MMM Assignment 2

Q1) Describe various methods of temperature measurement.

1) Temperature sensing based on changes in physical dimension:

It includes liquid in glass thermometer, mercury being the most common medium to be used
and also includes bimetallic strip thermometer.
A bimetallic strip thermometer employs the principle of solid expansion and consists of a
bimetallic strip usually in form of cantilever/beam.
2) Temperature sensing based on gas pressure or vapour pressure:
Constant volume gas thermometer uses an inert gas (usually nitrogen) and principle of it’s
working in the increase in pressure of gas with increase in temperature at constant volume.
Pressure thermometer is based on fluid expansion due to increase in pressure in a give
volume of temperature measuring system.
3) Temperature sensing based on electrical properties:
It includes RTD, thermistors, thermocouples, and semi-conductor junction diodes.
RTD is a sensor whose resistance changes as the temperature changes. The same principle
applies for thermistors.
A thermocouple produces a temperature dependent voltage as a result of thermoelectric
effect and this is used for temperature measurement.
4) Temperature sensing based on emitted thermal radiation:
Devices used are total radiation pyrometer, optical pyrometer, infrared pyrometer and two
colour pyrometer.
Total radiation pyrometer absorbs energy at all wavelengths or over a very broad range,
optical pyrometers measure radiated energy over a narrow band of wavelength.

Q2) Describe Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson effects.

1) Seebeck effect
It is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two dissimilar electric
conductors gives rise to a voltage difference between these two materials.
When heat is applied to one of the two conductors, the electrons become excited.
Seebeck effect can help us calculate the electromotive field generated by a device.
 2) Peltier effect
It is the presence of heating or cooling at an electrified junction of 2 different conductors.
Heat maybe added or removed when current is flown.

3) Thomson effect
It is the evolution of heat when electric current passes through a circuit composed of single
material which has a temperature difference along its length.
It dials with only single metallic rod.

Q3) Describe thermoelectric temperature sensors. What are thermopiles ?

 RTD – It is used to determine temperature by measuring resistance of electrical wire. The

resistance change in case of RTD is small and +ve and has linear relationship with
temperature. Range is -260° to 1800°C. They are mainly made from metallic conductor and
mostly of platinum.
 Thermistor – It is a resistance thermometer whose resistance is dependent on temperature.
They are of two types – i) Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) ii) Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC).
 Thermocouple – It is a temperature sensing device consisting of wires of different metals
joined at each end. One is placed where the temperature is to be measured and the other is
placed at a lower temperature. This temperature difference develops an emf.
 Thermopiles – When thermocouples are electrically connected in series, they are called
‘Thermopiles‘. It gives a more sensitive measurement.
Q4) What are RTDs? Explain its working principle.

RTD is a temperature sensor composed of a resistance thermometer element, internal connecting

wires, a protective shell with or without means for mounting a connection head, or connecting wire
or other fittings, or both. Many metals are commonly used for making RTDs, such as platinum,
nickel, copper, tungsten, silver, and iron. But platinum is extensively used in high-accuracy RTDs
because it is capable of withstanding high temperatures and exhibits excellent stability and good
linearity. Principle: The electrical conductivity of a metal is dependent on the movement of
free electrons through its crystal lattice. RTD works on the principle that due to thermal
excitation, the resistance of a conductor varies with the temperature to which they are exposed. The
number of free electrons and their kinetic energy are functions of temperature. As the temperature
increases, the amplitude and frequency of vibration increases. The free electrons’ movement is now
hindered through the medium and therefore, the resistance of the material increases with an
increase in temperature. Hence, it is said to have a positive temperature coefficient (PTC).

Working: The RTD element or resistor that is in proximity to the area where the temperature is to be
measured transmits an electrical current. Then, by incorporating a modified Wheatstone bridge
arrangement such as a double slide wire bridge, the change in resistance of the RTD element is
measured using null-deflection method. Further, based on known resistance characteristics of the
RTD element, the value of the resistance is correlated to temperature. RTDs have nearly linear
characteristics over a wide temperature range. The relationship between temperature and
resistance is given by: R = R0 (1+ α. ΔT) Here, R is the approximate resistance at temperature T°C, R0
is the approximate resistance at the reference temperature T0°C, ΔT = T –T0 is the change in
temperature, and α is the resistance temperature coefficient at T0(in/°C).
Q5) What are thermistors and their principle of working?

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive variable resistor made of a ceramic-like semiconducting

material and are also called as bulk semiconductor sensors. They are made of manganese, nickel and
cobalt oxides which are milled, mixed in proper proportion with binders, pressed into desired
shapes and sintered. These materials have very high temperature coefficients and high resistivity.
Thus, they are very sensitive to small variations in temperature and respond very quickly.

Working principle: When a thermistor is employed for temperature measurement, its resistance
generally decreases with increase in temperature. Hence, it is said to have a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC). The valence electrons, which are mutually shared by the metal atoms, are mobile
in nature. The vibration of atoms in the crystal lattice increases with increasing temperature. The
free movement of electrons becomes restricted due to an increase in the volume of space occupied
by the atoms. In case of thermistors, the valence electrons are attached more firmly to the atoms;
some of the electrons are detached and flow due to the increase in temperature. The net effect is
decrease in electrical resistance, thereby facilitating easy flow of electrons. The relationship between
temperature and resistance is given by: R=R0eβ(1T−1T0) Here, R is the resistance of the
thermistor at absolute temperature T Kelvin, R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T0
Kelvin, and β is a constant, which lies in the range of 3000–4500K depending on the composition.

Q6) Distinguish between Thermistors and RTDs.

Thermistors RTDs
Have a range of -55°C to 150°C Have a range of -200°C to 500°C
Its accuracy is 0-1.5°C Its accuracy is 0.1-1°C
High hysteresis effect Low hysteresis effect
Expensive Cheaper
Made of semi-conductors. Made of Pt, Ni, Cu, etc.
Q7) What is pyrometry? Describe the total radiation pyrometers and optical pyrometers.

Pyrometry is a technique for determining the temperature of a hot body (above 500°C) without
physical contact by studying the characteristics of thermal radiations that are emitted by the body in
the form of electromagnetic waves.

Total Radiation Pyrometers

The term ‘total radiation’ includes both visible(light)and invisible (infrared) radiations. The
wavelength of light in the visible range is from 0.3 to 0.72 μm, while that of infrared radiations is
from 0.72 to 1000 μm. The rate of radiation from source to detector, proportional to the total
radiant energy emitted by the surface, is given by Stefan-Boltzmann law: q = εσT4Here, q is the
radiant flux emitted by the source (in W/m2), ε is the emissivity of source (ranging from 0.05 to
1) averaged over all wavelengths, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.6704x 10-8W/m2K4), and
T is the absolute temperature (in K). Practical radiation pyrometers are sensitive only to a limited
wavelength band of radiant energy (i.e. from 0.32 to 40 μm), although theory suggests that they
should be sensitive to the entire spectrum of energy radiated by the body.

The total radiation pyrometer consists of a blackened tube open at one end to receive all the
radiations from the source. The other end of the tube has a sighting aperture in which an adjustable
eyepiece is fitted. A rack-and-pinion arrangement is used to adjust the position of the concave
mirror to properly focus the thermal radiations on the detector disc. The detector disc is usually of
blackened platinum sheet/foil and is connected to the measuring junction of a sensitive temperature
transducer like thermocouple, thermopile, etc. Leads from the detector are led out of the casing to a
millivolt meter.

Thermal radiations from a particular area of hot body (whose temperature is to be measured) enter
the housing tube. These radiations impinge on the concave mirror from where it is reflected and
focussed onto the sensing junction of the thermocouple or thermopile. Thus, a thermoelectric emf
will be produced in the circuit and can be measured by means of a millivoltmeter. This change in
voltage will give the measure of temperature which can be read on a temperature display device.
 Opti
cal Pyrometers (Disappearing Filament Type)

A high-temperature body emits radiations of greater energy. Within the visible region of
electromagnetic spectrum, a given wavelength has a fixed colour and the energy of radiation is
interpreted as intensity or brightness, which can be measured to get an indication of temperature. In
optical pyrometer, a specific wavelength of emitted radiations is filtered out using a colour filter and
its intensity is measured by comparison with a standard lamp. Its operation is based on Planck’s law
which states that the energy level in the radiation from a hot body are distributed in different
wavelengths. As the temperature increases, the emissive power shifts to shorter wavelengths. The
Planck’s distribution equation is given as:

Eλ,b=C1λ5(eC2/λt−1) Here Eλ,b is the energy emitted by a black body at wavelength λ(in W/m2.μm),
T is the absolute temperature (in K), λ is the wavelength (in μm), C1 = 374.18 μm4/m2, C2= 14388
μm.K

The optical pyrometer has an eyepiece and an objective lens at its extreme ends. The tungsten
filament (standard) lamp is placed at the focus of the latter, so that the image of the temperature
source is on the plane of the filament. An absorption filter is placed between objective lens and lamp
to increase the range of measurable temperature, and reduce the intensity of the incoming
radiation, thereby enhancing the life of the lamp. A red filter is placed between eyepiece and lamp
to obtain monochromatic conditions. A battery, an ammeter and a rheostat are connected in series
to the lamp. The battery supplies the current required to heat the filament. The current flowing
through the filament is adjusted by means of rheostat, and ammeter is used to measure it.

An image of the temperature source is produced by the objective lens and made to superimpose on
the filament of the lamp. The filament is viewed through an eyepiece and a filter. The current
through the filament is made variable so that lamp intensity can be adjusted until the filament and
the image are of equal brightness. (a) If the filament is cooler than the source, the filament appears
dark. (b)If the filament is hotter than the source, the filament appears bright. (c)If the temperature
of the filament and the source are equal, the filament disappears. Since the intensity of light of any
wavelength depends upon the temperature of the radiating body and the temperature of filament
depends upon the current flowing through the lamp, the instrument may be directly calibrated in
terms of the filament current. However, the filament current depends upon the resistance of the
filament. Therefore, modern optical pyrometers are calibrated in terms of resistance of the filament
circuit.