Compare Thermistor sensors and Thermocouple sensors

Basically, both thermistors and thermocouples are temperature measuring transducers. But the principle
used by them for sensing temperature variations is different. Thermocouple transducers are active
transducers i.e., they do not require any external source of excitation for their operation. Whereas the
thermistors are passive transducers i.e., they require an external source of excitation to measure the
input non-electrical quantity applied.
The thermistor is a thermal resistor which means the resistance of the thermistor depends upon
temperature. Thermocouples are comprised of two metal alloys that induce a voltage when there is a
change in temperature.

Definition of Thermistor :

The name thermistor means thermal resistance i.e., it is the combination of words thermal and resistor. It
means the resistance of the thermistor depends upon temperature, the resistance varies if there is a variation
in the temperature. They are made up of semiconductor material.

Depending upon the temperature coefficient there are two types of thermistors. They are positive
temperature coefficient thermistors and negative temperature coefficient thermistors.

The negative temperature coefficient or NTC thermistors have inverse relation between their resistance
and temperature variations. If the temperature increases the resistance decreases and vice versa. In
positive temperature coefficient or PTC thermistors, there exists a direct relation, the increase in
temperature increases its resistance.
By measuring the change in resistance value, the temperature change can be determined. Thermistors
are highly sensitive to temperature variation, which can sense small variations in temperature.
Generally, negative temperature coefficient thermistors are widely used.
Definition of Thermocouple :
A thermocouple is a temperature transducer extensively used for the measurement of temperature
variations. It is constructed by joining wires made from two metals made up of different materials
forming two junctions. When one of the junctions is subjected to temperature variations it induces a
voltage at another junction.

The amount of induced voltage depends upon the amount of temperature variation and the characteristics of
the metals. By measuring the voltage the temperature change can be determined. Thus it converts thermal
 energy into electrical energy without any external source of power, hence it is an active transducer. Let us
see the differences between thermistors and thermocouples.

Difference Between Thermocouples and Thermistors :

Thermocouples Thermistors

Thermocouples are temperature sensing devices Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors made
made up of a combination of pure metals and alloys up of ceramic or polymers materials such as
of copper, constantan, chromel, platinum, etc. manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, uranium, etc.

Thermistors have Negative Temperature

The working of thermocouples is that it induces a Coefficient (NTC) i.e., it exhibits non-linear
voltage when there is a change in temperature and characteristics between resistance and
the voltage is proportional to temperature. temperature.

It can measure wide ranges of temperatures ranging It measures narrow ranges of temperature ranging
from -200° to 1250°C. from -50°C to 300°C.

The voltage generated by the two junctions at Resistance acts as a sensing parameter in the case
different temperature acts as a sensing parameter. of thermistors.

It possesses linear characteristics. It possesses non-linear characteristics.

It is an active transducer. It is a passive transducer.

More sensitive to temperature variations

The sensitivity of thermocouples is medium. compared to thermocouples

Speed of response is high compared to

Slow output response. thermocouples.

These are less accurate. These are the most accurate temperature sensors.

Thermistors are more expensive than

Thermocouples are inexpensive. thermocouples.

These are robust in nature. These devices are fragile.

Thermocouples read the relative temperature. Thermistors read the absolute temperature.

Thermocouples are used in industrial furnaces. Thermistors are used in home appliances.
 Therefore, both thermocouples and thermistors are temperature sensing transducers. Thermocouples are
used for industrial applications and thermistors are used in home appliances like refrigerators, ovens, etc. Other
than this thermistors can be also used to measure vacuum, pressure, and level of liquids.

Comparison Chart
Basis For
Thermocouple Thermistor
Comparison

Definition The thermocouple is a type of device used for Thermistor is the thermal resistor
measuring the temperature whose resistance changes with the
temperature.

Symbol

Sensing Parameter Voltage generate at the junction. Resistance

Material Copper, iron, Constantan, Chromel, Alloys of Manganese, nickel or cobalt oxides,
metals like Chrome, chromium and nickel, semiconductor material.
platinum and rhodium, tungsten and rhenium,
rhodium and iridium.

Accuracy High Very Low

Temperature -50°C to 250°C -200°C to 1250°C

Range

Response Time 0.12 – 10 Seconds 0.2 – 10 seconds

(Depends on size
and packing)

Characteristic Non-linear for negative temperature coefficient. Linear

Curve

Cost Expensive (because of external power source Cheap

and devices on circuit.)

Uses In home appliances like ovens, refrigerators, fire In Industries.

alarm etc.
 Basis For
Thermocouple Thermistor
Comparison

Applications For controlling temperature, Measurement of Measuring and controlling

temperature, thermal conductivity, temperature temperature.
compensation etc.

Piezoelectric Sensors

PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

Definition of a Piezoelectric Sensor

A sensor which works on the principle of piezoelectricity is known as a piezoelectric sensor. Where
piezoelectricity is a phenomenon where electricity is generated if mechanical stress is applied to a material. Not
all materials have piezoelectric characteristics.

There are various types of piezoelectric materials. Examples of piezoelectric materials are natural available
single crystal quartz, bone etc… Artificially manufactured like PZT ceramic etc…
Working of a Piezoelectric Sensor

The commonly measured physical quantities by a piezoelectric sensor are Acceleration and Pressure. Both
pressure and acceleration sensors work on the same principle of piezoelectricity but the main difference between
them is the way force is applied to their sensing element.

In the pressure sensor, a thin membrane is placed on a massive base to transfer the applied force to
the piezoelectric element. Upon application of pressure on this thin membrane, the piezoelectric material gets
loaded and starts generating electrical voltages. The produced voltage is proportional to the amount of pressure
applied.
In accelerometers, seismic mass is attached to the crystal element to transfer the applied force to piezoelectric
materials. When motion is applied, seismic mass load’s the piezoelectric material according to Newton’s
second law of motion. The piezoelectric material generates charge used for calibration of motion.
An acceleration compensation element is used along with a pressure sensor as these sensors can pick up
unwanted vibrations and show false readings.
Piezoelectric Sensor Circuit

A piezoelectric sensor internal circuit is given above. The resistance Ri is the internal resistance or insulator
resistance. The inductance is due to the inertia of the sensor. The capacitance Ce is inversely proportional to the
elasticity of the sensor material. For the proper response of the sensor, the load and leakage resistance must be
large enough so that low frequencies are preserved. A sensor can be called a pressure transducer in an
electrical signal. Sensors are also known as primary transducers.

Piezoelectric Sensor Specifications

Some of the basic characteristics of piezoelectric sensors are

 The range of measurement: This range is subject to measurement limits.

 Sensitivity S: Ratio of change in output signal ∆y to the signal that caused the change ∆x.
S = ∆y/∆x.
 Reliability: This accounts to the sensors ability to keep characteristics in certain limits under set
operational conditions.
Besides these, some of the specifications of piezoelectric sensors are a threshold of reaction, errors, time of
indication etc…

 These sensors contain as Impedance value ≤500Ω.

 These sensors generally operate in a temperature range of approximately -20°C to +60°C.
 These sensors are to be kept at a temperature between -30°C to +70°C to prevent them from degradation.
 These sensors have very low Soldering temperature.
 Strain sensitivity of a piezoelectric sensor is 5V/µƐ.
 Due to its high flexibility Quartz is the most preferred material as a piezoelectric sensor.
Piezoelectric Sensor Applications
 Piezoelectric sensors are used for shock detection.
 Active piezoelectric sensors are used for thickness gauge, flow sensor.
 Passive piezoelectric sensors are used microphones, accelerometer, musical pickups etc…
 Piezoelectric sensors are also used for ultrasound imaging.
 These sensors are used for optic measurements, micro moving measurements, electro acoustics etc…

6.2.1 The Piezoelectric EFFect

The piezoelectric effect is the appearance of an electric polarization in a material that strains under stress. It is a
reversible effect. Therefore, when applying an electric voltage between two sides of a piezoelectric material, it
strains. Both e¨ects were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880±1881.
Piezoelectricity must not be confused with ferroelectricity, which is the property of having a spontaneous or
induced electric dipole moment. Ferroelectricity was ®rst discovered by J. Valasek in 1921 in Rochelle salt. All
ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric, but the converse is not always true. Piezoelectricity is related to the
crystalline (ionic) structure. Ferromagnetism is instead related to electron spin. Piezoelectric equations describe
the relationship between electric and mechanical quantities in a piezoelectric material. In Figure 6.14a, where
two metal plates have been placed to form a capacitor, for a dielectric nonpiezoelectric material we have that an
applied force F yields a strain S that, according to Hooke's law (Section 2.2), in the elastic range is

where s is compliance, 1=s is Young's modulus, and T is the stress .F=A.. A potential di¨erence applied between
plates creates an electric ®eld E and we have

where D is the displacement vector (or electric ¯ux density), _ is the dielectric constant, _0 . 8:85 pF/m is the
permittivity of vacuum, and P is the polarization vector.
For a unidimensional piezoelectric material with ®eld, stress, strain, and polarization in the same direction,
according to the principle of energy conservation,at low frequency we have

where _T is the permittivity at constant stress and sE is the compliance at constant electric ®eld. Therefore, when
compared to a nonpiezoelectric material, there is also a strain due to the electric ®eld and an electric charge due
to the mechanical stress (charges displaced inside the material induce opposite polarity surface charges on the
plates). When the surface area does not change under the applied stress (which is not true in polymers), then d .
d 0 [5]. d is the piezoelectric charge coe½cient or piezoelectric constant, whose dimensions are coulombs
divided by newtons
[C/N].
Solving equation (6.12) for E yields
Construct a Solar cell using Photovoltaic sensors

The Photovoltaic Effect

When the internal photoelectric e¨ect discussed for photoconductors (Section 2.6) occurs in a p±n junction, it is
possible to obtain a voltage that is a function of the incoming radiation intensity. The photovoltaic e¨ect is the
generation of an electric potential when the radiation ionizes a region where there is a potential barrier. It was
discovered by E. Becquerel in 1839. D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, and G. L. Pearson invented silicon photovoltaic
cells in 1954.
When a p-doped semiconductor (doped with acceptors) contacts an n-doped semiconductor (doped with
donors), because of the thermal agitation there are electrons that go into the p region and ``holes'' that move into
the n-region. There they recombine with charge carriers of opposite sign. As a result, at both sides of the contact
surface there are very few free charge carriers. Also the positive ions in the n region and the negative ions in the
p region, fixed in their positions in the crystal structure, produce an intense electric ®eld that opposes the
discusion of additional charge carriers through this potential barrier. This way an equilibrium is attained
between the discusion current and the current induced by this electric ®eld. By placing an external ohmic
connection on each emiconductor, no voltage di¨erence is detected because the internal difference in potential at
the junction is exactly compensated by contact potentials in the external connections to the semiconductor.
Figure 6.24 shows that radiation whose energy is larger than the semiconductor band gap generates additional
electron±hole pairs that are driven by the electric ®eld in the open circuit p±n junction. The accumulation of
electrons in the n region and of holes in the p region results in a change in contact potential VP that can be
measured by means of external connections to a load resistance. This open-circuit voltage increases with the
intensity of the incident radiation, until a saturation point is reached (the limit is the band-gap energy). If the
contacts are short-circuited, the current is proportional to the irradiation for a
broad range of values. Figure 6.25 shows the simpli®ed equivalent circuit.
 Pyroelectric Sensors for application of optical energy meters
In text book 357-359

Electrochemical Sensors.

In text book 366-369