenomenon is called buffeting. On the other hand, in the case of the supercritical
airfoil, a uniform supercritical distribution of pressure occurs at a lower level, which is con­
cluded by a weaker shock wave in the rear section of the airfoil.

Supercritical airfoils differ from conventional airfoils in the following ways:

1. The upper surface of the airfoil is only slightly curved in the middle section. Therefore
the low pressure, and thus also the flow speed, is reduced, so that the shock wave is shifted
to the trailing edge and the intensity of the impact shock can be reduced.
2. The lower surface of the airfoil has a concave curvature in the rear section with a so-
called S shock. This produces a greater increase in pressure, which increases the lift with
the same angle of attack and therefore allows a reduced angle of attack for the required lift,
thus taking the strain off the upper surface of the airfoil (rear loading). The rear loading,
however, leads to a not insignificant pitching moment, which must be compensated for by
correspondingly larger empennages.
3. The leading edge radius of the section is increased to avoid excessive super velocities.
4. The airfoil leading edge may also be curved downward somewhat. This means that ac­
ceptable lift coefficients can be achieved in slow flight – despite the disadvantage of hav­
ing only a slight curvature in the middle section of the airfoil.
 7 - 16

Fig. 7.12
Standard airfoil of the
NACA 6 series compared
to a supercritical airfoil at
cruise Mach number
(Andersen 1991)

High-altitude flight and buffet onset boundary

At high altitudes the speed of sound is low, and therefore the Mach number is high for a given
airspeed. Due to the low air density, a high lift coefficient and a high angle of attack are neces­
sary. A flight in gusty air or with maneuvers such as a turn requires still higher lift coefficients
and angle of attack. In doing so, the aircraft may stall (the aircraft is too slow). On the other
hand, the Mach number may be too high for the required lift coefficient, so that buffeting oc­
curs (the aircraft is too fast). As shown in Fig. 7.13, the usable speed range becomes more and
more limited as the altitude increases. When designing the wing, this phenomenon must be
taken into account. It is important to ensure that a usable airspeed range is retained at cruise
altitude.
 7 - 17

Fig. 7.13:
Stall boundary and buf­
fet boundary. The us­
able speed range be­
comes smaller as the
altitude increases

The certification regulations contain the following requirements:

CS 25.251 Vibration and buffeting

(b) Each part of the aeroplane must be shown in flight to be free from excessive vibration, under an appropriate speed and power
conditions up to at least the minimum value of VD allowed in CS 25.335.
...
(d) There may be no perceptible buffeting condition in the cruise configuration in straight flight at any speed up to VMO/MMO ...

ACJ 25.1585(c) Cruise Maneuvering Capability

... it is possible to achieve a positive normal acceleration increment of 0·3 g without exceeding the buffet onset boundary ...

In cruise flight up to VMO (maximum operating limit speed) or MMO (maximum operating limit
Mach number) with a load factor of 1.3g, no buffeting may occur. Up to VD (design diving
speed) or MD (design diving Mach number) (MD is approximately 0.05 to 0.09 above MMO) ac­
ceptable flying characteristics must be retained. Buffeting is, however, allowed. Unfortu­
nately, there is no simple way to calculate the buffet onset boundary.

Calculation of wing parameters from the design Mach number

Airbus and Boeing use the following design Mach number (= cruise Mach number)
M design = M CR :
M DD = M CR ( 7.30 )

and thereby obtains (by definition, see above) a wave drag of 0.002.
 7 - 18

There are certainly other possibilities to place M DD with respect to M CR . Obert 1997 (report­
ing from experience at Fokker) recommends setting the cruise Mach number so as to achieve
a wave drag of 0.0015. If we bear in mind that M DD = M crit + 0.08 (see Fig. 7.11), roughly the
following applies:
M DD ≈ M CR + 0.02 .

As we can see, to some extent it is up to the design engineer to set the drag divergence Mach
number M DD in relation to the required cruise Mach number M CR .

The effective Mach number and effective speed for a swept wing are according to the geo­
metric considerations and the cosine rule from Fig. 7.14:

Veff = V ⋅ cos ϕ 25 and M eff = M ⋅ cosϕ 25

Fig. 7.14:
Decomposition of the
vector V of the flow
speed into an effective
component perpendicu­
lar to the wing (in­
dex: eff) and a compon­
ent along the wing
quarter chord line (in­
dex: n)

Furthermore it is
ceff = c ⋅ cosϕ 25 ,
t eff = t ,
( t / c) eff = ( t / c) / cos ϕ 25 .
 7 - 19

However, experience has shown that sweep does not enable the effective Mach number to be
reduced as much as the geometric considerations would lead one to assume. Therefore the fol­
lowing general equation is used:
M eff = M ⋅ ( cosϕ ) x
25 . ( 7.31 )

The cosine rule corresponds to x = 1.0

STAUFENBIEL suggests: x = 0.75.
Torenbeek 1988 and many other authors suggest: x = 0.5.

If we stick with Torenbeek 1988 and x = 0.5, then the following also applies:

M DD ,eff = M DD ⋅ cos ϕ 25 . ( 7.32 )

Bearing in mind that ( t / c ) = ( t / c) eff ⋅ cos ϕ 25 applies, according to Torenbeek 1988 the max­
imum permissible relative thickness of an airfoil parallel to the aircraft's plane of symmetry is
as follows:

2
   
3.5
 1− M 2  3
 1 − 5 + M DD ,eff
2
⋅ 
( t / c ) = 0.3 ⋅ cos ϕ 25 ⋅    DD ,eff
( 7.33 )
   5 + ( k − 0.25 ⋅ C ) 2   M DD ,eff 2 
   M L   

k M = 1.00 conventional airfoils; maximum t / c at about 0.30c,

k M = 1.05 high-speed (peaky) airfoils, 1960-1970 technology,
k M = 1.12 to 1.15 supercritical airfoils.
CL : the design lift coefficient (for cruise) chosen in Section 5

The calculated t / c applies for an average spanwise position on the wing. Jenkinson 1999
calculates an average relative thickness from the relative thickness at the tip (t) and root (r) of
the wing:
3 ( t / c) t + ( t / c) r
t /c = .
4

The accuracy of the calculation (estimation) of relative thickness turns out to be limited with
simple equations like (7.33). Further information on calculating the maximum permissible rel­
ative thickness of a wing can be found in Scholz 2005.
 7 - 20

ϕ
0.25 25
km = 1.2 cl = 0.5 t/c(MDD, 0, cl)
Meff = MDD*SQRT(COS(phi25)) t/c(MDD, 20, cl)
t/c(MDD, 30, cl)
t/c = f(MDD, phi25, cl) nach Gl. (7.33)
0.20 t/c(MDD, 40, cl)

0.15
t/c

0.10

0.05

0.00
0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
MDD

0.25 CL
km = 1.2 phi25 = 30.0° tc(MDD, phi25, 0.0)
Meff = MDD*SQRT(COS(phi25)) tc(MDD, phi25, 0.3)
tc(MDD, phi25, 0.5)
t/c = f(MDD, phi25, cl) nach Gl. (7.33)
0.20 tc(MDD, phi25, 0.7)

0.15
t/c

0.10

0.05

0.00
0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
MDD
Fig. 7.15 (top) and Fig. 7.16 (bottom)

Influence of drag divergence Mach number M DD on the relative thickness t / c using sweep angle
ϕ 25 (top) and of the design lift coefficient CL (bottom) as further parameter. Calculated with equation
(7.32) and (7.33)

Fig. 7.15 shows the influence of M DD , ϕ 25 and CL on t / c . Fig. 7.15 was calculated with
equations (7.32) and (7.33).
 7 - 21

Winglets and End Plates

The effective aspect ratio can be increased by means of winglets without increasing the span.
This can make sense if the span is limited due to the structural specifications of the airfield,
hangar or gate. The effective span for a wing with winglets or end plates can be estimated ac­
cording to Dubs 1987 with

Aeff = A / ( 1 + δ E ) ( 7.34 )

with ( 1+ δ E ) from Fig. 7.18 according to the geometry from Fig. 7.17.

Practical note: In Section 5 an aspect ratio was used to determine the glide ratio L/D in cruise
configuration. This aspect ratio may now be considered as the effective aspect ratio. ( 7.34 )
may now be used to calculate the geometric aspect ratio from

A = Aeff (1 + δ E ) .

It follows the span from

b= A SW .

Fig. 7.17
Geometry of a wing with winglets or end
plates (Dubs 1987)
 7 - 22

Fig. 7.18
Factor for calculating the effective aspect
ratio of a wing with winglets or end plates
(Dubs 1987)

Volume of the fuel tank

Torenbeek 1988 specifies a semi-empirical equation for estimating the volume of the fuel
tank. This equation is reported to have a degree of precision of ± 10% .

1 1+ λ ⋅ τ + λ 2 ⋅ τ
Vtank = 0.54 ⋅ SW 1.5 ⋅ ( t / c ) r ⋅ ⋅ ( 7.35 )
A (1+ λ ) 2
with
( t / c) t
τ = .
( t / c) r

When deriving the equation, it was assumed that a simple tapered wing was involved with a
linear thickness distribution. Statistical data was used to calculate the correction factor of
0.54. The sweep has virtually no impact on the tank volume. Equation (7.35) can also be used
to calculate the tank volume of a tank that only covers part of the span of the wing. The para­
meters of the wing root r and the wing tip t then have to be set to the values on the inner and
outer end of the tank.

7.3 Flight and Operational Characteristics

Cantilever or braced wing

Braced wings can be constructed so that they are approximately 30% lighter than cantilever
wings. However, the struts cause considerable form and interference drag. They are therefore
 7 - 23

only used for comparatively slow aircraft (less than approximately 200 kt). An aircraft config­
uration with joint wings (see Section 4) tries to achieve both advantages simultaneously.

Position of the wing in relation to the fuselage

The optimum position of the wing in relation to the fuselage depends on the type of aircraft
use. In the case of a cargo aircraft, the emphasis is on ease of loading and unloading. If the
aircraft is to be loaded directly from a lorry or by using an on-board ramp, a high-wing aircraft
is required. In the case of a passenger aircraft, the high-wing offers passengers good visibil­
ity. However, landing gear mounted on the wing will be heavy in the case of the high wing
aircraft due to its length. Landing gear mounted on the fuselage will require additional drag-
inducing fuselage cladding. In most cases, a mid-wing configuration is not possible on passen­
ger and cargo aircraft because it would prevent a continuous free cross section for the cabin or
the hold. Seaplanes achieve the necessary distance between the wing and the water surface by
means of a high wing configuration. For small aircraft, no wing position has established it­
self as the best compromise up to now. In general the following applies:
• A mid-wing configuration creates the least interference drag. (Interference drag is produced
by the mutual influence of the airflow over the fuselage and wing).
• The high positioning of the wing has a stabilizing effect around the rolling axis (Fig. 7.19),
but has a destabilizing influence on Dutch roll. Aft swept wings also have a positive stabil­
izing effect around the longitudinal axis and a positive dihedral angle. The connections are
assessed in the subsection “Dihedral”.

Table 7.1 Summary evaluation of wing position in relation to the fuselage

High wing Mid wing Low wing
Interference drag average low high
Stability around the longitudinal stable neutral unstable
axis (requires dihedral for stability)
Visibility from cabin and cockpit a good average poor
Landing gear: on the wing long and heavy - short and light
on the fuselage high drag - -
Loading easy average requires steps and loading aids
a
Visibility depends on where the wing cuts through the fuselage.
 7 - 24

Fig. 7.19 Effect of wing position on roll stability

Wing area and wing loading

The wing area was determined from the requirements to be met by the aircraft in the prelim­
inary sizing. Then the smallest possible thrust-to-weight ratio and the smallest possible wing
were chosen, and consequently the highest possible wing loading. In doing so, it was assumed
that the larger the area of a wing, the heavier and more expensive it becomes.

If a specific approach speed or a specific landing distance is not to be exceeded, the wing
area should not be too small.
 7 - 25

In the case of a flight in turbulent air the aircraft is especially influenced by vertical gusts.
These vertical gusts momentarily change the wing’s angle of attack. For example, the angle of
attack is increased by a vertical gust from below (in addition to the flow acting on the wing
due to the airspeed). The aircraft’s response to the vertical gust is expressed by the change in
the load factor with the angle of attack

1 2
dn 1 dL 2 ρ v ⋅ CLα
nα = = ⋅ = . ( 7.36 )
dα m ⋅ g dα  m
g⋅  
 SW 

Consequently the smaller the wing loading, the more intensely the aircraft reacts to the vertic­
al gust.

The tank volume is proportional to SW 1.5 . This is demonstrated by equation (7.35).

Wing aspect ratio

The wing aspect ratio A = b 2 / S has an impact on various parameters:
• A high aspect ratio reduces the induced drag CL / ( π ⋅ A ⋅ e) .
2

• The wing mass of wings with a high aspect ratio is greater than that of wings with a small
aspect ratio.
• With an equal wing area, a wing with a higher aspect ratio also has a bigger span pursuant
to b = A ⋅ S .
• The smaller the aspect ratio, the smaller the lift curve slope (Fig. 7.20). However, this
means that visibility from the cockpit during approach is reduced due to an increased pitch
attitude angle. According to equation (7.36), the greater the lift curve slope, and therefore
the greater the aspect ratio, the more the aircraft reacts to a vertical gust. In addition, a lar­
ger angle for rotating the aircraft at take-off is required.
1
• The tank volume is proportional to . As the aspect ratio increases, the tank volume
A
therefore decreases. This is demonstrated by equation (7.35).
 7 - 26

Table 7.2 Summary evaluation of wing aspect ratio A

Large aspect ratio Small aspect ratio
Induced drag small large
Lift-to-drag ratio L/D large small
Lift curve slope large small
Pitch attitude angle small large
during approach (i.e. good visibility (i.e. poor visibility
from the cockpit) from the cockpit)
Flight in turbulent air bumpy smooth
Required angle for rotation small large
Wing mass large small
Tank volume small large
Span (for SW = const) large small

Fig. 7.20
Effect of aspect ratio on the lift curve slope

Sweep
As explained above, the critical Mach number is increased by the sweep. It is irrelevant
whether this occurs with the aid of forward sweep or aft sweep.

As a rule, the maximum lift coefficient of the wing is reduced due to sweep. The following
applies: 2

CL ,max ,swept = CL,max ,unswept ⋅ cos ϕ 25 . ( 7.37 )

2
Section 8 contains a more precise method for calculating the maximum lift coefficient of swept wings,
taking into account the shape of the airfoil leading edge.
 7 - 27

This relationship applies approximately to the normally used airfoils with a less sharply
defined leading edge. If the wing area is sized by CL ,max , then a larger wing area must be
chosen in the case of a larger sweep angle. The mass of the wing increases due to the sweep.

As a rule, the angle of attack of the forward swept wing increases due to the deflection with
increasing load. The load increases further due to the increased angle of attack. This positive
feed back affecting the forward swept wing leads to divergent behavior. The divergence can
be counteracted by an especially stiff wing. However, the necessary additional stiffening in­
creases the wing mass. Consequently forward swept wings are heavier than aft swept
wings.

The stall behavior of forward swept wings is considerably better than that of aft swept wings.
The aim is to stall the inner wing first and then the outer wing. In this way, the outer aileron
remains effective in the stalled state, so that one-sided “tipping” of the aircraft over one wing
can be prevented. Fig. 7.21 and Fig. 7.22 explain why a forward swept wing has better lift dis­
tribution for the stall behavior. In the case of the aft swept wing, the flow separates first at the
wing tip (tip stall). This undesirable behavior is also exacerbated by the fact that the boundary
layer moves outward with the flow. In older aircraft an attempt was made to keep the inner
wing's boundary layer in place on the inner wing with the aid of stall fences (Fig. 7.23).

An additional problem associated with tip stall is the change in the pitching moment. As the
wing tips are behind the center of gravity in the case of the aft swept wing, the tip stall results
in a nose up moment and pitch up of the aircraft. If the pilot does not counteract this immedi­
ately, the aircraft will stall even more.

The main landing gear and the wing are approximately located at the center of gravity of the
aircraft. In the case of swept wings the mean aerodynamic chord is approximately at the center
of gravity, but not the wing root. Swept wings therefore cause problems with the installation
of landing gear. An additional area on the double tapered wing S 3 according to Fig. 7.4 and
Fig. 7.5 may solve the problem.

Equation (7.24) shows that the lift curve slope decreases as the sweep increases. Thus, the
flying characteristics improve in gusty weather, but visibility from the cockpit is worse during
the approach due to an increased pitch attitude angle. A larger angle is required at take-off for
rotating the aircraft.
 7 - 28

Fig. 7.21
A filament of flow emanating from Point A has a
greater influence on Point C than the influence
traveling back from Point B to C. Therefore Point
C experiences a greater downwash overall than
would be the case for a wing without sweep. The
effect thus described results in a lift distribution
on the aft swept wing, as shown in Fig. 7.22
(left). In the forward swept wing, the argumenta­
tion applies accordingly and leads to the lift distri­
bution in Fig. 7.22 (right)

Fig. 7.22 Influence of the sweep on the lift distribution and the stall behavior. The reason for the
differing lift distribution is explained by Fig. 7.21
 7 - 29

Fig. 7.23 High angles of attack lead to separation of the flow, usually beginning at the trailing
edge. An aft swept wing has a larger area of separated flow at the outer wing than
at the inner wing. A stall fence is used in an attempt to positively influence the
boundary layer and the separation zone at the outer wing

Aft swept wings exhibit positive stability around the longitudinal axis. This is explained
with help of (Fig. 7.24) the effect is based on CL ,max ,swept = CL,max ,unswept ⋅ cos ϕ 25 as given in
( 7.37 ). If we assume a positive side slip angle (as drawn in Fig. 7.24) ωright > ωleft and hence
CL,right > CL,left. This causes a rolling moment to the left.

Aft swept wings however exhibit a destabilizing effect on the Dutch roll. The aircraft may
need an electronic yaw damper to cope with this problem.

Forward swept wings are basically unstable around the longitudinal axis and therefore require
a positive dihedral angle to compensate. The dihedral effect is examined in more detail in the
subsection on the dihedral.
 7 - 30

Fig. 7.24
Positive stability around the longitudinal
axis by means of aft swept wings

The appearance of an aircraft should not be underestimated. According to general opinion,

a swept wing looks better, and what looks good also sells better. This all the more true in the
case of private aircraft and business jets. However, experience has shown that tastes tend to be
conservative. Designs which are too futuristic might experience problems on the market.

Table 7.3 Summary evaluation of wing sweep ϕ 25

Large sweep Small sweep

Critical Mach number large small
Maximum lift coefficient small large
Lift curve slope small large
Pitch attitude angle during approach large (i.e. poor visibility from small (i.e. good visibility from
the cockpit) the cockpit)
Flight in turbulent air smooth bumpy
Required angle for rotation large small
Integration of landing gear difficult minor problems
Wing mass large small
 7 - 31

Table 7.4 Summary evaluation of type of wing sweep

Forward sweep No sweep Aft sweep
Risk: tip stall none none large
Risk: pitch up minor none large
Maximum lift coefficient small large very small
Risk: one-sided stall minor very minor large
Risk: divergent wing deflection yes no no
Wing mass very large small large
Stability around the longitudinal unstable neutral stable
axis (requires dihedral for
stability)

Variable sweep is chosen for the following reasons:

• good take-off and landing characteristics,
• minimal drag and good flying characteristics in cruise flight,
• optimum lift-to-drag ratio in all flying ranges.

Variable sweep has the following drawbacks:

• the structure of the pivoting mechanism is heavy and expensive,
• the drive system of the variable swept wing is heavy and expensive
• changing the sweep angle causes considerable shifts in the aerodynamic center; large em­
pennages are required to compensate for the resulting moments.

Relative thickness
• Drag. Large airfoil thickness causes a high profile drag 3 in the subsonic range. It also
causes high wave drag at transonic and supersonic speed. In the case of supersonic speed,
the wave drag is proportional to ( t / c) . This explains why supersonic aircraft require ex­
2

tremely thin wings.

• Large relative thickness reduces the wing mass because both the bending stiffness and the
torsional stiffness are increased.
• The maximum lift coefficient rises as the relative thickness increases. This applies up to a
relative thickness of approximately 12% to 14%.
• The volume of the fuel tank in the wing increases in proportion to the relative thickness.
This is shown in equation (7.35).
Conclusion: The relative thickness should always be as large as possible while still being
compatible with drag requirements.

3
Profile drag = frictional drag + form drag
 7 - 32

Table 7.5 Summary evaluation on relative thickness

Small relative thickness Large relative thickness
Maximum lift coefficient small large
Lift curve slope Equation (7.24) small large
Drag small large
Tank volume small large
Wing mass large small

Taper ratio
The taper ratio λ = ct / cr has an influence on the lift distribution in the direction of the span.
Lift distribution means the graphical representation (Fig. 7.25) of the function c ⋅ c L over the
dimensionless distance from the plane of symmetry in the direction of the span y / ( b / 2 ) . The
smallest induced drag is obtained for an elliptical lift distribution. This elliptical lift distribu­
tion is achieved if all the airfoils are geometrically similar and all chords lines are parallel, and
the wing also has an elliptical chord distribution over the span. The lift coefficient (which is
calculated by dividing the value c ⋅ c L by c) is constant over the span in this case.

Important: 1.) The lift distribution (Fig. 7.25) c ⋅ c L in the direction of the span y / ( b / 2 ) must
be carefully distinguished from 2.) the distribution of the lift coefficient (Fig. 7.26)
c L in the direction of the span y / ( b / 2 ) . 1) refers to the aerodynamic quality, and
2) refers to the stall behavior of the wing.

The lift distribution on a rectangular wing is too “thick” due to the larger chord at the wing
tip. The result is roughly 7% higher induced drag. For an unswept wing, the elliptical lift dis­
tribution can be approximately achieved by a tapered wing with λ = 0.45 . The induced drag is
then less than 1% higher than the induced drag of the wing with the elliptical lift distribution.

The position of the center of pressure of a wing section moves to the wing root as the taper ra­
tio decreases. The root bending moment (caused by the lift) decreases accordingly. As the
thickness of the wing root becomes larger at the same time, a wing with small λ can achieve
a smaller wing mass than a rectangular wing.

The necessary thickness at the wing tip constitutes a lower limit for the taper ratio λ , as suffi­
cient installation space must be available to accommodate ailerons and the relevant mechan­
isms in the wing.
 7 - 33

Fig. 7.25 Lift distribution for various taper ratios at ϕ = 0

Fig. 7.26 Distribution of the lift coefficient for various taper ratios at ϕ = 0 and aspect ratio
A = 10 on a wing with CL = 1
 7 - 34

The taper ratio is an important parameter for controlling stall behavior. The lift coefficient
distribution in the direction of the span (Fig. 7.26) is helpful for the assessment. The flow will
separate from the wing first at the point where the lift coefficient distribution reaches its maxi­
mum level. To a first approximation the following applies:

(only) for ϕ = 0 : cL ,max is at: η = y / ( b / 2) = 1 − λ . ( 7.38 )

With a taper ratio of 0.45, for example, one would consequently expect the flow separation to
start at η = 0.55. This is close to the inner end of the aileron and leaves the aileron largely in
attached flow. At the same time with a tapered wing with λ = 0.45 one also obtains the best
approximation for the elliptical lift distribution.

Wings with a positive sweep tend to have a “thicker” lift distribution in the vicinity of the
wing tip (see above). In order to get close to the elliptical lift distribution again, λ must have
smaller values. The optimum taper ratio for the smallest induced drag according to Toren­
beek 1988 can be estimated from the following to a first approximation:

λ opt = 0.45 ⋅ e − 0.036⋅ ϕ 25 . ( 7.39 )

In equation (7.39) the sweep angle is entered in degrees. e is the Euler number.

λ smaller than 0.2 should be avoided because the short chord at the wing tip can only have
small Reynold number. This results in small maximum lift coefficients and tip stall. Also the
distribution of the lift coefficient (Fig. 7.26) shows a danger of tip stall in the case of small λ
values.

It can be ascertained from equation (7.35) that for wings with a constant relative thickness
over the span, a taper ratio of λ = 0 (triangular wing) offers the largest tank volume.

Rectangular wings ( λ =1) can be manufactured with minimal production costs.

Commercial jet transports use double tapered wings, as shown in Fig. 7.5. The additional area
S2 is called a “glove”, and area S3 is called “yehudi”. The benefits are:
• an increase in the thickness at the wing root,
• a reduction in the relative thickness at the wing root in order to achieve higher drag diver­
gence Mach numbers M DD ,
• increase in the sweep (by means of the glove) in order to achieve higher drag divergence
Mach numbers,
• increase in the installation space for the landing gear (by means of “yehudi”),
 7 - 35

• reduction in the sweep of the inner flaps (by means of “yehudi”) in order to achieve a larger
maximum lift coefficient.

Table 7.6: Summary evaluation with regard to taper ratio

Taper ratio λ small Taper ratio λ large
Tip stall bad good
Tank volume at t/c = const large (optimum for λ = 0) small
Production costs - advantage only for λ =1
Installation space for aileron small large
Wing mass small large
Induced drag in the case of small large
large sweep

Twist
The twist is defined as
ε t = iw,tip − iw,root . ( 7.40 )

Many wings are built with negative wing twist ε t , so that the incidence angle iW decreases in
the direction of the wing tip (Fig. 7.8). This measure is used to prevent tip stall. Especially
aft swept wings must be given negative twist in order to prevent tip stall.

Twist helps to achieve an elliptical lift distribution. However, it is only possible to achieve
this with one lift coefficient. With other lift coefficients, reduced lift-to-drag ratios are pro­
duced, compared to the elliptical lift distribution. If the twist is limited to 5°, these losses can
be kept to a minimum. Wash out reduces the root bending moment. Thus the wing mass can
be reduced. In preliminary design the following can be applied if no other data is given:
ε t = -3° (wash out). However the A310 (see Subsection 7.5) shows ε t = -8° .

Dihedral
Dihedral may occur as a positive dihedral angle, as shown in Fig. 7.6, or as a negative dihedral
angle (anhedral). In sideslip, a positive dihedral angle causes a moment around the longitud­
inal axis, which causes the wings to level. A positive dihedral angle therefore leads to posit­
ive stability around the longitudinal axis. Fig. 7.27 shows how the flow acts on a wing with a
dihedral: The aircraft flies with its left wing down. This causes the aircraft to slips to the left.
The side slip velocity V approaches the wing from the left. Due to dihedral this causes a dif­
ference in the angle of attack on wing section 1 respectively 2. On section 1 lift is increased
whereas on section 2 lift is decreased. The resultant moment causes the wing to level again.
The wing leveling moment increases with dihedral angle:
 7 - 36

Vn
∆α1=
U
V
β = and Vn = V vW
U
hence ∆ α 1 = β vW .

Fig. 7.27 The flow on the wing with a positive dihedral leads to a moment around the longitudinal
axis that causes the wings to level.
V velocity due to sideslip
Vn normal component of side velocity
U forward velocity
VR resultant velocity

The moment around the longitudinal axis in sideslip leads to

• a stable spiral mode,
• an unstable Dutch roll.
 7 - 37

A stabilizing moment around the longitudinal axis in sideslip is achieved by

• a positive dihedral angle,
• a wing configuration in relation to the fuselage in the form of a high-wing aircraft,
• an aft swept wing.

A destabilizing moment around the longitudinal axis in sideslip is achieved by

• a negative dihedral angle (anhedral),
• a wing configuration in relation to the fuselage in the form of a low-wing aircraft,
• forward swept wing.

10° sweep achieves roughly as much as 1° dihedral.

Moving the wing position in relation to the fuselage by “one step”

(e.g. from high to middle, or from middle to low)
achieves roughly as much as 3.5° dihedral

The combination of aft sweep and high-wing configuration together achieve so much stability
that it has to be counteracted with an anhedral. For example, Avro RJ85 (see Section 4).

Table 7.7 Instructions for choice of dihedral

Dihedral angle in ° Low wing Mid wing High wing
Unswept wing 5 to 7 2 to 4 0 to 2
Swept wing 3 to 7 -2 to 2 -5 to -2

Dihedral is also used to ensure the necessary clearance of engines and wing tips from the
ground.

Incidence angle
The incidence angle iW is defined in Fig. 7.7.

The incidence angle should be chosen so as to ensure that the drag in cruise flight is as low
as possible. For this, the fuselage longitudinal axis should be parallel to the direction of the
flow. In case of doubt, the fuselage can have a small positive incidence angle in cruise flight.
However, if the incidence angle is negative, the fuselage produces negative lift and therefore
additional drag.

The incidence angle should be chosen so that the cabin floor is horizontal in cruise flight. If
the cabin floor diverges too much from the horizontal, it can become difficult for the cabin
crew to push the trolleys through the aisles. Furthermore, servicing in a passenger aircraft
should start already towards the end of the climb. Labor unions define which floor angle is ac­
 7 - 38

ceptable for the crews during servicing. On the basis of the requirement of a horizontal fusel­
age in cruise, the incidence angle can be estimated (Roskam III):

CL,CR
iw = + α 0 − 0.4 ⋅ ε t . ( 7.41 )
CLα
In this equation:
CLα the lift curve slope according to equation (7.24),
CL,CR the necessary lift coefficient in cruise flight,
α 0 the angle of attack at zero wing lift or a characteristic profile of the wing,
εt the twist (see above).
The factor 0.4 tries to account for the fact that we have a tapered wing with the inboard wing
having more area and hence more contribution towards overall lift than the outboard wing.

It must be borne in mind

• that α 0 and ε t are negative, as a rule.
• that CLα from equation (7.24) is obtained in radian (rad) and has to be converted into de­
grees (°) for equation (7.40) if α 0 and ε t are also in degrees.

If the incidence angle is too small, visibility from the cockpit onto the runway may no longer
fulfill the requirement in the landing approach.

If the incidence angle is too great, the nose wheel may touch down first during landing. This
must always be avoided, as the nose landing gear is not designed to absorb landing impact. It
is only possible to determine whether such a risk exists after defining the high lift system. In
this respect, it is critical if only flaps, but no slats, are envisaged for an aircraft. In this case,
the aircraft will reduce its pitch attitude angle during landing approach after extending the
flaps.
 7 - 39

Summary of key characteristics

Table 7.8 contains a summary of key characteristics of wing design parameters.

Table. 7.8 Summary of key characteristics of wing design parameters based on Schmitt 1998
effect of an
increase off → SW A φ λ t/c
on ↓
++
+++ +++ - ++
low speed flight depending on
lifting capacity 2. segment CL max CL max
plan view
++
++
aerodyn. quality ++ - --
high speed flight aerodyn. quality
buffeting MDive MD
MDive
- --- --
wing mass - +++
big wing => hWingbox bending
mW low => + hWingbox hWingbox
heavy bending moment moment
- -
fuel tank ++ 1 ≈0 1+ λ + λ 2 +++
VF high => + ~S1,5 ~ ~ t/c
A (1 + λ ) 2
++ -- -- - +++
wing stiffness
hWingbox hWingbox/b b50% hWingbox hWingbox

7.4 Ailerons and Spoilers

Most aircraft use ailerons and/or spoilers for rolling. In doing so, the large lever arm of the
wings can be utilized. Some fighter aircraft create an (additional) roll moment through the
asymmetrical deflection of the elevator.

The yawing movement initiated by the vertical rudder also leads to rolling (due to a positive
yaw/roll moment). However, this coupling is so weak that no satisfactory maneuverability can
be achieved around the longitudinal axis in normal operation with the rudder alone.

Ailerons
Ailerons are simple plain flaps that are normally mounted close to the left and right wing tips.
The position of the ailerons enables a large lever arm to be utilized. The ailerons on both wing
tips deflect in opposite directions.

Ailerons cause an adverse yaw. This adverse yaw causes the aircraft to first yaw in a direction
that is contrary to the initiated turn. The adverse yaw has to be compensated for with the rud­
der, and can be reduced if the ailerons are designed so as to deflect further upward than down­
 7 - 40

ward. A special aileron geometry, which also serves to reduce the adverse yaw, is shown in
Fig 7.28.

Fig. 7.28
Aileron with special geometry to reduce
the adverse yaw (Roskam III)

The deflection of an aileron on a wing tip (outer aileron) can twist the wing so such an extent
that the aircraft performs a roll movement that is contrary to what was initially intended by the
aileron deflection. The phenomenon is called aileron reversal and can occur in the case of
high dynamic pressures and wings with low torsional rigidity. In such cases, the aileron must
be fixed when high dynamic pressures occur. Roll movements are then initiated with spoilers
– or with ailerons that are mounted further inboard on the wing (inner aileron).

It is important to bear in mind that ailerons “compete” with flaps for the space on the trailing
edge. The high lift system can be especially effective if the entire span is available for flaps.
The problem can be solved in some cases by deflecting the ailerons downward symmetrically
together with the flaps, e.g. 20% of their full deflection (aileron droop), so that they support
the high lift system. However possibilities for aileron droop are limited because flaps are used
in low speed flight and this is exactly the situation when high aileron deflections are needed.
Thus aileron droop may not cause aileron efficiency to be reduced too much.

When choosing the geometry of the ailerons, the geometry of completed aircraft can be used
as a guide in the preliminary design. The chord of the ailerons is normally 20% to 40% of the
wing chord. Typical values are roughly 30% of the wing chord. Ailerons are normally in the
region of 40% to 100% of the semi-span. Typical ailerons cover 65% to 95% of the semi-
span.

Spoilers
Spoilers do what their name says, i.e. they “spoil” the flow over the part of the wing that is
located directly behind the spoilers. Fig. 7.29 shows the effect. Spoilers are very effective
with extended flaps. In contrast to ailerons, spoilers do not cause adverse yaw, but rather a
yawing movement in the direction of the turn being flown. Due to the principle on which
spoilers function, drag is also produced by spoiler deflection. Therefore, the flight control sys­
 7 - 41

tem is often designed so that the ailerons are used first and the spoilers are only employed
when higher roll rates are required.

Fig. 7.29 Arrangement of a spoiler on a wing section

Spoiler geometries can be found in “Jane's all the World's Aircraft” (Lambert 1993). The
three-views from Section 4 can also be used to gain an initial impression of spoiler geomet­
ries.

Most aircraft use a wing box to absorb forces and moments. The front and rear limits of the
wing box are defined by the front and rear spars. The location of the spars must be chosen so
as to be compatible with the high lift system and the control surfaces. As can be seen in
Fig. 7.29, the hinge line of the spoilers is located directly behind the rear spar. Space has to be
left between the rear spar and the hinge line to accommodate the drive mechanism of the ailer­
ons. Typical locations for the spars are as follows:
• Front spar: 15% to 30% of the chord,
• Rear spar: 65% to 75% of the chord.

After deciding where to locate the spars, it is possible to calculate the volume of the fuel tank
more precisely than was possible with the semi-empirical equation (7.35).
 7 - 42

7.5 Example: The Wing of the Airbus A310

Table 7.9 A310 wing characteristics

Reference surface area
219 m2
(Sref) (aerodynamic)
Aspect ratio
8,8
(aerodynamic)
Total wing span (b) 43,90 m
Sweep at 25% MAC
27,97 °
(aerodynamic)
Root chord 8,381 m
Kink chord
4,946 m
(basic trapezium)
Tip chord 2,175 m
Mean aerodynamic chord
5,829 m
(MAC)
Root thickness/chord ratio 15,2 %
Kink thickness/chord ratio 11,8 %
Tip thickness/chord ratio 10,8 %
Inner trailing edge dihedral 11,8°
Outer trailing edge dihedral
4,3°
(Jig shape)
Root wing setting 5,3°

Fig. 7.30 A310 wing planform

Fig. 7.31 A310 distribution of relative wing thickness

 7 - 43

Fig. 7.32 Airbus A310 wing: sections, chord, relative thickness, wing twist, and incidence angle
(quoted from Obert 1997)

Fig. 7.33 Wing section and wing box at 35% semi-span

of Airbus A310 in comparison with other Airbus
aircraft

Acknowledgement: Table 7.9, Fig. 30, Fig. 31, and Fig. 33 are courtesy of Airbus.
 8-1

8 High Lift Systems and Maximum Lift

Coefficients
In Section 7 the wing was examined with flaps retracted (clean wing). According to the
assumptions from Section 5, the wing is, however, supposed to achieve higher lift coefficients
on take-off and landing. This is facilitated by high lift systems on the wing. Subsection 8.1
will show what types of high lift system are used and the characteristics of the different
versions.

Subsection 8.2 deals with the approximate calculation of the maximum lift coefficients from
the geometrical parameters, which are assumed to be known, of the high lift systems.

Subsection 8.3 shows how this analytical method of calculation can be inverted for the design
of the high lift system. It is demonstrated how the characteristic geometrical parameters for
describing the high lift system can be calculated from the lift coefficients for take-off and
landing selected in Section 5.

8.1 High Lift Systems

High lift systems operate according to the following principles:

• Increasing the airfoil camber.
• Boundary layer control by:
• improving pressure distribution;
• feeding high-energy airflow to the boundary layer;
• removing the "old" boundary layer.
• Increasing the wing area.

A distinction is made between:

• active high lift systems;
• passive high lift systems.
This description is restricted to the typical passive high lift systems, which do not require any
additional equipment apart from the drive system for retracting and extending the flaps.

In the history of aircraft development every conceivable alternative has been put to the test to
increase lift. Fig. 5.4, Fig. 8.1 and Fig. 8.3 only describe the versions that have established
themselves in practice.
 8-2

Trailing edge high lift systems

The plain flap (Fig. 8.1) is simply a pivoted rear section of an airfoil. Typically the flap depth
cF amounts to 30% of the chord. The plain flap increases lift by increasing the airfoil camber.
Ailerons, elevators and rudders are plain flaps.

Fig. 8.1 Different trailing edge high lift systems (airfoils from DATCOM 1978)

Split flaps are no longer used because they produce more drag than a plain flap with the same
increase in lift.

The slotted flap gets its name from the slot between the wing and the flap. Air can flow from
the bottom to the top of the airfoil through the specially shaped slot. This high-energy flow
produces a new boundary layer on the top surface of the flap, which allows flap angles of up
to 40° without separating the flow. Consequently maximum lift is increased and drag is
reduced by the slot.

Fowler flaps have a slot between the wing and flap like slotted flaps.
• Fowler flaps are first extended to the rear, thus increasing the wing area. With increasing
wing area the lift becomes greater. If the reference area S ref is now kept constant in the lift
equation L = 1 / 2 ρ v 2 ⋅ C L ⋅ S ref , the lift coefficient increases (by definition). By moving
 8-3

the Fowler flap downwards, the lift is increased without a disproportionate increase in drag.
The corresponding flap position is therefore especially suited to take-off.
• If the Fowler flap is further extended, the flap body is also turned downwards, which now
increases the airfoil camber. The lift continues to increase, but now with a greater increase
in drag. The corresponding flap position is therefore suitable for landing.

Three types of flap kinematics are used (Fig. 8.2):

• Flaps can be deflected via a dropped hinge system. The flap's pivot is under the wing.
• If an aerodynamically optimum slot geometry is required for all flap positions, this cannot
be achieved with a dropped hinge system, as a rule. A different (more complex) version
offers more possibilities: the flap is mounted on a carriage, which is moved on a track.
• A third type of flap design, essentially as a compromise between the two versions above,
works with a linkage system.

Fig. 8.2 Flap kinematics of high lift systems

In the case of all high lift mechanisms it must be borne in mind that the flap mountings have
to be housed in fairings. The fairings represent an additional drag throughout the entire flight,
which can compromise the advantages of the high lift system.

To further improve the flow over the flap, double slotted flaps or even triple slotted flaps
can be used.

Leading edge high lift systems

If a fixed slat is placed in front of the wing's leading edge, a leading edge slot (Fig. 8.3) is
produced between the leading edge and the wing. As is the case for the slot of a landing flap, a
high-energy flow is exerted on the top surface of the airfoil, although this is not to facilitate a
bigger camber, but rather to utilize a higher angle of attack for the existing camber of the wing
profile.

A leading edge flap increases the curvature of the top of the airfoil. This considerably
increases the lift coefficient.
 8-4

A movable slat (slotted leading edge flap) increases the lift through a combination of
increased wing area and increased camber and through the influence of the flow with the aid
of the slat.

A Kruger flap forces the flow to run more over the top of the airfoil. Kruger flaps can be
built more easily and made more lightweight than slats, but the disadvantage is their high level
of drag at small angles of attack. In the case of large passenger aircraft Kruger flaps are often
used on the inner wing together with slats on the outer wing.

Fig. 8.3 Different leading edge high lift systems (airfoils from DATCOM 1978)

Generation of high lift

A comparison of the mode of operation of high lift systems is shown in Fig. 8.1 and Fig. 8.3.
The lift curve of plain and slotted flaps is elevated to higher lift coefficients compared to the
lift curve without flaps, but without increasing the stall angle. On the contrary, the stall angle
tends to be smaller. In order to increase the lift through higher angles of attack (without
airflow separation), high lift systems are inserted on the leading edge. A higher lift curve slope
is ascertained for flaps and slats, which increase the wing area.
 8-5

To sum up, it can be stated that effective high lift systems have a more complicated design
than simple and less effective systems, and this leads to higher acquisition and maintenance
costs. On the other hand, the more effective system saves fuel through the possibility of
building a lighter wing with better lift-to-drag ratio than would be possible in the case of an
overall design with a simple high lift system. An optimum compromise can – as is so often the
case – only be found through detailed studies. In the early stages of design it is therefore
advisable to follow the designs of successful aircraft models.

8.2 Calculation of Maximum Lift Coefficients

Fig. 8.4 shows a typical lift curve cL = f ( α ) . α is the angle of attack, which is defined as the
angle between the free – i.e. undisturbed – flow direction and the chord line of the airfoil
without a flap deflection. With an angle of attack of 0° the uncambered airfoil does not show
any lift. The cambered airfoil, on the other hand, already has a certain lift coefficient with an
angle of attack of α = 0 , and also achieves a higher maximum lift coefficient. The zero-lift
angle of attack α 0 is negative in the case of an airfoil with a positive camber. The lift curve
slope cLα is constant apart from a small section just before the stall angle α cL , max .

Fig. 8.4 Lift curve comparing an cambered and

an uncambered wing
 8-6

The maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil

For the following calculations the maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil from wind tunnel
tests should be known. Airfoil catalogs such as Abbott 1959 contain measured lift, drag and
pitching moment coefficients of airfoils for various angles of attack and may serve as a
starting point for further calculations.

If, exceptionally, no wind tunnel data or airfoil catalogs are available, it is possible to estimate
the maximum lift coefficient according to DATCOM 1978 (4.1.1.4):

c L,ma x ,clean = (c L,ma x )base + ∆ 1c L ,ma x + ∆ 2 c L,ma x + ∆ 3 c L,ma x . (8.1)

∆ 1c L,max Correction term for taking into account the airfoil camber and the position of
maximum camber. Position of maximum thickness: 30%.
∆ 2 c L ,max Correction term for taking into account a position of maximum thickness ≠ 30%
∆ 3c L ,max Correction term for taking into account the influence of Reynolds'
number ≠ 9 . 106.

Additional corrections would be necessary to take into account the roughness of the airfoil
surface and the Mach number. However, these corrections cannot be stated with universal
validity.

Fig. 8.5 Definition of the leading-edge sharpness

parameter ∆y (DATCOM 1978)

The maximum lift coefficient of a wing depends on the leading-edge sharpness parameter
∆y , which is defined in Fig. 8.5:
• in the case of a sharp airfoil leading edge (i.e. small ∆y ) the flow starts to separate at the
airfoil leading edge.
• in the case of a more rounded airfoil leading edge (i.e. large ∆y ) the flow starts to separate
at the airfoil trailing edge.
 8-7

In the case of known NACA airfoils, ∆y can be directly determined from the maximum
relative thickness with the aid of Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: ∆y -parameter for known NACA airfoils determined from DATCOM 1978 (2.2.1-8)
Airfoil type ∆y
NACA 4 digit 26.0 ⋅ ( t / c)
NACA 5 digit 26.0 ⋅ ( t / c)
NACA 63 series 22.0 ⋅ ( t / c)
NACA 64 series 21.3 ⋅ ( t / c)
NACA 65 series 19.3 ⋅ ( t / c)
NACA 66 series 18.3 ⋅ ( t / c)

Fig. 8.6 Maximum lift coefficient of a symmetrical airfoil at a Reynolds' number of 9 ⋅ 106 as a
function of ∆y and the position of maximum thickness
 8-8

Fig. 8.7 Correction term ∆ 1c L,max to calculate the maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil accord-
ing to DATCOM 1978. Considered are airfoil camber and position of maximum cam-
ber.
 8-9

Fig. 8.8 Correction terms to calculate the maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil according to
DATCOM 1978.
Above: Figure 8.7 continued
Middle: ∆ 2 c L ,ma x : Correction term for the position of maximum thickness
Below: ∆ 3 c L,ma x : Correction term for the influence of Reynolds' number
 8 - 10

The maximum lift coefficient of a wing

With high angles of attack and a sharp airfoil leading edge (i.e. small ∆y ), the flow starts to
separate at the airfoil leading edge. The resulting vortexes can lead to an increase in the
maximum lift coefficient of a swept wing compared to an unswept wing. A dorsal fin, as a
transition to the vertical tailplane (compare, for example, Fig. 4.6), achieves an increase in
maximum lift coefficient by means of the process described. In doing so, the large sweep
angle of the dorsal fin is of importance.

On the other hand, many of the airfoils used in commercial aircraft have a more rounded
airfoil leading edge (i.e. a large ∆y ). This is the case, for example, on supercritical airfoils
(compare Section 7) or on airfoils with a larger relative thickness. In such cases flow
separation occurs, starting at the airfoil trailing edge, and the maximum lift coefficient of the
swept wing decreases compared to an unswept wing. This effect has already been expressed
approximately in Section 7 by

CL,max ,swept = CL ,max ,unswept ⋅ cos ϕ 25 .

The maximum lift coefficient with retracted flaps is estimated here according to
DATCOM 1978 (4.1.3.4 Method 2). This is an empirical method that may be applied in the
subsonic range to untwisted tapered wings with a constant airfoil section over the span. The
following must apply for the aspect ratio:

8
A> . (8.2)
3 ⋅ cos ϕ 25
According to DATCOM 1978 it is:

 C L ,max 
C L,max,clean =   ⋅ c L ,max ,clean + ∆ C L,max . (8.3)
c 
 L,max 
This includes

 CL ,max 
  stated in Fig. 8.9.
 c L,max 
c L,max the maximum lift coefficient of the airfoil. c L,max is taken from measurements or
airfoil catalogs. If, exceptionally, no measurements or airfoil catalog are available,
equation (8.1) can be referred to.
∆ CL,max Mach number correction term from Fig. 8.10. For Mach numbers smaller than 0.2
∆y leading-edge sharpness parameter as described above.
 8 - 11

Fig. 8.9 Maximum lift of tapered wings with a high aspect ratio in subsonic speeds.
Λ LE stands for sweep angle of the leading edge ϕ LE (DATCOM 1978)
 8 - 12

Fig. 8.10 Correction term ∆ CL,max to calculate the maximum lift of tapered wings with a high
aspect ratio in subsonic speeds. Λ LE stands for sweep angle of the leading edge ϕ LE
(DATCOM 1978). For Mach numbers smaller than 0.2 ∆ CL ,max = 0.
 8 - 13

Increase in maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil through high lift devices

The calculations are carried out according to DATCOM 1978 (Section 6.1.1.3). The increase
in the lift coefficient of the airfoil through flaps on the airfoil trailing edge is

∆c L,max , f = k1 k 2 k 3 ( ∆c L,max ) base . (8.4)

( ∆c L ,max ) base is the maximum increase in the lift coefficient for a flap with a 25% flap
chord according to Fig. 8.11 at a reference flap angle (according to Fig.
8.13).
k1 is a factor according to Fig. 8.12, which takes into account a relative flap
chord that has a value other than 25%.
k2 is a factor according to Fig. 8.13, which takes into account a flap deflection
that differs from the reference value according to Fig. 8.13.
k3 is a factor according to Fig. 8.14, which takes into account the flap
kinematics (Fig. 8.2).

The increase in the lift coefficient of the airfoil through slats or flaps on the airfoil leading
edge can also be determined. The method cannot be applied to Kruger flaps; leading edge
flaps can be calculated up to a deflection of 30° and slats up to a deflection of 20°. Above 20°
an excessively high increase in the lift coefficient is calculated. It is

c'
∆c L,max ,s = cl ,δ ,max η max ηδ δ f . (8.5)
c

cl ,δ ,max is the theoretically maximum flap efficiency according to Fig. 8.15.

η max is an empirical factor according to Fig. 8.16 for taking into account the
LER
parameter "leading edge radius/relative thickness", . The discontinuity
t /c
in the curve for the slats is due to the fact that data from two different
sources were used as the basis for the diagram.
ηδ is an empirical factor according to Fig. 8.17 for taking into account the
actual angle of deflection compared to the optimum angle of deflection
(reference angle).
δf is the angle of deflection of the slat or the leading edge flap pursuant to
Fig..8.18.
c'
is the ratio of the chord with and without deflection of the high lift aids on
c
the airfoil leading edge pursuant to Fig. 8.18.
 8 - 14

Fig. 8.11 Maximum increase in lift coefficient for 25%-chord flaps at a reference flap angle (ac-
cording to Figure 8.13) (DATCOM 1978)

Fig. 8.12 Factor that takes the relative flap-chord into account, which has
a different value then 25% (DATCOM 1978)
 8 - 15

Fig. 8.13 Factor that takes the flap angle into account,
which differ from the reference value
(marked by • in the figure) (DATCOM 1978)

Fig. 8.14 Factor that takes the flap kinematics (see Fig. 8.2)
into account (DATCOM 1978)
 8 - 16

Fig. 8.15 Theoretical maximum flap effectiveness

(DATCOM 1978)

Fig. 8.16 Empirical factor that takes the value of

“Leading-Edge Radius / Thickness Ratio”,
LER
into account. (DATCOM 1978)
t /c
 8 - 17

Fig. 8.17 Empirical factor that takes the real deflection angle in contrast to the optimum deflec-
tion angle (reference angle) into account (DATCOM 1978)

Fig. 8.18 Geometrical definitions of an airfoil with slat (adapted from DATCOM 1978). The airfoil
chord line is defined with retracted slat. The slat is extended and rotated downwards.
The slat deflection angle may be determined from the deflected airfoil chord line which
is defined by the leading edge and the c'/2-point on the airfoil chord line.
 8 - 18

Increase in the maximum lift coefficient of a wing through high lift devices
For flaps the calculation is carried out according to DATCOM 1978 (6.1.4.3)

SW , f
∆C L,max,f = ∆c L ,max,f ⋅ ⋅ KΛ . (8.6)
SW

∆c L ,max,f Increase in the maximum lift coefficient of the airfoil produced by flaps.
KΛ an empirical correction factor according to Fig. 8.19 for taking into account the
wing sweep ϕ 25 .
SW , f
Area ratio for the flaps according to Fig. 8.20.
SW

For slats an estimate according to Raymer 1992 is selected because DATCOM 1978 does not
contain a generally applicable method.

SW ,s
∆C L,max,s = ∆c L,max,s ⋅ ⋅ cos ϕ H . L. . (8.7)
SW

∆c L ,max,s Increase in the maximum lift coefficient of the airfoil produced by slats.
SW ,s
Area ratio for the slats. Calculation according to Fig. 8.20, only that in this case
SW
the hatching indicates the area that lies behind the slats.
ϕ H .L. Sweep angle of the hinge line of the slats.

The maximum lift coefficient of the wing is finally obtained from

C L,max = C L,max,clean + ∆ C L,max,f + ∆ C L ,max,s . (8.8)

 8 - 19

Fig. 8.19 Correction factor that takes the sweep into account Λ c/4 = ϕ 25 (DATCOM 1978)

Fig. 8.20 Definition of SW , f

 8 - 20

8.3 Design of High Lift Systems

A simple conservative assumption can be adopted as maximum lift coefficient for the design
of the wing, including the high lift systems:

CL ,max = 1.1⋅ CL,max, INITIAL SIZING . (8.9)

CL ,max, INITIAL SIZING is the maximum lift coefficients assumed in Section 5 for preliminary sizing
for take-off CL ,max,TO and landing CL,max, L

Factor 1.1 ensures that the aircraft can still stay in the air if the empennage creates
negative lift to trim the aircraft.

The maximum lift coefficient for the wing CL ,max,clean has already been established through the
wing design in Section 7 – by means of the parameters found there – and can be calculated
using the method from Subsection 8.2. On the basis of equation (8.8) the following is
produced

0.95 ⋅ ∆ C L,max,f + ∆ C L,max,s ≥ C L,max − C L,max,clean . (8.10)

CL ,max from equation (8.9).

Factor 0.95 takes into account the following interrelationship: the use of landing flaps
creates a moment around the pitch axis. This moment must be compensated
for by using trim. The negative lift created by the trim has to be balanced out
by an additional lift of the wing.

As a result of factors 1.1 and 0.95 according to Roskam II in equation (8.9) and equation
(8.10), the maximum wing lift is greater than CL ,max, INITIAL SIZING . This is necessary for a
balanced sum of forces across the whole aircraft.

The aim of the design is now to determine the parameters of the high lift system in such a way
that in equation (8.10) the left side is somewhat larger than (or at least the same as) the right
side. To do this, the achievable lift must be distributed over the slats and flaps. The spanwise
reach of slats and flaps has to be established, as must the flap type and the angle of deflection
of slats and flaps. As already mentioned in Section 2, it will not generally be possible to set
the parameters without an iterative approach.
 8 - 21

The calculation methods used here largely stem from DATCOM 1978. DATCOM (data
compendium) contains so-called handbook methods that produce a result relatively quickly.
DATCOM 1978 is a professional tool and has been repeatedly quoted by a large number of
authors in the field of aircraft design for decades and is used for initial design steps. However,
nowadays the detailed design of an aircraft requires considerably more precise information.
This information can only be obtained by using detailed numerical methods and powerful
computers.
 9-1

9 Empennage General Design

Empennage design is subdivided into Section 9 (Empennage General Design) and Section 11
(Empennage Sizing). In this first section basic information on empennage design is provided.
The size of the empennage is estimated with the aid of the so-called tail volume. This initial
estimate of empennage size is important for calculating the aircraft mass and center of gravity.
Afterwards detailed calculation methods for determining empennage size will be dealt with in
Section 11.

The basic configuration of the empennage has already been established in Section 4 with the
configuration of the aircraft. In this section the various types of empennage will be looked at
more closely, in order to define the exact configuration.

Empennages are "small wings". Therefore, many of the aspects described in Section 7 (Wing
Design) also apply to empennages. The main difference is that empennages – unlike wings –
normally only use a small part of the potential lift. If an empennage should come close to its
maximum lift coefficient in flight, the empennage design is likely to be faulty.

9.1 Functions of Empennages

Empennages create a force that acts upon a lever arm. Consequently a moment is created
through empennages:
• the horizontal tailplane creates a moment around the lateral axis (pitch),
• the vertical tailplane (fin) principally creates a moment around the vertical axis (yaw).
Ailerons and spoilers on the wing (see Section 7) principally create a moment around the lon-
gitudinal axis (roll).

Control surfaces on empennages and on the wing are the customary way to create moments.
However, there are other possibilities for creating moments:
• moving the center of gravity (tail aft aircraft),
• engine thust (control jets on the VTOL aircraft).

Empennages ensure trim, stability and control. These three aspects are detailed in the next
paragraphs.
 9-2

Trim
The moment created by an empennage balances out moments occurring on the aircraft for
another reason. The horizontal tailplane, for example, balances out the wing moment
(Fig. 9.1). In the case of propeller aircraft, the rotating slipstream causes a moment at the rear
of the fuselage and at the vertical tailplane. The vertical tailplane has to compensate for this
moment. If an engine fails on a multi-engine aircraft, the vertical tailplane compensates for an
asymmetrical moment distribution around the vertical axis.

CS 25.161 defines the term "trim":

(a) Each aeroplane must meet the trim requirements of this paragraph after being trimmed, and without further pressure upon, or
movement of, either the primary controls or their corresponding trim controls by the pilot or the automatic pilot.

In simple terms: an aircraft is trimmed when the primary flight controls (pitch, roll, yaw) are
free of forces in controlled flight.

The trim has to be guaranteed for all prescribed center-of-gravity positions, airspeeds, flap and
landing gear positions and in the event of engine failure (for details see: CS 25.161).

Fig. 9.1 Forces and moments acting on an aircraft during trimmed horizontal flight.

Stability
Stability refers to the capacity of the aircraft to return to the original flying position after a
disturbance from outside or after a brief control input. Details are contained in the certification
regulations in CS 25.171 to CS 25.181. A distinction is made between static stability and dy-
namic stability.
 9-3

• Static stability. Longitudinal static stability ensures that the airspeed remains stable. The
following is required according to CS 25.173:
(a) A pull must be required to obtain and maintain speeds below the specified trim speed, and a push must be required to obtain
and maintain speeds above the specified trim speed.
(c) The average gradient of the stable slope of the stick force versus speed curve may not be less than 1 pound for each 6 knots.

The lateral static stability returns the aircraft to a slip-free flight. CS 25.177 requires the
following:
(b) The static lateral stability (as shown by the tendency to raise the low wing in a sideslip with the aileron controls free) for any
landing gear and wing-flap position and symmetric power condition, may not be negative at any airspeed

• Dynamic stability is contingent upon static stability. But an aircraft is not necessarily dy-
namically stable when it is statically stable, because if the aircraft returns to its original po-
sition after a disturbance, it can, of course, easily overshoot the original position. If this os-
cillation ceases after a while (or an overshoot does not occur), this oscillation of the aircraft
is dynamically stable. But if the amplitude of oscillation becomes greater and greater, this
oscillation of the aircraft is dynamically instable. Conventional aircraft exhibit the follow-
ing "oscillation forms" or, to be more precise, modes (it does not always have to be an os-
cillation; it might also be a heavily damped movement):

• in a longitudinal movement (i.e. around the lateral axis): short period mode, phugoid.
• in a lateral movement (i.e. around the longitudinal and vertical axis): spiral mode, Dutch
roll mode.

The modes can best be explained with a small model aircraft in the hand or in flight. There-
fore, a further description is dispensed with at this point.

CS 25.181 requires that certification flights must demonstrate the following features:
(a) Any short period oscillation ... must be heavily damped with the primary controls -
(1) Free; and
(2) In a fixed position.
(b) Any combined lateral-directional oscillations ('Dutch roll') ... must be positively damped with controls free, and must be con-
trollable with normal use of the primary controls without requiring exceptional pilot skill.

Control
An aircraft must be sufficiently controllable in all critical flight states (CS 25.143 to
CS 25.149). The control forces should not become too extreme (see CS 25.143(c)). In addi-
tion, the increase in control forces is dealt with using the limit load factor (CS 25.143):
(f) ... the stick forces and the gradient of the curve of stick force versus manoeuvring load factor must lie within satisfactory limits.
The stick forces must not be so great as to make excessive demands on the pilot's strength ... and must not be so low that the aero-
plane can easily be overstressed inadvertently.
 9-4

Critical flight states for the empennage dimensioning from the point of view of control are:
• Horizontal tailplane: critical combination of center-of-gravity position, flap position and
airspeed; rotation during take-off; flare when landing: control with trimmed horizontal sta-
bilizer (CS 25.255).
• Vertical tailplane (fin): Engine failure in cruise and during take-off and landing. Engine
failure during take-off run, landing with crosswind (sideslip to compensate for crosswind
component), spinning (CS 23.221).

An aircraft must possess sufficient maneuverability in accordance with its flight mission. It
is scarcely possible to derive maneuverability criteria from the civil certification regulations.
Instead the findings contained in military regulations – also for transport aircraft – are used in
the design (see MIL-F-8785C and MIL-STD-1797). In the development phase a simulator
model is created and the future aircraft is "flown" and assessed by test pilots. The lever arm
and aileron must be large enough for sufficient maneuverability. In addition, it must be possi-
ble to deflect the control surfaces quickly enough.

9.2 Shapes of the Empennage

Different empennage shapes are shown on selected aircraft in Fig. 9.2.

The conventional tail provides appropriate stability and control and also leads to the most
lightweight construction in most cases. Approximately 70 % of aircraft are fitted with a con-
ventional tail. Spin characteristics can be bad in the case of a conventional tail due to the
blanketing of the vertical tailplane (Fig. 9.3). The downwash of the wing is relatively large in
the area of the horizontal tailplane. Rear engines cannot be teamed with conventional tails.
Stabilizer trim is possible with comparatively low complexity. A larger vertical tailplane
height is more appropriate for a conventional tail than a T-tail.

The T-tail is heavier than the conventional tail because the vertical tailplane has to support the
horizontal tailplane. However, the T-tail has advantages that partly compensate for the de-
scribed main disadvantage (weight). Owing to the end plate effect, the vertical tailplane can be
smaller. The horizontal tailplane is more effective because it is positioned out of the airflow
behind the wing and is subjected to less downwash. It can therefore be smaller. For the same
reason the horizontal tailplane is also subject to less tail buffeting. The T-tail creates space for
engines that are to be placed at the rear. The T-tail looks good, according to general opinion.
 9-5

Fig. 9.2 Empennages of conventional aircraft configurations

 9-6

Fig. 9.3 Influence of the empennage

design on the spin recovery
characteristics

With T-tails the problem of deep stall must be taken into account (Fig. 9.4). In the case of
high angles of attack the horizontal tailplane can be caught up in the airflow behind the wing
and be blanketed. If, in addition, the wing tends to make the aircraft pitch up at high angles of
attack (see Section 7), a situation may arise in which the aircraft can no longer be recovered
from the stall. Fig. 9.5 shows admissible positions of the horizontal tailplane.

Fig. 9.4 Flight envelope, angle of attack and pitching moment during deep stall and super stall
(Schmitt 1998)

The cruciform tail is a compromise between a conventional tail and a T-tail. The cruciform
tail weighs less than the T-tail and allows the engines to be placed at the rear (e.g. Caravelle).
However, the cruciform tail does not have a surface area advantage due to the end plate effect
like the T-tail.
 9-7

Fig. 9.5 Positioning of horizontal tailplanes

The aim of the V-tail is to achieve a smaller tail area than with horizontal and vertical tail-
planes, for example in the form of the conventional tail. The V-tail is designed as follows: In
the first step the required areas of a conventional horizontal tailplane S H and vertical tailplane
SV are determined (see below). Theoretically the V-tail provides efficiency as a horizontal
and vertical tailplane, corresponding to the projection of the V-tail in the horizontal and verti-
cal. This theoretical approach gives the necessary V angle for the V-tail

SV
v = arctan ( 9.1 )
SH
and the necessary area
SV −Tail ,theory = S H 2 + SV 2 . ( 9.2 )

On the basis of this theoretical analysis the V-tail only requires a tail area of
SV −tail / ( SV + S H ) = 70.7% compared to the conventional tail with SV / S H = 1 . With other
SV / S H ratios the area saving is less. According to the NACA 823 report, the V-tail must,
however, be larger in practice than the theory suggests for the same efficiency, so that the ad-
vantage of the smaller area is lost and a tail area

SV −Tail = S H + SV . ( 9.3 )
is necessary.

With a V-tail the control surfaces deflect in the same direction in the function of the elevator
and in opposite directions in the function of the rudder. If the right rudder pedal is pressed, the
right control surface of the V-tail moves down and the left control surface up. One of the dis-
 9-8

advantages of the V-tail is the complicated mechanics required to combine the elevator and
rudder inputs. Inconveniently a "rudder deflection" of the V-tail causes a roll moment against
the desired turn. A roll moment in the direction of the desired turn is, on the other hand,
achieved with the inverted V-tail. However, many aircraft configurations will not be able to
accommodate an inverted V-tail due to the necessary ground clearance.

A twin tail can be used if a single vertical tailplane would be too big. Twin tails are covered
less by the front fuselage in the case of high angles of attack than a vertical tail in the plane of
symmetry. For the latter reason twin tails are seen on fighter aircraft that operate in the high
angel of attack range. Fig. 9.2 shows additional tail configurations that might be advantageous
under certain circumstances.

Other tail features:

• Through the dorsal fin (Fig. 9.6) the efficiency of the vertical tailplane where high angles
of yaw exist is improved through vortex formation. The stall is thereby moved to higher
angles of yaw.
• The ventral fin (Fig. 9.6) is not blanketed even with high angles of attack. The ventral fin
also serves to prevent lateral instabilities in high-speed flight.

Fig. 9.6 Examples of aircrafts with dorsal fin and ventral fin

The canard tails (Fig. 9.7) are subdivided into control canard and lifting canard.

• In the case of a control canard the wing bears the aircraft's weight. Wings and fuselage
alone show neutral stability; the canard is only used for control, but makes the system
comprising fuselage, wing and tail instable. An electronic flight control system, EFCS, car-
ries out the regulation and stabilization of the instable aircraft. An aircraft with canard must
be designed in such a way that the wing can never be stalled. Instead the canard is first
stalled. This necessitates that the wing's lift potential cannot be fully utilized.

• The lifting canard has less drag theoretically because the canard – in contrast to the hori-
zontal tailplane of the tail aft configuration – creates lift (instead of negative lift) (compare
with Fig. 9.1). By using the lifting canard the wing must be placed further to the rear.
Through this placement the lifting canard is able to facilitate a center-of-gravity range that
 9-9

is normally required. However, the lifting canard displays various disadvantages that re-
strict its overall utility considerably: the placement of the wing further back on the fuse-
lage increases the nose-heavy moment when using the landing flaps due to the larger lever
arm. The wing of the canard must therefore have a greater area with less effective flaps
than is customary with the tail aft configuration. Another way of solving this problem is to
fit the canard with effective flaps or provide a variable sweep of the canard.

Fig. 9.7 Empennages of unconventional aircraft configurations

The tandem wing is a lifting canard where the lift forces are approximately evenly distributed
between the wing and the canard.
 9 - 10

The three-surface configuration makes it possible to create a pitching moment without in-
fluencing the lift on the wing. Therefore it is possible to better optimize the distribution of lift
on the wing and thereby reduce the drag. One of the disadvantages is the additional complex-
ity due to an additional area.

All configurations with canards have the disadvantage that the wing lies in a flow disturbed by
the empennage placed at the front.

9.3 Design Rules

• The horizontal tailplane should be installed in a position so that it does not lie in the slip-
stream. If this rule is not observed, it may have the following effects:
• structure fatigue due to tail buffeting;
• increased noise in the cabin due to tail buffeting;
• considerable trim changes with differing choice of engine performance.
In some small single-engine aircraft the empennage is deliberately placed in the slipstream.
Then one benefits from an increased efficiency of the tail assembly during take-off and
landing, but may have to accept the disadvantages described above.

• The detailed placement of the horizontal tailplane can be determined from Fig. 9.5: low-
lying horizontal tailplanes are most suitable for getting an aircraft out of a stall. With sub-
sonic aircraft the empennage can also be installed at the same height as the wing. A T-tail
may only be used if the wing is uncritical and is not susceptible to excessive pitch-up
(compare Section 9.2: "T-tail").

• The lever arm of the empennage should be as large as possible, thereby making it possible
to keep the tail areas small, which reduces weight and drag.

• The aspect ratio of the horizontal tailplane should be about half the aspect ratio of the
wing. T-tails have a smaller aspect ratio of the vertical tailplane than conventional tails
(Table 9.1). This allows weight disadvantages to be kept to a minimum.

• Tails with a taper ratio of λ = 1 are built in some cases as rectangular tail especially for
general aviation aircraft. Rectangular tails reduce production costs.

• The critical Mach number of the empennage M crit , H und M crit ,V should be ∆M = 0.05
higher than the critical Mach number of the wing M crit ,W . Through this measure the effi-
ciency of the tail assembly should also be guaranteed at high speed. Relative thickness,
 9 - 11

drag divergence Mach number, sweep, and the lift coefficient of the empennage must be
chosen so as to ensure that a ∆M = 0.05 can be achieved. With an equation from Section 7
in the form
t / c = f ( M DD , ϕ 25 , C L , airfoil )

these parameters can be chosen to approximately suit each other if the drag divergence
Mach number M DD of the tail is ∆M = 0.05 higher than for the wing.

• The sweep of the horizontal tailplane should be approximately 5° larger than the sweep
of the wing. Thus a higher critical Mach number of the horizontal tailplane can be achieved
and a loss of efficiency due to shock waves is avoided. In addition, the lift gradient of the
horizontal tailplane can be less than the lift gradient of the wing due to the increased
sweep, so that the horizontal tailplane only reaches the stall state at larger angles of attack
than the wing.

• The sweep angle of the vertical tailplane is 35° to 55° for aircraft with "high airspeeds"
(flight with compressibility effects). The sweep angle of the vertical tailplane for aircraft
with "low airspeeds" (flight without compressibility effects) should be less than 20°. A
large sweep angle increases the lever arm and the angle where the vertical tailplane goes
into stall, but reduces the maximum lift coefficient.

• The horizontal tailplane should have a relative thickness that is approximately 10 % less
than the relative thickness in the outer wing. Thus, a higher critical Mach number of the
horizontal tailplane can be achieved and a loss of efficiency due to shock waves is pre-
vented.

• Symmetrical airfoils are chosen exclusively for vertical tailplanes. Symmetrical or virtually
symmetrical airfoils with 9% to 12% relative thickness are chosen for horizontal tailplanes.
For example, NACA 0009 or NACA 0012 (Abbott 1959) can be chosen. Asymmetrical
horizontal tailplane airfoils are installed "upside-down" because the horizontal tailplane has
to create negative lift.

• If the left and right elevators are to be connected, the sweep and the taper ratio must be
selected so as to ensure that a hinge line is produced perpendicular to the aircraft’s plane of
symmetry. Reasons for connecting the elevators may be:
• to reduce the elevators’ tendency to flutter;
• to facilitate joint actuation of the elevators.
 9 - 12

• The dihedral angle can be chosen so that the empennage is positioned outside the engine
slipstream. Dihedral of the horizontal tail is not used to modify roll stability as this is much
more influenced by the wing.

• If the horizontal tailplane is fixed, an incidence angle of around 2° to 3° downwards

should be chosen to create negative lift. A more flexible alternative is a movable, i.e.
trimmable horizontal stabilizer, THS, which facilitates a larger center-of-gravity range.

• The horizontal tailplane can be designed as an all moving tail. An all moving tail only
consists of one surface with an adjustable incidence angle. The all moving tail is more ef-
fective – especially at high Mach numbers – but also heavier than a fixed empennage with
control surface. In the case of large aircraft high output may be required to move the all
moving tail in flight with the necessary actuating speed. A compromise is the trimmable
horizontal stabilizer mentioned above: the horizontal stabilizer is used to trim and is only
adjusted gradually (with a low actuating power); the elevator is deflected correspondingly
quicker for maneuvering. The trimmable horizontal stabilizer is the standard solution for
transport aircraft.

• Lifting canard or tandem wing are designed like wings (see Section 7).

Tables 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 contain parameters that can be referred to as guides for empennage
design.

Table 9.1 Conventional aspect ratios A and taper ratios λ from empennages on transport cate-
gory airplanes (Raymer 1989)
Type Horizontal Tailplane Vertical Tailplane
A λ A λ
Conventional Tail 3.00 ... 5.00 0.3 ... 0.6 1.3 ... 2.0 0.3 ... 0.6
T-Tail as Conventional Tail as Conventional Tail 0.7 ... 1.2 0.6 ... 1.0

Table 9.2: Conventional design parameters for horizontal tails (Roskam II)
Dihedral Incidence Aspect Sweep Taper
Type Angle Angle Ratio Angle Ratio
v [°] ih [°] Ah [-] ϕ [°] λh [-]
Business Jets - 4 ... 9 -3.5 fixed 3.2 ... 6.3 0 ... 35 0.32 ... 0.57
Transport Jets 0 ... 11 variable 3.4 ... 6.1 18 ... 37 0.27 ... 0.62
Fighters -23 ... 5 0 fixed or variable 2.3 ... 5.8 0 ... 55 0.16 ... 1.00
Supersonic
Civil Transport -15 ... 0 0 fixed or variable 1.8 ... 2.6 32 ... 60 0.14 ... 0.39
 9 - 13

Table 9.3: Conventional design parameters for vertical tails (Roskam II)
Dihedral Incidence Aspect Sweep An- Taper
Type Angle Angle Ratio gle Tratio
v [°] ih [°] Ah [-] ϕ [°] λh [-]
Business Jets 90 0 0.8 … 1.6 28 … 55 0.30 … 0.74
Transport Jets 90 0 0.7 … 2.0 33 … 53 0.26 … 0.73
Fighters 75 … 90 0 0.4 … 2.0 9 … 60 0.19 … 0.57
Supersonic Cruise
Airplanes 75 … 90 0 0.5 … 1.8 37 … 65 0.20 … 0.43

9.4 Design According to Tail Volume

The area of the horizontal tailplane S H or the vertical tailplane SV multiplied by the lever
arm l H or lV is called tail volume. The tail volume coefficient is defined for the horizontal
tailplane as
S H ⋅ lH
CH = ( 9.4 )
SW ⋅ c MAC
and for the vertical tailplane as
SV ⋅ lV
CV = ( 9.5 )
SW ⋅ b

lH the lever arm of the horizontal tailplane is the distance between the aerodynamic centers
of wing and horizontal tailplane,
lV the lever arm of the vertical tailplane is the distance between the aerodynamic centers of
wing and vertical tailplane.

As a good approximation the 25 % - point on the mean aerodynamic chord can also be re-
ferred to instead of the distances between the aerodynamic centers.

Table 9.4 Conventional tail volume coefficients of horizontal and vertical tails (Raymer 1989)
type horizontal CH vertical CV
General Aviation - Twin Engine 0.80 0.07
Transport Jets 1.00 0.08
Jet - Trainer 0.70 0.06
Jet - Fighter 0.40 0.07

The tail size can be estimated from the tail volume coefficient if the tail lever arms l H and lV
are known. The lever arms are not, however, fixed until the position of the wing has been es-
tablished. However, this only takes place in Step 11 "Mass and Center of Gravity". For this
reason the tail lever arms can only be estimated from the length of the fuselage in this case
(Table 9.5).
 9 - 14

Table 9.5: Conventional tail lever arms of horizontal and vertical tails (Raymer 1998)
aircraft configuration average of l H and lV
propeller in front of fuselage 60% of fuselage length
engines on the wing 50 ... 55% of fuselage length
engines on the tail 45 ... 50% of fuselage length
control canard 30 ... 50% of fuselage length
sailplane 65% of fuselage length

• The tail volume coefficients can be reduced by 10% to 15% in the case of trimmable hori-
zontal stabilizers.

• In the case of a T-tail, the tail volume coefficients can be reduced by 5% for horizontal and
vertical tailplane due to the end plate effect and the improved flow.

• In the case of a control canard a tail volume coefficient of 0.1 can be set. In the case of a
lifting canard the tail volume coefficient method cannot be applied. Instead a ratio of the
areas of canard and wing is established.

• If the criteria for stability and control determine the dimensioning of an aircraft's tail de-
sign, the tail volume coefficients can be reduced by approximately 10% if the aircraft has
an electronic flight control system, EFCS. However, for transport aircraft other criteria
(such as engine failure for the rudder) often determine the dimensioning, so that tail area
cannot necessarily be saved through an EFCS.

9.5 Elevator and Rudder

Elevator and rudder start on the fuselage and extend to approximately 90% of the (semi-) span
of the tail, or up to the tip of the tail (Fig. 9.8). They have a chord which accounts for ap-
proximately 25 % to 40 % of the chord of the tail. Elevators are deflected downwards by a
maximum of 15° to 25° and upwards by a maximum of 25° to 35°. Rudders are deflected by a
maximum of 25° to 35°. Torenbeek 1988 and Roskam II contain detailed tables with tail
and control surface data.

The maximum lift (negative lift or transverse force) that an elevator or rudder on a tail can
achieve can be calculated using the method from Section 8 because an elevator or rudder is a
plain flap.

Particularly in the case of aircraft with a reversible flight control system (Fig. 9.7) it is impor-
tant to know the hinge moment required to deflect the rudder in the various flight states. The
 9 - 15

reason is that the hinge moment determines the hand and foot forces on the flight controls,
which may not exceed specific maximum values according to CS 25.143(c). The hinge mo-
ment is calculated with
1
M c = ρV 2 ⋅ Ch ⋅ S F ⋅ cF . ( 9.6 )
2

V is the airspeed, S F is the control surface area, c F is the rudder depth (measured from the
hinge line to the trailing edge). The hinge moment coefficient Ch of a control surface is calcu-
lated from the hinge moment derivatives Chα and Chδ (see DATCOM 1978 or Roskam VI).
It is important to bear in mind that asymmetrical airfoils already have a hinge moment coeffi-
cient Ch0 at α = δ = 0 .

Ch = Ch0 + Chα ⋅ α + Chδ ⋅ δ . ( 9.7 )

Fig. 9.8 Classification of flight controls and hinge

moment reduction possibilities

According to equation (9.6) the aerodynamic hinge moment increases with the size and speed
of an aircraft. As the control forces may become too large even in small aircraft, measures
must be taken to reduce them. The hinge moment is fully or partially carried by the pilot’s
muscular force on reversible flight controls. On irreversible flight controls the hinge moment
 9 - 16

is countered by the aircraft's onboard energy systems. Fig. 9.8 shows the main options for re-
ducing control forces. The options are arranged according to increasing effectiveness but also
complexity. Fig. 9.9 shows two of these methods for hinge moment reduction. Horn and over-
hang balance are often applied on small aircraft owing to their simple design.

Fig. 9.9 Typical methods of hinge moment reduction