Module 2 With Solutions
Module 2 With Solutions
Module 2 With Solutions
Learning Objectives
• develop a mathematical description of the local state of deformation at a material point
• distinguish between a compatible and an incompatible strain field and understand the
mathematical requirements for strain compatibility
• understand the limitations of the linearized theory and discern situations where non-
linear effects need to be considered.
x0 = ϕ(x) (2.1)
P : x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 = xi ei (2.2)
Q : x + dx = (xi + dxi )ei (2.3)
and deformed
29
30 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
Q′
dx′
Q P′
dx u
P
x′
x
e3
e2
e1
Expressing the differentials dϕi in terms of the partial derivatives of the functions ϕi (xj ej ):
∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ1
dϕ1 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 , (2.7)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
and similarly for dϕ2 , dϕ3 , in index notation:
∂ϕi
dϕi = dxj (2.8)
∂xj
Replacing in equation (2.5):
∂ϕi
Q0 : x0 + dx0 = ϕi + dxj ei (2.9)
∂xj
∂ϕi
dx0 i = dxj ei (2.10)
∂xj
−→
We now try to compute the change in length of the segment P Q which deformed into segment
−− →
P 0 Q0 . Undeformed length (to the square):
−→
The change in length of segment P Q is then given by the difference between equations (2.12)
and (2.11):
∂ϕi ∂ϕi
(ds0 )2 − ds2 = dxj dxk − dxi dxi (2.13)
∂xj ∂xk
We want to extract as common factor the differentials. To this end we observe that:
dxi dxi = dxj dxk δjk (2.14)
Then:
∂ϕi ∂ϕi
(ds0 )2 − ds2 = dxj dxk − dxj dxk δjk
∂xj ∂xk
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
i i (2.15)
= − δjk dxj dxk
∂x ∂x
| j {zk }
2jk : Green-Lagrange strain tensor
Assume that the deformation mapping ϕ(x) has the form:
ϕ(x) = x + u (2.16)
where u is the displacement field. Then,
∂ϕi ∂xi ∂ui ∂ui
= + = δij + (2.17)
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj
and the Green-Lagrange strain tensor becomes:
∂um ∂um
2ij = δmi + δmj + − δij
∂xi ∂xj
(2.18)
∂ui ∂uj ∂um ∂um
=6 δij + + + − 6 δij
∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj
We will define the linear part of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor as the small strain tensor :
1 ∂ui ∂uj
ij = + (2.21)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
32 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
1. Find the linear and nonlinear strain fields associated with the following displacements
ua1 = x1 x2 (2 − x1 ) − c1 x2 + c2 x32 ,
x2
ua2 = −c3 x22 (1 − x1 ) − (3 − x1 ) 1 − c1 x1 .
3
2. Find the linear strain fields associated with the following displacements
When we apply the Equation 2.23 to the field (ua1 , ua2 ), we obtain the following linear
(l) strain tensor " #
(3c2 +c3 ) 2
2x 2 (1 − x 1 ) −c1 + x
εla = 2 2
.
−c1 + (3c22+c3 ) x22 −2c3 x2 (1 − x1 )
On the other hand, the Equation 2.22 allows us to calculate the nonlinear (nl) strain
tensor for the field (ua1 , ua2 ) nl nl
nl ε ε12
εa = 11 ,
ε12 εnl
nl
22
where
1 2
εnl
11 = 2x2 (1 − x1 ) [1 + x2 (1 − x1 )] + −c1 + c3 x22 − x1 (2 − x1 ) ,
2
1 2
εnl
22 = 2c3 x2 (1 − x1 ) [−1 + c3 x2 (1 − x1 )] + −c1 + 3c2 x22 + x1 (2 − x1 ) ,
2
(3c2 + c3 ) 2
εnl
12 = −c1 + x2
2
+x2 (1 − x1 ) x1 (2 − x1 )(1 + c3 ) + c1 (−1 + c3 ) + (3c2 − c23 )x22 .
2.2. TRANSFORMATION OF STRAIN COMPONENTS 33
The linear (l) strain tensor for the displacement field (ub1 , ub2 ) is
1 3
x1 + 23 c1 c22 x1 − 3c1 x1 x22
2
l 3x1 x2 + 2c1 c32 + 3c1 c22 x2 − c1 x32 2
εb = 1 3 .
x + 32 c1 c22 x1 − 3c1 x1 x22
2 1
−3c1 x21 x2 + x32 − 3c22 x2 − 2c32
Given: ij , ei and a new basis ẽk , determine the components of strain in the new basis ˜kl
1 ∂ ũi ∂ ũj
˜ij = + (2.24)
2 ∂ x̃j ∂ x̃i
We want to express the quantities with tilde on the right-hand side in terms of their non-tilde
counterparts. Start by applying the chain rule of differentiation:
∂ ũi ∂ ũi ∂xk
= (2.25)
∂ x̃j ∂xk ∂ x̃j
Transform the displacement components:
u = ũm ẽm = ul el (2.26)
ũm (ẽm · ẽi ) = ul (el · ẽi ) (2.27)
ũm δmi = ul (el · ẽi ) (2.28)
ũi = ul (el · ẽi ) (2.29)
take the derivative of ũi with respect to xk , as required by equation (2.25):
∂ ũi ∂ul
= (el · ẽi ) (2.30)
∂xk ∂xk
and take the derivative of the reverse transformation of the components of the position vector
x:
x = xj ej = x̃k ẽk (2.31)
xj (ej · ei ) = x̃k (ẽk · ei ) (2.32)
xj δji = x̃k (ẽk · ei ) (2.33)
xi = x̃k (ẽk · ei ) (2.34)
∂xi ∂ x̃k
= (ẽk · ei ) = δkj (ẽk · ei ) = (ẽj · ei ) (2.35)
∂ x̃j ∂ x̃j
Replacing equations (2.30) and (2.35) in (2.25):
∂ ũi ∂ ũi ∂xk ∂ul
= = (el · ẽi )(ẽj · ek ) (2.36)
∂ x̃j ∂xk ∂ x̃j ∂xk
34 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
1 h ∂ul ∂ul i
˜ij = (el · ẽi )(ẽj · ek ) + (el · ẽj )(ẽi · ek ) (2.37)
2 ∂xk ∂xk
1 h ∂ul ∂uk i
˜ij = (el · ẽi )(ẽj · ek ) + (ek · ẽj )(ẽi · el )
2 ∂xk ∂xl
(2.38)
1 ∂ul ∂uk
= + (el · ẽi )(ẽj · ek )
2 ∂xk ∂xl
Or, finally:
Note: It is also usual to find the following expressions for ˜11 and ˜22 in textbooks:
Solution: First, let us recall the following trigonometric relations between the
vectors of ei and ẽk :
˜11 = 11 (e1 · ẽ1 )2 + 22 (e2 · ẽ2 )2 + 212 (e1 · ẽ1 )(ẽ1 · e2 )
= 11 cos2 θ + 22 sin2 θ + 12 sin 2θ
˜22 = 11 (e1 · ẽ2 )2 + 22 (e2 · ẽ2 )2 + 212 (e1 · ẽ2 )(ẽ2 · e2 )
= 11 sin2 θ + 22 cos2 θ − 12 sin 2θ
˜22 = 11 (e1 · ẽ1 )(ẽ2 · e1 ) + 22 (e2 · ẽ1 )(ẽ2 · e2 )
+ 12 (e1 · ẽ1 )(ẽ2 · e2 ) + 21 (e2 · ẽ1 )(ẽ2 · e1 )
11 22
= − sin 2θ + sin 2θ + 12 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ)
2 2
11 − 22
= − sin 2θ + 12 cos 2θ
2
The expresssions given in the remark can be derived from these using the following trigono-
metric relations:
1 + cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ
cos2 θ = sin2 θ =
2 2
Concept Question 2.2.2. Principal strains and maximum shear strain in 2d.
Using the relations introduced in Problem 2.2.1, show that given the components ij of
a 2d strain tensor in a basis ei :
and the principal directions of strain for angles with respect to e1 satisfy:
212
tan 2θp =
11 − 22
and the normal of the planes of maximum shear form angles with respect to e1
11 − 22
tan 2θs = − .
212
Conclude that the direction of maximum shear is always oriented at an angle equal to
45o with respect to the principal directions of strain.
36 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
e2 2ǫ12 e2
ẽa2
ǫ22
1 ẽa1
1 30o
A e1
ǫ11
A e1
(a) Deformed unit square (b) different initial orientation of the unit square
Figure 2.2: Deformed unit square and oriented new initial configuration.
e2 2ǫ12 e2
ẽa2
ǫ22
1 ẽa1
1 30o
A e1
ǫ11
A e1
(a) Deformed unit square (b) different initial orientation of the unit square
Figure 2.3: Deformed unit square and oriented new initial configuration.
38 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
3. Determine the maximum shear strain and sketch the deformed configuration.
Solution: For the solution of this problem, we are going to use extensively the
relations introduced in Problem 2.2.1. Let us first compute the two following ratios:
11 + 22 11 − 22
= 2.25 × 10−4 = 1.15 × 10−4
2 2
Orientation at an angle θ = 30o : The value of the strain tensor in the basis eai are as
follows:
11 + 22 11 − 22
˜a11 = + cos 2θ + 12 sin 2θ
2 2 √
−4 −4 1 −5 3
= 2.25 × 10 + 1.15 × 10 × + 9.0 × 10 × = 3.6 × 10−4
2 2
11 + 22 22 − 11
˜a22 = + cos 2θ − 12 sin 2θ
2 2 √
−4 −4 1 −5 3
= 2.25 × 10 − 1.15 × 10 × + 9.0 × 10 × = 9.0 × 10−5
2 2
11 − 22
˜a12 = − sin 2θ + 12 cos 2θ
2 √
−4 3 1
= −1.15 × 10 × + 9.0 × 10−5 × = −5.5 × 10−5
2 2
Figure 2.4(a) shows the deformed configuration corresponding to this case.
Principal strains: Using the relation introduced in Problem 2.2.2, the principal strains
are: s 2
= 3.7 × 10−4 : 1
11 + 22 11 − 22 2
1,2 = ± + 12 =
2 2 = 8.0 × 10−5 : 2
and their respective direction can be computed as:
b 212 θ1b ≈ 19o
tan 2θ = ⇒
11 − 22 θ2b ≈ 109o
In order to find which of the two angles solution of the equation above is associated with
which value of principal strain, one can test these values of θb in the expression of ˜11 given in
Problem 2.2.1. Figure 2.4(b) shows the deformed configuration corresponding to this case.
Maximum shear strain: Following the relations introduced in Problem 2.2.2, we can
compute the absolute value of the maximal shear strain as:
s 2
11 − 22
q
max
12 = + 12 = (1.15 × 10−4 )2 + (9.0 × 10−5 )2 = 1.46 × 10−4 .
2
2
2.3. COMPATIBILITY OF STRAINS 39
Using the fact that the maximum shear direction is oriented at an angle of 45o to one of the
principal strain direction, let us consider the case of maximum shear obtained for an angle
θc = 19o + 45o = 64o starting from e1 . We obtain 12 (θc ) = −max
12 and contend that for
this angle the maximum negative shear strain is obtained. Figure 2.4(c) shows the deformed
configuration corresponding to this case.
e2
2ǫ̃a12
ẽa2 ǫ̃a22
ẽa1
30o
ǫ̃a11
A e1
(a) Deformed configuration with initial orientation of 30o
e2 ǫ̃c22 e2
ẽ2b
ẽc1
b
ǫ̃22
2ǫ̃c12
ẽc2
ǫ̃c11
ẽ1b
19o 65o
b
ǫ̃11
A e1 A e1
(b) Deformed configuration of principal strain (c) Deformed configuration of maximum shear
Given displacement field u, expression (2.21) allows to compute the strains components
ij . How does one answer the reverse question? Note analogy with potential-gradient field. In
this section, we will restrain ourselves to small perturbation theory where the displacements
and the rotations of a deformable solid are infinitesimal. Let us first restrict the analysis to
40 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
two dimensions. The small strain tensor is defined as the symmetric part of the displacement
∂ui
gradient ∂xj
:
1 ∂ui ∂uj
ij = + (2.40)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
∂ui
We define the skew-symmetric part of ∂xj
as:
1 ∂ui ∂uj
ωij := − (2.41)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
∂ui
2. Verify that ij + ωij = ∂xj
Solution:
1 ∂ui ∂uj 1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂ui
ij + ωij = + + − =
2 ∂xj ∂xi 2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
We have seen in a previous section of this module, that ij describes the change of length
of a vector dx due to deformation. We will now see that ωij represents the infinitesimal
rotation of the vector dx from the initial to the deformed configuration. ωij is thus named
the infinitesimal rotation tensor.
−→
Consider an infinitesimal rotation of a vector P Q in the neighborhood of a point P .
For this transformation, the strain tensor vanishes. Such a transformation can only be a
−→ −−→
rotation of P Q into P Q0 by an angle θ ( θ 1) as depicted in the following figure:
dx′ Q′
θ
P Q
dx
Altenatively, from (2.17), it is possible to express dx0 in terms of ω12 and dx:
0 1 ω12
dx = (δij + ωij ) dxj = dx (2.44)
−ω12 1
The following concept question generalizes this result to obtain all of the equations of
strain compatibility in three dimensions.
42 MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
2. How many relations are defined by (2.52) and how many strain compatibility equations
are required in order to ensure that a unique displacement may be computed from a
given small strain tensor?
3. Notice that for i = j or l = k, (2.52) is automatically verified. How many non-trivial
relations can be derived from (2.52)? Are all these relation independant?
Solution: Let us remind first that the small rotation tensor is defined as:
1
ωij = (ui,j − uj,i )
2
Thus, the gradient of small rotation reads:
1
ωij,k = (ui,jk − uj,ik )
2
By adding and substracting uk,ij form the right-hand side of the previous relation, it is to
express the gradient of small rotation only in terms of the derivatives of the componenent
of the small strain tensor:
1 1
ωij,k = ui,jk + uk,ij − (uj,ik − uk,ij ) = ik,j − jk,i
2 | {z } | {z } 2
2ik,j 2jk,i
Thus, the mixed derivatives: ωij,kl and ωij,lk of the small rotation tensor have the following
expressions:
1
ωij,kl = ik,jl − jk,il
2
1
ωij,lk = il,jk − jl,ik
2
The equality of mixed partials implies:
ik,jl − jk,il = il,jk − jl,ik
Since i, j, k, l can take any value in {1, 2, 3} respectively, (2.52) comprises 34 = 81 relations.
It is easy to verify that the only non-trivial relations from (2.52) can be obtained for i 6= j
and k 6= l.
2.3. COMPATIBILITY OF STRAINS 43
i 6= j and k 6= l
1 2 and 1 2
2 3 and 2 3
3 1 and 2 1
1 2 and 1 3
2 3 and 2 1
3 1 and 3 2
Thus, obtaining the 6 following relations:
These six relations are linearly dependent and it is possible to show that if only three are
them are verifed then the remaining three are.