CFBT Glossary

Glossary
Items: 91 Entries (Including Introduction)
Duration: 7 minutes 35 seconds
Glossary to terms relevant to Reading Fire

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3D Firefighting Techniques
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The objective is to place water into the compartment in a manner that cools the accumulated smoke and/or
linings to prevent or delay ignition of the unburnt fuel component in the smoke. It can also be used to
extinguish the flame by interrupting the chemical process through cooling, inerting and displacement of
oxygen.
This must be followed up with the direct application of water to the burning surfaces (2D).

3D Zone Control
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The strategy of 3D Zone Control, introduced by Shan Raffel, is intended to improve the safety of
firefighters operating inside a burning structure. It attempts to safeguard the immediate locality of any
space occupied by firefighters in resorting to various defensive actions that (a) confine the fire; (b) remove
combustion products safely and effectively; or (c) mitigate dangers in the hot-gas layers. The overall
tactical objective is to provide more permanent levels of protection in structural compartments (safe zones),
from which firefighters may operate in various fire & rescue roles.

Active Cooling
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The process of using external methods or devices (e.g., hand and forearm immersion, misting fans, ice vests) to reduce
elevated core body temperature

Air-track
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The route by which the air enters the structure to the fire and the subsequent path the heated smoke takes to
exit the structure.
This term was used by Krister Gieselsson around 1974. More recently referred to as the Flow
Path after UL research.

Auto Ignition Temperature (AIT)
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The temperature at which a gas/air mixture will self ignite. As the temperature increases the Lower
Flammable Limit (LFL) will approach zero.

Backdraft (UK Backdraught)
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The closest definition to date is perhaps 'the explosive or rapid burning of heated gases (unburnt pyrolysis
products) that occurs when oxygen has been introduced into a compartment or building that has a depleted
supply of oxygen due to an existing fire'. However, there is also a further range of conditions that have been
associated under this definition such as 'smoke explosion' and 'blow-torch' effect as examples that may not
necessarily require the addition of oxygen for such phenomena to occur.
A fire phenomenon caused when heat and heavy smoke (unburned fuel particles) accumulate inside a
compartment, depleting the available air, and then oxygen/air is re-introduced, completing the fire triangle
and causing rapid combustion.

Buffer Zone
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The creation of a 'buffer-zone' implies the use of 3D defensive actions to reduce potential for an ignition of
fire gases in the immediate area of a structure occupied by firefighters. This may create a temporary and
more local zone of safety for firefighters, although offering far less protection than a 'safe-zone'.
See safe zone and kill zone

Burning Regimes
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1. Fuel controlled
2. Ventilation controlled
3. Stoichiometric.

Chain Carriers
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The molecules of oxygen and fuel are triggered into a chemical reaction by an ignition (heat energy)
source. This releases high energy particles know as “chain carriers” and combustion products. The chain
carriers then go on to trigger the reaction of other fuel and oxygen molecules resulting in a “chain
reaction” .
The molecules of oxygen and fuel are triggered into a chemical reaction by an ignition (heat energy)
source. This releases high energy particles know as “chain carriers” and combustion products. The chain
carriers then go on to trigger the reaction of other fuel and oxygen molecules resulting in a “chain
reaction” .

Chain reaction
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See Chain carriers

Coanda Effect
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is the phenomena in which a jet flow attaches itself to a nearby surface and remains
attached even when the surface curves away from the initial jet direction. In free
surroundings, a jet of fluid entrains and mixes with its surroundings as it flows away from
a nozzle.

Cognitive Resource Management.
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Crazing (of glass)
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Defensive Pressurisation (DP)
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Defensive Ventilation Tactic
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Ventilation performed away from the fire compartment to improve conditions in adjacent smoke laden
areas. The objective is to provide a safe zone to improve the tenability of access and escape routes.

Deflagratrion
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Deflagration <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflagration>: An explosion with a propagation front
traveling at subsonic speeds, as compared to supersonic detonation
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detonation>.

Detonation
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Deflagration <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflagration>: An explosion with a
propagation front traveling at subsonic speeds, as compared to supersonic detonation
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detonation>.

Diffusion flame
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Most flames in a fire are diffusion flames - the principal characteristic of a diffusion flame is that the fuel
and oxidiser (air) are initially separate and combustion occurs in the zone where the gases mix.

Direct attack
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A form of fire attack in which hoses are advanced to the fire inside a structure and hose streams directed at
the burning materials.

Door Entry Techniques
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Restrict air supply to the fire by keeping the door/opening closed until hose lines are in place.
Cool the linings above and around the door and leave a film of water if possible.
Suspend water droplets (3D flame trap) above the opening immediately before it is opened.
Open in a controlled manner (narrow)
Place water into the over pressure to reduce temperature and produce dry steam.

Endothermic reaction
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Exothermic reaction
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External Attack - strategy
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When is it not possible to make direct internal attack, or a risk benefit analysis indicates it
is not viable, tools and techniques are deployed from an external position with the
objective of protecting exposures, cutting off fire spread and final extinction of the fire.

Fire Gas Ignition
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Fire point
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Temperature at which materials give off flammable gases that will sustain fire, typically higher than flash
point. Temperature at flashover.

Fire Point
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The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will
continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the flash point,
a lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a
rate to sustain the fire.

Fire Tetrahedron
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is a four-sided geometric representation of the four factors necessary for fire: fuel (any
substance that can undergo combustion), heat (heat energy sufficient to release vapor
from the fuel and cause ignition), oxidizing agent (air containing oxygen), and
uninhibited chemical chain reaction (sufficient exothermic reaction energy to produce
ignition). The fuel/air ratio must within flammable limits, which describes the amount of
vapor in air necessary to propagate flame. Removing any of these four factors will
prevent, suppress, or control the fire.
See Fire triangle, chain carriers

Flaming Combustion
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is a rapid chemical reaction (“oxidation”) in which a fuel combines with a supporter of combustion
(usually oxygen). This chemical reaction releases heat and light (flame). The heat
produced by combustion is sufficient to maintain the reaction.

Flammable range, limits
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The percentage mixture of fumes with air that will sustain fire; outside the limits the mixture is either too
lean or too rich to burn.

Flash point
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Lowest temperature at which a material will emit vapor combustible in air mixture. Lower than fire point of
same material.

Flashover
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• The current accepted definition is use in Great Britain is: In a compartment fire there can come a stage
where the total thermal radiation from the fire plume, hot gases and hot compartment boundaries cause
the radiative ignition of all exposed combustible surfaces within the compartment. This sudden and
sustained transition of a growing fire to a fully developed fire is flashover.
• British Standard Definition is: Sudden transition to a state of total surface involvement in a fire of
combustible materials within a compartment.
• The International Standards Organisation (ISO) definition is: The rapid transition to a state of total
surface involvement in a fire of combustible materials within an enclosure.

Flow Path
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See Air-track

Forced Ventilation
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“Vertical and horizontal ventilation when mechanical means are used to accelerate the
effects of natural ventilation in removing the hot gases and smoke.”

Fuel Controlled Burning Regime
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Gas Cooling or 3D Water-Fog
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Branch technique where water spray in correct quantities can result in contraction of the gases without the
over production of steam. May assist as a control measure in small compartment. This is not an
extinguishing technique because it is still essential to apply water to the surfaces.

Glass breakage temperatures
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Glass breakage temperate is in fact, very difficult to predict when glass will actually break enough to
fall out in a real fire. The Russian recommendation of 300ºC appears to be a reasonable lower
bound for the gas temperature required for breakage. The BRI study can be taken to indicate that 3
mm window glass will break at a gas temperature of around 360ºC. For thicker, 4-6 mm glass, the
mean temperature of breakage would appear to be around 450ºC, although the difference between the
thinner and the thicker glass results seems rather larger than one would surmise. Doubleglazed
windows using 6 mm glass can be expected to break out at about 600ºC. Tempered-glass in not likely
to break out until after room flashover has been reached. In terms of external fires, at a heat flux of 9
kW m-2 some experimental results on ordinary glass showed the possibility of fallout, but the
probability of fallout does not become high until about 35 kW m-2 is reached. Double-glazed windows
can resist approximately 25 kW m-2 without fall-out. Tempered glass is able to resist fluxes of 43 kW
m-2, at least under some conditions. Factors such as window size, frame type, glass thickness, glass
defects, and vertical temperature gradient may all be expected to have an effect on glass fall-out. Over-
pressure due to gas explosions is an obvious glass failure mechanism. Yet, normal fires do show

pressure variations and these could potentially affect the failure of glass panes. All of these factors
deserve some more study to obtain useful, quantitative guidance.

Heat flux
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Heat flux is defined as the amount of heat transferred per unit area per unit time from or
to a surface. In a basic sense it is a derived quantity since it involves, in principle, two
quantities viz. the amount of heat transfer per unit time and the area from/to which this
heat transfer takes place.

Heat of combustion
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The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes
complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions. The chemical reaction is
typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water and release heat.

Heat Release Rate
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The amount of energy (fire intensity) released by burning materials is recorded in Kw or Mw/sq.m. In a
compartment fire a minimum level of HRR is normally required before 'flashover' can occur This can be
increased by:
1. an increase in the area of the ventilation opening;
2. an increase in the compartment size;
3. an increase in hk which depends on the thermal conductivity of the compartment boundary.

Ideal mixture
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Indirect extinguishing technique
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Fire-fighting operations involving the application of extinguishing agents to reduce the buildup of heat
released from a fire without applying the agent directly onto the burning fuel. (NFPA 1145)

Internal Attack - strategy
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Kill Zone
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The Kill Zone, for firefighters, is the path of travel between the entry door (Point A) and the point where
water can be applied directly to the burning surfaces (Point B).
3D gas cooling techniques may assist in reducing the risk of moving through the kill zone if the distance is
not too large, or the Heat Release Rate (HRR) of the fire is not too great. It may be necessary to use a
number of extinguishing and ventilation tactics simultaneously, or in sequence, to secure movement
through the Kill Zone to point B.
See also buffer zone and safe zone.
Term was adopted after a discussion with Chief Bobby Halton.

Limits of Flammability
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Ignition of fuel vapour and air is only possible within certain limits (i.e.; the ratio of the mixture). The
resulting flame will be pre-mixed and the concepts of 'limits of flammability' applies only to pre-mixed
flames.
See Flammability limits

Lower Flammable Limit
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The lowest percentage concentration by volume of flammable vapour or gas in air which will burn with a
flame under specified conditions.

Natural ventilation
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Natural Ventilation: Movement of products of combustion based on differences in pressure and density as
well as ambient wind conditions.

Neutral Plane
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The separation between the overpressure region and the underpressure regions developed in a
compartment fire (sometimes referred to as the smoke/air interface). The neutral plane can be seen quite
clearly when thermal balance exists in the fire compartment. 3D firefighting techniques can assist to keep
the NP as high as possible, which maximises visibility and makes conditions more bearable for entrapped
occupants or firefighters. Maintaining the height of the neutral plane is a key principle in successful, safe
and efficient compartment firefighting.

New Entry
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Enter your entry text here.

Offensive attack
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Offensive Ventilation
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Ventilating close to the fire to have a direct effect on the fire itself.

Over-Pressure Region
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The area in the upper regions of a compartment or structure (above the neutral plane), where the heated
smoke layer exerts a positive pressure.

Painting - 3D nozzle technique
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Deliberate and controlled application of water onto linings to reduced the temperature
and radiative feedback. Cooling combustible linings will reduce the pyrolysation.

Penciling - nozzle technique
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An internal nozzle technique that is used to apply water directly onto the burning surfaces in a gradual
manner, so that the fire is blackened down in a progressive manner which minimises disruption to the
thermal balance.
NOTE: In the North American context, penciling is used to describe the application of water in the
form of a straight stream across the ceiling with the objective of cooling the overhead gases and
surfaces.

Personal accountability report (PAR)
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Request to each officer to account for the condition and location of their crews.

Piloted ignition
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Occurs when a mixture of fuel and oxygen encounter an External Heat Source such as a spark, ember, or
flame

Point of over-run
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The stage of fire growth where the fire is supplying super heated smoke faster than it can
be cooling by the use of 3D interior firefighting techniques.
See Kill zone, Buffer Zone and Safe zone

Positive Pressure Attack (PPA)
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Positive Pressure Attack (PPA) is a coordinated fire attack where fans are used to assist
in controlling the fire.The objective is to create a flow path that supplies air into the fire
compartment and out through an exhaust open located as close to the fire base as
possible.
See also Positive Pressure Ventilation (PPV)

Positive Pressure Ventilation (PPV)
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a ventilation technique utilising fans to remove smoke, heat and other combustion products from a
structure by creating a positive pressure in the compartment.
See also Defensive Pressurisation and PPA

Pre-mixed flame
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In pre-mixed burning gaseous fuel and oxidiser (air) are intimately mixed prior to ignition - the flame
propagation through the mixture is a deflagration (e.g.; Smoke explosion).

Pulsation Cycle
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An indication of the presence of unburned fuel vapours within a compartment with the potential for pre-
mixing and a potential explosion - A warning sign for backdraft as smoke 'pulses' intermittently in and out
at a ventilation/entry point

Pyrolysis
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Process of converting a solid substance to combustible fumes by raising its temperature.
Regardless of whether a fuel was originally a liquid or solid, the overall burning process will gasify the
fuel. With liquids, the supply of gaseous fuel is a result of evaporation at the surface from the heat
generated by the flames. Solids entail a significantly more complex process involving chemical
decomposition (pyrolysis) of large polymeric molecules.

Quenching
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Effects caused by the introduction of small particles in high concentrations (e.g. dry powder stream);
flames cannot propagate between solid surfaces at close separations due to the loss of thermal energy by
conduction to these surfaces.

Rehab - Rehabilitation
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An area for physical and mental recuperation at a fire scene, usually equipped with beverages, and chairs,
isolated from environmental extremes (cold, heat, noise, smoke). This rest area enables firefighters to relax,
cool off (or warm up) and regain hydration by way of preventing injury. An EMT may be assigned to
monitor firefighter vitals when they enter and leave rehab.

Rollover
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The extension of the fire plume or tongues of flame that have become detached ahead of the plume at
ceiling level signalling the effect of 'rollover' - a recognised warning sign that the compartment fire is
rapidly progressing towards 'flashover'.

Safe-Zoning
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The objective of 'safe-zoning' is to confine the fire within the compartment/s involved at the outset of
operations, prior to removing the dangerous smoke, fire gases and other products of combustion, from the
structure. This may be done by simply closing a door/s to the fire compartment/s, followed by subsequent
tactical venting actions of non-fire involved compartments using either positive or negative pressure
ventilation techniques. This approach should not be allowed to slow any attack on the fire where charged
hose-lines are promptly laid in and crewed, inline with a risk assessment that suggests an immediate attack
on the fire is a safer option.
See buffer zone and kill zone

Self Hrating
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occurs when an exothermic chemical or biological process within a material increases the temperature
of the material without the application of an external heat source. If self-heating increases the
temperature of the vapors to above their ignition point with sufficient oxygen present, self-ignition will
occur. Whether or not self-heating reaches the ignition point is determined by the rate of heat
generation, the effects of ventilation, and the insulating effect of surrounding materials. These factors
must come into delicate balance for ignition to occur. Heating must be faster than the rate of heat
dissipation. Sufficient air must be present for oxidation, but not so much air that the heat is dissipated
and the temperature does not rise to the ignition point. Common examples of materials that can self-
ignite are linseed oil rags, coal dust, hay, wood chips, manure, and latex. Self-ignition is often
indicated by more damage to the center of a stack or pile of the material than to the outside.

Sequential Ventilation
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A forced ventilation technique that is used to clear smoke from a structure by opening up
the targeted sections of the building while keeping other openings closed. Once the
targeted area is cleared, it is closed off and the next section is opened up. This is repeated
in a sequence until the entire structure has been cleared of smoke.

Short Pulse
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An interior attack technique that uses short pulses of waterfog to reduce the temperature of the overhead
smoke layer. May be suitable when it is necessary to travel a relatively short distance through a smoke
filled structure while moving to a position where water can be applied directly to the fire source.
CAUTION. The effect of short pulses is localised and short lived. The primary effect is on the temperature
of the smoke gases with in the range of the water droplets. The effective time depends on the relative size
of the compartment and the HRR of the fire.
AKA 3D Water-fog

Side A,B,C and D
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Terms used by firefighters labeling the multiple sides of a building starting with side A or Alpha being
the front of the structure and working its way around the outside of the structure in a clockwise
direction. This labels the front side A or Alpha, the left side B or Bravo, the rear side C or Charlie, and
the right side D or Delta.

Smoke Explosion
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Various definitions.The ignition of a pre-mixed pocket of fire gases and oxygen that may occur when
an ignition source is introduced. This may occur, for example, when a hot brand or spark is
directed on a convection current into an area, possibly near the ceiling, where the pre-mixed gases
exist, or where an ignition source is uncovered in an area that is harboring such a gas/air mix.
See also backdraft and fire gas ignition.

Smothering
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reducing the oxygen available to the fire (Antiventilation, inerting, overcarburation, indirect
extinguishing)

Smoulering combustion
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Specific Heat
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The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by
one degree Celsius.

Spontaneous combustion
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(spontaneous ignition) Ignition occurring when an internal exothermic chemical or
biological reaction generates enough heat to cause the material to combust. Substances
that have been known to self-heat to temperatures sufficient for spontaneous combustion
include linseed oil rags, hay, and powder-free latex gloves.
.

Stoichiometric
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In terms of flammability limits of gas/air mixtures the stoichiometric mixture is the 'ideal' mixture that will
produce a most complete combustion - i.e.; it is somewhere between the UEL (upper) and LEL (lower)
explosive limits and an ignition at the stoichiometric point may result in the most severe deflagration, in
relation to those near the upper and lower limits of flammability.

Strategy
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“A plan of action designed to achieve the overall aim of preserving life, while minimising the loss of
property and environmental impact.”

Tactical Firefighting
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The combination of various tactical options on the fireground. These included 3D offensive water-fog;
smooth-bore/straight stream (direct) attack; indirect attack; tactical ventilation including ‘open-up’, ‘close-
down’ and PPV methods. They key lies in careful risk assessment, recognition of specific conditions,
application and TRAINING! All these various tactical options have a place on the fireground but the
experienced firefighter will recognise specific conditions and utilise the most effective option, or
combination of, for each individual scenario, ensuring tactical options are used effectively without conflict
or breach of safety.

Tactical Ventilation
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Venting actions by on-scene firefighters, used to gain control of a fire building's internal environment to the
advantage of firefighting and rescue teams working within’. Such actions may include attempts to release
or direct smoke, super-heated and burning gases from the building by either natural or forced means via
vertical or horizontal openings made or existing in the structure. These actions may also include the 'closing
down' of a structure in an attempt to reduce the flow of air towards the fire. This tactic is termed 'Anti-
Ventilation' by the Swedish Fire service'. It is essential that firefighters remember the most dangerous
opening they may create in the structure exists at the point of entry to the building.

Tactics
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the deployment of firefighters using the most effective combination tools and techniques in a manner that
will safely and efficiently achieve the strategic approach (mode of operation/attack)

Temperature
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Temperature is a physical quantity expressing hot and cold. Temperature is measured
with a thermometer, historically calibrated in various temperature scales and units of
measurement. The most commonly used scales are the Celsius scale, denoted in °C
(informally, degrees centigrade), the Fahrenheit scale (°F), and the Kelvin scale. The
kelvin (K) is the unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), in which
temperature is one of the seven fundamental base quantities.
The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero, at which the thermal motion of all
fundamental particles in matter reaches a minimum. Although classically described as
motionless, particles still possess a finite zero-point energy in the quantum mechanical
description. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the
Celsius scale, and −459.67 °F on the Fahrenheit scale.

Thermal Balance
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The degree of thermal balance existing in a closed room during a fire's development is dependant upon fuel
supply and air availability as well as other factors. The hot area over the fire (often termed the fire plume or
thermal column) causes the circulation that feeds air to the fire. However, when the ceiling and upper parts
of the wall linings become super-heated, circulation slows down until the entire room develops a kind of
thermal balance with temperatures distributed uniformly horizontally throughout the compartment. In
vertical terms the temperatures continuously increase from bottom to top with the greatest concentration of
heat at the highest level.

Thorntons Rule (1917)
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Each kilogram of oxygen used in the combustion of common organic materials results in release of 13.1 MJ
of energy. This rule states that the amount of heat released during the consumption of a given quantity of
oxygen is relatively constant for most combustibles. This means that the heat released per unit of oxygen
consumed is about the same for wood or plastic. In a ventilation-controlled fire, where the amount of air
entering through openings in a room governs the fire, the heat release rate in the room cannot exceed what
the available air supply will support.
Air supply may limit the heat release rate in the compartment but that unburned gases (those that could not
burn in the room) can burn outside of the compartment.
But in the late 1970s, fire researcher C. Huggett at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) verified Thornton’s Rule using the oxygen consumption calorimetry technique, developed at NIST
in the early 1970s. In “Estimation of Rate of Heat Release by Means of Oxygen Consumption
Measurements,” Huggett shows how much energy was released per gram of oxygen for common
combustibles. Where Thornton was only able to estimate the energy release based on the oxidation of
carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds, Huggett, with modern technology, was able to make actual

measurements. Huggett simply verified Thornton’s earlier observation, which is the reason it is known
today as Thornton’s Rule.

Transitional attack - strategy
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The use of tools and techniques applied from an external position with the objective of improving
conditions to allow for crews to more effectively transition to an interior attack.

Transitional Attack (NFPA)
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Under-pressure (zone/region)
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The area in the lower regions of a compartment or structure (below the neutral plane), where ambient air is
entering the structure is normally of a lower pressure than the hot and buoyant area above the neutral plane.

Under-Ventilated Fire
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Unlike the ventilation controlled fire, an under-ventilated fire is not recognised as a burning regime but
rather a situation where fuel-rich conditions have accumulated within a compartment. The situation may
not involve a fully developed fire and may only be in a state of smouldering. The conditions may or may
not reveal the typical warning signs related to backdraught even though the risk is still present.

Ventilation
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The systematic removal of heated air, smoke or other airborne contaminates from a
structure, and their replacement with a supply of fresh air. Level 1 After extinguishment,
Level 2 Once fire is under control, but not fully extinguished, Level 3 As part of a
firefighting tactic, called PPA

Ventilation Controlled Fire/Burning regime
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Sometimes referred to as an 'under-ventilated fire' although this may be incorrect (see 'under-ventilated'
fire) - most fully developed fires that occur under confinement or within a compartment are ventilation
controlled and burn under fuel-rich conditions. In these situations the highest temperatures are normally
noted at the ventilation openings. The rate of air supply is insufficient to burn all the fuel vapours within
the compartment, possibly leading to much external flaming.

x hydraulic ventilation
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x negative pressure ventilation
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Step Text

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Glossary

Items: 91 Entries (Including Introduction)

Duration: 7 minutes 35 seconds

Glossary to terms relevant to Reading Fire

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