CHAPTER-3 Suspension System

CHAPTER-THREE
SUSPENSION
SYSTEM
Content
 Introduction
 The role of a vehicle suspension
 Definitions & terminology
 Suspension types
 Suspension components
 Kinematics Analysis
 Roll center Analysis
 Force Analysis
Introduction
 What is an Automotive Suspension?
 An Automotive Suspension is the system of parts that
give a vehicle the ability to maneuver.
 It is a 3 Dimensional Four Bar Linkage
 What does a suspension do?
 A vehicle suspension maximize the road holding,
provides steering stability with good handling and
ensures the comfort of the passengers
The Roll of Suspension
 To provide Ride & Handling Performance-
 Ride - vehicle's ability to smooth out a bumpy road
 Handling - vehicle's ability to safely accelerate, brake
and corner. (min roll and pitch acceleration)
 To ensure that steering control is maintained during
manoeuvring- this requires
 To support the vehicle static weight
 To provide isolation from high vibration arising from tyre
excitation
The Roll of Suspension
 React the control force produced by the as a result of

 Longitudinal braking & acceleration forces
 Lateral (cornering) forces
 Braking & acceleration torques
 This requires the suspension geometry to be designed
to resist squat drive & roll of the vehicle body
Basic Function
 The components of the suspension system
perform six basic functions:
 Maintain correct vehicle ride height
 Reduce the effect of shock forces
 Maintain correct wheel alignment
 Support vehicle weight
 Keep the tires in contact with the road
 Control the vehicle‟s direction of travel
Suspension Elements
 Suspension = a system of springs + dampers + linkages
All suspensions use

Springs
- to absorb impacts and
Dampers (or shock absorbers)
- to control spring motions.
Suspension Elements
 Spring Types
 Leaf springs
 Helical Coil springs
 Torsional springs
 Rubber springs
 Air springs
Dampers
A shock absorber is basically an oil
pump placed between the frame of the
car and the wheels.
It allows the dissipation of energy
stored in springs.
Basic Suspension Terminology
 Sprung Mass (Everything supported by the springs)
 The vehicle masses that are supported by the vehicle
springs
 Sprung weight moves “indirectly” with the road surface
 Body, Engine, passengers, parts of drive train, and parts of
suspension.
 Unsprung Mass (Everything between the springs and the road surface)
 Mass of components that move when suspension is
displaced
 Unsprung weight moves “directly” with the road surface
 Wheels, tires, brakes, some suspension etc.
Sprung Mass
Body, Engine, passengers, parts of
drive train, and parts of suspension
Unsprung Mass
Wheels, tires, brakes, some suspension
Travel is another important parameter and defines the upper and lower
limits of the wheel motion. If a wheel bottoms, it can cause serious
control problems and cause damage.
 Since the sprung mass is treated as a rigid body, it has 6
DOF comprising 3 translations & 3 rotations. Only 3 of
these are relevant for suspension studies,
 Bounce
 Roll
 Pitch
 Bump Travel
 Vertical distance wheel is able to move up from static position,
with reference to vehicles sprung mass
 Droop Travel
 Vertical distance wheel is able to move down from static
position with reference to vehicles sprung mass
The upward suspension travel that

compresses the spring and shock
absorber is called the jounce, or
compression.
The downward travel of the tire and
wheel that extends the spring and shock
absorber is called rebound, or
extension.
 Roll
 Front View angular rotation of the sprung vehicle
mass
Anti-Roll bar, (ARB) or Stabilizer bar, increases the suspension's roll stiffness.
 Roll Center
 Center at which the sprung mass pivots about
during a roll situation (lateral acceleration)
 This is a dynamic point: moves around throughout
suspension travel
 Pitch
 Side View angular rotation of the sprung vehicle
mass
 Pitch Center
 Center at which the sprung mass pivots about
during a Pitch situation (fore/aft acceleration)
 This is a dynamic point: moves around throughout
suspension travel
 Wheel Orientation
 Since one of the functions of a suspension system is to
maintain the position of the wheels constant relative to
the road throughout the motion of the suspension, it is
important to identify how the wheel position is defined.
 Steering Axis
 Steering Axis Inclination
 Toe
 Camber Angle
 Caster Angle
 Steering Axis (PSA) or King Pin Axis (KPA)
 Axis about which the wheel/Tire rotate about during steering
inputs
When the wheels of a vehicle

are steered they pivot about an
Upper Ball Joint
axis that is defined by an
imaginary line drawn through
the wheel pivots (ball joint or
king pin).
Lower Ball Joint
 Caster Angle
 The inclination of the steering axis, relative to a vertical
line from the road surface, as viewed from the side of the
vehicle.
 Positive caster results in a caster offset in front of the contact
patch center.
Caster Trail
The linear dimension,
at the road surface,
between the PSA
and the center of the
tire contact patch, as
viewed from the side
 Caster Angle
 Caster adds to straight line stability, steering return-ability and
affects the wheel camber as the wheels are steered
 Caster angle varies between 3 to 6o.
 For easier steering, a small caster angle is required.
 Cross Caster (unequal left and right caster) leads to steering
wander
Caster causes self-centering action in the

steering
 Camber
 The inclination of the rotational plane of the tire, relative to
a vertical line from the road surface, as viewed from the
front of the vehicle.
 Positive camber- The top of the tire rotational plane is
outside of the normal to the road surface, negative inside
 Camber
Positive Camber Negative Camber
 Camber
 Camber is a tire wearing angle.
 Camber angle in modern cars is reduced to below 1o.
 However, a negative front wheel camber is used in some
sports car to improve cornering ability.
Camber changes as suspension

moves up (bump) and down (droop)
Tires generate more cornering force
with a small amount of negative
camber
 Steering Axis Inclination (SAI or KPI)
 Its function is the same as that of the camber
 Axis inclination causes the front end of the vehicle to rise as the
wheel is turned. Therefore a self-aligning torque is produced
resulting in better directional stability.
 It produces positive camber at the outside wheel during cornering,
thus increasing understeer
characteristics.
It is usually 3 to 7 degrees for

passenger cars. For trucks, it is
zero.
 Scrub Radius
 The linear dimension between
the PSA and the center of the
tire contact patch (front view)
is called the scrub radius.
 The scrub radius can be
 positive (PSA inside),
 zero, or
 Negative (PSA outside Tire
Contact Patch
 Toe
 Top view angle of the tire in a static situation
 Static Toe Angle [deg] - The angle measured between
the centerline of the vehicle and the rotational plane of
the tire as viewed from the top.
 Important for both front and rear tires
 Toe
 The linear dimension difference between the front and
rear measurements taken at the forward most point in the
tire rotation planes.
 Toe-out is usually produced during straight-ahead driving
due to the elsticity of the steering linkage, worn parts, etc.
and during cornering.
Toe In (Positive Toe) Toe-Out (Negative Toe)

 Toe
 Toe-out cause tire wear.
 Toe-in is given to the wheels cancel these effects. It also
provides a lateral force to resist side loads.
 Too much toe-in results in excessive tire wear.
Feathering (scuffing)
Types of Suspension
 Factors which primary affect the choice of suspension type at
the front or rear of a vehicle are
 Engine Location
 Whether the wheels are
 Driven or un driven and
 Steered or un steered
 Suspensions can be broadly classified as

 Active Suspension
 Conventional suspension
Types of Suspension
 Semi-active suspensions
 include devices such as
 Air-springs
 Switchable shock absorbers,
 Hydropneumatic suspensions.
 Active Suspension
 currently sell shock absorbers filled with a
magnetorheological fluid, whose viscosity can be changed
electromagnetically, thereby giving variable control without
switching valves. (Bose suspension )
Types of Suspension
 Conventional Suspension System
 Dependent Suspension
 The motion of a wheel on one side of the vehicle is
dependant on the motion of partner on the other side
 Independent Suspension
 The motion of wheel pairs is independent, so that a
disturbance at one wheel is not directly transmitted to its
partner
Types of Suspension
Types of Suspension
 Dependent (Driving and Non-driving)
 Dead Solid Beam Axle
 Twist Beam
 Live Solid Beam Axle
 Hotchkiss with semi-elliptic leaf spring
 Independent (Driving and Non-driving)

 MacPherson Strut
 Double Wishbone (short-long arm – SLA)
 Multi Link
Types of Suspension
 These are not common on the passenger cars
 They are still used on commercial & off-high way
vehicles.
 Have the advantages of
 being relatively simple in contraction &
 almost completely eliminate camber change thereby
reducing tyre wear
Types of Suspension
Note: Solid link between left and right wheels

Types of Suspension
 Independent System
 This form of suspension has benefits
 in packaging &
 give grater design freedom when compared to dependent
system
 Some of the common forms of front & rear designs will
be considered.
Types of Suspension
 Independent System
Note: left and right wheels are

decoupled
Types of Suspension
 Front Suspension System
 Common Suspension
 MacPherson strut
 Double wishbone
Designs
 Beam – coil springs  Beam Axle
 Beam – leaf springs  Swing Axle
 Rear Suspension System  De Dion
 Twist beam – American type/ European type  Double Wishbone /Unequal
 Beam – coil springs Length A-arm
 Beam – leaf springs

 MacPherson strut
 Double wishbone
 Multi link
 Others – DeDion, Watts link, sliding pillar, transverse leaf
Types of Suspension-Front
 Rigid (Beam) axle suspension
 Beam – leaf springs
 Used on heavy duty and light trucks
 Beam axle is located by leaf springs.
 - Same as for coil springs, but added
friction in leaves further degrades
comfort.
 - Increased sprung weight, poor wheel
control
 + Same as for coil springs, but cheaper
due to fewer parts since springs act as
control arms.
 + Simple and durable, low cost
 Live axle can be used for 4WD
Rigid (Beam) Axle Suspension
 Beam – Coil Springs
 Used on Jeep Grand Cherokee,
 If coil springs are used instead of leaf
springs, trailing arms are used to locate it
laterally.
 High unsprung mass = poor ride comfort.
 Low tech image but rugged and durable.
 + Good load carrying capability.
 + Cheaper than alternatives for carrying
heavy loads because suspension and
substructure are integrated.
 + No Camber related tire wear issues
 Torsion Bars
 Used in place of coil springs, usually 4WD trucks
 Bar twists, resisting movement of lower control arm
 One of the most popular systems
 One Control Arm
 Ideal for front wheel drive
 Light weight
 Economical
 Good ride quality and handling
characteristics
 Used for both front and rear suspensions
 Camber curve not as flexible as wishbone.
 Friction in strut can be troublesome.

 It is mechanically simple, requires very little lateral space, its
unsprung mass is small. In addition, its up-and-down motion causes
very little camber change.
 It requires considerable vertical space. Lateral loads in the strut
increases damper friciton.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Low production costs  Large camber variation
 Stamped construction  Body roll and wheel movement

contribute to camber attitude
 Preassembled
 Vertically tall mounting position
 Strut body carries spring  This compromises vehicle styling
assembly
 Rough ride
 Compact  Some ride comfort may be lost,
 Simple mounting and no need as it is hard to move smoothly
for an upper control arm because of bending input force
 Simplicity  Dangerous replacement

 The spring must be compressed
 Reduction in fasteners and
and assembled on the strut
alignment of vehicle
body, this causes the handling of
suspension components. a charged spring.
 Short and Long Arm (SLA)
(Double Wishbone)
 Uses an upper and a lower
control arm
 Uses either torsion bars or coil
springs
 Good ride quality and handling
characteristics
 Heavy and complex design
requires a lot of space
 Also used on many passenger
vehicles and light trucks

 Double Wishbone
Each arm of the wishbone

is a separate item
double A-arms lower A-arm is a single solid arm

 Double Wishbone
 Parallel and equal wishbones,
 the camber change is equal to the body roll change. The wheel moves
over bumps without any camber change but
 track will change affecting linear stability by introducing lateral forces.
 Shortening the upper wishbone
 to obtain constant track and
 to reduce camber change due to body roll during cornering.
 However, this time a camber change is introduced during up-and down
motion.
 Nonparallel and unequal wishbone
 the outside wheel virtually upright irrespective of the body roll and a
 relatively constant track can be maintained.
 The camber, castor, roll center, etc…. can all be
individually adjusted on this type of suspension relatively
easily
 Advantages
 Arguably the best handling suspension design
 Wheel gains negative camber in bump
 Low Unsprung Weight
 Packaging does not compromise styling
 Low Height
 Many different geometry characteristics possible
 Designer can design suspension with minimal compromises
 Infinite adjustability, with the most ease
 Vehicles roll centers can be placed almost anywhere
 Disadvantages
 More expensive
 More components to make and assemble
 Alignment and fitment are critical to vehicle performance, large area of
adjustment
 Tolerance of parts must be smaller
 Requires constant alignment checks for optimum performance
 More complex
 Design often becomes more complex because all suspension parameters
are variable
 Frame has to be able to pick up A-arm inboard points
 Tire scrub occurs with vertical wheel displacement
 However this can be minimized during design
Double Wishbone
MacPherson Strut
Types of Suspension-Rear
Rigid (Beam) axle suspension
Solid Beam Axle with Leaf Springs also known a Hotchkiss
“Default” rear suspension for light
trucks.
+ Carries heavy load with low cost
and technology.
- As for beam – leaf front
suspensions.
Mounting one rear shock in the front of

the axle and one behind the axle helps
to reduce wind up and axle tramp
 Rigid (Beam) axle suspension
Beam – coil springs
+ Good combination of load

carrying, relative comfort and
low cost
-As for beam – coil front
suspensions
The upper control arms control lateral
movement (side movement)
The lower control arms control
differential torque (wind up)
Rigid (Beam) axle suspension
Twist Beam
Primarily used on American
designed minivans
Twisting element is placed
between wheels
- Twisting element far from
kinematic torsion center.
+ Inexpensive design.
+ Can offer better lateral control of
axle than European style.
+ Packages well to provide
maximum cargo space
 Twist Beam Dependent Non-Driving
 Trailing Arm
 Independent Design
 Uses individual lower control
arms
 Uses coil springs and shocks
 Good ride quality
 Compared with the rigid
beam axle, the unsprung
mass is much lower.
 MacPherson Strut Independent Non-Drive
Also called “Chapman strut”, after Colin Chapman,
founder of Lotus Cars.
Can be live (drive) or dead (non-drive) axle.
In the 80s and 90s, was be considered
“default IRS” for sedans. Used by Ford
Taurus, Ford Escort, Dodge/Chrysler sedans,
etc.
+ Advantages as per MacPherson, front.
+ Good packaging width-wise, struts are far
apart laterally.
- Vertical packaging is not good (too tall) for
trunk.
- Handling performance not as good as multi-
Fords
MacPherson Strut
Toyota
Double wishbone (SLA)
 Comments same as for
double wishbone – front.
 + Main advantage is control
of wheel position and
stiffness.
 - Main disadvantage is the
number of pieces and the
complex loading of them.
 - Alignment important for
vehicle handling
Multi-Link Independent Drive Axle
 Multi-link
 Gaining popularity due to simplicity of components and
performance advantages.
 + Simple components, mostly two-force members.
 + Good wheel position control like double wishbone.
 + Compliances can be decoupled (longitudinal and lateral).
 - More components than other suspension types.
 - Assembly tolerances can be greater than other suspensions
due to number of components.
Types of Suspension-Others
 De Dion
 Semi-independent rigid (beam) axle suspension
 Jointed axles are used, on drive wheels,
 The wheels are connected with a solid member, most
often a DeDion axle.
 This differs from "dependent" mainly in unsprung weight.
Types of Suspension-Others
 Swing Axle
 Used in small commercial vehicles.
 Wheel travel results in considerable
 camber change,
 track variation.
 Body roll is also excessive.
 Jacking effects can result in erratic
cornering performance.
Suspension Systems - Active
 Hydropneumatic springs
 the spring is produced by a constant mass of gas
(typically nitrogen) in a variable volume enclosure.
 The principle of operation of a basic diaphragm
accumulator spring
 As the wheel deflects in bump, the piston moves
upwards transmitting the motion to the fluid and
compressing the gas via the flexible diaphragm.
 The gas pressure increases as its volume
decreases to produce a hardening spring
characteristic.
 Hydropneumatic springs
 The front and rear
suspension units are
interconnected.
 If front wheel is deflected,
interconnecting pipe is
pressurized, thus stiffening
the rear wheel suspension.
 This creates a very smooth
ride.
 Bose Suspension
 A linear electromagnetic motor is used
with conventional shock absorbers,
springs and struts.
 Sensors at various locations to detect
body and suspension movement.
 Produces excellent ride quality and
superior control in the same system
 LEM can extend and compress at a
much greater speed, virtually
eliminating all vibrations in the
passanger cabin.
 Bose Suspension
 Linear Electromagnetic Motor
 Responds quickly enough to counter the effects of bumps and
road irregularities
 Power Amplifier
 Sends power to the motor during extension and returns power
during retraction
 Control Algorithms
 Observe sensor measurements and send commands to the
power amplifiers
 Bose Suspension
 Uses sensor measurements to
instantaneously counteract
road forces
 Produces excellent ride quality
and superior control in the
same system
 Disadvantages
 High initial cost
 High repair costs
 Complex systems
 Applications
Magnetic Ride Control
Bose Suspension  Currently offered on Cadillac SRX
 System will be offered on and Seville STS models.
high end luxury vehicles  Offered on the Chevrolet Corvette
within the next 5 years. for the 2003 model year.
 The same technology has  Mercedes S600
been applied in Military  BMW 7 series
applications.
Suspension Systems - Other
Watts Linkage
DeDion
Swing Arm Semi-Trailing Arm

Suspension Components
 Knuckle
 Control arm
 Subframe
 Stabilizer system
 Springs, shocks and struts
 Bearings and braking components
 Bushings and ball joints
 Knuckle
 Function of the knuckle is to attach rotating
components to suspension components; distribute
load from road to body.
 Vertical, lateral, longitudinal and torque loads are
carried by the knuckle.
 Also known as “wheel carrier”, “hub carrier”, “spindle”
or “upright”.
 Knuckle
Mulit-link
MacPherson
SLA
 Control Arm
 Function of the control arm is to attach the
knuckle to the chassis, react wheel loads, and to
guide the knuckle providing for correct suspension
geometry
 eg. Camber , Caster, Toe, SAI
The lower control arm carries a

large portion of the lateral and
longitudinal loading from the wheel.
 Control Arms – Various types
Sub-Frame
Function of subframe is to attach suspension, steering
and powertrain components to vehicle body.
 Subframe carries a large portion of lateral and longitudinal
loads.
 Because it is a large flexible structure, design consideration
for NVH performance is particularly important. Typically it is
mounted to the chassis through rubber isolators. This helps
isolate road noise and vibration transmission from the wheels
to the chassis.
 Sub-Frame – Various Types
Anti-Roll Stabilizer Bar
 Function of stabilizer system is to reduce the
vehicle roll angle when cornering, and also to
produce the desired level of roll understeer.
 Stabilizer drop links attach to knuckle or strut,
stabilizer bar is a torsion spring which attaches to
the subframe. Vertical loading is present at the
stabilizer bar bushings to the subframe.
Anti-Roll Stabilizer Bar

 Springs, shocks and struts
 Function of spring is to support vehicle weight.
 Function of shock absorber (damper) is to
absorb energy from road and to reduce
sprung mass vibrations.
 Function of strut is to carry lateral and vertical
loading.
 Strut Rod
 Connected to frame & lower control arm
 Controls fore & aft movement of control arm
 May provide for caster adjustment
 Bushings and ball joints
 Function of bushings is to absorb road bumps and
high frequency vibrations; also to provide precise
positioning of suspension components for safe
handling. These functions are provided while also
allowing articulation.
 Function of ball joints is to allow articulation, but
with very high stiffness, such as when part of the
steering mechanism or when high precision
handling is required (sports cars).
Bushing
Ball Joint
 Bearings and braking components
 Function of bearings and hub units is to allow
rotation between wheel/tire and vehicle.
Hub/bearing carries all forces and moments and
distributes them to the knuckle.
 Function of braking components is to decelerate the
vehicle, in addition they play a dominant role as the
main actuator in ABS, traction control and stability
control systems.
Disc Brake
Drum Brake
Mobility of Suspension (D.O.F)
 Mobility analysis is useful for checking for the
appropriate number of degrees of freedom,
 it does not help in developing the geometry of a
mechanism to provides the desired motion.
 For suspension mechanisms this process is called
position synthesis and requires the use of specialized
& analytical techniques aided by computer software
 Suspension system are in general 3-dimensional mechanisms &
as such are difficult to analysis fully without the aid of computer
packages.
 A fundamental requirement of a suspension mechanism is the
need to guide the motion of each wheel along a (unique) vertical
path relative to the vehicle body without significant change in
camber.
 This requirement has addressed by employing various single
degree of freedom (SDOF) mechanism which have straight line
motion throughout the deflection of the suspension
 A basic understanding of their kinematics can be derived from a 2-D
analysis
 Fundamental to this analysis is an understanding of how the
number of degrees of freedom (mobility in mechanisms parlance) of
a mechanism are related to the number of links & the types of
kinematics constraint imposed on them.
 M=0, structure i.e. not designed for motion,
 M=1 completely constrained motion (required one inputs)
 M=2 Incompletely constrained motion requires two prescribed
inputs to position them uniquely. This not desirable for suspensions
 According to Kutzbach criterion
 M=3(n-1)-2Jl-Jh
 Where- M mobility
 n- Number of links
 Jl- Number of lower pairs
 Jh – Number of Higher pairs
 Example- For Double wishbone suspension, there are 4-links

forming 4-bar chain
 N=4, Jl=4, Jh=0
 M=3(4-1)-2(4)=1, i.e a SDOF mechanism
 Exercises
 Determine the Mobility of MacPherson Strut
Kinematic Analysis
 One of the 1st stage of suspension design (once the type of suspension gas
been selected) is to size the mechanism and ensure it is capable of fitting in to
the packaging envelope.
 As part of this process it is necessary to check the geometry variations of the
suspension over its operating range & ratios of spring & damper travel
relative to wheel travel.
 Comprehensive analysis of suspension motions requires the inclusion of joints
compliances, the problems become one of the force-motion analysis . This
requires the use of specialized computational software (ex, ADAMS) and
associated modeling skills
 If the joint compliances are neglected, the problem is simplified in to a purely
kinematic one and if further, the problem can be assumed to be 2-
Diamensional
Kinematic Analysis
 The basic analysis can be carried out using
 Graphical Method
 Computational Method (using Math CAD 2000)
 In Graphical Analysis of Suspension Motion
 It should be recognized that relationship between the relative motion of
parts of the mechanism can be determined from seats of velocity
diagram
 To cover the full range of suspension travel it is necessary to draw a
number of diagrams corresponding to different position of the
mechanism
 This has the advantages of providing a good „feel‟ for what is happing,
but the downside is the lack of accuracy & the tedium of drawing many
diagrams
Kinematic Analysis
 In computational approach
 Significant effort required to formulate the problem, but
once this has been done mathematically software can be
used to solve equations & present the results numerically
or graphically
 The significant benefits of this approach are improved
accuracy and the ability to try out „what –if‟ scenarios
Kinematic Analysis-Graphical Analysis
 Consider the MacPherson strut
 Aim- is to determine
 A) The suspension ratio (R) (The rate of change of Vertical
movement at D as a function of spring compression)
 B) The bump to scrub to rate the given position of the
mechanism
 Drawing the suspension mechanism to scale &
 assume the chassis is fixed
 Let AB have an arbitrary angular velocity ωBA =1 rad/sec (cw) direction
 The velocity of B has a magnitude
 VB =rBA(ωBA)=331Χ1= 331 mm/s perpendicular to link AB
 VB/C = VrB/C +VtB/C
 VrB/C is parallel to BC (change length of link BC)
 VtB/C is Perpendicular to BC ( tangential component arising from the
rotation of link BC about C)
 From measurement VrB/C =311 mm/s
 VtB/C=113.2 mm/s
VrB/C =311 mm/s
VtB/C=113.2 mm/s
V tB
VB
VB
VrB
Ov a, c
VB =rBA(ωBA)=331Χ1= 331 mm/s
 Since DB can be considered to be a rigid extension of link BC,

 The velocity of D relative to B (VD/B) consist only the tangential
component (VtB/A) (Perpendicular to link BC)
 The magnitude of VtB/A can be determined by proportioning
VtD/B=ωB/C (BD)
VtB/C=ωB/C (BC)
VDt / B bd D / B  BD bd BD
 /   / 
VB / C bb B / C  BC
t
bb BC
bd 
bb BD 
/
 bd 
173
113.2  34.5 mm / s
BC 567
VD/B
VD/B
V tB
VB
VB
VD
VrB
VD Vertical
VD Horizontal
Ov a, c
VD (vertical) =311 mm/s VD (Horizontal) =147.6 mm/s
 Then
 A) The suspension ratio (R)
 dV   Vertical Velocity of tire   VD Vertical 


R     
 du   Vertical Velocity of Spring   VB Vertical 

dd '  311 
    1.16
OV b'  267 
 B) Scrub to Bump ratio
 VD Horizontal  OV d '  147.6 

    0.47
 VDVertical  dd '  311 
 
Roll Centre Analysis
 Roll centre & Roll axis concepts are
 important aids in studying vehicle handling
 Enabling simplifications to be made in load transfer calculations for
cornering operations
 Definitions of Roll Centre
 Based on Forces (SAE Definition)
 A point in the transverse plane through any pair of wheels at which a
transverse force may be applied to the sprung mass without causing it
to roll
 Based on Kinematics
 Is the point about which the body can roll without any lateral movement
at either of the wheel contact areas.
 Roll center
 Represents the instantaneous
point about which the sprung
mass will rotate due to
cornering forces
 Roll center moves as
suspension travels
 Goal of any suspension
designer is to minimize Roll
Center Migration
 In general each roll centre lies on the line produced by the
intersection of the Longitudinal Centre Plane of the vehicle
and the vertical transverse plane through a pair of wheel
centers.
 The roll centre heights at the front & the rear wheel planes
tends to be different as shown in fig
 The line joining the centers is called the Roll Axis, with
implication that a transverse force applied to the sprung mass
at any point on this axis will not cause body roll
 As roll of the sprung mass takes place, the suspension
geometry changes, symmetry of the suspension across
the vehicle is lost and the definition of roll centre
becomes invalid.
 Therefore the limitations of roll centre analysis are
 It relates to the non-rolled vehicle condition & can therefore
only be used for approximations involving small angles of roll
 It assumes no change in vehicle track as a result of small
angles of roll
 For a given front or rear suspension the roll centre can
be determined from the Kinematic definition by using the
Aronhold-Kennedy theorem of 3 centers which states
 When 3 bodies move relative to one another they
have 3 instantaneous centers all of which lie on the
same straight line
 Solid Axle Roll Centers
 The roll center can be determined from the layouts of
suspension geometry in front and top views
 Virtual reaction point
 The intersection of the axes of any pair of suspension
control arms
 Mechanically, it is the point where the compression/tension
forces in the control arms can be resolved in to a single
lateral force
 4-link Rear Suspension
 The lateral forces acting on the wheel in the top view react
as tension and compression forces in the control arms
 The 2 long arms establish a virtual reaction point ahead of
the axle at B
 The two short arms have a virtual reaction point behind the
axle at A.
 A General procedure for finding roll center
 In a Top view of suspension find the
linkages that takes the side forces acting
on the suspension. Determine the
reaction points A & B on the centerline of
the vehicle for forces in the link
 Locating the points A & B in the front
view, there by identifying the suspension
roll axis
 The roll center is the point in the side
where the roll axis crosses the vertical
centerline of the wheels
 In the 4- link geometry, the change in slop of the roll
axis during cornering is often relatively large
compared to other live axles.
 This means considerable change in roll steer and
lateral load transfer, which are undesirable effects.
 The roll center is located relatively high compared to
other hand, the high roll center helps to reduce the
tramp and shake of the axle
 Hotchkiss Suspension
 The design of this suspension is quite different from those
discussed previously, but the general rules for determining
the roll axis and center still apply
 BeCoz they are parallel to the centerline of the vehicle in the
top view the point A & B lie on the centerline of the car, both
are infinity
 Independent Suspension
 The procedure for symmetrical independent suspension
 Find the virtual reaction point of the suspension link (point-A)
 Draw a line from the tire-ground contact patch to the virtual
reaction point
 The point where this line crosses the centerline of the body is the
roll center
 Example- Double Wishbone Suspension
Consider the 3 bodies capable of relative motion as

The sprung mass
The leaf hand wheels
The Ground
 IWb- The instantaneous centre of the wheel relative to the
sprung mass
 lWb- lies at the intersection of the upper & lower wishbones
 IWg- The I.C of the wheel relative to the ground
 Ibg – The I.C of the sprung mass relative to the ground
(roll centre)
 Ibg – must lie in the centre plane of the vehicle & on the
line joining IWb & IWg
 For double wishbone suspension IWb can be varying by
angling the upper & lower wishbones to different
positions, thereby altering the load transfer between
inner & outer wheels in a cornering maneuver
 This gives the suspension designer some control over
the handling capabilities of the vehicle
Positive Sawing Arm Geometry Negative Sawing Arm Geometry
The roll center is above the Ground The roll center is below the Ground
 Parallel Horizontal links
 Suspension with parallel links that are horizontal (at
design load).
 The virtual point of the two links is therefore at infinity
 Drawing a line from the tire contact patch towards infinity
places the roll center in the ground plane.
 As the vehicle rolls in cornering
 The virtual reaction point of the outside wheel moves downward due
to jounce of the wheel
 The inside wheel moves upward as it goes in to rebound
 With the loss of symmetry the roll centers for the wheels no longer
coincide
 The large lateral force from the outside wheel moves downward on
the body
 The weaker force from the inside wheel moves upward.
 As consequence, the resultant lateral force reaction on the body
moves downward, lowering the effective roll center height
Force Analysis
 The simple force analysis in suspension mechanisms
resulting from
 Vertical loading
 Lateral loading
 Longitudinal Loading
 The relationship between the vertical Wheel loading
and the spring forces is also discussed leading to the
selection of suspension spring characteristics.
Relationship between spring and wheel rates
 In General the relationship between spring deflections and

wheel displacements in suspensions is non-Linear,
 A desired wheel rate (related to suspension natural
frequency) has to be interpreted in to spring-rate.
 Consider the double wishbone suspension

 W- Wheel forces
 v- Wheel deflection
 S- Spring forces
 u- Spring deflection
Suspension Ratio= S

R
W
 Spring Stiffness=Ks
dS  d RW   dW  dv  dR  dv 
Ks     R    W  
du  du  dv  du  dv  du 
 Using the principle of virtual work,

S du   W dv
 The suspension ratio eq can be written
S dv
R 
W du dW
 The wheel rate defined as K w  dv
 Spring Stiffness=Ks
dS  d RW   The suspension ratio
Ks   
du  du  R
S

dv
dW  dv  dR  dv  W du
R   W  
dv  du  dv  du  The wheel rate
  dR  
K s  R( K w ) R   WR   Kw 
dW
  dV   dv
dR
 Kw R  S
2
dv
Force Analysis
 Wheel-Rate for constant natural frequency with variable
payload
 The simplest model for ride is that of a SDOF system in
which the spring stiffness (Ks) is that associated with
wheel rate (Kw) & mass (ms) is proportion of the total
sprung mass
Kw
 The undamped natural frequency is then n 
ms
 If Kw is constant , the natural frequency decreases as the
payload increases
Force Analysis
 It is possible to determine a variable wheel-rate which will
ensure that the natural frequency remains constant as the
sprung mass increases
Denoting the static displacement as  ms g 
  s   
 Kw 
ms g
Kw s g
 Then ωn can be written in terms of δs n 
ms

ms

s
 From this it is seen that to maintain ωn constant δs must be
constant and hence load/rate must be constant, i.e.
 W 
     Cons tan t or  dW    dv 
 dW     
  s 
s
 W
 dv 
Force Analysis
 dW   dv 
 dW   dv   
 W    s 
 Integrating both sides       
 W   s 
lnW  
v v
 c  loge 
W
c
s s
 Were C is constant
 To determine constant (C) Assume at nominal static condition the
wheel load & the suspension deflection is W=Ws & V=Vs
 vs 
C  ln Ws    
s 
Force Analysis
 vs 
  ln Ws   
 then ln W  v
s  s  This equation defines the reqired
Load-Deflection relationship for
 v  vs 
ln W   ln Ws    
tyre load as a function of tyre
 s 
deflection V.
 W   v  vs 
ln     The corresponding wheel rate
 Ws    s  can be found by differentiating W

w.r.t V, giving
 v  vs 
 
W  s
e 
 v vs 
Ws dW  Ws  
 


Kw    e  s 
 v  vs


 dv   s 
 s
W  Ws e 
Force Analysis
 The graphs shows the Wheel load &
wheel rate as a function wheel
displacement for a natural frequency of
1.125 Hz.
 If the suspension ratio R & its derivative
(dR/dv) are known as a function of
wheel deflection, then the spring rate
can be calculated
Forces in Suspension Members
 Comprehensive force analysis requires computer packages,
 But some simple analysis estimates of loading of suspension members and
chassis connection points can be carried out using Graphical methods.
 In performing this analysis it is assumed that
 The mass of the members is neglected
 The spring or wheel rate needs to be known.
 Some of the basic principles of mechanics are employed in the analysis
Using FBD
 for determining internal forces in structures &
 condition of equilibrium of pin-jointed two- & three force member
F x 0 F y 0 F z 0 M x 0 M y 0 M z 0
 In the case of 3 force members equilibrium requires the 3

forces to pass through a common point i.e. concurrent, and the
vector sum of the forces must be zero
 If one of the 3 forces is known the magnitudes of the other two
can be found (graphically this involves drawing a triangle of
forces)
1. Vertical Loadings
 Example- Consider the double Wishbone suspension
 Assume FW – the wheel load
 Fs – the force exerted by the spring on the suspension mechanism
Link AB & CD are respectively two-


force member
 When the FBD of the wheel & knuckle is considered
 The directions of FW & FB are known & together establish the
point of concurrency at P1, for the 3 forces which act on the
body
If the magnitude of FW is known,
the magnitudes of FB & Fc can be
determined from the triangle of force
 From the FBD of link CD
 the point of concurrency is at P2 and with
Fc known
 FD and Fs can be found from the second
triangle of forces.
 The corresponding chassis loadings
comprise FA (= FB), Fs and FD.
 An analysis over the full suspension travel
requires the graphical procedure to be
repeated at suitable increments of
suspension displacement
 In order to define the applied loading at a given suspension position,
it is necessary to know either the wheel or spring rate.
 A similar analysis can be carried out for the MacPherson strut
 AB is a two force member
 the point of concurrency of the forces Fw & FB is at P
 This means that the force FC exerted on the strut at C acts through P
 In analyzing the forces exerted on the upper sliding part of
the strut it is seen that the inclined force at C must be
counteracted by a collinear spring force otherwise side forces
and a bending moment act on the member.
 The solution is to set
 the axis of the spring coaxial with CP This has the effect of
reducing wear in the strut, but clearly bending effects are not
completely eliminated for all suspension positions.
2. Lateral & Longitudinal Loadings
 Lateral loading arises from cornering effects
 while longitudinal loadings arise from braking
3. Shock Loading
 due to the wheels striking bumps and pot-holes.
 Dynamic loading effects are very difficult to quantify, but
experience has enabled a range of dynamic load factors to
be established.
Anti-Squat/Anti-Drive Geometries
 During braking and acceleration
 there is a load transfer between front and rear wheels and
 The attitude of the sprung mass tends to change
 When viewed from the side
 During braking
 There is a tendency for the sprung mass to dive (nose down)
 During acceleration
 the reverse occurs, with the nose lifting and the rear end
squatting
 Since the load transfers occur through the suspension, it is
possible to design the suspension mechanism to
counteract this behavior.
 The same general principles apply to squat and dive
analysis
 It requires an understanding of the forces acting on
various drive shaft and braking combination.
 D' Alembert's principle can be used to convert the
dynamics problem into a statics one, thereby simplifying
the solution.
Determination of Anti-Drive Geometry
 Consider the FBD of the vehicle during braking
 D' Alembert force (sometimes called the inertia force) ma,
tends to oppose the deceleration.
 Assume that there is a fixed braking ratio k, between front and
rear braking forces:
Bf
K
B f  Br
Take moments about the rear tyre

contact point giving
N f L  mah  mgc  0
mgc mah
Re arranging gives N f  
L L
 The corresponding vertical force at the rear is
mgb mah
Nr  
L L
 The overall effect is an increase in load at the front and

a decrease at the rear producing a tendency for dive
 Consider now the front suspension with inclined links such
that the wheel effectively pivots about Of in the side view
 The suspension spring force Sf, may be expressed as the
static load Sf plus a perturbation dSf, due to braking
S f  S t  S f
mgc Under static condition a=0

Where S f 
L
Taking moment about Of N f e  S f e  Bf f  0
 mgb mah   mgc 

  e   e  B f f  0
 L L   L 
 mahe 
   Bf f  0
 L 
B f  maK
 mahe 
then    mak  f  0
 L 
he f  h 
 Kf        tan 
L  e   KL 
If Of lies anywhere on the line defined by the above equation the
condition for zero deflection at the front suspension is satisfied.
If Of lies below this line, i.e. on a line inclined at an angle α' to the
horizontal, then the percentage anti-dive is defined as:
 tan  ' 
   100
 tan  
 A similar analysis for a rear suspension having the geometry
shown in Figure
f  h 
      tan 
 e   L(1  K ) 
If Or lies on the line defined by the above equation there is no

tendency for the rear of the sprung mass to lift during braking.
 For 100% Anti-dive
 the effective pivot points for front and rear suspensions must lie
on the locus defined by the above 2 equations (as shown in
Fig).
 If the pivots lie below the locus less than 100% anti-dive will be
obtained.
 In practice anti-dive rarely exceeds 50% for the following
reasons:
 Subjectively zero pitch braking is undesirable;
 There needs to be a compromise between full anti-dive and
anti-squat conditions
 Full anti-dive can cause large castor angle changes (because all
the braking torque is reacted through the suspension links)
resulting in heavy steering during braking.
Determination of Anti-Pitch Geometry
 The analysis for anti-squat suspensions is similar to that for
anti-dive, except now the direction of the D' Alembert force
is reversed.
 Furthermore the braking forces are replaced by tractive
forces (opposite in direction) which may be applied to either
front or rear wheels
 It should be noted that anti-pitch geometry can only be
applied to the suspension at which the drive is applied.
 Consider the case of a four-wheel drive vehicle with independent
suspension
the drive torque is reacted at the
power train, producing a drive torque
on the half-shafts and hence the
FBDs of the wheels
Assume the tractive effort is split in the

ratio T

f
T f  Tr
Taking moment about Of
Tf ft  N f e f  S f e f  M f  0
Tf ft  N f e f  S f e f  M f  0
 where T f  ma
 mgc   mah 
Nf   
 L   L 
M f  T f r  mar
The change in front spring force
  ( ft  r ) h 
S f  ma     kf f
 e f L 
Kf is the front suspension stiffness

 A similar analysis is used for the rear suspension
 Taking moments about Or produces
Tr f r  N r er  S r er  M r  0
 Where Tr  1   ma
 mgb   mah 
Nr    
 L   L 
M r  Tr r  1   mar
 The change in rear spring force is


S r  ma 
1   ( f r  r  h   k 
 r r
 er L
Kr is the rear suspension stiffness
 The pitch angle is

r  f

L
ma    f f  r  h 1    f r  r  h 
     
L  ef k f Lk f er k r Lk r 
Zero pitch occurs when θ = 0, i.e. when the term in square brackets is
zero.
This indicates that the anti-squat and anti-pitch performance depends
on the following vehicle properties -
suspension geometry, suspension stiffness (front and rear) and
tractive force distribution.
Lateral load transfer during cornering
 During cornering, centrifugal (inertia) forces act

horizontally on the sprung and unsprung masses.
 These forces act above the ground plane through the
respective mass centres causing moments to be
generated on the respective masses.
 These in turn lead to changes in vertical loads at the
tyres which affect vehicle handling and stability.
 In general the vertical loads on the outer wheels
increase while those on the inner wheels decrease.
 The process of converting the transverse forces into

vertical load changes is termed lateral load transfer.
G is the sprung mass
centre of gravity;
The transverse
acceleration at G due to
cornering is 'a';
The sprung mass rolls

through the angle Φ about
the roll axis;
 Notation and assumptions in the
analysis are:
 The centrifugal (inertia) force on
the sprung mass m sa acts
horizontally through G;
 The gravity force on the sprung
mass msg acts vertically
downwards through G;
 The inertia forces mufa and mura act
directly on the unsprung masses at
the front and rear axles. Each
transfers load only between its own
pair of wheels.
 The analysis is split into four steps:

 1. Load transfer due to the roll moment
 Replace the two forces at G with the same forces at A
plus a moment (the roll moment) Ms
M s  ms ad cos  ms g d sin  ms ad  ms g 
where Φ is treated as a small angle.
Ms is reacted by a roll moment MΦ (at the suspension springs
and anti-roll bars) and distributed to the front and rear suspensions.
The relationship between MΦ and Φ is assumed to be linear for small angles

of roll M   K s
 From the above two equations

ms ad
 Ks- total roll stiffness
k s  ms gd 
 MΦ can be split into components MΦf and MΦr at the front
and rear axles such that
 MΦ = MΦf + MΦr = ksfΦ + ksrΦ
Ksf & Ksr- are the roll stiffness components of front and rear axle
Ks=Ksf+Ksr
The front & rear load transfer due to the roll moment is then
k sf  k sf ms ad k sr  k sr m s ad
F fsm   Frsm  
Tf T f k sf  k sr  ms gd  Tr Tr k sf  k sr  ms gd 
Tf & Tr are the front & rear track widths

 Load transfer due to sprung mass inertia force

 The sprung mass is distributed to the roll centers at
front and rear axles. The respective masses at front
and rear are:
ms bs ma
msf  and msr  s s
L L
The centrifugal force at A is distributed to the respective roll centers
at the front and rear axle as follows:
F fs  msf a and Frs  msr a
The corresponding load transfer are

msr ahr
F fsF 
msf ah f FrsF 
Tf Tr
 Load transfer due to the unsprung mass inertia

forces
 The respective load transfers at the front and rear
axles due to the unsprung mass inertia forces are:
muf ahuf mur ahur

F fuF  and FruF 
Tf Tr
 Determine the total load transfer

 Combine the load transfers due to
 roll moment
 inertia forces on the sprung
 unsprung masses
 For the front wheel

 Ff=FfsM+FfsF+FfuF
 For rear wheels
 Fr=FrsM+FrsF+FruF

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CHAPTER-3 Suspension System

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CHAPTER-THREE

 React the control force produced by the as a result of

All suspensions use

The upward suspension travel that

When the wheels of a vehicle

Caster causes self-centering action in the

Camber changes as suspension

It is usually 3 to 7 degrees for

Toe In (Positive Toe) Toe-Out (Negative Toe)

 Suspensions can be broadly classified as

 Independent (Driving and Non-driving)

Note: Solid link between left and right wheels

Note: left and right wheels are

 Beam – leaf springs

 Friction in strut can be troublesome.

 Stamped construction  Body roll and wheel movement

 Simplicity  Dangerous replacement

Each arm of the wishbone

double A-arms lower A-arm is a single solid arm

Mounting one rear shock in the front of

+ Good combination of load

Swing Arm Semi-Trailing Arm

The lower control arm carries a

Anti-Roll Stabilizer Bar

 Example- For Double wishbone suspension, there are 4-links

 Since DB can be considered to be a rigid extension of link BC,

 dV   Vertical Velocity of tire   VD Vertical 

 B) Scrub to Bump ratio

 VD Horizontal  OV d '  147.6 

Consider the 3 bodies capable of relative motion as

 In General the relationship between spring deflections and

 Consider the double wishbone suspension

 Using the principle of virtual work,

 Ws    s  can be found by differentiating W

 In the case of 3 force members equilibrium requires the 3

Link AB & CD are respectively two-

Take moments about the rear tyre

 The overall effect is an increase in load at the front and

mgc Under static condition a=0

 mgb mah   mgc 

If Or lies on the line defined by the above equation there is no

Assume the tractive effort is split in the

The change in front spring force

Kf is the front suspension stiffness

 The change in rear spring force is

 The pitch angle is

 During cornering, centrifugal (inertia) forces act

 The process of converting the transverse forces into

The sprung mass rolls

 The analysis is split into four steps:

The relationship between MΦ and Φ is assumed to be linear for small angles

 From the above two equations

Tf & Tr are the front & rear track widths

 Load transfer due to sprung mass inertia force

The corresponding load transfer are

 Load transfer due to the unsprung mass inertia

muf ahuf mur ahur

 Determine the total load transfer

 For the front wheel

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