Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

 Innate behavior suits species that have short lifespans – they don’t have
Behavior 
time to learn behaviours
Suits species with no parental care/solitary lifestyles as they can’t learn
Is the outwardly expressed course of action produced in an organism in behaviours from other members of the species
response to stimulus from a given situation.  It does not make enormous demands from the higher centers of the
nervous system hence it places economy on nerve pathways.
It modifies the relationship between the organism and its environment.
CATEGORIES OF INNATE BEHAVIOUR
Adaptive significance of behavior 1. Reflex:
 This is an involuntary stereotyped response of part of an organism to a
 To perpetuate the organism in terms of survival and reproduction. given stimulus.
 It is a simple, automatic response of a body to a stimulus that involves no
Ethology: is the scientific study of animal behavior, particularly when that
conscious control e.g. Pull hand away from hot surface, baby feeding,
behaviour occurs in the context of an animal’s natural environment.
horse tail swatting at flies.
 They are determined by the inheritance of specific patterns of neurons
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
forming cranial and spinal reflexes.
1. Innate / instinctive behaviour: natural, inborn patterns of behaviour e.g.
suckling in newborns.  Neurons are concerned with flexion or stretch.
2. Learned behaviour: behaviour acquired through experience / practice.  Flexion responses code for withdraw whilst stretch responses code for
balance and posture.
INNATE BEHAVIOR  There may be an overlap of innate and learned behavior when the brain
Natural, inborn behaviour that is genetically programmed hence inherited. modifies reflexes according to circumstances. These are called
It includes; orientation (kinesis and taxism), simple reflexes and instincts conditioned reflexes e. g. blinking the eye in response to sudden
Characteristics of innate behavior. movement.
 It is inherited not acquired
 It is similar among members of a species though slight differences occur 2. Orientation behaviors
between males and females. These are coordinated movements (walking, flying, swimming, etc.) that occur in
response to an external stimulus. These behaviors have adaptive value for survival
 It is sequential, the completion of one activity results in start of another.
by helping the insect locate (or avoid) the source of a stimulus.
 It is unintelligent, the individual does not know the purpose of the
behavior
a. Kinesis:
Note:
This is a non-directional orientation behavior where the rate of movement is
1. Since innate behavior is encoded in DNA, it is subject to genetic change
directly proportional to the intensity of a stimulus.
through mutation, recombination, and natural selection.
Example: Woodlice move around rapidly and randomly when exposed to light
2. Just like physical traits, innate behaviors are phylogenetic adaptations that have
until they find better conditions then they stop moving or move slowly.
an evolutionary history.
b. Taxis:
Advantages of innate behaviour
This is a directional movement of a whole organism in response to an external
 Innate responses are generally rapid – organisms can react quickly to directional stimulus. If the movement is towards the stimulus, it is positive, if it
their environments (predators etc.) e.g. the earth worm quickly / rapidly is away from the stimulus it is negative. Some orientations involve maintain a
withdraws into its burrow, away from the danger.

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

dorsal light reaction in which the dorsal side is usually uppermost e.g. in fish such awakening. These stimuli determine the animal’s state of responsiveness. e.g.
as Plaice. being hungry
Example:  Terminating stimulus
Fly maggots move away from light sources (negative photo taxis) Is an internal or external stimulus that terminates a behavioral response. For
Direction of stimulus is detected by moving the head which bears the major example; a visual stimulus of a completed nest will terminate nest building. The
sensory organs. This enables symmetrically placed receptors on the head to detect internal satiety of a full stomach will terminate feeding. Also internal satiety
stimulus. It is called klinotaxic response. accompanying ejaculation terminates mating.

Describe an experiment to demonstrate orientation behavior in animals. Continuity of behavior is upon the presence of such stimulus.
Classification of responses in case of interruption of the fixed action pattern
 DISPLACEMENT ACTIVITY
INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR (Fixed Action An irrelevant activity produced by an excess of one or more conflicting drives in
an organism.
Patterns) Displacement activities occur when an animal experiences high motivation for two
or more conflicting behaviors, the resulting displacement activity is usually
This is a collection of complex, inborn, stereotyped behavior patterns of unrelated/ irrelevant/ out of context to the competing motivations
immediate survival value to the animal, produced in response to sudden changes in Examples
the environment.  Birds may peck at grass when uncertain whether to attack or flee from an
 They are unique to a species and hence are called species characteristic opponent.
behavior.  A human may scratch his or her head when they do not know which of
 Its more common in insects and in vertebrates two options to choose.
 It’s a neuronal economy measure; providing organisms with already  A bird may pick up nesting material from the ground and throw it away
made set of behavioral responses. on being disturbed from the nest.
 The already made responses undergo natural selection and confer  Sticklebacks suddenly dig in the vertical position during a boundary
survival significance. clash.
 The animal performs such behavior without a period of learning.  Walking up and down when stressed.

VACUUM ACTIVITY
Types of stimuli This is a type of displacement activity in which an animal with motivation to
perform a behavior but deprived of its appropriate releaser performs in the wrong
situation performed without apparent need or stimuli.
 Releasers/ sign stimulus
Examples
These are simple stimuli or sequence of stimuli produced by a member of a
 Even if there are no insects, a bird snaps at imaginary insects in the air,
species which evokes a behavioral response in another member of the same
no reason to do so but just exercising instinctive action pattern.
species. These stimuli elicit particular responses when the animal encounters them
 Domestic squirrel raised in a metal cage will go through the entire
e.g. sight of food
sequence of nut-burying activities as if it were in the bush.
 Motivational stimulus  Birds deprived of a mate will display to an inanimate object such as a
Provide the goal or drive to prepare the organism for activity. For example, a bucket
depleted food reserve in the body during hibernation prepares the body for

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

TIMING OF BEHAVIOUR  Improves local control. If too small, not enough

Circaannual - occurs on a seasonal / annual basis knowledge of predators resources for effort of defending.
Examples: hibernation in bears, frogs, toads, salamanders bury themselves in mud and resources.  8.Higher risk of predation if
during the winter.  8. Exclusive place to territory within predator’s
Circadian - This is a 24-hour, light-regulated, sleep/wake cycle of behaviour. retreat and shelter. territory.
Circadian rhythms are controlled by genes, yet are also influenced by factors such  9. Dispersion of nests reduces  Easy for predators to find.
as jet lag and shift work. predation.  Ever present threat of take-over
 10. Higher survival as surplus of animals without
rates. territory.
TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR / TERRITORRIALITY  Extra vigilance required at certain
A territory: a physical space an animal defends against other members of its times of the year (e.g. breeding
species. season).

The main reasons for territoriality MIGRATION

 Control food supply Migration
 Retreat; shelter; nest, Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individual
 Access to mates; animals, usually on a seasonal basis. It is the most common form
 space for sexual display; courtship of migration in ecology. It is found in all major animal groups, including birds,
mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.
Animals that have territories mark and defend their space by singing e.g. birds,
urinating e.g. mammals, constantly standing guard e.g. carpenter bees, Causes of migration
releasing pheromones e.g. some insects
Advantages of territoriality Disadvantages of territoriality  Resource availability changes depending on seasonal fluctuations,
 Males able to hold on to  Cost of defending territory which influence migration patterns.
resources show their including risk of physical contact,
 Different species also might migrate for reproductive purposes.
evolutionary fitness and and displays of strength.
Pacific salmon is an example of a species migrating to reproduce.
are attractive to females.  Need to be vigilant for intruders.
 Exclusive access to food,  Defending territory is time that
Every year pacific salmon travel upstream to mate and then return to
particularly at times of could be feeding or mating. the ocean.
shortage.  Vocal or visual communication of  Temperature is also a driving factor of migration that is dependent on
 Exclusive area for territory ownership makes the the time of year. Many species, especially birds, migrate to warmer
breeding and raising individual vulnerable to locations during the winter to escape poor environmental conditions.
young. predation.
 Space for sexual display  Difficult for smaller animals to  In circadian migration clocks of both circadian (daily) and circannual
and courtship. hold territory; i.e. more likely to (annual) patterns are utilized to determine the birds’ orientation in
 Spacing of animals avoids be attacked than larger animals both time and space as they migrate from one destination to the
competition.  Difficult to move if resources next. This type of migration serves as being advantageous in birds
 Reduces aggression / exhausted. that during the winter remain close to the equator and also to monitor
conflicts.  Importance of territory size. If too
the auditory and spatial
large, then hard to maintain

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

 Constant temperature conditions:  Risk at temporary stopovers

Examples of migration: escape bad weather and lower from lack of local knowledge
 Some species of Gallinaceous and raptorial birds migrate from valley to temperatures (and greater risk of about predators.
mountain peaks. death), especially to give birth.  Vulnerable to weather
 Salmon return to native streams to breed after several years at sea.  Able to have specialist breeding site changes or poor conditions in
 Deer and Caribou, African ungulates - mammals engaged in overland (e.g. no predators) and another site one year.
migrations. for feeding.  Many decisions required
 Some sharks, whales (northern oceans for calving, southern areas for  Flexible strategy - some members of including optimal fuel load
breeding) and other marine mammals - engaged in long distance oceanic the species can migrate and others not and optimal time of
migrations depending on where live. departure.
 Stationary animals risk exhausting  Other risks like the change
CUES THAT ANIMALS USE TO NAVIGATE food supply using it all year round, from salt to freshwater or
(i) Endogenous - hormonal particularly if competition from other vice versa for some fish.
(ii) Exogenous - external cues from the environment species.  Evolutionary maladaptive
 Opportunity for different members of behavior in some cases; e.g.
Examples: the species to meet, and greater green turtles feed on eastern
 Sun compass - movement of sun; angle of sun; polarized light (pattern of breeding variety coast of South America but
light based on sun’s position and reflection on water)  Ideal when specialist food required breed on Ascension Island
 Geomagnetic compass - sensitivity to magnetic North and the earth’s because the earth’s resources are not (south Atlantic).
magnetic field evenly distributed.  Risks of night-time migration
 Star compass or position of moon  Birds migrating at night usually safe if animals normally active in
 Other visual cues - patterns of waves; cloud patterns; landmarks from predators as few day-time birds day-time (e.g. bat predation
 Smell of prey adapt to night-time hunting. of birds).
 Sound
 Electric AGONISTIC BEHAVIOURS
 Young animals may learn when and where to migrate by following their Ritualized behaviors that substitute for physical contact and fighting e.g. yawn of
parents baboons, dogs and baring their teeth, cats and raising their fur, birds raising their
feathers, fighting and physical contact in wolves, coyotes, seals, etc.
Advantages of migration Disadvantages of migration Aggressive behavior is used to intimidate another animal of the same species.
 Return to specialist site for breeding  Large amount of energy Animals fight or threaten one another in order to defend their young, their
that does not need all year round food required to travel long territory, or a resource such as food.
supply, and often no (or few) distances. Animals of the same species rarely fight to the death; fights are symbolic /
predators.  Problems and risks of highly ritualized.
 Move to where food/prey available navigation. The fight is over when the defeated individual shows submission to the victor.
when not breeding, particularly with  Risk of forgetting sites or not In animals, usually the oldest or strongest wins the argument.
young (i.e. maximize feeding being able to find again.
opportunity).  Leave home territory empty DOMINANCE/ SOCIAL HIERACHY
 Stationary can mean increased allowing for invaders, and A dominance hierarchy: a form of social ranking within a group in which some
predator risk. then fights on returning. individuals are more subordinate than others.

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

The ability to form a dominance hierarchy is innate, but the position each animal
assumes may be learned.
The term pecking order comes from a dominance hierarchy that is formed by
chickens. The top-ranking chicken can peck any other chicken. The chicken
lowest in the hierarchy is pecked at by all the other chickens in the group.
Features of dominance hierarchies
 individuals carry out specific roles in the society
 there are pecking orders; there is a chain of command in the colony
 Position in the hierarchy is determined by the level of agonistic behavior,
size, strength and aggressiveness.
 Highly determined by ability of an individual to learn and recognize
those in higher ranks of the hierarchy
 Levels of testosterone or estrogens determines order in the hierarchy
SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN BEES
 Roles are unchangeable among members of a group due to genetic How waggle dance is performed
differences conferring differences in body structure- polymorphism  A bee that performs a waggle dance runs straight ahead for a short
giving rise to queens, drones and workers. distance, returns in a semicircle to the starting point, runs again through
 Organization is based on a caste system. the straight course, then makes a semicircle in the opposite direction to
 Perform dances as visual orientations for communication. complete a full figure-eight circuit.
 Grooming and licking activities are in form trophallaxes transmitting  While running the straight-line course of the dance, the bee’s body,
chemical odors and pheromones. especially the abdomen, wags vigorously from side to side.
Honey bee dancing is performed by a worker bee that has returned to the honey  The duration of the waggle phase is proportional to the distance from the
comb with pollen or nectar, informing other workers about both the distance and food source (1 second = 1 Km).
direction where the food is.  The orientation of the dancing bee during the straight portion of her
1. Round dance: Communicates only distance from the food source (less than 50 waggle dance indicates the location of the food source relative to the sun.
meters from the hive). It involves running around in narrow circles, suddenly  The angle that the bee adopts, relative to vertical, represents the angle to
reversing direction to her original course. the flowers relative to the direction of the sun outside the hive.
2. Sickle dance: Communicates only distance from the food source (between 50 Importance of dominance hierarchy
and 150 meters from the hive). This dance is crescent-shaped and represents a  Reduces aggression associated with feeding, mate selection and breeding
transitional dance between the round dance and a waggle dance. site selection.
3. Waggle dance (wag-tail dance): Communicates both distance and direction. Is  established order and stability
performed by bees foraging at food sources that are more than 150 meters from  Influences resources among population (
the hive.  Avoiding injury of animals due to fighting in order to establish a
Round dance Sickle dance Waggle dance hierarchy.
 Subordinate remains to obtain food, avoid predators, chance to mate
 Increasing genetic vigor by ensuring that the strongest and genetically
fittest have a reproductive advantage.

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

HIBERNATION (environmental) (fixed action pattern)

RELATIONSHIP TO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR (OTHERS MAY BE GIVEN):
Hibernation: a state in which the body temperature drops substantially, oxygen
(i) 3-spined stickle-back red belly > aggressive behavior
consumption decreases, and breathing rates decline to a few breaths per minute to (ii) pheromones (chemical) > mate attraction
avoid cold temperatures. Its conserves energy (iii) male Aedes - tuning fork > attract female
(iv) urine in dogs > avoidance of territory
(v) female digger wasp behavior must run course once triggered
AESTIVATION (vi) European red robin breast > aggressive behavior
Estivation: is a state of reduced metabolism that occurs in animals living in (vii) black gulls > white egg shell pieces. egg shell removal
conditions of intense heat. Could be due also to lack of food or periods of (viii) bowerbirds - red pebbles, berries > attract female to nest
drought. (ix) Herring gull - red spot on beak > infant feeding response
(x) ants > chemicals > trails
REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Courtship Behavior: is a set of display behavior in which an animal attempts to
attract a mate and exhibit their desire to copulate. It is a complex behavior ALTRUISM
designed to stimulate organisms into sexual activity. Altruistic behavior is one in which an individual (the donor) performs an action
Examples: that helps another animal (the recipient) with no apparent advantage to itself but
 Singing in male birds sometimes putting itself to self-risk.
 Peacocks display flamboyant plumage colors and prominent tail feathers Examples:
 Preening (sit with their bodies touching one another to show that they are  alarm calling in squirrels,
not intending to harm their partner)  helpers at the nest in scrub jays,
 Dancing in birds  sterile worker castes in honey bees etc.)
 Building nests in birds Kin Selected altruism is one directed to those with whom one shares alleles e.g.
offspring, siblings e.tc.
Significance of courtship behavior It is an evolutionary mechanism that selects for those behaviors that increase the
 It involves formation of a pair bond – relationship between male and inclusive fitness of the donor.
female of same species which means they recognize each other as Significance of altruism
individuals and avoid aggression.  reinforcing of reproductive behavior
 It advertises sexually receptive individuals  strengthening intraspecific relationships for success of a species by
 Brings both mating partners to reproductive readiness simultaneously promoting survival and reproduction
 It ensures that members of the same species find each other and mate e.g.  strengthening interspecific association for stability of communities.
at dusk, different species of fireflies flash distinct light patterns.  Increasing the frequency of alleles of both donors and recipients of
However, female fireflies of one species respond only to those males altruism.
exhibiting the species-correct flashing pattern.
 Maintain distinct species
 Reduction of escape tendencies of the female.
 Synchronization of gonad development so that gametes mature at the
GUIDING QUESTIONS
same time. 1. Alarm calls put the caller at increased risk of predation by drawing attention to its location. Why
 Reinforcing altruistic, territorial and agonistic behavior might this behavior be favored by evolution?
Animals that use alarm calls put themselves at risk but increase the chances of their relatives’ survival.
GUIDING QUESTION Animals that live in colonies with alarm calls usually live in large family groups, so their genes benefit
Describe releasers as they relate to animal behavior by allowing others in the group to survive. Alarm calls may be favored by kin selection.
Answer plan 2. What are some benefits to living in a group? What are some negative consequences of group living?
RELEASERS = sign stimuli > behavioral response {innate/stereotyped}  Group members can cooperate in finding food.

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

 Group hunters can catch larger prey than individual animals can, and animals foraging TYPES OF LEARNED BEHAVIOUR
might find spots where food is plentiful and all members of the group benefit rather than
1. Habituation: is learning to “ignore” stimuli that are not important, irrelevant,
wasting time fighting over it.
 Groups can defend territories more efficiently than individuals can, and living in a group or repetitive e.g. after sometime, birds learn to ignore a scare crow that is
also provides better access to mates. positioned in one position of the garden.
 There are also drawbacks to living in a group. Significance of habituation
 Groups may attract predators or attacks by other animals because of scents or noises.
 Helping young animals to understand neutral elements of their
 Animals living in groups also spread disease more easily than animals living on their own.
environment.
LEARNED (INDIVIDUAL SPECIFIC) BEHAVIOR  Economy of neuronal pathways and energy to other beneficial elements
Learning: adaptive change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience / of the environment.
practice.
Learned behavior: behavior acquired through previous experience / practice. 2. Associative learning: any learning process in which a new response becomes
associated with a particular stimulus.
COMPARISON OF INNATE BEHAVIOUR AND LEARNED BEHAVIOUR Two types of associative learning
(a) Classical Conditioning: A process in which an animal learns to associate a
previously neutral stimulus with a behavior once triggered by a different stimulus
INNATE BEHAVIOUR LEARNED BEHAVIOUR
 Honey bees learn to associate floral colors and fragrances with the
1. Heritable - encoded in DNA and 1. Non-heritable - acquired only
presence of nectar.
passed from generation to generation through observation or experience
 Pavlov’s Dogs salivated on hearing the sound of a bell in expectation of
2. Intrinsic - present in animals raised 2. Extrinsic - absent in animals raised
food, yet initially it was the food smell that stimulated salivation.
in isolation from others in isolation from others
Pavlov on the control of salivation in dogs
3. Stereotyped - performed in the 3. Permutable - pattern or sequence
 He noted that when presented with the sight and smell of food, the dogs
same way each time by each may change among individuals of a
began to salivate in preparation of eating.
individual of a species species
 Pavlov began to ring a bell each time the dog was shown their food.
4. Inflexible - not modified by 4. flexible - capable of modification to
 After a while he found dogs salivated when the bell was rung, regardless
development or experience suit changing conditions
of whether food was present.
5. Consummate - fully developed or 5. Progressive - subject to
expressed at first performance improvement or refinement through
(b) Operant conditioning (Instrumental learning / ‘Trial-and-Error’
6. Unintelligent and automatic; the practice
learning):
animal does not appreciate the 6. Intelligent; the animal appreciates
A form of adaptive learning in which an animal learns to carry out a particular
importance of the behavior the importance of the behavior.
action in order to receive a reward or avoid an unpleasant experience.
Reinforcement is in related to behavior not reward or punishment.
Advantages of learned behaviour
 In Skinners box, rats learnt to press a lever in order to obtain food.
 Flexible
 Cockroaches learning to run through a simple maze to find food.
 Benefits animals with longer life spans and so there is time to learn
Skinner’s work on pigeons / rats
 Benefits animals with an element of parental care of the young; which
 Trained rats and pigeons to press a leaver in order to obtain food.
involves learning from the parent
 Certain motor-output responses generated e.g. running around, resting,
 Benefits animals that live with other members of the species for at least a
pressing leaver.
time e.g. in herds & packs
 After training the subject will show the conditioned response (e.g.
pressing the leaver) if the response-unconditioned stimulus (a food
Note: The responses of learnt behaviour are adapted to the environment.
reward) association has been memorized.

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

Significance of conditioning  They can alter sensitivity of peripheral receptors e.g. male
 Emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment hormones in rats; increase sensitivity of the penis.
 Extinguishes or promotes behavior by reward or punishment
 Makes animal behavior predictable and flexible  They may suppress or increase the performance of effectors for
example; hormones causing degeneration of muscles.
3. Latent Learning (Exploratory learning): Animals explore new surrounding  They directly affect nerve cells and synapses in the central nervous
and learn information that has no apparent value at the time, but may be system by blocking inhibitory pathways or opening up excitatory
remembered and used later when necessity arises because it may mean the pathways
difference between life and death.
 Rabbits / rats / mice explore their burrows, which may save them in case
of an emergency.
 A sand wasp remembers the pattern of surrounding landmarks to help her
find the nest when she returns. PLANT BEHAVIOR
 Worker ants can remember a series of landmarks along a trail and follow Instinctive/innate behaviors of a plant depend mainly on growth or movement in a
them (in reverse order) back home to the nest site. given direction due to changes in their environment e.g. light, gravity, water, air,
 A hen uses previous experience to regroup eggs in the nest using wings. touch, etc.

3. Insight learning: The highest form of learning in which an animal Examples of instinctive / innate behavior in plants
applies thinking and reasoning in order to solve problems or deal with Tropisms: Growth movement towards (positive) or away (negative) from the
complex situations without immediate trial and error. stimulus e.g. phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism, etc.
 It is based on information learned from other behavioral Nastism: Non-directional response to stimulus e.g. when touched, folding of
activities. Mimosa pudica leaves (Thigmonasty).
 It requires advanced perceptual abilities such as though and Examples
reasoning. (i) Photonasty: response to light (ii) Nyctinasty: movements at night or in the dark
 A chimpanzee piles boxes to increase height for reaching hanging sweet (iii) Chemonasty: response to chemicals or nutrients (iv) Hydronasty: response to
bananas which are out of its reach. Experience from playing with the water (v) Thermonasty: response to temperature (vi) Geonasty/gravinasty:
boxes (apparent learning) increased the likelihood of the response. response to gravity (vii) Thigmonasty/seismonasty/haptonasty: response to contact
 A child uses stones to hit at mango fruits which are high on the tree.

5. Imprinting: Within a specific period of time after birth an animal learns to

recognize and bond to its parent. Imprinting occurs in the receptive and
BEHAVIOUR DISSCUSSION QUESTIONS
hypersensitive period of an animal’s life called “critical period”. It is around 36 1.
hours after hatching in goslings and helps survival during infancy a. describe each of the following forms of behavior.
Example:
i. Habituation
Goslings, ducklings and chicks become attached to the organism they interact with
during the sensitive period. ii. Imprinting
iii. Instinctive behavior
ROLE OF HORMONES IN BEHAVIOR b. State the benefits of each of the above forms of behavior to
animals.
 Hormones may affect growth of nervous connections in the brain i. Habituation.

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 Behavior in Animals Advanced Level Biology Notes By ROGERS Male 0774129440 & Dongo Shema Fredrick 0782642338

ii. Imprinting. 6.
iii. Instinctive behavior a. Distinguish between territoriality and a territory as used in
2. behavior.
a. Explain the significance of the following forms of behavior b. Give two examples of animals that commonly display
i. Territorial behavior territorial behavior.
ii. Courtship behavior c. Outline any four advantages of territorial behavior to such
b. Distinguish between learned and instinctive behavior. animals.
3. d. How can territorial behavior be detrimental to a species?
a. Explain the adaptive significance of altruistic behavior. 7. What do you understand by the term fixed action pattern?
b. State two factors that influence instinctive behavior a. Explain the following types of stimulus
4. i. Releasers
a. Using examples, distinguish between displacement activity ii. Motivating stimulus
and vacuum activity. iii. Terminating stimulus
b. What is the importance of the following forms of behavior to b. What is the role of the following in controlling behavior?
the survival of organisms in community? i. Then hypothalamus
i. Territorial behavior ii. Hormones
ii. Courtship behavior 8.
iii. Imprinting a. Distinguish between
iv. Habituation i. kinesis and taxis
v. Associative learning/conditioning ii. conditioned and simple reflex.
c. Give five ways in which animals avoid predation iii. Trophallaxes and dances in eusocial animals
5. b. Describe an experiment you can carry out to demonstrate
a. Differentiate between learned and instinctive behavior. orientation behavior in a named invertebrate.
b. Outline the characteristics of the following forms of innate
behavior
i. Social hierarchies
ii. Agonistic behavior.
c.
i. How may agonistic behavior be detrimental to the
species?
ii. How can the disadvantages of agonistic behavior be
overcome?
d. Distinguish between operant conditioning and classical
conditioning.

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