CHEMISTRY ASSIGNMENT

Name-Sunidhi Mohapatra

Section-A21

Roll no.-2028037

Topic-Commercial cells
FUEL CELL:-
Fuel cell, any of a class of devices that
convert the chemical energy of a fuel
directly
into electricity by electrochemical
reactions. A fuel cell resembles
a battery in many respects, but it can
supply electrical energy over a much longer
period of time. This is because a fuel cell is
continuously supplied with fuel and air (or
oxygen) from an external source, whereas a
battery contains only a limited amount of fuel
material and oxidant that are depleted with
use. For this reason fuel cells have been used
for decades in space probes, satellites, and
manned spacecraft. Around the world thousands
of stationary fuel cell systems have been
installed in utility power plants, hospitals,
schools, hotels, and office buildings for both
primary and backup power; many waste-treatment
plants use fuel cell technology to generate
power from the methane gas produced by
decomposing garbage. Numerous municipalities
in Japan, Europe, and the United States lease
fuel cell vehicles for public
transportation and for use by service
personnel. Personal fuel cell vehicles were
first sold in Germany in 2004.
TYPES OF FUEL CELL

ALKANINE FUEL CELL

These are devices that, by definition, have an

aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. The fuel is
almost always hydrogen gas, with oxygen (or oxygen in
air) as the oxidizer. However, zinc or aluminum could
be used as an anode if the by-product oxides were
efficiently removed and the metal fed continuously as a
strip or as a powder. Fuel cells generally operate at less
than 100 °C (212 °F) and are constructed of metal and
certain plastics. Electrodes are made of carbon and a
metal such as nickel. Water, as a reaction product, must
be removed from the system, usually by evaporation from the
electrolyte either through the electrodes or in a separate
evaporator. The operating support system presents a
significant design problem. The strong, hot alkaline
electrolyte attacks most plastics and tends to penetrate
structural seams and joints. This problem has been
overcome, however, and alkaline fuel cells are used on the
U.S. space shuttle orbiters. Overall efficiencies range
from 30 to 80 percent, depending on the fuel and oxidizer
and on the basis for the calculation.

CONSTRUCTION:-

WORKING:-
An alkaline fuel cell is a device that converts oxygen
(from the air) and hydrogen (from a supply) into electrical
energy and heat. It’s chemically comparable to a battery
that will provide electric power continuously, as long as
you feed it with hydrogen and air. The only by-products are
demineralised water and heat – both of which also have
commercial uses. Excluding water, an alkaline fuel cell is
a zero emission device. One major component of all fuel
cells is the electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution that
is able to conduct electricity. In an alkaline fuel cell
the electrolyte is an alkaline liquid: in this case,
potassium hydroxide also known as KOH. The presence of the
hydroxyl ions travelling across the electrolyte allow a
circuit to be made and electrical energy can be extracted.

REACTION:-
The fuel cell produces power through redox reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen. At the anode, hydrogen is oxydized according to the
reaction

Producing water and releasing electrons. The electron flow through

the external circuit and return to the cathode, reducing oxygen in
the reaction

Producing hydrogen ions.

APPLICATION:
Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications,
including transportation, material handling, stationary,
portable, and emergency backup power applications. Fuel
cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-
based technologies currently used in many power plants and
passenger vehicles.

(i) POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that directly

converts the chemical energy of reactants (a fuel and an
oxidant) into electricity. In this way, the intrinsic
efficiency of such an electrochemical converter is not
subject to the Carnot limitation and can be much higher
than conventional thermal engines. The emission of air
pollutants will be significantly minimised.

PRINCIPLE & CONSTRUCTION:-

Hydrogen is catalytically oxidized at the anode to give
protons and electrons. Since the electrolyte is a non-
electronic conductor, the electrons flow away from the
anode via the external circuit to the cathode. The protons
pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, where the
oxygen gas reacts with the incoming electrons and protons
to produce water.

WORKING & REACTION:-

Anodic reaction: H2 → 2 H+ + 2e- E0anode = 0
Cathodic reaction: ½O2 + 2e- + 2H+ → H2O E0cathode = 1.229 V
Overall reaction: H2 + ½O2 → 2H2O E0cell = 1.229 V

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL:-

The SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte.
Advantages of this class of fuel cells include high
combined heat and power efficiency, long-term
stability, fuel flexibility, low emissions, and
relatively low cost.

CONSTRUCION:-
Solid oxide fuel cells can be mainly grouped into tubular
and planar designs. Both types can consist of one or
several single cells per stacking unit, i.e., on a single
tube or in a single multilayer. Depending on the
application, tubular SOFCs have dimensions from needle-like
to lengths of about 1.5–2 m for rapid start-up times and
large gross power, respectively. On the other hand, the
planar is the most common SOFC design thanks to its higher
performance. This architecture can lead to two different
stacks containing metallic or ceramic interconnect material
as well as with cells with thick (electrolyte-supported,
1st generation cells) or thin (electrode-supported, 2nd
generation cells) membranes with thicknesses usually of
150–250 µm and 5–20 µm, respectively The size of
technologically relevant planar cells varies from 10 ×
10 cm2 to 25 × 25 cm2 or corresponding areas in round
or rectangular shape.
The today general tendency of reducing the operating
temperature from about 1000°C to 500–800°C favors cell
designs with thin electrolytes, lower ohmic resistance and,
therefore, higher power density, passing from the 1st to
the 2nd generation of cells (as schematized in Fig. 2).
For this reason, many developers have considered electrode-
supported cells the best choice for realizing SOFCs
operating at reduced temperature.

REACTION:-
WORKING:-
A molten carbonate fuel cell consist of two flow field
plates an anode a molten carbonate electrolyte and a
cathode hydrogen is directly through channels through the
flow field and feed into anode or negative charged
electrode.
Oxygen of carbondioxide feed into the caathode of positive
charged electrode.

MODERN BATTRIES

A battery is a device that converts chemical

energy contained within its active materials
directly into electric energy by means of
an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox)
reaction. This type of reaction involves the
transfer of electrons from one material to another
via an electric circuit.
1. Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are batteries that cannot be
recharged once depleted. Primary batteries are made of
electrochemical cells whose electrochemical reaction cannot
be reversed.
2. Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteries are batteries with electrochemical
cells whose chemical reactions can be reversed by applying
a certain voltage to the battery in the reversed direction.
Also referred to as rechargeable batteries, secondary
cells unlike primary cells can be recharged after the
energy on the battery has been used up.

TYPES OF MODERN BATTRIES :-

(i) ZINC AIR BATTERY
Zinc–air batteries (non-rechargeable), and zinc–air fuel
cells (mechanically rechargeable) are metal–air batteries
powered by oxidizing zinc with oxygen from the air. These
batteries have high energy densities and are relatively
inexpensive to produce. Sizes range from very small button
cells for hearing aids, larger batteries used in film
cameras that previously used mercury batteries, to very
large batteries used for electric vehicle propulsion and
grid-scale
Primary (non-rechargeable)
Cross section diagram with parts lettered
Cross section through a zinc–air button cell. A:Separator,
B: zinc powder anode and electrolyte, C: anode can, D:
insulator gasket, E: cathode can, F: air hole, G: cathode
catalyst and current collector, H:air distribution layer,
I: Semi permeable membrane
Large zinc–air batteries, with capacities up to 2,000
ampere–hours per cell, are used to power navigation
instruments and marker lights, oceanographic experiments
and railway signals.
Button cells are highly effective, but it is difficult to
extend the same construction to larger sizes due to air
diffusion performance, heat dissipation, and leakage
problems. Prismatic and cylindrical cell designs address
these problems. Stacking prismatic cells requires air
channels in the battery and may require a fan to force air
through the stack.energy storage.
Secondary (rechargeable)
Rechargeable zinc–air cells require zinc precipitation
from the water-based electrolyte to be closely controlled.
Challenges include dendrite formation, non-uniform zinc
dissolution and limited solubility in electrolytes.
Electrically reversing the reaction at a bi-functional air
cathode, to liberate oxygen from discharge reaction
products, is difficult; membranes tested to date have low
overall efficiency. Charging voltage is much higher than
discharge voltage, producing cycle energy efficiency as low
as 50%. Providing charge and discharge functions by
separate uni-functional cathodes increases cell size,
weight and complexity.

REACTION:-

Anode: Zn + 4OH− → Zn(OH)42− +

2e− (E0 = －1.25 V)
Fluid: Zn(OH)42− → ZnO + H2O + 2OH−
Cathode: 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e− →
2OH− (E0 = 0.34 V pH＝11)
Overall: 2Zn + O2 → 2ZnO (E0 =
1.59 V)

APPLICATION:-
Vehicle propulsion
Metallic zinc could be used as an alternative fuel
for vehicles, either in a zinc–air battery[18] or
to generate hydrogen near the point of use. Zinc's
characteristics have motivated considerable interest as an
energy source for electric vehicles. Gulf General Atomic
demonstrated a 20 kW vehicle battery. General Motors
conducted tests in the 1970s. Neither project led to a
commercial product.
In addition to liquid, pellets could be formed that are
small enough to pump. Fuel cells using pellets would be
able to quickly replace zinc-oxide with fresh zinc metal.
The spent material can be recycled. The zinc–air cell is a
primary cell (non-rechargeable); recycling is required to
reclaim the zinc; much more energy is required to reclaim
the zinc than is usable in a vehicle.

Grid storage
The Eos Energy System battery is about half the size of a
shipping container and provides 1 MWh of storage. Con
Edison, National Grid, Enel and GDF SUEZ began testing the
battery for grid storage. Con Edison and City University of
New York are testing a zinc-based battery from Urban
Electric Power as part of a New York State Energy Research
and Development Authority program.

(ii) NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE BATTERY

A nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH or Ni–MH) is

a type of rechargeable battery. The chemical
reaction at the positive electrode is similar to
that of the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd), with both
using nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH). However, the
negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy
instead of cadmium. A NiMH battery can have two to
three times the capacity of an equivalent size
NiCd, and its energy density can approach that of a
lithium-ion battery.
CONSTRUCTION

REACTION:-

The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH

cell is :-
H2O + M + e− ⇌ OH− + MH
on the positive electrode
Ni(OH)2 + OH− ⇌ NiO(OH) + H2O + e−

APPLICATION:-
Consumer electronics
NiMH batteries have replaced NiCd for many roles,
notably small rechargeable batteries. NiMH
batteries are commonly available in AA (penlight-
size) batteries. These have nominal charge
capacities (C) of 1.1–2.8 Ah at 1.2 V, measured at
the rate that discharges the cell in 5 hours.
Useful discharge capacity is a decreasing function
of the discharge rate, but up to a rate of around
1×C (full discharge in 1 hour), it does not differ
significantly from the nominal capacity.[23] NiMH
batteries nominally operate at 1.2 V per cell,
somewhat lower than conventional 1.5 V cells, but
can operate many devices designed for that voltage.

Electric vehicles
NiMH batteries were frequently used in prior-
generation electric and hybrid-electric vehicles;
as of 2020 have been superseded almost entirely
with lithium batteries in all-electric and plug-in
hybrid vehicles, but they remain in use in some
hybrid vehicles (2020 Toyota Highlander, for
example).

LITHIUM ION BATTERY

A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is an advanced
battery technology that uses lithium ions as a key
component of its electrochemistry. During a
discharge cycle, lithium atoms in the anode are
ionized and separated from their electrons. The
lithium ions move from the anode and pass through
the electrolyte until they reach the cathode,
where they recombine with their electrons and
electrically neutralize. The lithium ions are
small enough to be able to move through a micro-
permeable separator between the anode and cathode.
In part because of lithium’s small size (third
only to hydrogen and helium), Li-ion batteries are
capable of having a very high voltage and charge
storage per unit mass and unit volume.
Li-ion batteries can use a number of different
materials as electrodes. The most common
combination is that of lithium cobalt oxide
(cathode) and graphite (anode), which is most
commonly found in portable electronic devices such
as cellphones and laptops. Other cathode materials
include lithium manganese oxide (used in hybrid
electric and electric automobiles) and lithium
iron phosphate. Li-ion batteries typically use
ether (a class of organic compounds) as an
electrolyte

CONSTRUCTION
The three primary functional components of a
lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative
electrodes and electrolyte. Generally, the negative
electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is
made from carbon. The positive electrode is
typically a metal oxide. The electrolyte is a
lithium salt in an organic solvent.[93] The
electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse
between anode and cathode, depending on the
direction of current flow through the cell.

The most commercially popular anode (negative

electrode) is graphite, which in its fully
lithiated state of LiC6 correlates to a maximal
capacity of 372 mAh/g. The positive electrode is
generally one of three materials: a layered oxide
(such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such
as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as
lithium manganese oxide). Recently, graphene
containing electrodes (based on 2D and 3D
structures of graphene) have also been used as
components of electrodes for lithium batteries.

The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic

carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl
carbonate containing complexes of lithium
ions.These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use
non-coordinating anion salts such as lithium
hexafluorophosphate.
Depending on materials choices, the voltage, energy
density, life, and safety of a lithium-ion battery
can change dramatically. Current effort has been
exploring the use of novel architectures using
nanotechnology have been employed to improve
performance. Areas on interest include nano-scale
electrode materials and alternative electrode
structures.
Pure lithium is highly reactive. It reacts
vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide
(LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous
electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed
container rigidly excludes moisture from the
battery pack.

REACTION:-
APPLICATION
As established above, Li-ion batteries are available in all
shapes and sizes. And that renders them to be the perfect
option for power needs irrespective of the size of the
system. Along with that, lithium-ion batteries offer power
solutions across the spectrum- from energy storage
solutions to portable energy solutions. Some of the most
common applications of lithium-ion batteries are:

1. Power backups/UPS
2. Mobile, Laptops, and other commonly used
consumer electronic goods
3. Electric mobility
4. Energy Storage Systems
As there are varied uses of a Lithium Ion Battery,
it comes in different types of packaging. However,
there are some general advantages of using a Li-ion
battery
over other traditional batteries.
 CONCLUSION

The brief introduction to commercial cells was given