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    Sequences and Functions

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    Dark bOY
    1) A sequence of functions {un(z)} defined in some region of the z-plane converges to a limit function U(z) if the difference un(z) - U(z) can be made arbitrarily small by choosing a sufficiently large n. 2) Taylor's theorem expresses a function f(z) as an infinite series involving its derivatives at a point a. The region of convergence is where |z - a| is less than the distance to the nearest singularity from a. 3) The proof of Taylor's theorem uses Cauchy's integral formula to express f(z) as integrals around a contour, then expands the integrand using a geometric series to arrive at the Taylor series expression

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    Sequences and Functions

    Uploaded by

    Dark bOY
    37 views4 pages
    1) A sequence of functions {un(z)} defined in some region of the z-plane converges to a limit function U(z) if the difference un(z) - U(z) can be made arbitrarily small by choosing a sufficiently large n. 2) Taylor's theorem expresses a function f(z) as an infinite series involving its derivatives at a point a. The region of convergence is where |z - a| is less than the distance to the nearest singularity from a. 3) The proof of Taylor's theorem uses Cauchy's integral formula to express f(z) as integrals around a contour, then expands the integrand using a geometric series to arrive at the Taylor series expression

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    1) A sequence of functions {un(z)} defined in some region of the z-plane converges to a limit function U(z) if the difference un(z) - U(z) can be made arbitrarily small by choosing a sufficiently large n. 2) Taylor's theorem expresses a function f(z) as an infinite series involving its derivatives at a point a. The region of convergence is where |z - a| is less than the distance to the nearest singularity from a. 3) The proof of Taylor's theorem uses Cauchy's integral formula to express f(z) as integrals around a contour, then expands the integrand using a geometric series to arrive at the Taylor series expression

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    37 views4 pages

    Sequences and Functions

    Uploaded by

    Dark bOY
    1) A sequence of functions {un(z)} defined in some region of the z-plane converges to a limit function U(z) if the difference un(z) - U(z) can be made arbitrarily small by choosing a sufficiently large n. 2) Taylor's theorem expresses a function f(z) as an infinite series involving its derivatives at a point a. The region of convergence is where |z - a| is less than the distance to the nearest singularity from a. 3) The proof of Taylor's theorem uses Cauchy's integral formula to express f(z) as integrals around a contour, then expands the integrand using a geometric series to arrive at the Taylor series expression

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 4

    Sequences and functions

    Let u1(z), u2(z), …………….. un(z) denoted briefly by {un(z)} be a sequence of functions of z
    defined and single valued in some region of the z plane. We call U (z) the limit of un(z)
    as n → ∞ and write
    lim 𝑢𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑈(𝑧)
    𝑛→∞

    if given any positive number  we can find a number N such that


    𝑢𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑈(𝑧) <∈ For all n > N
    In such cases we say that the sequence converges or is convergent to U (z)
    If a sequence converges for all values of z in a region R, we call R the region of
    convergence of the sequence. A sequence which is not convergent at some point z,
    then it is divergent at z
    Taylor’s theorem
    Let f (z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C. Let a and a + h be two points
    inside C, then
    ′
    ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛 (𝑛)
    𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ = 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + … … … + 𝑓 𝑎 + ……… (1)
    2! 𝑛!
    Writing z = a + h or h=z-a
    ′
    𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 2
    𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
    𝑓 𝑧 =𝑓 𝑎 +𝑓 𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 + 𝑧−𝑎 + ……+ 𝑧−𝑎 + …… (2)
    2! 𝑛!

    This is called Taylor’s theorem and the series (1) and (2) are called Taylor series or
    expansion for f (a + h) and f (z)
    The region of convergence of the series (2) is given by |z – a|< R, where the radius of
    convergence R is the distance from a to the nearest singularity of the function f (z). For
    |z – a|> R, the series diverges.

    Proof of Taylor’s theorem


    Let z be a point inside C. Construct a circle C1 with centre
    at a and enclosing z. Then by Cauchy’s integral formula
    1 𝑓(𝑤) … … … (1)
    𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑤
    2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤 − 𝑧
    We have
    1 1
    =
    𝑤−𝑧 𝑤−𝑎 − 𝑧−𝑎
    1 1
    =
    𝑤−𝑎 1− 𝑧−𝑎 / 𝑤−𝑎

    1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 1


    = 1+ + + …… + +
    𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 1− 𝑧−𝑎 / 𝑤−𝑎
    1 1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 1
    or = + 2 + 3 + … … + + (2)
    𝑤−𝑧 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑎 𝑛 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑧

    Multiplying both sides of (2) by f (w) and using equation (1) we have
    1 𝑓(𝑤) 𝑧−𝑎 𝑓(𝑤) 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑤)
    𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑑𝑤 + … … + 𝑑𝑤 + 𝑈𝑛
    2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 2 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 𝑛

    where
    1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 𝑓(𝑤)
    𝑈𝑛 = 𝑑𝑤
    2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑧

    Using Cauchy’s integral formula


    𝑛! 𝑓(𝑤) 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3
    𝑓 (𝑛) 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑤
    2𝜋𝑖 𝑐1 𝑤 − 𝑎 𝑛+1
    Equation (3) becomes
    𝑓′′(𝑎) 𝑓 𝑛−1 (𝑎)
    𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 + … … + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛−1 +𝑈𝑛
    2! 𝑛−1 !
    … … …(4)
    Since w is on C1
    𝑧−𝑎
    =𝛾<1 where g is a constant
    𝑤−𝑎
    Also, we have |f (w)| < M, where M is a constant

    and |w – z| = |(w - a) – (z – a)| ≥ r1 - |z – a|

    where r1 is the radius of C1


    1 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛 𝑓(𝑤) 1 𝛾𝑛𝑀
    Hence 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑑𝑤 ≤ 2𝜋𝑟1
    2𝜋 𝑐1 𝑤−𝑎 𝑤−𝑧 2𝜋 𝑟1 − 𝑧 − 𝑎

    𝛾 𝑛 𝑀𝑟1
    =
    𝑟1 − 𝑧 − 𝑎

    Thus lim 𝑈𝑛 = 0 and equation (4) reduces to Taylor’s series


    𝑛→∞

    Hence proved

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