1- NATIONAL COMPUTER TRAINING INSTITUTE

NATIONAL COMPUTER training INSTITUTE

AT
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FUNDAMENTAL
REG.BY J&K GOVT UNDER THE TRUST

ACT NO 51 OF SVT.1977 (1920 A.D)

MOB-9622266858-9469590108

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T oday’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers.

Purpose of notes is introduce about computer and its fundamentals.

COMPUTER: Commonly Operating Machine Personally Used For Education and Research
Father of Computer:-Charles Babbage

Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.

 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

 Generates the output

 Controls all the above four steps.

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.

Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months for doing
the same task.

Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been given.

Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card
game.

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Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can control the
program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in
speeding up a process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of
paper files gets reduced.

Reduction in Cost
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its
transaction.

Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena.
NoI.Q
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being.

Environment
 The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a human being.

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Applications
F ollowing list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which made it an integrated
part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for:
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employees database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.

Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance companies, finance
houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
 procedure to continue with policies
 starting date of the policies
 next due installment of a policy
 maturity date
 interests due
 survival benefits
 bonus

Education
 The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing
 In marketing, uses of computer are following:
 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print
and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerised catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers


Health Care

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Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different
diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug’s side effects etc.
 Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
 Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
 One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of images.
Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets,
Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range
of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military
 Computers are largely used in defence. modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also employs computerised
control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
 Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood clearly
and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this category are:
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government
 Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

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Generations
Computer Generations

G eneration in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the

generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation
includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with
their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned which
are normally accepted.

Following are the main five Generation and Description

generations of computers S.N.
1 First Generation The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube
based.
2 Second Generation The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor
based.
3 Third Generation The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit
based.
4 Fourth Generation The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI
microprocessor based.
5 Fifth Generation The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards.ULSI
microprocessor based

First Generation

of
-
- -650

Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used that were cheaper,
consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of
vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic
disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages
like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.

UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used integrated circuits (IC's) in
place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this

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generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-level languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

-lev
IBM- - - -316

Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal
computer (PC) revolution. In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were
used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

Great
- -X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is
an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like
human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.

powerful and co

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Types
C omputers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

. Sr. No. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal Computer) It is a single user computer system
having moderately powerful
microprocessor
2 WorkStation It is also a single user computer
system which is similar to personal
computer but have more powerful
microprocessor.
3 Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system
which is capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously.
4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system
which is capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously.
Software technology is different from
minicomputer.
PC 5 Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer which
can execute hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

(Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based on
the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked
together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive,
but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also
single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also
be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
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Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even
thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many
simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive
and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical
prospecting).

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Components
A ll types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic

operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users

Sr. No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into
the computer system.
2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they are
available for processing as and when required.
3 Processing Data Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on
data in order to convert them into useful
information.
4 Output Information The process of producing useful information or
results for the user, such as a printed report or
visual display.
5 Control the workflow Directs the manner and sequence in which all of
the above operations are

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user
and computer. The input devices translate the information into the form understandable by computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores
data, intermediate results and instructions(program).It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory Unit Control Unit

Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link
between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by
users.

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CPU –Central Processing Unit

C PU consists of the following features:

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).

It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

o Memory or Storage Unit:
o Control Unit
o ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access
memory(RAM).
 Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in
the computer. Functions of memory unit are:
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.


Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
 Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above operations.
Logic Section
 Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of
data.

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Input Devices
F ollowing are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Joy Stick
o Light pen
o Track Ball
o Scanner
o Graphic Tablet
o Microphone
o Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
o Optical Character Reader(OCR)
o Bar Code Reader
o Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the computer. The layout of
the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional
functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available
for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows: Keys Description

Sr. No.
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and
digit keys (0-9) which generally give same
layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor
movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the
keyboard which are arranged in a row at the
top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen
control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End,
Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keys Keyboard also contains some special
purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round
ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are
pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse can be used to
control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
Not very expensive 
o Easy to use

Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

o

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Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a
spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be
moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and
playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light
pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball
which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a
track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is
available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner
captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc.
These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from
the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or
Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is
used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used for various
applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed every day. The
bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character, converts them
into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is
generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in
a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is
then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

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Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where
one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions.

Output Devices
F 
ollowing are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer


Monitors


Graphic Plotter
Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images
from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.


There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.


Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image
clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the
word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of
character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable


of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT


Large in Size
High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
 The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel
displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.



The flat-panel display is divided into two categories
Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Example are


plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some
other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

Printers


Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.


There are two types of printers


Impact Printers


Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following
o Very low consumable costs

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o Very noisy
o Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
o There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image


These printers are of two types
Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.


These are further divided into two types


Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their
ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a
Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix
Printer.
Advantages
o Inexpensive
o Widely Used
o Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
o Slow Speed
o Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that is why it is
called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few
letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages


More reliable than DMP


Better quality
The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages


Slower than DMP


Noisy
More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of further two types

Drum Printer

Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into number of tracks.
Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character
set is embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96
characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines
per minute.
Advantages
Very high speed

Disadvantages
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Very expensive

Characters’ fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may have 48,
64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.

Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages
Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so
they are also called as Page Printers.


These printers are of two types


Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers



Faster than impact printers.


They are not noisy.


High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages


Very high speed


Very high quality output


Give good graphics quality
Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages


Expensive.
Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet Printers
 Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by


spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available.
Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable

Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

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Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the

storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The
memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which
varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 *
1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.


Memory is primarily of three types


Cache Memory


Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU
and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of
data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows


Cache memory is faster than main memory.


It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.


It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited capacity and
data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as
registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories
RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory


These are semiconductor memories.


It is known as main memory.


Usually volatile memory.


Data is lost in case power is switched off.


It is working memory of the computer.


Faster than secondary memories.
A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
 This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are
used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main
memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD
etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.


It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.

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

Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.


It is used for storage of data in a computer.


Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.

Random Access Memory

R AM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is

read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as
other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup
uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the
amount of data it can hold.


RAM is of two types


Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

 The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is
lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.


Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space,
thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long life


There is no need to refresh


Faster


Used as cache memory


Large size


Expensive


High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime


Need to be refreshed continuously


Slower as compared to SRAM


Used as RAM


Lesser in size


Less expensive
Less power consumption

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Read Only Memory

R OM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of

memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such
instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in
the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired
contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It
can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is
retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed
through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz
lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:


Non-volatile in nature


These cannot be accidentally changed


Cheaper than RAMs


Easy to test


More reliable than RAMs


These are static and do not require refreshing
Its contents are always known and can be verified

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Motherboard
T he motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A motherboard

connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or
via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features:
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to function properly.
 Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
 Intel ASUS AOpen ABIT Biostar Gigabyte MSI

Description of Motherboard
 The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU whereas
for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive,
and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
 There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards and other
expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.
 On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and
network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-
in/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital cameras etc.

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Memory Units
M
emory unit is:


The amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
That in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Sr. No. Unit Description

1 Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a
passive or an active state of a component in an
electric circuit.
2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
3 Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the
smallest unit which can represent a data item or a
character.
4 Word A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed
number of bits processed as a unit which varies
from computer to computer but is fixed for each
computer. The length of a computer word is called
word-size or word length and it may be as small as
8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer
stores the information in the form of computer
words.
Few higher storage units are following..

Sr. No. Unit Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

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Ports
What is a Port?

A 
port:


is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.
can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to computer or over the
internet.

Characteristics
A port has the following characteristics.


External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.


Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports.

Serial Port


Used for external modems and older computer mouse


Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port


Used for scanners and printers


Also called printer port


25 pin model
Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port


Used for old computer keyboard and mouse


Also called mouse port


Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.


It was introduced in 1997.


Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.


Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds


USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.


Has 15 holes.
Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket

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Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment’s to the computer


Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds


Invented by Apple
Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector

Modem Port
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port


Connects to a network and high speed Internet.


Connect network cable to a computer.


This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.

Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

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Hardware
H ardware represents the physical and tangible components of

a computer i.e. the components that can be seen and touched.


Examples of Hardware are following:


Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.


Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.


Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to make a


computer produce a useful output.


Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.


Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.


To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware


Hardware is a one-time expense.


Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.


Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.


A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to each other.

Characteristics of Operating System

Memory Management -- keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use etc.
and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.

Processor Management -- allocates the processor(CPU) to a process and deallocates processor when it is no longer
required.

Device Management -- keeps track of all devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides which process gets the
device, when, and for how much time.

File Management -- allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.

Security -- prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and similar other techniques.

Job accounting -- keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.

Control over system performance -- records delays between request for a service and from the system.

Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form of instructions.
Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action and informs the operation by a display screen.

Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and error-detecting methods.

Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers
and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

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Software
S oftware is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of

instructions written to solve a particular problem.


There are two types of software


System Software
Application Software

System Software
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the
computer itself. System software are generally prepared by computer manufactures. These software products comprise of
programs written in low-level languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers etc.


Features of system software are as follows


Close to system


Fast in speed


Difficult to design


Difficult to understand


Less interactive


Smaller in size


Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
 Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software


applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple
text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to
accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.


Examples of Application software are following


Payroll Software


Student Record Software


Inventory Management Software


Income Tax Software


Railways Reservation Software


Microsoft Office Suite Software


Microsoft Word


Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Powerpoint


Features of application software are as follows


Close to user


Easy to design


More interactive


Slow in speed


Generally written in high-level language


Easy to understand


Easy to manipulate and use
Bigger in size and requires large storage space

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