INTERNAL COMBUTION ENGINE

Made by:
Assistant Professor : NAPHIS AHAMAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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UNIT III

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• Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
(i) Ignition Delay Period
• Injection of fuel in atomized form is initiated into the combustion space
containing compressed air.
• Fuel upon injection does not get burnt immediately instead some time is
required for preparation before start of combustion.
• Fuel droplet injected into high temperature air first gets transformed into
vapour (gaseous form) and then gets enveloped around by suitable
amount of oxygen present so as to form combustible mixture.
• Subsequently, if temperature inside is greater than self ignition
temperature at respective pressure then ignition gets set.
• Thus, the delay in start of ignition may be said to occur due to ‘physical
delay’ i.e. time consumed in transformation from liquid droplet into
gaseous form, and 'chemical delay’ i.e. time consumed in preparation for
setting up of chemical reaction (combustion).

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• Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
(i) Ignition Delay Period

• The duration of ignition delay depends upon fuel characteristic, compression ratio

(i.e. pressure and temperature after compression), fuel injection, ambient air

temperature, speed of engine, and geometry of combustion chamber etc.

• Ignition delay is inevitable stage and in order to accommodate it, the fuel injection is

advanced by about 20º before TDC. Ignition delay is shown by a – b in Fig., showing

pressure rise during combustion.

• Fuel injection begins at ‘a’ and ignition begins at ‘b’. Theoretically, this ignition

delay should be as small as possible.

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• Stages of Combustion in CI Engines

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 • Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
(ii) Uncontrolled Combustion
• During the ignition delay period also the injection of fuel is continued as it has begun at
point ‘a’ and shall continue upto the point of cut-off.

• For the duration in which preparation for ignition is made, the continuous fuel injection
results in accumulation of fuel in combustion space.

• The moment when ignition just begins, if the sustainable flame front is established then
this accumulated fuel also gets burnt rapidly.

• This burning of accumulated fuel occurs in such a manner that combustion process
becomes uncontrolled resulting into steep pressure rise as shown from ‘b’ to ‘c’.

• The uncontrolled burning continues till the collected fuel gets burnt.

• During this ‘uncontrolled combustion’ phase if the pressure rise is very abrupt then
combustion is termed as ‘abnormal combustion’ and may even lead to damage of engine
parts in extreme conditions. 6/10/2017 Naphis Ahamad(ME)JIT 6
 • Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
(ii) Uncontrolled Combustion

• Thus, it is obvious that ‘uncontrolled combustion’ depends upon the

‘ignition delay’ period as during ignition delay itself the accumulation of

unburnt fuel occurs and its’ burning results in steep pressure rise.

• Hence in order to have minimum uncontrolled combustion the ignition

delay should be as small as possible.

• During this uncontrolled combustion phase about one-third of total fuel

heat is released.

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 • Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
(iii) Controlled Combustion
• After the ‘uncontrolled combustion’ is over then the rate of burning matches with
rate of fuel injection and the combustion is termed as ‘controlled combustion’.

• Controlled combustion is shown between ‘c’ to ‘d’ and during this phase
maximum of heat gets evolved in controlled manner.

• In controlled combustion phase rate of combustion can be directly regulated by the

rate of fuel injection i.e. through fuel injector.

• Controlled combustion phase has smooth pressure variation and maximum

temperature is attained during this period.

• It is seen that about two-third of total fuel heat is released during this phase.

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• Stages of Combustion in CI Engines
(iv) After Burning

• After controlled combustion, the residual if any gets burnt and the

combustion is termed as ‘after burning’.

• This after burning may be there due to fuel particles residing in remote

position in combustion space where flame front could not reach.

• ‘After burning’ is spread over 60 – 70º of crank angle rotation and occurs

even during expansion stroke.

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 • Combustion in CI Engines
Abnormal Combustion

• Thus, it is seen that the complete combustion in CI engines may be comprising of

four distinct phases i.e. ‘ignition delay’ followed by ‘uncontrolled combustion,’
‘controlled combustion’ and ‘after burning’.

• Combustion generally becomes abnormal combustion in CI engines when the

ignition delay is too large resulting into large uncontrolled combustion and zig-zag
pressure rise.

• Abnormal combustion in CI engines may also be termed as ‘knocking’ in engines

and can be felt by excessive vibrations, excessive noise, excessive heat release,
pitting of cylinder head and piston head etc.

• In order to control the knocking some additives are put in CI engine fuel so as to
reduce its’ self ignition temperature and accelerate ignition process.

• Also, the combustion chambers are properly designed so as to have reduced

physical and chemical delay. 6/10/2017 Naphis Ahamad(ME)JIT 10
 • Factors affecting Delay Period in CI
Engines
• Compression Ratio
Increase in CR increases the temperature of air. Auto ignition temperature decreases
with increased density. Both these reduce the delay period(DP).
• Engine Power Output
With an Increase in engine power, the operating temperature increases. A/F ratio
decreases and DP decreases
• Engine Speed
DP decreases with increasing engine speed, as the temperature and pressure of
compressed air rises at high engine speeds.
• Injection Timing
The temperature and pressure of air at the beginning of injection are lower for higher
injection advance. The DP increases with increase in injection advance or longer
injection timing. The optimum angle of injection is 20 BTDC
• Atomization of fuel
Higher fuel injection pressures increase the degree of atomization. The fineness of
atomization reduces the DP due to higher A/V ratio of the spray droplets.

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 • Factors affecting Delay Period in CI
• InjectionEngines
Pressure
Increase injection pressure reduces the auto ignition temperature and hence
decreases DP.
• Fuel Properties
Low SIT reduces DP. Other fuel properties which affect DP are volatility, surface
tension, latent heat and viscosity.
• Intake Temperature
High intake temperature increase the air temperature after compression , which
reduces DP.
• Engine Size
Large engines operate at lower speeds, thus increasing the DP in terms of crank
angle.
• Cetane No.
Fuels with high cetane no. Have lower DP.
• F/A ratio
With increasing F/A ratio, operating temperature increases and thus DP decreases.
• Combustion Chamber Shape
Engines with precombustion chambers will have low DP.
• Injection Duration
Increase in injection duration, results in higher quantity of fuel injected which
reduces DP.
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• Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI
Engines
Parameter SI Engines CI Engines
Timing Occurs at the end of Occurs at the beginning of
combustion combustion
Major Cause Auto ignition of end Ignition of accumulated
charge fresh charge
Pre-Ignition Possible as the fuel air Not possible as only air is
mixture is compressed compressed

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• Parameters which reduce knocking in SI
and CI Engines
S.No. Parameter SI CI
Engines Engines
1 Self Ignition Temperature of fuel High Low
2 Ignition Delay Long Short
3 Inlet Temperature Low High
4 Inlet Pressure Low High
5 Compression Ratio Low High
6 Speed Low High
7 Combustion Chamber Wall Low High
Temperature
8 Cylinder Size Small Large

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COMBUSTION CHAMBER FOR Cl ENGINES
Combustion Chamber Characteristics

• The proper design of a combustion chamber is very important.

• In a Cl engine the fuel is injected during a period of some 20 to 35 degrees
of crank angle.
• In this short period of time an efficient preparation of the fuel-air charge is
required, which means:
• An even distribution of the injected fuel throughout the combustion
space, for which it requires a directed flow or swirl of the air.
• A thorough mixing of the fuel with the air to ensure complete
combustion with the minimum excess air, for which it requires an air
swirl or squish of high intensity.

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 COMBUSTION CHAMBER FOR Cl ENGINES
Combustion Chamber Characteristics
An efficient smooth combustion depends upon:
• A sufficiently high temperature to initiate ignition; it is controlled by the
selection of the proper compression ratio.
• A small delay period or ignition lag.
• A moderate rate of pressure rise during the second stage of combustion.
• A controlled, even burning during the third stage; it is governed by the rate of
injection.
• A minimum of afterburning.
• Minimum heat losses to the walls. These losses can be controlled by reducing the
surface- to-volume ratio.
The main characteristics of an injection system that link it with a given combustion
chamber are atomization, penetration, fuel distribution, and the shape of the fuel
spray.

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Classification of Cl Engine Combustion Chambers
(a) direct-injection (DI) engines, which have a single open combustion chamber into

which fuel is injected directly;

(b) (b) indirect-injection (IDI) engines, where the chamber is divided into two regions and

the fuel is injected into the pre-chamber which is situated above the piston crown and

is connected to the main chamber via a nozzle or one or more orifices.

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 ME2041 Advanced Internal Combustion Engines
DIRECT INJECTION (Dl) ENGINES OR OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER
ENGINES
An open chamber has the entire compression volume in which the combustion
takes place in one chamber formed between the piston and the cylinder head.

The shape of the combustion chamber may create swirl or turbulence to assist
fuel and air.
• Swirl denotes a rotary motion of the gases in the chamber more or less about
the chamber axis.
• Turbulence denotes a haphazard motion of the gases.

In this combustion chamber, the mixing of fuel and air depends entirely on the
spray characteristics and on air motion, and it is not essentially affected by the
combustion process. In this type of engine, the spray characteristics must be
carefully arranged to obtain rapid mixing.
Fuel is injected at high injection pressure and mixing is usually assissted by a
swirl, induced by directing the inlet air tangentially, or by a squish which is the
air motion caused by a small clearance space over part of the piston.

Unit II Department of Mechanical Engineering, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering18

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 Combustion in CI Engines
• Combustion in CI engines differ from SI engine due to the basic fact that CI engine
combustion is unassisted combustion occurring on its’ own.

• In CI engine the fuel is injected into combustion space after the compression of air is
completed.

• Due to excessively high temperature and pressure of air the fuel when injected in
atomised form gets burnt on its’ own and burning of fuel is continued till the fuel is
injected.

• Theoretically this injection of fuel and its’ burning should occur simultaneously up
to the cut-off point, but this does not occur in actual CI engine. Different significant
phases of combustion are explained as under.

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SEMIQUIESCENT OR LOW SWIRL OPEN CHAMBER
• In this type of engine, mixing the fuel and Fuel jets
air and controlling the rate of combustion
mainly depend upon the injection
system.
• The nozzle is usually located at the
centre of the chamber.
• It has a number of orifices, usually six or
more, which provide a multiple-spray
pattern.
• Each jet or spray pattern covers most of
the combustion chamber without
• impinging
The contouronofthe
the walls or piston.
inlet passage way does not encourage or induce a swirl
or turbulence, so the chamber is called quiescent chamber.
• However, the air movement in the chamber is never quiescent, so it is
better to call the chamber a semi-quiescent chamber.

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 SEMIQUIESCENT OR LOW SWIRL OPEN CHAMBER

• In the largest size engines where the mixing rate

requirements are least important, the semi-quiescent
direct injection systems of the type shown in Figure
are used. The momentum and energy of the injected
fuel jets are sufficient to achieve adequate fuel
distribution and rates of mixing with air.
• Any additional organized air motion is not required.
• The chamber shape is usually a shallow bowl in the
crown of the piston.
• If the engine is run at low speeds, the possibility of knock is remote, since the fuel
can be burned more or less in time with the injection. Hence cheaper fuels can be
burned and low combustion pressures can be held. Low combustion temperatures,
and low turbulence and swirl reduce heat loss6/10/2017
to the coolant.
Naphis Ahamad(ME)JIT 21
INDIRECT-INJECTION (IDI) ENGINES OR DIVIDED
COMBUSTION CHAMBER ENGINES
For small high speed diesel engines such as those used in automobiles, the inlet
generated air swirl for high fuel-air mixing rate is not sufficient.

Indirect injection (IDI) or divided chamber engine systems have been used to
generate vigorous charge motion during the compression stroke.

The divided combustion chamber can be classified as:

a) Swirl or turbulent chamber

b) Precombustion chamber
c) Air and energy cells.

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 SWIRL OR TURBULENT CHAMBER
The swirl chamber design is shown in Figure. The spherically shaped swirl chamber
contains about 50 per cent of the clearance volume and is connected to the main
chamber by a tangential throat offering mild restriction. Because of the tangential
passageway, the air flowing into the chamber on the compression stroke sets up a
high swirl.
During compression the upward moving
piston forces a flow of air from the main
chamber above the piston into the small
antechamber, called the swirl chamber,
through the nozzle or orifice. Thus, towards
the end of compression, a vigorous flow in
the antechamber is set up. The connecting
passage and chamber are shaped so that
the air flow within the antechamber rotates
rapidly. Fuel is usually injected into the
antechamber through a pintle nozzle as a
single spray.

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 AIR CELLS
• The air cell type of combustion chamber does not
depend upon the organized air-swirl like pre-combustion
chamber.
• The air cell is a separate chamber used to communicate
with the main chamber through a narrow restricted neck.
• The air cell contains 5 to 15 per cent of the clearance
volume. Fuel is injected into the main combustion space
and ejects in a jet across this space to the open neck of
the air cell, as shown in Figure.
• Some fuel enters and ignites in the air cell.
• This raises the pressure in the air cell and the burning
mixture is discharged into the main chamber.
• Some combustion also takes place in the main
combustion chamber. Combustion is completed on the
down-stroke of the piston while the air is discharged
from the air cell into the partly burned mixture.

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ENERGY CELLS
• In the pre-combustion chamber, fuel is injected
into the air-stream entering the pre-chamber
during the compression stroke.
• As a result, it is not possible to inject the main
body of the fuel spray into the most important
place for burning.
• In the air cells, un-bumt fuel in the main chamber
may not find enough turbulence.
• These drawbacks can be overcome in the energy
cells. It is a hybrid design between the pre-
combustion chamber and the air cell.
• The energy cell contains about 10-15 % of the
clearance volume. It has two cells, major and
minor, which are separated from each other by a
respective orifice.
• The energy cell is separated from the main
chamber by a narrow restricted neck
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 Knocking in CI Engine
Normal combustion- It refers to a combustion process which is initiated solely by

spark(which is timed) and in which flame moves completely across the combustion

chamber in uniform manner at normal velocity.

Knocking\Abnormal combustion in SI Engine:Acombustion process in which a

flame may be started by any hot surface within the combustion chamber other than

spark plug. A part or whole of the charge might be consumed at extremely high rates.

These hot surfaces might be overheated valves, hot tip of spark plug and glowing

combustion chamber deposit.

This is also called auto-ignition because it is initiated automatically with very less

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control. Depending upon the timing of occurrence, Naphis
knock canAhamad(ME)JIT
be categorized as pre 26
Normal combustion CI Engine- In normal engine operation SIT is reached by

compressing the charge in compression stroke. Fuel is injected through injectors

directly into the combustion chamber which then vaporise due to heat available in

combustion chamber. Mixing of fuel and air takes place inside the combustion

chamber and hence charge which has stoichiometric ratio within the combustible

limit ignites. Hence producing power stroke.

Abnormal combustion CI Engine- - During the cold starting conditions a situation

might arise in which the vaporization of fuel is limited due to cold combustion

chamber. Low vaporization result in misfiring or no combustion at all in cylinders.

This results in accumulation of fuel inside combustion chamber. This fuel after

certain cycle then detonates, producing tremendous power. This might occur while

the engine is in start of compression stroke or exhaust

6/10/2017 stroke. Hence producing
Naphis Ahamad(ME)JIT 27
Knocking in SI and CI Engine

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Normal Combustion

Under ideal conditions the common internal combustion engine

burns the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder in an orderly and
controlled fashion.

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Abnormal Combustion

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Factors affecting Delay period

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 Factors affecting Delay period

1. Compression ratio: With the increase in compression ratio reduces ignition lag, a

higher pressure increases density resulting in closer contact of the molecules which

reduce the time of action when fuel is injected.

2. Inlet air temperature: With the increase in inlet temperature increases the air

temperature after compression and hence decreases the ignition delay.

3. Coolant temperature: Increase in engine speed increases cylinder air temperature

and thus reduces ignition lag. The increase in engine speed increases turbulence and

this reduces the ignition lag.

4. Jacket water temperature: With the increase in jacket water temperature also

increases compressed air temperature and hence delay period is reduced.

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5. Fuel temperature: Increase in fuel temperature would reduce both physical and
chemical delay period.
6. Intake pressure (supercharging): Increase in intake pressure or supercharging
reduces the auto-ignition temperature and hence reduces delay period. Since the
compression pressure will increase with intake pressure, the peak pressure will be
higher. Also, the power output will be more air and hence more fuel can be injected per
stroke.
7. Air-fuel ratio (load): With the increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner mixture) the
combustion temperatures are lowered and cylinder wall temperatures are reduced and
hence the delay period increases, with an increase in load, the air-fuel ratio decreases,
operating temperature increases and hence, delay period decreases.
8. Engine size: The engine size has little effect on the delay period in milliseconds. As
large engines operate at low revolutions per minute (rpm) because of inertia stress
limitations, the delay period in terms of crank angle is smaller and hence less fuel enters
the cylinder during the period. Thus combustion in large slow speed Compression
Ignition engines is smooth. 6/10/2017 Naphis Ahamad(ME)JIT 33
Mechanical Injection Systems:
The fuel-injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI engines.

The engine performance viz., power output, economy etc. is greatly dependent on

the effectiveness of the fuel-injection system. The injection system has to perform

the important duty of initiating and controlling the combustion process.When the

fuel is injected into the combustion chamber towards the end of compression

stroke, it is atomized into very fine droplets. These droplets vaporize due to heat

transfer from the compressed air and form a fuel-air mix¬ture. Due to continued

heat transfer from hot air to the fuel, the temperature reaches a value higher than

its self-ignition temperature. This causes the fuel to ignite spontaneously initiating

the combustion process.

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Classification of Injection Systems:
In a constant-pressure cycle or diesel engine, only air is compressed in the

cylinder and then fuel is injected into the cylinder by means of a fuel-injection

system. For producing the required pressure for atomizing the fuel either air or a

mechanical means is used. Accordingly the injection systems can be classified as:

Air injection systems

Solid injection systems

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Air Injection System
In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. This

system is little used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air

compressor. This causes an increase in engine weight and reduces the brake

power output further. One advantage that is claimed for the air injection system is

good mixing of fuel with the air with resultant higher mean effective pressure.

Another is the ability to utilize fuels of high viscosity which are less expensive than

those used by the engines with solid injection systems. These advantages are off-

set by the requirement of a multistage compressor thereby making the air-injection

system obsolete.

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Solid Injection System
In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber

without the aid of compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical

injection or solid injection system. Solid injection systems can be classified as:

Individual pump and nozzle system

Unit injector system

Common rail system

Distributor system

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a) Individual Pump and Nozzle System:

The details of the individual pump and nozzle system are shown in Fig.3.20(a)
and (b). In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one
injector. In this arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is
provided for each cylinder. The pump may be placed close to the cylinder as
shown in Fig.3.20(a) or they may be arranged in a cluster as shown in
Fig.3.20(b). The high pressure pump plunger is actuated by a cam, and
pro¬duces the fuel pressure necessary to open the injector valve at the correct
time. The amount of fuel injected depends on the
6/10/2017 effective
Naphis stroke of the
Ahamad(ME)JIT 38
 Unit Injector System:

The unit injector system as shown in Fig.3.21, is one in which the pump and
the injector nozzle are combined in one housing. Each cylinder is provided
with one of these unit injectors. Fuel is brought up to the injector by a low
pressure pump, where at the proper time; a rocker arm actuates the plunger
and thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The amount of fuel injected is
regulated by the effective stroke of the plunger. The pump and the injector can
be integrated in one unit as shown in Fig
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 c) Common Rail System:

In the common rail system as shown in Fig,a HP pump supplies fuel, under high
pressure, to a fuel header. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of
the nozzles located in the cylinders. At the proper time, a mechanically operated
(by means of a push rod and rocker arm) valve allows the fuel to enter the proper
cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in the fuel header must be that, for
which the injector system was designed, i.e., it must enable to penetrate and
disperse the fuel in the combustion chamber. The amount of fuel entering the
cylinder is regulated by varying the length of the push rod stroke. A high pressure
pump is used for supplying fuel to a header, from where the fuel is metered by
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injectors (assigned one per cylinder).
 d) Distributor
System:

In fig shows a schematic diagram of a distributor system. In this system the

pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it. The fuel pump after
metering the required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor at the
correct time for supply to each cylinder. The number of injection strokes per
cycle for the pump is equal to the number of cylinders. Since there is one
metering element in each pump, a uniform distribution is automatically ensured.
Not only that, the cost of the fuel-injection system alsoreduces to a value less
than two-thirds of that for individual pump system.

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 Fuel injectors
The injection of the fuel is achieved by the location of cams on a camshaft. This
camshaft rotates at engine speed for a two-stroke engine and at half engine speed
for a four-stroke. There are two basic systems in use, each of which employs a
combination of mechanical and hydraulic operations. The most common system is
the jerk pump; the other is the common rail.
A typical fuel injector is shown in Figure , It can be seen to be two basic parts, the
nozzle and the nozzle holder or body. The high-pressure fuel enters and travels
down a passage in the body and then into a passage in the nozzle, ending finally in
a chamber surrounding the needle valve.
The needle valve is held closed on a mitred seat by an intermediate spindle and a
spring in the injector body. The spring pressure, and hence the injector opening
pressure, can be set by a compression nut which acts on the spring. The nozzle
and injector body are manufactured as a matching pair and are accurately ground
to give a good oil seal. The two are joined by a nozzle
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Naphis Ahamad(ME)JIT 42
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 Injection timings Exhaust emissions from SI engine and
CI engine and it's control:
During 1950s the road vehicles were found to be the principal source of air

pollution in the US cities. Carbon monoxide, unburned fuel (hydrocarbons),

nitrogen oxides and smoke particulates were identified as the main air pollutants.

Now, carbon dioxide has been added to the list of harmful gaseous emissions due

to its global warming effect. Initially, to solve the local air pollution problem during

1960s efforts were mainly focused on reduction of CO from gasoline vehicles and

black smoke emissions from diesel

vehicles. Another area of priority attention was the prevention of blue smoke

emissions caused by excessive consumption of engine lubricating oil which

resulted from worn out piston rings, cylinder bore etc

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The first emission control for the spark ignition engines involved adjustments of air-

fuel ratio. It was followed by control and adjustment of other engine parameters

such as mixture control under idling, acceleration and deceleration, spark timing,

precision manufacturing of key engine components such as piston, rings, cylinder

head gasket to minimize crevice volume, cams, valves etc. Positive crankcase

ventilation (PCV) system was introduced on gasoline vehicles during mid 1960’s to

prevent release into atmosphere of hydrocarbon-rich crankcase blow by gases

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