VCM Manufacturing

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VCM
2022
REPORT
MEMBERS:
NURUDDIN,RAHUL,KUSH,NAMYA
(L009,L017,L014,1018)
[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

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ABSTRACT
In the current market there is a huge demand for vinyl derived polymers One of
which is PVC or polyvinyl chloride. the precursor to pvc IS VCM that is vinyl chloride
monomer. in order to understand VCM manufacturing, its demand, supply in the market
and its energy, economy and political aspects, we here do a complete analysis and research
on the existing processes available and engineering the best possible process

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TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 THE AVAILABLE PROCESSES FOR MANUFACTURING VCM
2.1 FROM ETHYLENE (OR ETHANE)
2.2 FROM ACETYLENE
2.3 ETHYLENE TO EDC
2.4 DIRECT CHLORINATION PROCESS FOR PRODUCING EDC:
2.5 DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTION
2.6 OXYCHLORINATION PROCESS FOR PRODUCING EDC USING RECYCLED HCL
2.7 EDC CRACKING
2.8 VCM PURIFICATION
3.0 OUR PROCESS SELECTION
4.0 CALCULATION
4.1 YIELD
4.2 GREEN METRICS
5.0 COSTING
5.1 ECONOMIC ASPECT
5.2 IMPORT (RAW MATERIAL)
5.2.1 ETHYLENE
5.2.2 ACETYLENE
5.2.3 CHLORINE
5.2.4 CATALYST
5.2.5 EXPORT
5.3 TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
5.4 POWER
5.4.1 COAL
5.4.2 WATER
5.5 EQUIPMENT COST
5.6 CHEMICAL
6.0 PFD
7.0 PROCESS

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8.0 SAFETY
8.1 HCL
8.2 C2H2
8.3 C2H4
8.4 CL2
8.5 VCM
9.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF VINYL CHLORIDE MANUFACTURING:
9.1 SOURCES OF EMISSIONS:
10.0 CONCLUSION
11.0 REFRENCES
12.0 MSDS

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Vinyl Chloride is a compound which has a major usage in the manufacture of Poly
Vinyl Chloride. PVC as we know it is widely popular for being used in piping solutions,
insulation issues, packaging and a lot more. In this paper we take a look at how the
monomer of this widely used material is synthesized. Vinyl Chloride Monomer [also called
as VCM] is a gaseous substance at room temperature and it carries a mild sweet odour.
The formula for this chemical is given as C2H3Cl and it looks like:
The IUPAC nomenclature of VCM is: chloroethene
The properties of this chemical are somewhat unique and since it is sourced from
ethylene we get to see some of the properties of Ethylene being reflected in VCM. VCM is
identified by many names such as (chloroethylene, chloroethene, ethylene monochloride,
monochloroethylene, mono-chloroethene and a lot more.) It is a volatile organic
compound and is a gas at standard room temperature and pressure. It is placed under the
VOC category by the National Pollutant Inventory.
Let us take a look at the different properties of this chemical:
Specific Gravity: 0.916

Melting Point: -153.8 °C
Boiling Point: -13.4 °C
Flash Point: -77.8 °C
Heat of vaporisation: 160 Btu/Lb
Ionisation Potential: 9.99 eV

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Vinyl Chloride is seen to polymerize when it is heated in the presence of sunlight or air. It
tends to self-polymerize explosively when pre-oxidation occurs. This chemical falls in the
class of Vinyl Halides [C2 compounds]
Here we can draw out a conclusion that VCM is highly flammable in nature.
According to studies, 3.8% of VCM concentration is enough to qualify as an explosion
hazard. The direct contact of VCM with open flames can result in incomplete combustion
and formation of corrosive noxious gases. If combustion occurs, extinguish fires using dry
chemicals, foam, or carbon dioxide. Water may not work as efficiently but it can be used
to keep the containers exposed to fire, cool.
VCM tends to polymerise very quickly due to heating and also under the presence
of air or light and also if it contacts with a catalyst or strong oxidisers. Air which contains a
high percentage of this compound can be treated as an explosion hazard. Vinyl Chloride
reacts with iron or steel when it comes in the presence of moisture.
It carries an auto-ignition temperature of 442°C. Vinyl Chloride is not corrosive in
nature when dry. However, in the contact of moisture it is corrosive in nature and can
corrode steel and iron.
Vinyl chloride dissolved in either oil or water when administered to rats by gavage
[The administration of food or drugs by force to an animal usually by a tube leading from
the throat to the stomach.], was absorbed extremely rapidly. In a matter of 10 mins of
dosing, the peak vinyl chloride concentration was observed in the bloodstream.
Exposure to the chemical has noticeable effects on the CNS [central nervous system] and
PNS [peripheral nervous system] and causes liver damage.
Following symbols are associated with containers or processes carrying VCM:

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2.0 THE AVAILABLE PROCESSES FOR

MANUFACTURING VCM
Greater attempts have been made recently to directly convert ethane to VCM.
However, these are still in the trial phase and they have not been operated in
commercial scale. This technique is the future of the VCM industry.
Generally used Catalysts are:

 Gold
 Bismuth
 Platinum
 Mercury
 Ethylene Dibromide
In 1970s after knowing the hazardous effects of VCM Viola asked industries to
reduce the threshold value for VCM & Hospitals to stop using them in medical treatment.
The labourers working in VCM industries faced major Health challenges and at times
even fatal. The health and environment issues coming with VCM are tremendous. It was
marked that the people surrounding the factories had liver cancer and the mortality rate
was high due to emissions. Bone injuries and tumour developed at 250ppm exposure.
Hence in the later year’s industries started using closed loop polymerisation technique
as it was safer and eliminated risks.
2.1 FROM ETHYLENE (or ETHANE):

VCM is produced by halogenation of Ethylene (or ethane) is way cheaper as
compared to the other methods.
C2H4Cl2 CH2 = CHCl + HCl

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EDC converts to VCM and HCl and gives chlorinated hydrocarbons as side products. The
Yield of EDC conversion is low. It is around 60%. The effluent is quenched in cold EDC.
The vapour liquid mixture goes for purification. Absorber stripper / refrigerated
continuous distillation are used to separate HCl from chlorinated hydrocarbons.
According to research the process derived from ethane is still in its RND stage and not
ready for commercialization therefore industries prefer the process thru ethylene.
2.2 FROM ACETYLENE:
Mercuric
C2H2 + HCl chloride CH2 = CHCl
This reaction is exothermic in nature. The purity and yield is higher in acetylene
method. As China has large coal reserves on its land as well as overseas Chinese
government promotes the use of acetylene method and had given incentives for this
during 2015 to 2018. China has owned various fields of natural resources in Africa by
trap of money lending and false help to certain African nations. With this method the
challenges of storing and shipping the hazardous chemical is greater. Hence the VCM
unit should be placed near to acetylene plants.
Actylene
Catalytic
VCM
reactor (hg)
HCl

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2.3 Ethylene to EDC

Producing sales quality PVC from raw materials involves several steps all the paths
have different levels of efficiency and different yields. Ethylene dichloride (EDC) must
first be made from ethylene and chlorine feedstocks. The chemical precursor to the PVC
polymer, vinyl chloride (VCM), is created by thermally cracking the EDC. To stop
spontaneous polymerization, the VCM needs to be purified and dosed with a
polymerization inhibitor.
2.4 Direct Chlorination Process for Producing EDC:

The direct chlorination process involves a liquid phase reaction of ethylene and
chlorine using an FeCl3 catalyst. Mass transfer regulates this exothermic reaction, which
can be carried out either at low temperature (for little by-product formation) or high
temperature (in order to recycle heat). The undesired byproducts are Propylene
Dichloride and multiple poly chloroethene
2.5 Direct Chlorination Reaction
CH 2CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl

C2H4 and Cl2 are mixed initially and then sent to a liquid phase reactor [A liquid
phase reactor is used since the catalysts used are in liquid state and the reactants are in
gaseous phase.] The gas mixture bubbles through the EDC medium. The conditions at
which the reactor operates is Temperature: 323 K Pressure: 1.5-2 atm. The reaction is
exothermic and the reactor needs a jacket or a coil for cooling purposes.
The effluent stream from a properly configured and optimised direct chlorination
reactor has only trace levels of trichloroethane, HCl, ethylene, and chlorine and is 99%
EDC pure. Some processes add oxygen to the reactor to control free radicals and
improve product selectivity for EDC. Trichloroethane production must be prevented
since it is exceedingly difficult to remove during distillation.
The reaction is highly efficient and to ensure the better conversion and better
efficiency we use a circulating reactor design or a reactor with an agitator. FeCl3 traces
are also added to serve as an active catalyst. The vapours are cooled down to produce
two streams; a liquid stream and a gas stream. The liquid stream is recycled back into
the reactor to maintain the liquid concentration of the reactor.

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The vapour product is sent for further cooling in a refrigeration unit. This will extract
ethylene dichloride to liquid phase and the vapour phase is removed from the product.
The liquid phase with ethylene dichloride with minute traces of HCl. Following this an
acid wash is given with diluted NaOH because of the trace amount present. From this
stream we get diluted and crude Ethylene DiChloride. A settling tank is used later to
separate the spent NaOH. The crude Ethylene DiChloride enters the distillation column
which separates the ethylene dichloride and the other heavy end products. The vapour
phase stream is sent to a dilute NaOH stream to remove HCl and produce spent NaOH
solution. We obtain off gases which contain H2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6.
The oxychlorination procedure, which similarly yields raw EDC, uses waste gas from
direct chlorination that has been saturated with HCl.
2.6 Oxychlorination Process for Producing EDC Using Recycled HCl:

The waste gas from the direct chlorination reaction, which is HCl-rich, is used in
the oxychlorination process to produce more EDC. Using a CuCl2 catalyst, the ethylene

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feed stock undergoes an exothermic reaction with HCl and oxygen to create EDC and
water:
Oxychlorination Reaction:
CH 2CH2 + 2HCl + 1/2O2 → ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O

Due to the considerable creation of water and carbon oxides, oxychlorination is
less effective than direct chlorination. The average reactor effluent stream contains
traces of oxygen, HCl, ethylene, and other chlorinated hydrocarbons in addition to 47
mol% EDC, 47 mol% water, and 5 mol% CO2.
The generated EDC is then put through a caustic scrubber to remove HCl and a flash to
remove impurities before continuing on to the purification stage.
2.7 EDC Cracking

A thermal cracker (pyrolyzer), which produces VCM and HCl, receives the purified
EDC. With a VCM selectivity of >90% and an endothermic reaction running at 500 °C and
15-30 atm, the EDC cracker only achieves a conversion rate of 50%.
EDC undergoes a complex series of reactions during pyrolysis, which are listed below in
brief:
Pyrolysis Reaction:
ClCH 2CH2Cl → CH2CHCl + HCl

The effluent needs to be quenched right away to prevent coke or tar from
developing. After that, a flash drum is used to prepare the VCM product for purification.
While other contaminants (such as chloromethanes) may actually be advantageous for
their enhancement of VCM selectivity and are occasionally added on purpose, there are
numerous unwanted products from EDC cracking that can foul the reactor and lower the
quality of the finished product.
2.8 VCM Purification

Two distillation columns make up the VCM purification unit, which is responsible
for generating 99.9%wt VCM. As the overhead product is removed by the first column,
the HCl gas is returned to the oxychlorination unit as raw material. This stream is sent

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back to the EDC purification unit after the second column filters out EDC and other
pollutants from the bottoms. The second column's overhead is formed using VCM.
Following the distillation columns, the distillation by-products are typically

subjected to catalytic oxidation and hydrogenation processes in order to recover part of
the undesired chlorinated hydrocarbons produced, converting them to CO2, HCl, and
water.
To stop the monomer from spontaneously polymerizing in pipes and vessels,

the purified VCM is dosed with a polymerization inhibitor (such as benzoquinone
diimide) at a concentration of under 500 ppm.
3.0 OUR PROCESS SELECTION:

After comparing the 3 processes, the process derived from ethane is ruled out
because it is in its RND stage and does not provide enough yield or conversion as we
desire.
The process through ethylene has a major drawback that is it produces a large
amount of HCL which makes it difficult for final product separation as well as HCls highly
corrosive nature can adversely affect the process. We also found out that the process
through acetylene requires HCL.
Therefore, in order to obtain the most efficient and viable process we decided to
merge the processes, that is production of VCM from ethylene and acetylene by
forward integrating the HCL that is formed in the first process.

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4.0 Calculation
4.1 Yield
1. C2H4 +Cl2 = C2H4Cl2
2. C2H4Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl
3. HCl + C2H5 = C2H5Cl
To find out our actual yield amounts we assume that that our product is coming out in
ratio of 1:1 or ½ in each step
Also to find the actual values we must go in reserve so we start with the third reaction
We assume 50 tons’ production of VCM in step 2 and 3
3) HCl + C2H5 = C2H5Cl conversion 91.7%
Mol wt of HCL= 36.5

Mol wt of C2H2 = 26
Mol wt of C2H3CL = 62.5
Theoretical HCL needed = (50×36.5)/62.5= 29.2tons.

but since conversion is 91.7%, actual HCl needed = 29.2×1.083= 31.6 tons.
Theoretical C2H2 needed = (50×26)/62.5= 20.8 tons.

but since conversion is 91.7%, actual C2H2 needed = 20.8 ×1.083= 22.52 tons.
2) C2H4Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl conversion = 60%
Mol wt of C2H5Cl2 = 99
Mol wt of HCL= 36.5
To get enough HCl (31.6 tons) needed to produce around 50 tons in the 3rd step we
take around 54.5 tons of VCM in the 2nd step.

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Theoretical HCL needed = (86.3×36.5)/99= 31.825 tons.
Theoretical C2H5Cl2 needed = (99×54.6)/62.5= 86.32 tons.

but since conversion is 60%, actual C2H5Cl2 needed = 86.32 ×1.6 = 138.112 tons.
1) C2H4 +Cl2 = C2H4Cl2 conversion = around 99%
Mol wt of C2H4 = 28
Mol wt of CL= 35.5
Mol wt of Cl2= 71
We found out required EDC needed in step 2 so we can find out needed raw material
directly.
Therefore, C2H4 required = (138×28)/99 = 39.03 tons.

Therefore, Cl2 required = (138×71)/99 = 98.96 tons.
4) Catalyst
We are assuming that for reaction the ratio of catalyst to reactant is 100:1.
 SO in step 1 for 39,03 tons of C2H4 we need (39.03/100) = 0.4 tons of Fecl3
catalyst.
 Now in step 3 we use same ratio 100:1 the mercury needed (22.5/100) = 0.225
tons.
4.2 Green Metrics

step 1) C2H4 +Cl2 = C2H4Cl2 catalyst = Fecl3
Mol wt of C2H4 = 28
Mol wt of CL= 35.5

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Mol wt of Cl2= 71
Mol wt of Fecl3 = 162.30
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆
E factor =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒘𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎
AE % =
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒘𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
RMI =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
E factor = (7.1+162.30)/99 = 1.7.
AE % = (71 +28)/99 ×100 = 100%.
RMI = (139.112)/ (39.03+98.96) ×100 = 100.08%.
2) C2H4Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl
Mol wt of HCL= 36.5
E factor = 0 since we use the by product to forward integrate onto the next process.
AE % = (62.5)/99 ×100 = 63.13%.
RMI= (54.5)/ (139.112) × 100 = 39.4%.
3 HCl + C2H5 = C2H5Cl catalyst = Hg

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Mol wt of HCL= 36.5

Mol wt of C2H2 = 26
waste = 0.286 HCl, 0.225 Hg
E factor = (0.286+0.225)/50 = 0.1.
AE % = (62.5)/(35.5+26) ×100 = 100%.
RMI = (50)/ (31.6+22.52) ×100 = 92.38%.
4) Average Green Metrics
E factor = (1.7+0.01+0)/3 = 0.57.
AE % = (100 + 63.13 +100)/3 = 87.71%.
RMI = (100.08 + 39.4 += 92.38)/3 = 77.28%.

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5.0 Costing
5.1 Economic Aspect (as a producer in India)
The purpose of an economic analysis is to provide business owners with a
comprehensive picture of the current economic situation in relation to their company's
viability. This study is frequently conducted by economists, statisticians, and
mathematicians on behalf of for-profit and non-profit organizations. These methods of
economic evaluation involve a comprehensive analysis of the market's strengths and
limitations. An economic analysis is beneficial for small firms as well as medium- and
large-sized businesses. In reality, tiny businesses likely require economic analysis more
frequently than businesses with the cash and resources to withstand an economic
slump. There are numerous types of economic evaluation techniques that business
owners can employ to acquire a full understanding of their companies' future
performance.
Cost incurred for production (Imports, Equipment, storage, transport etc.),

revenue from selling final product (Demand, export, domestic market etc.), and
intermediate expenses are analysed here in a three-way economic study of the
manufacture of VCM.
5.2 Import (Raw material)

When it comes to the manufacture of VCM, ethylene serves and chlorine as the
primary raw material that we work with. The following information should be considered
in depth if we are going to take into account the import component of this raw material:
5.2.1 Ethylene
Total Value of &Volume of imports in India
 Total Value: ₹ 541,033,975,807.88
 Total Quantity: 7,784,380,831Kgs
Pricing
 Average price per unit: ₹69.82
 Average value per shipment: ₹8,535,540.17

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Top Suppliers
 Saudi Arabia
 Kuwait
 Singapore
The graph that follows can be used to gain an understanding of the value of distribution
and imports:
The following graph should be viewed in order to gain an understanding of the average
unit price and its distribution.

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We need 39.03 tons of ethylene for our process. Therefore, total cost of ethylene will
come out to be ₹ 26,93,070 (USD 32,626)
5.2.2 Acetylene
Total Value of &Volume of imports in India:
 Total Value: ₹11,895,683,030.18
 Total Quantity: 5,241,375Kgs
Pricing
 Average price per unit: ₹2,269.98
Top Suppliers
 China
 Singapore
 South Africa
and imports

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We need 22.52 tons of acetylene for our process. Therefore, total cost of ethylene will
come out to be ₹ 5,11,19,949.6 (USD 618,665.89)
5.2.3 Chlorine
Total Value of &Volume of imports in India
 Total Value: ₹67,737,461,371.14
 Total Quantity: 460,187,094Kgs
Pricing
Top Suppliers
 Belgium
 United States
 Japan
and imports

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We need 98.96 tons of Chlorine for our process. Therefore, total cost of ethylene will
come out to be ₹ 1,45,87,693.6 (USD 176,562)
5.2.4 Catalyst
Fecl3: ₹126 per Kg so we require 50.4K ($61) for our process
Hg: ₹981kg per kg so we require 2.22lKh ($2699) for our process

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5.2.5 Export
It is necessary to do a comprehensive market analysis in order to gain an
understanding of the demand for VCM in the industry. India is not a big exporter of raw
VCM on the international market but India exports several polymer derivatives of VCM.
Research of trends has helped us understand the present completions, entry, and future
expansion potential in the industry. This element of the production phase is extremely
important because it not only helps us set the budget, but also determines whether or
not the procedure can actually be carried out.
Total Value of &Volume of imports by India
 Total Value: ₹11,344,270,910.12
 Total Quantity: 147,185,300 Kgs
Pricing
Top Buyers
 Djibouti
 Myanmar
 Turkey
and exports

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unit price and its distribution
After witnessing astonishing rise in October, Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM)

prices showcased a drastic fall in November-December period. Discussion of Vinyl
Chloride Monomer (VCM) turned soft in India as its offtakes reduced from several
downstream segments in line with the fall in inquiries post the festive season. In
October, buyers restocked material under the expectations of rise in demand from
polymer sector, however contrary to the scenario in the previous year, demand from
polymer industry eventually stabilized in a shorter span of time. As VCM is a majorly
imported commodity, reduction in import offers from Qatar and Germany led to a
significant fall in its prices in Q4. Besides, drop in demand from end-use PVC segment in
December majorly caused a decline in its consumption which led to higher inventory
levels. Amidst the narrowed demand and supply gap, VCM prices in India dropped down
to USD 1345 per MT in December.

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5.3 Transport and Storage
Vinyl Chloride is a highly volatile and combustible gas, vapour, or liquid. It should
be kept out of direct sunlight, in a dry, cool, and well-ventilated place, and away from
incompatible substances. Vinyl Chloride vapour concentrations ranging between 3.6%
and 33.0% by volume are ignitable. Vinyl Chloride liquid or vapour can disintegrate when
exposed to open flames, open electrical elements, or electrical arcs, producing toxic and
corrosive gases. When Vinyl Chloride is exposed to high temperatures, heat, or ignition,
very irritating hydrogen chloride gas and trace amounts of phosgene gas may be created,
depending on the circumstances. Consequently, all sources of heat and ignite must be
avoided during handling and storage. The risks of fire and explosion can be mitigated by
ensuring enough ventilation, utilizing the correct types and configurations of equipment,
and exercising reasonable precautions and care when handling. All metal equipment
components must be grounded to prevent static electrical discharge from igniting
vapors.
Oxygen, moisture, polymerization additives, copper, aluminum, oxidizing agents,

strong alkalis, and strong acids are incompatible with vinyl chloride and can result in
intense exothermic reactions if they come into contact.
During Vinyl Chloride transfer operations, all equipment, including unloading

pumps, must be grounded and bonded to minimize static charge buildup. Do not unload
if tank vehicle valves are damaged or leaking. Never allow air to enter Vinyl Chloride tank
cars or other containers during or after unloading.
Seal and close any apertures. Depending on the configuration of the vinyl tank car
unloading system, leave at least 10 psig of Vinyl Chloride vapour pressure or nitrogen
pressure in a returned empty tank car.
Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment, as outlined in the Vinyl

Chloride Safety Data Sheet, to avoid contact with the eyes, skin, and clothing, as well as
to prevent inhalation of the gas.

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Vinyl Chloride can be transported via rail tank cars, gas trucks, and ships
 Tank car – a fleet of tank cars dedicated only to Vinyl Chloride service. Each
vehicle is fitted for top unloading. Net weight capacities of 77 to 81 tonnes are
available for single-compartment rail carriages.
 Ships-Several thousand tonne-capacity, refrigerated ocean-going tankers

transport Vinyl Chloride.
 Gas trucks- They carry upto 5-10 tonnes of VCM depending on the size .
Top ports of Discharge (Raw Material Import [Ethylene]):
 Bombay Sea
 Nhava Sheva Sea
 Kolkata Sea
Top ports of Discharge (Final Product Export[VCM]):
 Nhava Sheva Sea
 Bombay Air Cargo
 Tughlakabad

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5.4 Power
Electricity pricing (also known as power tariffs or the price of electricity) can vary
significantly from country to country and from region to region within a country.
Electricity costs are influenced by a variety of variables, including the cost of power
generation, government taxes or subsidies, CO2 taxes, local weather patterns,
transmission and distribution infrastructure, and multi-tiered industry regulation.
Pricing or tariffs may also vary based on the type of consumer, often residential,
commercial, or industrial connections.
Some utility companies are for-profit entities and their prices include a financial
return for owners and investors. These utility companies can exercise their political
power within existing legal and regulatory regimes to guarantee a financial return and
reduce competition from other sources like a distributed generation.
As of March 2022, the price of electricity in India is 0.073 U.S. dollars per kilowatt-
hour (kWh) for consumers and 0.100 U.S. dollars per kilowatt-hour (kWh) for companies.
These prices include all components of the electricity bill, including the cost of power,
distribution, and taxes. Comparatively, the average price of electricity in the world
during this time period is $0.139 per kWh for homes and $0.134 per kWh for companies.
As the process we are considering is a continuous process with an average of

111.86 kW/h consumption a day, the electricity pricing will reach to about Rupees
6,63,643 per month.
5.4.1 Coal
The coal pricing in India is regulated and deregulated by the government from
time to time leading to a rise in the actual delivered price of coal.

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5.4.2 Water
With the exception of interstate water disputes, state governments in India
regulate all provisions regarding water supply.
The cost of water is determined by charges applied by the municipality for piped
water or fuel/power charges for water transported by other means.

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Consumers in India are divided into two categories – domestic and non-domestic
consumers. Industries and businesses fall in the latter category; they also pay higher
charges than government and semi-government institutions.
Some of the charges applicable to industries are listed below:

1. Water connection charge (one-time-only);
2. Sewerage connection charge (one-time-only);
3. Security deposits for connection and sewerage separately (one-time-only);
4. Fixed/minimum charges;
5. Volumetric charges (according to the diameter of the pipeline);
6. Meter charges; and,
7. Sewerage charge (a percentage of the total water bill).
Incentives for conservation and pollution control

Firms may receive discounts on fixed prices for implementing water conservation
measures. Tax rebates for early payment of water bills are also given.
In the state of Maharashtra, for instance, a reduction of 20 percent demand by a

firm guarantees it a 20 percent reduction in tariffs.
The National Water Policy of 2012 allows industries across India to withdraw
‘make up water’ to tide over shortages, provided that the water is treated before being
released back into the local hydrologic system
Industries being provided water at Rs 27.54 per 1,000 liters

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5.5 Equipment cost
Equipment’s Costs (In rupees)

GLR 2lakh
Pumps 40K
Valves 120k
DC 18Lakh
Furnace 8 lakhs
SSR 1lakh
HEX 6lakh
QUENCHER 1.5lakhs
STRIPPER: 1.5lakhs
5.6 Chemical
Ethylene, Ethylene Dichloride, Acetylene, HCl, NaOH
Reaction: CH2==CH2 + Cl2 → CH2Cl-CH2Cl
Raw material: Ethylene and Chlorine, 6-8% NaOH
Catalyst: Ethylene Dibromide or Fecl3
Reaction: CH2Cl–CH2Cl —-----> CH2==CHCl + HCl
Reaction: C2H2+ HCl—-----> CH2==CHCl
Catalyst: Hg as catalyst.

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6.0 PFD

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7.0 Process
The direct chlorination process involves a gas phase reaction of ethylene and
chlorine using an FeCl3/ethylene dibromide catalyst. Mass transfer regulates this
exothermic reaction, which can be carried out either at low temperature (for little by-
product formation) or high temperature (in order to recycle heat). Chlorine and ethylene
along with catalyst is fed to a gas phase reactor and since it is an exothermic reaction it
requires a jacket or coil. The top gases are cooled and recycled back to the reactor.
The product stream for the gas phase reactor is pumped to the caustic scrubber;
utilising NaOH downstream of the reactor cleaning the catalyst of FeCl3 contamination.
The product stream from the scrubber is sent to a decanter where the aq phase is sent
to ETP and the organic phase is sent to EDC column (fractional distillation). Here we
obtain the heavy ends as the bottom product and EDC as distillatory This EDC is delivered
to a storage tank to be processed later.
The purified EDC from EDC storage is sent to thermal cracker (pyrolyzer)
operating at 4 atm and 500 C, which cracks the EDC to produces VCM and HCl. The
product stream from the furnace is fed to a tubular reactor to clean the stream. The
effluent needs to be quenched right away to prevent coke or tar from developing
therefor they are sent to a quencher where is quenched with EDC which is obtained from
the EDC column. The HCl from the quencher is further sent to be mixed with acetylene
in jet mixer for further process. The product is sent VCM column from which we obtain
VCM as distillate which is sent to VCM storage and the bottom is sent to EDC column
where we obtain polychlorides as bottom product and EDC as distillate which is used in
quencher and sent to pyrolysis furnace for recycle.
Acetylene and HCl after being mixed in in jet mixer is sent to a catalytic tubular
reactor with Hg catalyst with a downtherm Heating fluid system operating at 1 atm at
200 C. The product from the reactor is sent to a stripper which separates HCl and C2H2
from VCM and other by-products. The HCl is C2H2 from the stripper is sent back to jet
mixer for recycling. The product stream from the stripper is sent to a refrigerated
fractionator from which we obtain VCM as distillate which is further processed and sent
to storage. The bottom which contain the heavy ends are sent to storage which are later
processed by sending it to a stripper in which we obtain EDC and Aldehydes for recovery.

33 | P a g e
8.0 Safety
NFPA 704: Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for
Emergency Response" is a standard maintained by the U.S.-based National Fire
Protection Association.
This helps determine what, if any, special equipment should be used, procedures
followed, or precautions taken during the initial stages of an emergency response. It is
an internationally accepted safety standard, and is crucial while transporting chemicals.
You can observe the NFPA diamonds for the main chemicals used in this process
given ahead

34 | P a g e
8.1 HCl
8.2 C2H2
8.3C2H4
8.4 Cl2
8.5 VCM
*(For more information, please refer to the MSDS of respective chemicals)

35 | P a g e
9.0 Environmental Impact of Vinyl Chloride

Manufacturing:
We discuss the impact of the manufacture of Ethylene, Ethylene DiChloride,
Acetylene and Vinyl Chloride Monomer.
Firstly, the manufacture of Ethylene: It was found that there are three methods
to manufacture Ethylene which is a prominent raw material in the manufacture of Vinyl
Chloride Monomer. The three methods are; Cracking of naphtha, Natural gas
manufacturing, Based from corn production. The basic flow diagrams for each are as
follows.

36 | P a g e

37 | P a g e
A quantitative cradle-to-gate environmental impact of the manufacture of

ethylene from naphtha (petroleum crude), ethane (natural gas) and ethanol (corn-
based) are predicted using GaBi software.
A comparison reveals that the majority of the predicted environmental impacts

for these feedstocks fall within the same order of magnitude. Soil and water pollution
associated with corn-based ethylene are however much higher. The main causative
factor for greenhouse gas emissions, acidification and air pollution is the burning of
fossil-based fuel for agricultural operations, production of fertilizers and pesticides
needed for cultivation (in the case of ethanol), ocean-based transportation (for naphtha)
and the chemical processing steps (for all feedstocks).

38 | P a g e
An assessment of the environmental impacts of different energy sources (coal,

natural gas and fuel oil) reveals almost similar carbon footprints for all the fossil fuels
used to produce a given quantity of energy.
For most of the environmental impact categories, the GaBi software reliably
predicts the qualitative trends. The predicted emissions agree well with the actual
emissions data reported by a coal-based power plant (Lawrence Energy Center,
Lawrence, KS) and a natural gas-based power plant (Astoria Generating Station, Queens,
NY) to the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
The analysis shows that for ethylene production, fuel burning at the power plant
to produce energy is by far the dominant source (78–93 % depending on the fuel source)
of adverse environmental impacts.
Secondly the manufacture of Acetylene

Acetylene is produced by two different methods
• reaction of calcium carbide with water in special generators
• as a gaseous by-product from cracking crude oils
The first method is most widely used and the following is its reaction.
Hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2, is also produced as a by-product. After separating from

the carbide lime, excess water can be reused in the process and the lime can be
recovered for use in various industrial or agricultural activities in accordance with
applicable local legislation.

39 | P a g e
Finally, the manufacture of Vinyl Chloride Monomer:
VCM enters the air during production and use. If VCM is present in the air, it
breaks down to other substances within 2-3 days. Similarly, VCM will quickly evaporate
if released to surface water. Some small amounts of VCM may be released to soil where
it will either evaporate or leach into the ground water, where it may persist for months

40 | P a g e
to years. There is insufficient information to predict the toxicity of VCM to aquatic life,
plants, birds or animals. VCM is unlikely to bio-accumulate in plants or animals.
VCM does not occur naturally. If VCM is present in the environment, it is from
being used in production or as a result of pollution caused by chemical spills. It has not
been found in Australian drinking water, however the standard established (as listed
previously) is to provide guidance in the unlikely event of contamination.
Liquid VCM evaporates easily. If VCM is present in the water or soil, it will
evaporate rapidly if it is near the surface.
9.1 Sources of emissions:

Industries that manufacture or use VCM in production are the primary sources of
this substance. Some of these industries include the chemical industry (for the
manufacture of PVC and other chemicals) and the plastics industry. Emissions or VCM
are primarily to air, with a small percentage to water.
Landfills which contain VCM or other chlorinated hydrocarbons will release VCM.
The treatment of wastewater containing vinyl chloride or chlorinated hydrocarbons may
release VCM.
VCM (also referred to as chloroethene, chloroethylene, or monochloroethylene)

is a molecule of two carbon atoms joined by an unsaturated bond and containing three
hydrogen atoms and one chlorine atom. VCM has a high vapour pressure and is slightly
soluble in water; consequently, volatilization into the atmosphere is the major transport
process in the environment.
VCM is reactive and readily polymerizes in the presence of oxygen, sunlight, or

heat to form PVC. VCM rapidly degrades in the trophosphere via photochemical
oxidation. As indicated by the low log Kow of 1.38, VCM does not adsorb to organic
carbon of soils/sediments or accumulate in biological tissues. Certain strains of
microorganisms (e.g., Mycobacterium) can use VCM as a carbon and energy source
under aerobic conditions. Biological degradation of VCM to CO2 can occur under both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

41 | P a g e
10.0 Conclusion
When we review all the processes and go in such great detail about what is the
purpose of manufacturing Vinyl chloride, we realize the intricacies that are involved in
creating something and scaling it up.
Vinyl chloride monomer is a compound of great importance and just shows how much
dependence humans have on fossil fuels.
The processes for manufacturing Vinyl chloride were studied from multiple
perspectives and several parameters were discovered, learnt and determined to find out
the process which is the most cost effective, the most sustainable and the process which
holds a good future usage.
The combining of two major processes which are carried out separately, was a
task that this team primarily achieved and reusing of Hydrochloric acid was done in a
very efficient and sustainable manner.
This project goes in great detail and unveils all the methodologies and ideas that
are involved with the manufacture of Vinyl Chloride to a reader who is keen to learn and
explore.

42 | P a g e
11.0 References
 https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/platinum-makes-pvc-production-
greener-and-cheaper/4011255.article
 https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Vinyl-Chloride
 https://patents.google.com/patent/US4912271A/en
 https://pvc.org/about-pvc/vinyl-chloride-monomer-vcm-
production/#:~:text=There%20are%20two%20methods%20to,a%20few%20hu
ndred%20degrees%20Celsius.
 https://www.chemanalyst.com/Pricing-data/naphtha-
43#:~:text=The%20average%20Ex-
Refinery%20prices,INR%2069335%2FMT%20at%20Kochi
 https://www.westlake.com/sites/default/files/Vinyl%20Chloride%20PS%20Su
mmary%20Ed1.pdf
 https://www.zauba.com/
 https://www.coleparmer.in
 https://dir.indiamart.com
 https://indianexpress.com/article/india/industries-being-provided-water-at-
rs-27-54-per-1000-litres-gujarat-govt-to-assembly-6320907/
 https://www.india-briefing.com/news/industrial-water-rates-india-supply-
16547.html/

43 | P a g e
12.0 MSDS
 https://www.airgas.com/sds-search
 https://www.airgas.com/msds/001001.pdf

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What are the different processes available for manufacturing VCM?

What are the different processes available for manufacturing VCM?

What are the properties of VCM?

What are the properties of VCM?

1|Page

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

Let us take a look at the different properties of this chemical:

Specific Gravity: 0.916

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

Following symbols are associated with containers or processes carrying VCM:

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

2.0 THE AVAILABLE PROCESSES FOR

Generally used Catalysts are:

2.1 FROM ETHYLENE (or ETHANE):

C2H4Cl2 CH2 = CHCl + HCl

2.2 FROM ACETYLENE:

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

2.3 Ethylene to EDC

2.4 Direct Chlorination Process for Producing EDC:

2.5 Direct Chlorination Reaction

CH 2CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

2.6 Oxychlorination Process for Producing EDC Using Recycled HCl:

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

CH 2CH2 + 2HCl + 1/2O2 → ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O

2.7 EDC Cracking

ClCH 2CH2Cl → CH2CHCl + HCl

2.8 VCM Purification

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

Following the distillation columns, the distillation by-products are typically

To stop the monomer from spontaneously polymerizing in pipes and vessels,

3.0 OUR PROCESS SELECTION:

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

3) HCl + C2H5 = C2H5Cl conversion 91.7%

Mol wt of HCL= 36.5

Theoretical HCL needed = (50×36.5)/62.5= 29.2tons.

Theoretical C2H2 needed = (50×26)/62.5= 20.8 tons.

2) C2H4Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl conversion = 60%

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

Theoretical HCL needed = (86.3×36.5)/99= 31.825 tons.

Theoretical C2H5Cl2 needed = (99×54.6)/62.5= 86.32 tons.

1) C2H4 +Cl2 = C2H4Cl2 conversion = around 99%

Therefore, C2H4 required = (138×28)/99 = 39.03 tons.

4.2 Green Metrics

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

E factor = (7.1+162.30)/99 = 1.7.

AE % = (71 +28)/99 ×100 = 100%.

RMI = (139.112)/ (39.03+98.96) ×100 = 100.08%.

2) C2H4Cl2 = C2H3Cl + HCl

AE % = (62.5)/99 ×100 = 63.13%.

RMI= (54.5)/ (139.112) × 100 = 39.4%.

3 HCl + C2H5 = C2H5Cl catalyst = Hg

[VCM] | [MBA TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING]

Mol wt of HCL= 36.5

E factor = (0.286+0.225)/50 = 0.1.

AE % = (62.5)/(35.5+26) ×100 = 100%.