The Techniques Engineering of Refrigeration   Renewable Energy Course  

and Air Conditioning Department Fourth Year

Technical College - Baghdad By: Wisam Abd Mohammed

Chapter 2

Solar Radiation Analysis

2.1 The Sun

The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39 x 109 m (see
Fig. 2.1). The sun is about 1.5 x 108 km away from earth, so, because thermal radiation
travels with the speed of light in a vacuum (300,000 km/s), after leaving the sun solar
energy reaches our planet in 8 min and 20 s. As observed from the earth, the sun disk
forms an angle of 32 min of a degree. This is important in many applications, especially
in concentrator optics, where the sun cannot be considered as a point source and even
this small angle is significant in the analysis of the optical behavior of the collector.
The sun has an effective black-body temperature of 5760 K. The temperature in the
central region is much higher. In effect, the sun is a continuous fusion reactor in which
hydrogen is turned into helium. The sun’s total energy output is 3.8 x 1020 MW, which
is equal to 63 MW/m2 of the sun’s surface. This energy radiates outward in all
directions. The earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total radiation emitted, equal to
1.7 x 1014 kW; however, even with this small fraction, it is estimated that 84 min of
solar radiation falling on earth is equal to the world energy demand for one year (about
900 EJ). As seen from the earth, the sun rotates around its axis about once every four
weeks.
As observed from earth, the path of the sun across the sky varies throughout the year.
The shape described by the sun’s position, The most obvious variation in the sun’s
apparent position through the year is a north-south swing over 47° of angle (because of
the 23.5° tilt of the earth axis with respect to the sun), called declination (see Section
2.2). The north-south swing in apparent angle is the main cause for the existence of
seasons on earth.

Fig. 2.1 Sun-earth relationship.

Knowledge of the sun’s path through the sky is necessary to calculate the solar radiation
falling on a surface, the solar heat gain, the proper orientation of solar collectors, the
placement of collectors to avoid shading, and many more factors that are not of direct
interest in this book. The objective of this chapter is to describe the movements of the

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sun relative to the earth that give to the sun its east-west trajectory across the sky. The
variation of solar incidence angle and the amount of solar energy received are analyzed
for a number of fixed and tracking surfaces. The environment in which a solar system
works depends mostly on the solar energy availability. Therefore, this is analyzed in
some detail.

2.2 Basic Earth Sun Angles

In order to understand what follows for calculations of solar radiations, the definitions
of some of the basic terms are given.

Poles of the earth: The ends of the axis of rotation of the earth mark two important
points on the earth's surface. They are called the poles of the earth, one as North, while
the other as south.

Earth's Equator: It is an imaginary great circle normal to the earth's axis, dividing the
distance between the earth's poles along its surface into two equal parts. The equator
divides the earth into two hemispheres called Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Meridian: It is necessary to select some reference location on the earth for helping in
locating a particular position. The location of Royal Observatory Greenwich, outside of
London, has been universally accepted as a reference point. An imaginary great circle
passing through this point and the two poles, intersecting the equator at right angles, is
called the prime (or Greenwich) meridian. Similar great circles have been drawn at
intervals of 15° through the two poles.

Longitude: It is the angular distance of the location, measured east or west from the
prime meridian.

Basic Earth Sun angle: The position of a point P on the earth's surface with respect on
the sun's rays is known at any instant if the latitude (ϕ) and hour angle (ω) for the point,
and the sun's declination (δ) are known. These fundamental angles are shown by Fig.
2.2. Point P represents a location on the Northern hemisphere

Fig 2.2. Latitude, hour angle and sun's declination.

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Technical College - Baghdad By: Wisam Abd Mohammed

The latitude (ϕ) of a point on the surface of the earth is its angular distance north or.
south of the equator measured from the centre of the earth. It is the angle between the
line OP and the projection of OP on the equatorial plane. Point O represents the centre
of the earth.

The hour angle (ω) is the angle through which the earth must turn to .bring the
meridian of a point directly in line with the sun's rays. It is the angle measured in the
earth's equatorial plane between the projection of OP and the projection of a line from
the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth. At solar noon the hour angle is 0 and it
expresses the time of a day with respect to solar noon. It is measured positively
westward from the observer and it may be expressed in,

hours, minutes and seconds

degrees, minutes, radians

One hour is equivalent to 0.262  .,   15 and consequently

1  15, 4 1

The Sun's declination (δ): is the angular distance of the sun's rays north (or south) of
the equator. It is the angle between a line extending from the centre of the sun to the
centre of the earth, and the projection of this line upon the earth's equatorial plane.
This is the direct consequence of the tilt and it would vary between 23.5o on June 22, to
- 23.5° on December 22. At the time of winter solstice, the sun rays would be 23.5°
south of the earth's equator (δ = -23.5o) At the time of summer solstice ,the sun's rays
would be 23.5° north of the earth's equator (δ = 23 5°). At the equinoxes, the sun's
declination would be zero. Fig. 2.3 shows approximately the variation of the sun's
declination through the year.

Fig 2.3 Variation of sun's declination.

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The declination, in degrees, for any given day may be calculated from the approximate
equation:
23.45  360  (2.1)

where n is the day of the year, [e.g. June 21, 1980 is the 173th (31 + 29 + 31 + 30 + 31
+ 21) day of 1980, i.e. n = 173]. See Table 2.1.

Figure 2.4 Annual motion of the earth about the sun.

Figure 2.5 Annual changes in the sun’s position in the sky (northern hemisphere).

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Table 2.1 Day Number and Recommended Average Day for Each Month

2.3 Determination of Solar Time

All the values of time in solar energy computations are expressed in terms of apparent
solar time (this is also known as true solar time). Thus we would be required to convert
the clock time to the local solar time.

Greenwich meridian (zero longitude) is taken as reference for the time and time
reckoned from mid night is known as universal time or Greenwich civil time (GCT or
GMT). Such time is expressed on an hour scale from 0h to 24h.

Figure 2.6 Earth coordinate system.

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Local civil time (LCT or LMT) is reckoned from the longitude of the place on any
particular meridian. On a particular place LCT is more advanced than at a point
westward. The difference amounts to four minutes of time for each degree difference in
longitude.
Time as measured by the apparent diurnal motion of the sun is called Apparent Solar
Time or Solar Time. It is the time that would be shown by a sun dial whereas a civil
day is precisely 24 hours, a solar day is slightly different due to irregularities of the
earth's rotation, obliquity of the earth orbit and other factors, in other words due to the
elliptical shape of the earth's orbit and to its increase in velocity at the perihelicon, the
length of the apparent solar day, i.e. the interval between two successive passages of the
sun through the meridian, is not constant. Local civil time may deviate from true solar
time by as much as 4.5o because even if the length of any apparent solar day and its
corresponding mean solar day differ little, the effect is cumulative.
The difference between local solar time LST and local civil time LCT is called the
equation of time. Thus
LST = LCT+ Eq. of time (2.2)

Table 2.2 shows weekly values of the equation of time for the year 1958, along with the
values of the declination. For practical purposes, these values may be used for any year.
At a given locality, watch time may differ from civil time. Clocks are usually set for the
same reading through an entire zone covering about 15o of longitude. The time kept in
each zone is the local civil time of a selected meridian near the centre of the zone. Such
time is called standard time.
Local civil time is:
LCT = Standard time ± (Lst - Llocal) x 4 (2.3)
and solar time
LST = standard time + E ± (Lst -Llocal) x 4 (2.4)
(+ sign for west and - ve for east)
Where
E = the equation of time in minutes
Lst = the standard meridian for the local time zone,
Llocal = the longitude of the location in question in degrees west or east.
Positive sign is for western and negative sign for eastern hemisphere.

Fig. 2.6 Shows equation of time correction.

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Hence we conclude that the time specified in all the sun-angle relationship is solar time,
which does not coincide with the local clock time. It is necessary to convert standard
time to solar time by applying two corrections. First there is a constant correction for
any difference in longitude between the location and the meridian on which the local
standard time is based (e.g. 82.5oE for India). The second correction is from the
equation of time which takes into account the various perturbations in the earth's orbit
and the rate of rotation which affect the time, the sun appears to cross the observer's
meridian. This correction is obtained from published charts.

Table 2.2. Suns declination and equation of time.

Example 2.1
Determine the local solar time corresponding to 10:00 a.m. on February 8 for a location
India at 87.5° east longitude. The standard meridian for the local time zone is 82o.5'.
Solution

LCT = Slandered time - (Lst - Lloc) x 4 = 10.00 - (82.5 - 87.5) x 4

= 10.00 + 20' = 10:20 A.M.

From table (2.1), Eq. of time = - (14 min. 14 sec.)

LST = LCT+E = 10:20 - (14m 14s) = 10h 5m 46s

Example 2,2
Determine the LST and declination at Bhopal (latitude 23° 15' N, longitude 77° 30' E) at
12.30 on June 19. The standard meridian for the local time zone is 82o.30'.

Solution

LCT = standard time - (Lst - L1oc) x 4 = 12h 30m - (82° 30' - 77° 30') x 4
= 12h 30m - (5) x 4 = 12h 30m – 20m = 12:10

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Local solar time is given by

LST = LCT + Eq. of time
From Table (2.1), equation of time E can be interpolated.
For June 19, E = (1':01")
Hence
LST = 12h 10m - (1m 1s) = 12h 8m 59s

Declination δ can be found by using the equation,

284 284 170
23.45  360  23.45  360 
365 365

23.45  446 23.45 sin 86

23.45  0.9976 = 23.43o

2.4 Derived solar angles

Besides the three basic angles, latitude, hour angle and sun's declination, certain
additional angles are also useful in solar radiation analysis. If we stand at any place on
the earth, the sun appears to move from horizon to horizon, and if we trace the path of
the sun on the plane of the earth we get a semi-circular arc, as shown in Fig. 2.7. The
three additional angles are shown in figure and are defined as follows.

Altitude angle α (solar altitude): It is a vertical angle between the projection of the
sun's rays on the horizontal plane and the direction of sun's rays (passing through point).

Fig. 2.7. Definitions and suns zenith. Altitude and azimuth angles.

Zenith angle (θz): It is complementary angle of sun's altitude angle. It is a vertical angle
between the sun's rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point,
i.e. the angle between the beam from the sun and the vertical

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Solar azimuth angle γz: It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon east or west of
north or it is a horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal projection of the
sun's rays. This angle is positive when measured west wise.
The derived solar angles can be represented in terms of three basic angles.

Fig. 2.8 shows a coordinate system with the z-axis coincident with the earth's axis. The
xy-plane coincides with the earth's equatorial plane. The vector Hn representing the noon
sun's rays lie in the xy-plane. The vector PN pointing north from point P is
perpendicular to OP and lies in the plane containing OP and the z-axis.

Fig. 2.8. Relation of a point on the earth's surface to Sun's rays.

Let a1, bl and cl be the direction cosines of OP with respect to the x,y, and z-axes. Also
let a2, b2 and c2 be the corresponding direction cosine of Hn, thus

al = cos ϕ cos ω, bl = cos ϕ sin ω, cI = sin ϕ

a2 = cos δ, b2 = 0, c2 = sin δ

The sun's zenith angle θz is the angle between the vector OP and Hn. By a common
equation from the analytic geometry, we have

cos θz = ala2 + blb2 + cIc2

Thus cos θz = cos ϕ cos ω cos δ + sin ϕ sin δ
Since θz = π/2 - α, we may write
cos θz = sinα = cos θ cos ω cos δ + sin ϕ sin δ (2.5)

By similar methods, we may show that the sun's azimuth (γs) in Fig. 2.8 is given by the
relations,

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cos γs = sec α (cos ϕ sin δ - cos δ sin ϕ cos ω) (2.6)

and sin γs = sec α cos δ sin ω (2.7) 

Equations (2.5) to (2.7) allow calculation of the sun's zenith, altitude and azimuth
angles, if the declination, hour angle and latitude are known. If applying these
equations, attention must be given to correct signs for the latitude and declination
angles. If north latitudes are considered positive and south latitudes negative, the
declination will be positive for the summer period between the vernal equinox and
autumnal equinox (March 22 to September 22 approximately) and negative at other
times.
For non-horizontal surfaces, the other angles, such as incident angle slope angle, surface
azimuth angle etc. are important angles (Fig. 2.9).

Fig. 2.9. Schematic representation of the solar So, zenith angle θz, angle of incidence θ,
the solar altitude angle α and the surface azimuth angle γ.

Surface Azimuth angle (γ): It is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface
from the local meridian, the zero point being south, east positive and west negative.

Incident angle (θ) It is the angle being measured between the beam of rays and normal
to the plane.

Slope (s): The angle between the horizontal and the plane (i.e. the slope).

From spherical geometry the relation between θ and other angles is given by the
equation:

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cos θ = sin δ sin ϕ cos s - sin δ cos ϕ sin s cos y

+ cos δ cos ϕ cos s cos ω + cos δ sin ϕ sin s cos γ cos ω
+ cos δ sin s sin γ sin ω (2.8)

Where
ϕ = latitude (north positive)
δ = declination (north positive)
ω= hour angle, it is positive between solar mid night and noon, otherwise negative.

At solar noon ω being zero and each hour equating 15° of longitude with morning
positive and afternoon negative (e.g. ω = +15° for 11:00 and ω = -37.5° for (14;30) hour
angle ω can be expressed mathematically as :

                                         ω = 15 (12-LST)

In many cases, the equation relating these angles is simplified.

For example, for fixed flat plate collectors which face the equator, the last term drops
out. For vertical surfaces, s = 90° and the first and third terms drop out. For horizontal
surfaces where s = 0°, only the first and third terms remain and the angle of incidence
(i.e. zenith, angle of the sun) is

cos θz = sin δ sin ϕ cos s + cos δ cos ϕ cos s cos ω (2.9)

= sin α
i.e. cos θ = cos θz = sin α (2.10)

Useful relationship for the angle of incidence on surfaces sloped to the north or south
can be derived from the fact that surface with slope s to the north or south have the same
angular relationship to beam radiation on a horizontal surface at artificial latitude of
(ϕ - s). Modifying equation (2.9)

cos θT = cos (ϕ- s) cos δ cos ω + sin (ϕ - s) sin δ (2.11)

It is to be noted here that s, is measured from the horizontal to the plane of the surface in
equation, and is positive when slope is towards the south.

2.5. Sunrise, Sunset and Day Length

At the time of sunrise (or sunset), the zenith angle, θz = 90°. Substituting this in
equation (2.9),

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Sunrise hour angle,

                                                                                     (2.12)

The day length is

                          2  

                                                        (2.13)

Therefore, the length of the day is a function of latitude and solar declination.

The hour angle at sunrise or sunset on an inclined surface ωst' will be lesser than the
value obtained by equation (2.12) if the corresponding incidence angle comes out to be
more than 90°. Under this condition, by putting θ = 90o in Equation (3.8.4), or one of its
simpler versions. Thus, for an inclined surface facing south, substituting θ= 90°, in
equation (2.8), we obtain
tan    (2.14)

The corresponding day length (in hours) is then given by

                                       tan    (2.15)

From equation (2.8) we can derive for south facing surface

cos θT = cos (ϕ- s) cos δ cos ω + sin (ϕ - s) sin δ (2.15)

Example 2.3
Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with normal to a fiat plate collector on
December 1, at 9.00 AM. solar time for a location at 28° 35' N. The collector is tilted at
an angle of latitude plus 10°, with the horizontal and is pointing due south.
Solution
γ = 0, since collector is pointing due south.
Equation applicable is,

cos θT = cos (ϕ- s) cos δ cos ω + sin (ϕ - s) sin δ (i)

Declination on December 1 (n = 335), can be obtained by:

284 284 335
23.45  360  23.45  360  22,11
365 365

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Hour angle ω corresponding to 9.00 hr = 45°

Substituting these values in equation (i),

cos θT = cos (28.58° - 38.58°) cos (-22.11°) cos 45° + sin (-22.11°) sin (28.58° - 38.58°)
= cos 10° cos 22.11° cos 45° + sin 22.11° sin 10°
= 0.6451 + 0.0653 = 0.7104
θT = 44.72°

Example 2.4
Calculate the sun's altitude angle and azimuth angle at 7:30 a.m. solar time on August1
for a location at 40 degrees north latitude.
Solution
Given data ϕ = 40° N
                            ω = 15 x (12-7.5) = 67° 30'
Declination can be found by

23.45  360  23.45  360  = 23.45 x 0.7638 = 17.91°

cos θz = sin α = cos ϕ cos δ cos ω + sin ϕ sin δ

Total altitude angle α:
sin α = cos 40 cos 17.91° cos 67.5 + sin 40 sin 18.75
= 0.7660 x 0.9515 x 0.3827 + 0.6428 x 0.3075 = 0.4766
α = 28.46°
Solar azimuth angle (γs)
Sin γs = sec α cos δ sin ω
= sec 28.93 cos 17.91 sin 67.5
= 1.1374 x 0.9515 x 0.9238 = 0.9998
γs = 88,85°

Example 2.5
Determine the solar time and azimuth angle for sunrise on August 1, for a location of
40° N latitude.
Solution
At sunrise or, sunset α = 0, we have the equation

sin α = cos ϕ cos δ cos ωs + sin ϕ sin δ

cos ωs = - tan ϕ tan δ

δ = 17.91o as calculated in example 2.4

cos ωs = - tan 40 tan 17.91 = 0.3231 x 0.8990
= 105.73°
Sunrise occurs at 105.73/15 = 7.048 hours prior to solar noon or at 4:32 a.m. solar time
and sunset occurs at 7:28 p.m. solar time.

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Azimuth angle γs for sunrise, i.e. α = 0

sin γs = sec α cos δ sin ω
= cos δ sin ω
= cos 17.91 sin 105.73°
= 0.9625 x 0.9576 = 0.92119
γs = 67.174 east of north

Example 2.6
Calculate the day length at location (latitude 28° 35' N, longitude = 77° 12' E). on
December 1.
Solution
Day length is given by the expression
2
 
15

Declination 0 on Dec. 1 (i.e. n = 335)

284 284 335

23.45  360  23.45  360  22.107
365 365
2 2 77
28,58  tan  22.107 10.3 
15 15

2.1 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

The amount of solar energy per unit time, at the mean distance of the earth from the sun,
received on a unit area of a surface normal to the sun (perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the radiation) outside the atmosphere is called the solar constant, Isc.
This quantity is difficult to measure from the surface of the earth because of the effect
of the atmosphere.

Solar constant Isc= 1353 W/m2 = 4871 kJ/m2 = 1165 kcal/hr m2

The total radiation, Ho, incident on an extraterrestrial horizontal surface during a day
can be obtained by equation

24 360  2
1 0.033       
365 360

Where
Ho = the average monthly insolation at the top of the atmosphere
Isc = solar constant per hour
n = day of the years
ωs = sunrise hour angle

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Estimation of average solar radiation on the earth

The average solar radiation is

Where
Hav = monthly average horizontal solar radiation
n = average daily hours of bright sunshine for same period
N = maximum daily hours of bright sunshine for the same period, or N = day length Td
a and b = the modified constants depending upon the location.

Constant a and b for various locations and climate conditions can be obtained from
slandered tables.

Example
Determine the value of Hav over a horizontal surface for June 22, at the latitude of 10o
N, if a = 0.3, b = 0.51 and n/N = 0.55.
Solution
24 360  2
1 0.033       
365 360
δ = +23.5o (on June 22)
Sunrise hour angle,
  10  23.5 0.1767 0.4348  
= 0.0766
94.39

n = 172 for June 22

24 360  172
1 0.033  10  23.5  94.39
3.14 365
2 3.14 94.39
10  23.5
360
24
    1 0.033  9.837 0.9848 0.9171 0.997 1.65 0.1736
3.14
0.3987

24
0.9816
3.14
The value of Isc is 1353 W/m2

1353 0.9816 = 10143 W/m2 day

.

10143 0.3 0.51 0.55 5883  /

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