TYPES OF TBMs

All tunnel boring machines require breaking oI excavated material into sizes,
which can be handled easily Ior removal. In most oI the machines Iull circular cutting
head is deployed. The cutters are mounted in a suitable manner to excavate a tunnel
oI required diameter when the head is rotted under thrust against the working Iace.
The machine body is immediately behind the cutting head that remains stationary
while the cutting head excavates. To maintain its stationary position during
excavation a mechanism is involved which allows the machines to move itselI and the
cutting head Iorward to continue the excavation. Main machine body also contains
mechanical equipment, which provides the necessary thrust, and the torque is
transmitted through the cutting head to the cutters. The muck is removed Irom the
excavated Iace by a number oI buckets on the cutting head and is dropped into a
conveyor belt system, where it discharges into hopper Ior loading in the muck cars or
any other type oI transportation system Ior removal Irom the tunnel.
All tunneling machines contain these components in some Iorm or another,
however, their general arrangement depends primarily on whether the machine in
intended Ior use in soIt ground or in rock. Detailed design varies with manuIacturers.
The main design diIIerence arising Irom the type oI ground to be encountered is that
soIt ground requires some kind oI support as soon as the excavation is made, a
limitation which may not be imposed in hard rock tunneling. In soIt ground
machines, the main Iunction oI the Iorward thrust generally is to support the vertical
Iace oI the excavated ground against collapse, whereas, in hard rock tunneling
Table 1: Classification of Formation on the Basic of their characteristics for
tunneling
ClassiIication Typical Formation
SoIt ground Uncemented deposits oI clay, silt, sand and gravel, possibly
saturated; marl
SoIt rock Shale, tuII, claystone, sandstone
Medium hard rock Some basalt, granite and andesite; average sandstone and
limestone; dolomite, chalk, rhyolite, gneiss, schist
Hard rock Some basalt, granite and andesite; well-cemented sand-stone
and limestone; marble, chert, diorite, quartzite, argillite
machines, the thrust is to supply the energy to break the material. Broadly the types
oI TBMs (Fig.1) can be described in the Iollowing manner:
a. Open mode TBM (unshielded TBM)
b. Single shield TBM
c. Telescopic shield (double shield)
d. Reaming type

Fig 1: Types Of TBMs
Open Mode TBM (Unshielded TBM)
This type oI TBM is suited Ior working in stable and hard rock strata. Supports
required are based on classiIication oI rock types, which may vary Irom spot bolting,
systematic rock bolting, shotcreting 50 mm to 150 mm, welded wire mesh and in poor
geological conditions, steel sets can also be installed. Peak output in the range oI 20m
per day can be achieved but average progress may be much lower by 40 to 50 . In
very hard rock`s the boring process can be accelerated by various methods by
increasing the speed oI cutterhead rotation and increasing the cutterhead thrust. The
gripper shoes in open made TBM distributes the thrust and Iorces the machines to
move Iorward, thereIore the dimensions oI the gripper shoes have to be suIIicient Ior
distribution oI large amount oI thrust so that breaking oI soIter ground and opening oI
ioints because oI concentrated Iorces is avoided. In poor geological conditions or
weaker strata are expected along the tunnel alignment then gripper shoes shall allow
the use oI steel ribs at close spacing.

Single shield TBM
Single shield TBM is used where geological conditions demand immediate
supporting oI the rock behind cutter head. Temporary support is provided by steel
shield and protection by precast segmental lining. Reaction oI thrust Iorce is
transIerred to the segmental lining. The advance rates are comparatively slower than
the open mode TBM. In area oI high rock pressures and convergency in the weak
zones, the skin plate oI the shield may get locked or iammed.
Telescopic Shield (Double Shield) TBM
The telescopic shield is an intermediate partially Iloating shield, which covers
the gap between the two main shields when the main thrust cylinder, are extended.
The telescopic shield has double articulation between the Iront shield and the outer
telescopic shield respectively between the inner telescopic shield and the gripper
shield, to allow easier machine steering without undue stresses on the telescopic
shield system.
In this type oI TBM, shield length is divided in two parts. Excavation is
carried out under protection oI Iront shield where as in the rear section precast
concrete segmental linning is protected. Here also, the thrust is transIerred to the
linning by means oI iacks. Working in high pressure and squeezing ground there may
be iamming problems as in case oI single shield.
Reaming Type TBM
These type oI TBMs are required in large diameter tunnels and in weak geological
conditions where pre-boring is a requirement.
Fundamentally, diIIerence between rock tunnel boring machine and soIt
rock/soil boring machine is only the arrangement and type oI cutting tools Iixed on to
the cutter head. In case oI soIt soil tunneling, scrapping picks are Iixed on to the
cutter head with larger openings in the cutter head so that the excavated material
easily Ilows into the pressurized chamber. On the other hand, the rock tunnel boring
machine has rotating discs on the cutter head. Disc cutters have to be oI very hard
material so that these can easily cut into the rock. Replacement oI cutters due to wear
is not required Irequently.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF TBM
The characteristics oI tunneling machines are determined by the kind oI Iormation in
which they are designed to operate namely, soIt ground, soIt rock, medium hard rock
or hard rock. There is not universally recognized system oI making the classiIication.
Table 1 shows some diIIerent types oI rock that commonly Iall into the diIIerent
grouping. The classiIication is Ior general guidance only, since the compressive
strength and the diIIiculty oI tunneling in a particular rock type can vary considerably,
depending on the crystalline structure, particle shape, amount oI cementation, degree
oI weathering, ioint pattern, degree oI weathering, ioint pattern, Ioliation, seepage
water and number oI ioints.

Fig 2: X-Section of TBM showing Basic Components
Some oI the maior reasons why TBM excavation is commonly selected are
economic considerations, imposed time limitation, design advantages, cost advantages
and imposed environmental limitations. Other Iactors, which can inIluence the
selection, are geometry oI the tunnel in the Iorm oI diameter oI the tunnel and
limitations oI the curve radius.
The diameter oI the tunnel is oI great importance in comparing the costs oI the
two excavation methods. During the post Iew years cost comparisons have been
made on the drilling and blasting method (DBM) vs. boring with TBM. There are
limitations in the use oI TBM. There are limitations is regarding installation oI rock
bolts and steel ribs. When the diameter oI
the tunnel is less than 4 m, it is diIIicult to
install rock bolts or steel support behind the
heading or even behind the machine. When
the diameter oI tunnel is equal to or less
than 3 m, supply oI Iresh air and material as
well as transportation oI muck becomes a problem. This means that in very small
diameter tunnels, the length oI boring Iace must be limited to nearly 2500 m to 3500
m. The supply problem is much the same Ior TBM and DBM tunnels.
Another important geometrical Iactor is the length oI the tunnel. Tunnel
boring operation requires much more extensive investment in equipment than tunnel
blasting. ThereIore, it is essential that the cost oI the equipment be depreciated over a
good length oI tunnel. Which means that the tunnel boring machine is required to be
reused in other proiects oI similar diameter. The minimum length may vary depending
on the proiect; but there may be proiects in which TBM could be iustiIied even iI the
tunnel length is shorter than 5 km. ThereIore, it is common practice to depreciate
boring oI more than 15 km. In case oI larger tunnels, the boring machine always must
be depreciated on the speciIic task Ior which it was designed.
Mechanical excavation is generally more economical than conventional
tunneling, particularly on longer tunnels. On the basis oI simple Ieasibility-level
exploration, it is possible to evaluate TBM Ieasibility and prepare comparative
estimates oI conventional and TBM excavation. Decisions made by the planners and
designers in the early stage oI conception have the greatest impact on proiect cost.
ThereIore, it is essential that planners and designers avail themselves oI current state-
oI-the art knowledge and experience regarding exploration, design, contracting,
bidding and excavation using TBMs. It is important that exploration be appropriate to
anticipated conditions and anticipated type oI construction equipment and methods,
geotechnical testing be appropriate to expected condition and expected type oI
Fig 3: Disc Cutters for Hard Rock
Formations
construction equipment and methods and construction expertise Ior anticipated
conditions be utilized during proiect conception.
DBM Vs TBM BORING
The choice between drill & blast method and tunnel boring method is decided
by a number oI Iactors. Four maior categories oI Iactors in making the DBM Vs
TBM decision are:
a. Geometry oI the tunnel
b. Site conditions
c. Economic conditions oI the contract
d. Geology and type oI rock
Site conditions are oIten the decisive Iactor in choosing between use oI DBM or
TBM. In the case oI longer tunnels, in order to meet the time schedule, it becomes
diIIicult to excavate with DBM. On the other hand, it is possible to meet the time
schedule with the use oI TBM. The area where the intermediate adits cannot be
constructed or due to time constraint, the use oI intermediate adits is not preIerable,
TBMs can be used successIully. Remotely located adits mean high construction
costs, especially when the area is in high mountain region or the terrain is rough. In
such cases, tunnel boring may win over tunnel blasting due to the higher output in
meters per month even though the tunnel cost per meter is higher with the use oI
TBM.
The tunnel boring method is advantageous Ior concrete lined tunnels because
oI less over break but the extent oI the advantage varies depending on how properly
the tunnel is excavated by blasting.
The quality oI the assessment oI the geological conditions along the proposed
tunnel route is most important Ior the selection oI tunneling method. The boring
equipment is generally designed Ior one type oI ground condition in which it can
perIorm optimally. The blasting method is less sensitive with regard to deviations
Irom assumed ground conditions. Consequently, the risks involved in boring are
higher, and the only possibility oI reducing the costs is to produce good geological
and geotechnical assessments. It is impossible to quantiIy the amount oI work
involved in such a iob because it depends on the speciIic site conditions.
It is well-known Iact that the boring technique is more competitive in low
strength and low-abrasive rock, irrespective oI the terms in which the strength and
abrasiveness are measured. Other rock Iactors, which are required to be dealt, are;
regional homogeneity oI the rock, water conditions, temperature oI the rock and
support requirements.
One oI the maior disadvantages oI the boring technique in comparison with
excavation by blasting is the lack oI Ilexibility in boring. The boring machine is
generally designated to achieve optimum perIormance in only one kind oI material.
In Himalayan geology, homogeneous conditions do not occur along the entire length
oI tunnel, it is much more Irequent to encounter variations in rock conditions. When
the rock class encountered is class IV and V, excavation with TBM at the Iace
becomes most diIIicult task in open mode TBM. Controlling cavity and loose Iall or
rooI Iall becomes a blind operation, which may lead to Iailure oI the system.
ThereIore, Ior the selection oI TBM, very detailed site investigation is required iI
excavation oI the tunnel by TBM is required to be carried out.
It has been stated that tunnel blasting is much more Ilexible than boring. This
statement is also valid concerning the curve radius oI the tunnels. It is generally not
the boring machine as such, but rather the long conveyor on the back-up Iramework
that requires Iairly large curve radius.
TBM excavation will generally require less support than conventional
excavation Ior the same ground conditions. The eIIect oI support on costs in a TBM
tunnel will be the result oI decreased excavation rates and the cost oI materials and
installation. The method oI support must be structurally adequate and compatible
with the high penetration and advance rates common with TBM excavation.
Compatibility oI the support and excavation system can have a proIound eIIect on
excavation rates.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
Functionally, TBM can be basically classiIied into two types:
a. Hard rock TBM and
b. SoIt ground TBM.
An attempt has been made to describe these two machines in brieI.
Hard Rock TBM
1he Excavation Svstem: The excavation is perIormed by a cutting head,
usually convex in the direction oI advance with the cutting tools arranged on it Ior
optimum cutting eIIect. The cutting head must be structurally capable oI
withstanding the thrust and torque that it transmits to the cutters. In rock where it
does not have to support the material at the working Iace, the cutting head
incorporates a means oI removing the excavated rock Irom the Iace. In this instance,
a series oI buckets around the edge oI the cutting head is used to raise the material and
drop it on the conveyor system.
Cutters: DiIIerent types oI cutters are used in rock tunneling machines, depending on
the rock hardness. To break the rock, cutters are thrust against the surIace and the
rolled across it under pressure. The cutters are mounted on roller bearings that are
critical in determining the liIe oI the cutter. Present rock tunneling machines usually
incorporate a system oI automatic bearing lubrication to prolog the cutter liIe. The
diIIerent types oI cutters are described hereunder:
a. Disc cutters: These have been used in many oI the most successIul tunneling
machines operating in soIt and medium hard rock. A single cutter consists oI
a disc-shaped base mounted on a roller bearing with a replaceable cutting edge
oI hardened steel around the disc. They may consist oI single, double or triple
cutting discs mounted together (Fig. 3).
The disc cutter operates on what is reIerred to as the KerI` principle,
by which the cutter attacks the rock by cutting a groove into it while exerting a
shearing Iorce that causes the remaining ridges or rocks to break away. Disc
cutters are the best means oI cutting rock with compressive strength upto
175MPa. The disc cutters can break much harder rocks by the use oI tungsten-
carbide inserts around the edge oI disc.
b. Roller cutters: This type oI cutter rolls over the rock and Iactures it by
applying a direct mechanical Iorce to all parts oI the rock surIace under attack.
Roller cutters are oI two types: milled-tooth cutters and tungsten-carbide-
insert cutters. This type is produced Irom heat-treated oI a truncated, cone-
shaped base. The teeth may be selI-sharpening by single hard Iacing on the
tooth Ilank, or both Iaces oI the teeth may be hardened to give maximum
abrasion-resistance. When the abrasiveness oI the rock puts it beyond the
capabilities oI the milled-tooth cutter, tungsten-carbide-insert cutters are used.
The cutter has a truncated cone shape, with the cutting surIace studded with
small tungsten-carbide inserts. The shape oI the individual inserts varies.
They may be chisel-crested, with a shape similar to a tooth; they may have a
conical nose with a rounded apex where the angle oI the cone may be 60 to
120 degrees; or they may be hemispherical. The choice oI the shape depends
on the hardness oI the rock t be Iractured.
The tungsten-carbide roller cutter breaks the rock more by a process oI
pulverizing it than by chipping out pieces. This type oI cutter has been used to
excavate the highest-strength rock that has been economically worked to date,
but it has the disadvantages oI high cost, slow penetration rate and the
production oI a high percentage oI Iines.
avout of Cutters on the cutting head: In tunneling machine Ior use in soIt ground,
one type oI drag cutter is generally used over the entire Iace oI the cutting head.
However, rock tunnel boring machine may employ diIIerent types oI cutters to
advantage on diIIerent parts oI the cutting head. In the choice and arrangement oI
cutters over the Iace, there are three distinct zones with diIIerent requirements namely
the centre the Iace and the outside edge.
a. Center cutter: One or more roller cutters
usually accomplish breaking the center oI the bore in harder
rock, since the Iracturing action oI the disc cutters cannot
take place eIIectively until the bore is started. The cutters
may be arranged as a tricone bit, or a single cutter may be
cantilever mounted (Fig.4).
b. Face Cutter: These are the cutters that attack
the main area oI the Iace. They are generally disc cutters or
roller cutters, depending on the hardness oI the rock, but drag
cutters are sometimes used in soIt rock (Fig. 5)
c. Gauge cutters: Gauge cutters are mounted at
the extreme outside edge oI the cutterhead and their Iunction
is to maintain the bore diameter at the require size. They are
Fig 4: Center Cutter
Fig 5: Face Cutter
usually disc cutters or roller cutters. To provide clearance Ior the outer
end oI the cutter bearing, it is necessary to slope the Iace oI the cutter
so that it is not longer parallel to the working Iace. Because this
positioning would lead to uneven and Iaster wear than the Iace cutters,
the gauge cutters are usually treated with special hard Iacing or
tungsten-carbide inserts.

Fig 6: Boring cycle of TBM operation

1he Machine Bodv: Fig. 6 shows steps in a boring cycle oI a TBM. Step 1 shows the
position oI the legs at the start oI the boring cycle, with the eight main legs clamping
the machine in position against the tunnel walls and the rear legs retracted. During
boring, the rotating cutting head is pushed Iorward by means oI Iour hydraulic thrust
iacks, and excavation proceeds until the cutter head reaches the end oI its stoke, as
shown in step 2. The length oI this advance stroke is 1.0 to 1.5 m. The position at the
start oI the reset cycle is shown in step 3. The rear support legs have been extended,
and the cutting rotated so that one oI its arms resets vertically on the tunnel Iloor. The
main legs are than retracted, and the machine is once more in the position shown in
step 1, ready to begin the boring cycle.
1he Mucking Svstem: In the muck removal system, the excavated material is scooped
by buckets around the cutting head, dropped into a conveyor system and taken to the
back end oI the tunneling machine. There, it moves onto a separate conveyor system
and is loaded into a train oI mucking cars. The conveyor system is long enough to
allow a complete train to pack in underneath it so that the train can be Iilled without
the need Ior a switching system. The conveyor system must be long enough to allow
suIIicient space Ior track laying immediately behind the tunneling machine.
Ventilation system Ior dust control iust behind the Iace and to provide Iresh air
is installed on the backup system. II concrete lining is to be placed in a hard rock
tunnel, there is seldom any urgent reason Ior it to be poured immediately behind the
excavation, and the concreting operations can proceed independently. The present
day TBMs have a probe drill Ior investigating the strata ahead. The backup system
contains almost all required equipment like shotcreting machines steel rib erector,
rock-bolting machine, grouting machine, emergency power, compressors and water
supply systems.
Soft Ground Tunnel Boring Machines
The characteristics oI a soIt ground tunneling machine are determined to a
large extent by the type oI soIt ground in which it will be working. The Iollowing
descriptions oI soil conditions encountered in tunneling are in general use:
a. Firm ground: In Iirm ground, a tunneling machine may be advanced several
meter or more without immediate support. No problem occurs with
uncontrolled sloughing it the excavated Iace is unsupported. StiII clays and
cemented or cohesive granular materials are generally oI this type.
b. Raveling ground: II reveling ground is encountered in the rooI oI the tunnel
and in the upper part oI the working Iace it may remain unsupported Ior some
period oI time but soon it Ilakes oII and Ialls into the excavated portion. The
action is progressive and my lead to open cavities growing above the crown in
tunnel. Sands, silts and Iine sands with apparent cohesion oIten Iorm raveling
ground.
c. Running ground: Running ground slumps Irom any unsupported lateral Iace
until a stable slope is Iormed at the angle oI repose. Cohesion-less solid, such
as dry sand or clean, loose gravel, Iall into this category.
d. Flowing ground: II seepage pressure develops towards the working Iace oI
what would otherwise be raveling or running ground, the soil may be
transIormed into Ilowing ground, which can advance like a thick, viscous
liquid into the tunnel through any available opening.
e. Squeezing ground: II squeezing ground is unsupported, it gradually moves
inward, but without necessarily breaking and raveling. This behavior is a
characteristic oI soIt to medium clays and shale. The time dependency or the
movement is related to the plasticity oI the soil.
In soIt ground, shield tunnel-boring machines are mainly used. These may be
classiIied broadly into Iollowing categories.
a. Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPBMs): Tunnelling in water bearing
strata with high permeability is done with the help oI shield tunnel boring
machines where the cutting Iace is always kept under pressure to balance the
earth pressure and hydrostatic pressure to control the ground settlement. Open
Iace tunnel boring machines are suitable Ior rock or stiII clay with very low
permeability or where ground water table is below the excavation level. The
open Iace tunnel boring machines are Iaster and easy to handle. The type oI
cutting tools mounted on the cutter head depends on the geology and in case oI
the change in geology, the replacement oI cutting tools by other suitable tools
is very easy in the case oI open Iace tunnel boring machines, but the same is
diIIicult in case oI closed Iace or shield tunnel boring machines. The advance
rate is greatly aIIected due to changes in geology.
b. Slurry shield: Slurry shields involve large surIace installations like slurry
tanks, de-sanders and pumps and involves problem oI disposal oI bentonite
slurry and, thereIore, cause environmental problems.
c. Telescopic shield. The tunnel shield is a moving metal casing which is driven
in advance oI the permanent tunnel lining to support the ground surrounding
the tunnel bore and to aIIord protection Ior construction oI the permanent
lining without any temporary support. In Iact, the shield is a rigid steel
cylinder open at both ends providing Iacilities at its Iront Ior the excavation oI
the ground materials and at its rear Ior the erection oI the pre-Iabricated lining.
Thus, the shield is always Iorced ahead keeping pace with the progress oI
excavation and the erection oI permanent lining. The excavated bore is well
supported by this shield till be permanent lining is constructed. A screw auger
removes the excavated material. The auger is designed so that the screw pitch
maintains a positive pressure within the mixing chamber at or slightly above
the hydrostatic pressure. As the material is removed along the screw
conveyor, the pressure, within the screw drops gradually to atmospheric
pressure within the cutterhead is maintained balancing the rate oI advance
with the rate oI spoil material removed adiusting the parameters as required.
The Iront shield advances during the boring cycle while the rear shield is anchored
by the grippers to the tunnel walls. At the end oI the boring stroke, the grippers are
retracted, stabilizer cylinder pads are activated in the Iront shield and the thrust
cylinders are retracted thus dragging Iorward the rear shield (gripper shield tail
shield)
During the complete cycle, the machine is Iully protected by the overlap between
Iront and intermediate shields. In sound, stable rock conditions, the boring capacity is
the same as that oI any conventional hard rock TBM oI equivalent power and thrust,
and the machine advances by thrusting oII the gripper structure in the rear shield as
long as he rock is selI-supporting. Lining elements can be installed during the boring
cycle, without noticeably aIIecting the machine`s advancing capability.
When the ground does not provide adequate reaction to the gripper Iorces, the
machine advances with the auxiliary thrust cylinders, by thrusting against the
segmental lining. The machine is thus capable I coping with a wide range oI
geological conditions while maintaining steady productivity.
1he Excavation Equipment: II the tunneling operation is in Iirm ground, the most
eIIective method oI working the Iace is generally by an articulated backhoe or a
similar excavating tool. This method works most eIIiciently when no breasting oI the
Iace is required and the backhoe can work with a minimum oI restriction.
More commonly, a circular rotating cutting head using drag-type cutters
accomplishes the excavation. This cutting head may be oI spoked construction with
the cutters distributed along the spokes, leaving upon spaces between them. The
spoked cutting head provides easy access to the working Iace and to the cutters Ior
maintenance or replacement, but it does not provide a great amount oI support at the
working Iace. This design works well in Iirm ground and usually provides suIIicient
support in raveling ground.
A commonly used alternative type oI cutting head has a completely closed
working Iace, which usually known as a drum digger. This design provides the
maximum degree oI support at the Iace and is the best machine to use in running
ground. The cutters break up the material at the Iace, and the spoil is removed
through slots in the Iace oI the drum. The size oI opening can usually be adiusted to
prevent uncontrolled Ilow oI running material Irom the Iace.
Cutters for Soft Cround 1unnelling Machines: Some type oI drag cutter is almost
always used in a soIt ground tunneling machine. Drag cutters are all basically simple
picks or teeth and are made in a wide range oI shapes and sizes. They are Iixed
rigidly to the cutting head. When Iorced into the ground and moved, they tear
material loose Irom the working Iace. Because they are oI much simpler construction
than the cutters in rock, they are much cheaper and much easier to change. Drag
cutters are generally not used in harder rock because they wear too quickly and their
use becomes uneconomical.
1he Mucking Equipment: During the Iorward movement oI the machine, the muck is
pushed and deIlected onto a conveyor or drag chain, which removes it to the back oI
the shield. There it is transIerred to a conveyor or train, which is pulled behind the
shield. This system may be similar to those used in rock tunneling machines, and the
mucking train is also suitable Ior soIt ground tunneling.
Compressed Air Svstems: The tunneling machine in soIt ground may need to be
operated under compressed air behind an airlock. The condition oI the ground and the
position oI the water table determine whether a compressed air system is needed. A
tunneling machine cannot perIorm in Ilowing ground, and measures must be taken to
change the Ilowing nature beIore tunneling operations commence, either be lowering
the water table or by the use oI compressed air.
In squeezing ground, the degree oI support that must be provided by the
tunneling machine depends on the Ilow characteristics oI the ground and the planned
rate oI advance. During machine closedown, support may be required even where it
is not needed during a moving operation. In very plastic ground, the machine may
become unmanageable due to a strong tendency to tilt as it advances. This condition
can be greatly improved by the use oI compressed air.


ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TBM
Advantages
TBMs oIIer several advantages over the conventional techniques some oI
which are enumerated as Iollows:
a. Circular smooth boring is possible without much undulation and over breaks.
b. In long Iaces where drilling/blasting cannot be used, TBM is the best option.
c. In areas, where environmental restrictions do not allow use oI blasting, TBM
is most suitable.
d. Time schedule does not permit slow rate oI construction.
e. Explosives are not used. ThereIore, operations in densely built-up areas
produce much lower vibration levels.
I. Depending on rock condition, little or no over break occurs compared to about
15 by drilling and blasting, aIIecting considerable saving in excavated rock
and concrete to Iill the voids.
g. Excavation is comparatively Iast which overall reduces time and saves cost.
h. Lower initial ground support cost results in cost saving.
i. Less number oI persons are required which reduce site establishment.
i. In low cover surIace settlement is reduced to very low levels resulting in
assured saIety to existing structures.
k. Because oI machine cutting there is less destabilization and Iracturing oI the
surrounding rock.
l. Continued and consistent ventilation is possible at the Iace.
m. A TBM can be manuIactured to be explosion prooI.
n. Continuous TBM excavation is less likely to produce gas concentrations and
continuous monitoring and continuous monitoring oI gas at the tunnel Iace is
easy while working with TBM.
o. High rock temperatures are uncommon Ior most civil tunnels; however, TBMs
have been used extensively in deep underground mining applications in which
high temperatures are normal.


Disadvantages
a. High initial cost oI equipment
b. TBM cannot be depreciated in a single proiect. ThereIore, high investment
may remain blocked in case second chance to use TBM is not available
immediately.
c. In Himalayan geology because oI variable strata and Irequent changes in rock
conditions it becomes diIIicult to change the system Irom TBM to
conventional and vice versa.
d. Change over Irom open mode to shield tunnelling and vice versa cannot be
done.
e. For transportation oI heavy erection equipment in remote and hilly area, the
roads and bridges are required to be widened and upgraded completely.
I. For uninterrupted operation Iull construction power back up shall be created at
site.
g. Full dependence on Ioreigners because oI non-availability oI indigenous
expertise in operation and maintenance.
h. High cost oI maintenance and dependence on import because oI non-
availability oI indigenous spare parts and cutters.
i. Vibrations oI the cutter head can occur while boring in hard rock at high
speed. The vibrations negatively aIIect the disc cutter liIe and stressing oI the
cutter head.
i. Cost oI cutters represent an important part in the overall cost oI excavation by
TBM
k. Concentration oI large Iorce on the rock through gripper pads creates shearing
oI rock mass and Iailure oI ioint planes.
l. In diIIicult geological conditions, the TBM complex should have wide range
oI auxiliary equipment Ior Iacilitating installation oI support.
m. For longer reaches, mucking time increases and intermittent muck storage
Iacility by using long conveyor belts shall be planned.
n. Continuous Iorward probing is required to assess the rock conditions.
o. More detailed geo-technical investigations are required Ior selecting proper
TBM.

RECENT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
The requirement oI tunnels and underground structures has been steadily
increasing Ior various amenities required to be provided, starting Irom water
conductor system Ior power generation and irrigation to construction oI road
traIIic tunnels and underground metro railways. Tunnels are also being
constructed Ior underground parking places, sewerages, electrical cables in
metropolitan cities and also underground oil storages and Ior extraction oI
valuable ores. In addition to this a stadium has been constructed in the recent
years at Giovik in Norway called Underground Olympic Ice Hockey Stadium,
which is a very massive underground excavation activity completed in a very
short period using most modern underground techniques Ior speedy exaction,
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute conducted rock movement studies and other
geotechnical aspects oI the rock Iormation adding considerable knowledge in the
Iield oI rock mechanics.
Underground excavations have to be completed at the Iastest rate to see that
there is reasonable reduction in cost oI construction and the till charges or service
charges payable by the users are aIIordable. It is relatively simpler to do
underground excavation in hard rock which constitutes lava Iormations like basalt,
and also Iormations like granite, quartzite, schist, limestone etc. so long as they
are not intersected by too many shears. In order to overcome diIIiculties which
are generally encountered in metamorphic and soIt rocks, various equipment and
methods have been devised over the last three to Iour decades. This article depicts
today`s status oI technological developments.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TECHNIQUES & EQUIPMENT
Techniques oI excavation and development oI new equipment Ior tunneling can be
classiIied into diIIerent sectors as under
(a) Development on drilling equipment
(b) Explosives and method oI charging
(c) Ventilation
(d) Mucking Equipment
(e) Development on temporary and permanent tunneling supports
(I) Fast concrete lining methods
(g) Grouting
(h) Drainage
(i) Tunneling in weak rocks
These aspects are being detailed out in the succeeding paragraphs

Fig 7: Development of Rock Drilling Technology

O Drilling Equipment
A sketch pertaining to development oI drilling equipment is given at Fig. 7 Ior
reIerence. It will be seen Irom Fig. 7 that we have the technology available in the
world today to reach a drilling speed oI 300 metres per hour with use oI a three
boom hydraulic iumbo with rocket boomers having COP 1838 hydraulic driIters.
The penetration speed oI this machine is as high as 3 metres per minute/driIter. In
view oI this, it has been possible to reduce the drilling time drastically. In order to
have control on direction oI drilling, use oI computerized hydraulic boomers is
being adopted to control geometry oI peripheral holes in additional to getting Iast
speed. This has been very successIully carried out in some oI the recent tunnels
like the Oslo railway tunnel oI 16 km length leading to the airport, which has been
eIIectively excavated by use oI computerized hydraulic drill iumbos. In addition
to saving oI time in drilling, it also gives a total control on geometry oI all the
peripheral holes. It would thus be seen that over years, the technology
improvement in drilling has reduced the time and manpower requirements Ior
drilling to almost 10. In addition it is now possible to achieve a reasonable
accuracy required in the drilling.
In most oI the developed countries Ior all tunnels oI sizes upto about 6 metres
diameter, use oI TBM is rampant since it reduces the time in construction and
consequent cost. Hence, whenever speed and saIety becomes the main criteria, use
oI TBM, despite its heavy capital cost, is preIerred.
Present technology has achieved design oI TBM with single and double shield
and also provision oI Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPBMs) to cater Ior any
soIt ground conditions, which may be required to be encountered during the
course oI driving. Methods have been evolved to do probe drilling well in advance
upto a depth oI 120 metres very Iast by providing rocket boomers so that there is
no loss oI time iI we have knowledge oI the type oI rock and the water bodies
likely to met with in advance. In the recent years, Georadars have been designed
to get the knowledge oI at least 100 metres oI rocks in advance so that we can
prepare ourselves to treat the rock by grouting with or without chemicals and the
problem oI driving the TBM in such condition are catered Ior.
Advancement has been made in type oI raise borers to have more precise
drilling and subsequent widening required to achieve proIile oI the inclined line
and vertical shaIt. Upto now raise climbers were popular due to less capital cost.
Raise borers are catching up now because oI higher speed and less hazard. In case
oI raise climber, there are ventilation hazard, which are avoided in case oI use oI
raise borer. With the improvement in the technology, raise borers are likely to
become more popular Ior boring oI inclined and vertical shaIt.
O Explosives And Method Of Charging
In the case oI explosives, there have been constant attempts to produce
explosives oI correct strength required to charge holes at various dispositions and
it has been successIully achieved. In India such a situation has not been possible
due to various production constraints. A method oI using Ammonium Nitrate
(AN) and Iuel oil (FO) with inert material like sand or polystyrene has been
deployed in India to get the correct concentration oI column charge. Ammonium
nitrate with 7 Iuel oil and 50 sand or polystyrene has been able to replace
Gurit/Nabit which are used Ior peripheral holes in developed countries. Three
types oI alternatives are being adopted in India which are enumerated below:
a) The base charge normally used is oI high strength gelatin. Depending upon the
depth oI the hole, the concentration oI charge is achieved by combination oI
gelatin ammonium nitrate with Iuel oil and 50 sand or polystyrene. The
length oI the hole to be charged with AN/FO with 50 sand or polystyrene
will depend on the disposition oI the holes. Peripheral holes need a small base
charge and a low strength explosive column charge to avoid incidence oI
heavy outbreak.
b) Use oI 200 mm long bamboo lath spacers or a clean air gap oI 200 mm using
detonating cord has been used to have a low concentration charge oI
explosives.
One oI the main items Ior getting correct pull is use oI correct detonator. In India,
we have halI-second and milli-second detonator, sometimes combination oI these
two is used. However, report obtained Irom various sites show that it is better to
have only one type oI detonator with a longer series, say upto 15 to 20 oI same
type oI detonators, instead oI having a mix oI detonators, to assure a better result.
However, in order to have a reduction in the total drilling and blasting cycle, use
oI Nonel detonators, which are non-electric sensitive, are being used and in India
despite its cost ranging 4 times oI a halI-second and milli-second detonators.
Use oI detonating cord is also gaining popularity in Indian tunnels as this is one
method which enables blasting oI tunnels with a low charge as given in above
paras. Use oI AN and FO to have low strength column charge and whenever
required this could be mixed with 50 and above sand or polystyrene to have less
concentration oI charge required Ior charging peripheral holes. In order to save
time, these charges are placed in light PVC pipes so that sticks oI more than two
metres length are prepared along with correct detonators and placed in the holes
drilled and kept ready. This saves considerable time in charging and blasting. Use
oI slurry explosives is also gaining momentum as it saves time and cost.

Fig 8: Arrangement Showing Blasting By Bamboo Lath Or Air Gap

O Ventilation
Basically the equipment Ior mucking in tunnels could be either oI rubber tyred
or on rails. It has been Iound that the equipment which is on rails or rubber tyres
needs to be diesel driven and hence powerIul ventilation is required to get the
working place Iree oI toxic gases so that people working at the Iace are
comIortable. The most eIIective ventilation which is recommended today is Iorced
ventilation. Forced ventilation pushes Iresh air inside by use oI Ilexible ducts
made oI special Iabric to withstand the pressure oI air required to push out the
toxic gases generated out oI diesel equipment or blasting Iumes material.
Sometimes, picking up gases Irom the Iace by sucking and throwing them out by
secondary ventilation is used. However, getting this extended consumes lot oI
time and hence has not gained popularity. The design oI ventilation is one oI the
most important items, which requires parameters oI pressure as well as the
quantum oI air per horse power oI diesel equipment and number oI men working
at site to be provided with reasonable Iactor saIety.
O Mucking Equipment
It has been Iound requirement oI mucking equipment depends on the size oI
the tunnel. The mucking cycle Ior removal oI muck should not be in excess oI 4
hours and as such the equipment required Ior mucking is designed to achieve this.
The size oI the rubber tyred loaders or electrical crawler shovels or rail mounted
mucking equipment is designed Ior this purpose. In the event oI tunneling being
done by use oI TBM, the mucking equipment has got a relation to the stroke oI the
TBM. Capacity oI mucking train has to be at least Iull quantity oI muck produced
per stroke oI the machine 50 standby to cater Ior contingencies.
Generally, detailed calculation to design the requirement oI mucking
equipment, i.e. size oI muck cars, size oI locos, size oI CaliIornia switches in case
oI TBM, and in case oI Drill & Blast Method, size oI diesel loading equipment or
electrically driven crawler shovels and dumpers is made at the planning stage so
that deIinite cycle time is planned Ior a given advance per cycle. For the last
cycle, rock excavated by TBM is carried out the portal to the stockpile by use oI
conveyor belt oI appropriate capacity.
O Supporting System
The supporting system is generally done by use oI temporary or permanent
support system. All such rocks which respond to temporary supports to prevent
dilation oI rocks are treated by use oI shotcrete (NATM method) or Iibre
reinIorced shotcrete with or without rockbolts. In case oI plain shotcrete, welded
wire mesh is used and in case oI Iibre reinIorced shotcrete, this is not necessary.
The present technology has rested with Iibre reinIorced shotcrete.
Temporary/permanent positive steel supports are required to be used in such
rocks which exert positive pressures within a short period oI blasting. The
permanent supports are oI steel and are blocked against the rock by use oI
blocking concrete in addition to steel lagging and temporary props.

O Concrete Lining
Collapsible travelling Iormwork with continuous lining Ior Iull length is being
adopted I most oI the long length tunnels. The length oI the shutter varies Irom
50m 100m and it has been possible to achieve concrete lining progress oI in
excess oI 1.0 km oI length/ month. Use oI concrete placer Ior the concrete
discharged by the concrete pump has been adopted. The placer is hydraulically
maneuvered Ior eIIicient and speedy placement oI concrete. This is the most
popular method used in modern tunneling works which need to be lined all over
the world.
Whenever tunnels are bored by the TBM, generally the invert part oI lining is
a precast segment. This is a precast segment made oI precast concrete with proper
inserts Ior rail Iixing and is used throughout the length. Lining is also done, in
case oI poor ground conditions, by use oI precast segments since it is more
expedient. In this method, the time lag between completion oI boring oI tunnel
and completion oI lining is very small. This method is more popular where tunnels
are excavated in bad ground. All the precast segments are kept ready in advance
and a total automatic system is created Ior casting, transportation oI these
segments inside the tunnel and erecting them. A gap between precast linings Irom
50mm to 75mm is kept and Iilled with gravel and kept as such Ior some duration
oI time, this helps in taking care oI dilating rock.
O Grouting
Grouting is needed Ior:-
a) Establishing complete contact between rock and concrete. This is generally
called pack grouting;
b) Grouting required between precast concrete elements and rock;
c) Grouting required Ior strengthening the rock;
d) Grouting required to consolidate bad ground to make it competent Ior
tunneling.
Pressures required to be adopted Ior various types oI grouting are adiusted to
match the parameters oI iob condition. The design oI grout also depends upon the
purpose it is required to be used Ior. However, this is one oI the main tools which
enable tunneling engineers to get over adverse ground condition.
O Drainage
In order to eliminate possibilities oI building up oI water pressure on rock or
concrete lining, drainage holes oI appropriate depth are provided. These holes also
help in discharging water Irom the surcharged ground when the tunnel is being
emptied.


O Tunnelling In Weak Rocks
Two methods are employed Ior tunnelling in weak rocks. A comprehensive
overview oI such methods, available Ieatures etc. are discussed herein below
Bv Use Of 1BM For driving through diIIicult Iormation and to
improve the steerability oI the Tunnel Boring Machine, the Iollowing
special design characteristics were Ioreseen:
, The bore diameter can be increased by means oI enlargement
cutters to provide a relieI overcut, when driving through
possibly squeezing rock Ioundation
- The cutterhead can be adiusted axially and radially related to
the Iront shield.
. A ioint is installed between the telescopic section and the
gripper section a new Ieature Ior this type oI machine,
/ Following the erector bridge a multi Iunctioning drilling system
is installed in the area oI the working platIorm and iniection
drilling.
0 Supply the preIabricated concrete sections is carried out using
special transport wagons. For logistic reasons the sections are
liIted oII using a special rapid unloading station to Iree the
transport wagons Ior the delivery oI the next two support rings.
The telescopic shield machine consists oI the main constructional
groups like shield assembly, cutter head with drive and main bearing,
erector and segment handling devices, probe and iniection drill, muck
removal system , control cabin, backup trailer.
Shield assembly about 12m long, consists oI a Iront shield with an
external telescope tube, a iointed shield with an internal telescope tube,
a gripper shield with gripper claws and a shield tail. Two hydraulically
operated stabilizing claws in the upper area oI the Iront shield can be
used during boring, iI required. The torque transIer between the Iront
and the hinged shield takes place via two horizontal so called torque
support beams over the Iull length oI the maximum stroke.
Bv Umbrella Arch Method: Use oI Umbrella Arch Method is adopted
where tunnels are excavated by Drill & Blast Method. What we meant
by 'Umbrella Arch is usually obtained by means oI a series oI holes,
whole diameter ranges between 100 and 180mm, that are drilled,
evenly spaced, along the contour oI the tunnel vault in such a way to
Iorm halI cone whose generatrices lie as much as possible parallel to
tunnel axis. Similar holes can be drilled, iI needed, also along the
contour oI the sides oI the tunnel cross-section.
In the holes are then placed steel pipes oI suitable diameter,
perIorated along the lower side; grouting agents are pressure iniected
in the pipes.
The umbrella combines the advantage oI modern Iorepoling
system and oI a series oI grouting iniections. It allows the excavation
to progress saIely with a Iull control oI subsidence through
heterogeneous rocks having poor geomechanical properties

Fig 9: Umbrella Arch Method For Tunneling In Weak Rock