Welcome To The Module " ". This Module Contains Training Materials and Activities For You To Complete

HOW TO USE THIS MODULE
Welcome to the Module “Preparing land for agricultural crop

production”. This module contains training materials and activities for you
to complete.
The unit of competency “Prepare land for agricultural crop

production” contains the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for an
Agricultural Crops Production course. It is one of the specialized modules
at National Certificate (NC) Level III.
You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order

to complete each of the learning outcomes of the module. In each learning
outcome there are Information Sheets, Task Sheets, Operation Sheets
and Activity Sheets. Do these activities on your own and answer the Self-
Check at the end of each learning activity.
If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask your teacher for

assistance.
Remember to:
 Begin by reading and understanding the Learning Outcome/s and

performance Standards. These tell you what you should know and be
able to do at the end of this module.
 Find out what you already know by taking the pre-test then check
your answer against the Answer Key. If you get 99% - 100% of the
item correctly, you may proceed to the next lesson. This means that
you need not go through the lesson because you already know what it
is all about. If you get failed to get 99% - 100% correctly, go through
the lesson again and review especially those items which you failed to
get.
 Do the required learning activities. They begin with one or more

Information Sheets. An Information Sheet contains important notes or
basic information that you need to know. After reading the
Information Sheet, test yourself on how much you learned by means
of the Self-check. Refer to the Answer key for correction. Do not
hesitate to go back to the Information Sheet when you do not get all
test items correctly. This will ensure your mastery of basic information
 Demonstrate what you learned by doing what the activity / operations

/ Job Sheet directs you to do.
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PRODUCTION Developed by: 149
NC III Ana Maylene S.
Basilio & Jhunell M. Revision # 00
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 You must be able to apply what you have learned in another activity
or in real life situation.
AGRICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION NC III

COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS
List of Competencies
No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

1. Prepare land for Preparing land for AGR611310
agricultural crop agricultural crop
production production
2. Implement post- Implementing post- AGR611311
harvest program harvest program
3. Implement plant Implementing plant AGR611312
nutrition program nutrition program
4. Control weeds Controlling weeds AGR611313
5. Prepare and apply Preparing and apply AGR611314
chemicals chemicals
6. Establish agronomic Establishing agronomic AGR611320
crops crops
7. Undertake agronomic Undertaking agronomic AGR611321
crop maintenance crop maintenance
activities activities
8. Undertake agronomic Undertaking agronomic AGR611322
crop harvesting crop harvesting
activities activities
9. Save, prepare and Saving, preparing and AGR611323
store agricultural seed storing agricultural
seed
10. Implement vertebrate Implementing AGR611324
pest control program vertebrate pest control
program
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MODULE CONTENT
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Prepare land for agricultural crop

production
MODULE TITLE : Preparing land for agricultural crop
production
MODULE DESCRIPTOR: : This unit covers the skills and knowledge
required to prepare equipment, cultivate
the site, apply any pre-planting
treatments, and care for the vehicles and
equipment on completing the activity.
Equipment and machinery may be animal-
powered. It includes the completion of
documentation and logbooks for the
operation. Preparing land for crop
production is likely to be carried out under
limited supervision from others with
checking only related to overall progress.
Preparing land for crop production is
usually done within established routines,
methods and procedures. Some discretion
and judgement is required in the selection
of equipment and materials, organization
of work and services.
NOMINAL DURATION: : 45 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module you MUST be able to:
1. Prepare for cultivation
2. Prepare the cultivating equipment
3. Cultivate soil
4. Prepare site for planting
5. Complete land preparation operations
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
Prepare for cultivation
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1.1 Requirements for the work to be undertaken are interpreted from the
planting plan and confirmed with the manager.
1.2 The method and order of cultivation is identified and interpreted from
the planting plan.
1.3 OHS hazards are identified, risks assessed and suitable controls are
implemented.
1.4 Suitable personal protective equipment is selected, used and
maintained.
1.5 The environmental implications of cultivating the site are identified,
likely outcomes assessed and, if necessary, responsible action is taken.
Prepare the cultivating equipment
2.1 The vehicles and equipment required for site cultivation are selected
according to the planting plan and organization guidelines.
2.2 The vehicles and equipment are serviced, adjusted for the conditions
and worn parts are replaced to ensure reliability during cultivation.
2.3 All containers, leftover fluids, waste and debris from the maintenance
and servicing work are disposed of safely and appropriately.
2.4 All maintenance and servicing is documented according to the
requirements of the organization’s record keeping system.
Cultivate soil
3.1 Previous crop or land clearance debris is removed, incorporated or burnt
according to the organization’s guidelines.
3.2 The cultivation plan is followed and completed for each site.
3.3 OHS hazards are identified, risks assessed and suitable controls are
implemented.
3.4 Suitable personal protective equipment is selected, used and
maintained.
3.5 Vehicles and equipment are operated in a safe, effective and efficient
manner and at speeds to suit the conditions.
3.6 The quality of cultivation is maximized by continually checking and
adjusting the vehicles and equipment as necessary.
3.7 All time, resource and quality requirements of the planting plan are met.
Prepare site for planting
4.1 The planting layout and soil profiles are completed as required by the
planting plan.
4.2 Weed and pest control measures are taken as required by the planting
plan.
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4.3 Fertilizers, ameliorants, and/or other pre-planting treatments are
applied as required by the planting plan.
4.4 The environmental implications of site preparation are identified, likely
outcomes assessed and, if necessary, responsible action is taken.
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LEARNING OUTCOME NO. 1
Prepare land for cultivation
Contents:
1. Planting plan and its interpretation for a range of crops.

2. OHS hazards and risks, including appropriate controls
3. Selection, use and maintenance of PPE
4. Environmental implications of site cultivation and legislations
Assessment Criteria
1. Requirements for the cultivation method and order are prepared in

accordance with the planting plan.
2. OHS hazards are identified, risks assessed and suitable controls are
implemented in accordance with OHS requirements and procedures.
3. Suitable personal protective equipment is selected, used and
maintained according to job/OHS requirements and procedures.
4. The environmental implications of cultivating the site are assessed
and, if necessary, responsible action is taken based on company
guidelines and environmental legislations.
Conditions
The students/trainees must be provided with the following:
1. Workplace
2. Farm planting plan
3. Equipment
 Personal protective equipment
 Farm tools, equipment and machinery
4. Supplies and materials
Assessment Method:
1. Written exam
2. Actual Designing
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Learning Experiences
Learning Outcome 1
Learning Activities Special Instructions

Read information Sheet 1.1-1 on In this Learning Outcome you shall
Types, uses and selection of know how to prepare land prior to
vehicles and equipment for site cultivation, the ranges and use of
cultivation tools, equipment and implements for
the preparation and cultivation of
Answer Self-Check 1.1-1 land, and the proper Personal
Protective Equipment needed in the
Compare the answers to the
implementation of the methods to be
answer key 1.1-1
used for the preparation of land for
Read information Sheet 1.1-2 on cultivation, and you should also
Maintenance and servicing of understand the Occupational Health
vehicles and equipment and Safety issues and environmental
legislative requirements,
Answer Self-Check 1.1-2
Read and understand the information
answer key 1.1-2
sheets and check yourself by
Perform Task Sheet 1.1-2 on answering the Self-Checks. You must
OHS hazards and risks, answer all questions correctly before
including appropriate controls proceeding to the next activity.
Evaluate performance using the The performance task sheet and job
performance criteria checklist sheet will help you practice your
1.1-2 skills.
Read information Sheet 1.1-3 on
Selection, use and maintenance
of PPE The performance criteria checklists
will guide and help you evaluate your
Answer Self-Check 1.1-3 self as you are practicing your skills.

answer key 1.1-3 Evaluate your own work by using the
Perform Task Sheet 1.1-3 on Performance Criteria. When you are
Selection, use and maintenance ready present what you have
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of PPE practiced to your trainer for final
evaluation and recording.
Evaluate performance using the

performance criteria checklist Feel free to show what you have
1.1-3 practiced to your trainer as you
Read information Sheet 1.1-4 on accomplished them for guidance and
Environmental implications of evaluation of your output.
site cultivation and legislations
Answer Self-Check 1.1-4

answer key 1.1-4 After performing all the activities on
LO 1 you may proceed to LO2.
Perform Task Sheet 1.1-4 on
Environmental implications of
site cultivation and legislations
Evaluate performance using the

performance criteria checklist
1.1-4
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Information Sheet 1.1-1
Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Identify the different tools and equipment used in preparing the
land for cultivation.
2. Apply the steps/ methods in preparing the land for cultivation
This module description describes the methods and techniques in preparing

the field for growing rice, their advantages as well as disadvantages.
When establishing a new date plantation, certain actions need to be

implemented to ensure the long term success of the plantation. One of these
actions involve the initial land preparation which should be done prior to
transplanting of the plant material (offshoots or tissue culture-derived
plants).
The purpose of land preparation is to provide the necessary soil

conditions which will enhance the successful establishment of the young
offshoots or the tissue culture plants received from the nursery. Considering
the nature of the date palm, one can not "save" on this operation and hope
for long term sustainability of the plantation.
The aim is to enable the date grower to plan and structure the
implementation process in advance, ensuring the successful establishment
of the date plantation. Planning forms part of the initial preparation and will
help to limiting unnecessary stoppages during the implementation phase.
It is not enough for the farmer to plant the recommended variety; it is

equally important to have a good field preparation. A well-prepared field
provides good physical, chemical, and biological conditions of the soil for
optimum crop growth. Adequate knowledge on field preparation is, therefore,
important in rice production.
A well-leveled field is a pre-requisite to good crop growth and
management. It helps achieve the following:
• efficient water management
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• less weed incidence
• better snail management
• efficient nutrient utilization
• uniform crop growth and maturity
• efficient use of farm machinery
To achieve a well-leveled field, weeds, rice straw, and stubbles must
be thoroughly decomposed and land is well-puddled. A poorly prepared field
could yield 5% less.
To assess if the field is well leveled there should be no high and low
soil spots after final leveling; no portion has deeper than 5cm water (≈
thumb length) and no mound of soil can be seen above the 5cm water
surface after final leveling
Recommendations to achieve a well-leveled field:
1. Clean and repair dikes and ditches.
• Clean dikes help prevent or reduce pest infestation.
• Compacted dikes prevent seepage.
• Dikes maintained at 15cm high x 20cm wide discourage rat-
burrowing.
• Clean ditches ensure water efficiency and facilitate drainage.
2. Plow or rotovate field 21 - 30 days before planting to:
• allot time for the germination of weeds and drop seeds
• incorporate weeds, rice straw, and stubbles in the soil to allow time
for decomposition
• apply organic fertilizers to increase the population of beneficial
microbials in the soil. This will help hasten the full decomposition of
plant residues, otherwise the soil turns acidic and some nutrients
become less available 3. Harrow the field every 7 days after plowing.
The first harrowing is along the plowing pattern; the second or initial
leveling is crosswise. This will:
• break the clods
• incorporate stubbles in the soil
• allow weed seeds and drop seeds to germinate
• help reduce initial pest population
• maintain the soil’s hard pan 4. Final-harrow and level the field using
a wooden plank or tiller-attached leveler. Water depth must be 5cm to
ease field-leveling.
5. For DWSR, construct small canals (25cm wide and 5cm deep)
surrounding the field near the dikes and at the middle of the field to:
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• provide path for excess water
• facilitate collection of snails and field operations (i.e. replanting,
weeding)
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Self- Check 1.1-1
(True or False): Tell whether the given statement about Prepare land for
cultivation is true or false. Write T if the statement is
correct and F is not.
_____ 1. A poorly prepared field could yield 5% less.
_____ 2. To assess if the field is well leveled there should be no high and low
soil spots after final leveling.
_____ 3. There should be no portion that is deeper than 5cm water
_____ 4. Cleaning the dikes help to prevent or reduce pest infestation.
_____ 5. Apply organic fertilizers to increase the population of beneficial
microbials in the soil.
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ANSWER KEY 1.1-1
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
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OHS hazards and risks, including appropriate controls
1. Identify OHS risk assessment procedures.
In this lesson you will be able to learn the risk assessment procedure on
occupational health and safety.
According to Farm and Ranch Safety and Health Association there are
4 risk assessment procedures.
Step 1: Identify Hazards

Hazards can be identified through:
- Observation
- Inspection
- Testing
- Communication and consultation with staff
- Review of injury statistics and incident investigations
(©FARSHA)
In general, hazards are likely to be found in the following;
- Physical work environment,
- Equipment, materials or substances used,
- Work tasks and how they are performed,
- Work design and management
Step 2: Assess the risk

A risk assessment will help you prioritize the hazards so you know
which ones should be dealt with immediately and which ones can be dealt
with later. When assessing risks, try to determine how likely an incident is
and how serious it would be. (©FARSHA)
A. Determine the likelihood of an incident.
How likely is it that the hazardous condition or situation will result
in an incident?
❑ Very likely — Could happen frequently
❑ Likely — Could happen occasionally
❑ Unlikely — Could happen, but rarely
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❑ Very unlikely — Could happen, but likely never will
B. Determine the potential consequences of an incident.
If an incident does occur, how serious will it be?
❑ Extreme — Death, permanent disability
❑ Major — Serious bodily injury
❑ Moderate — Medical treatment and time away from work
required ❑ Minor — First aid, but no time off work
C. Assign a risk rating to the hazard.
Once you’ve determined the likelihood and consequences of a
potential incident, use the “Risk Assessment Rating Matrix” to
assign a risk rating to the hazard. One is the highest degree of risk
and seven the lowest.
Then, refer to the box below the matrix to determine whether the
hazard has a high, moderate, or low level of risk. Each risk level
has a corresponding recommended action.
Before using the matrix, make sure you’ve done a thorough
assessment to ensure that you understand all aspects of the
hazard, including all tasks and work associated with the hazard.
Once you have established the risk level, enter it in the Risk
column of the “Risk Assessment Worksheet”
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Step 3: Control the hazard
The best form of risk control is to eliminate the hazard entirely, if
possible. If that is unrealistic, minimize risks as much as possible by using
other control measures.
Hierarchy of control
controls must be implemented in the following order of preference:
A. Elimination or substitution
Whenever possible, eliminate the hazard so there’s no risk of injury.
Consider the following:
- Is the task necessary to begin with?
- Can the hazardous part of the task be removed?
- Can the task be done in such a way that no trainees are
exposed to the hazard?
If you can’t eliminate the hazard, substitute a safer material or
process. Consider the following:
- Can a different machine or tool be used?
- Can a less hazardous material or chemical be used?
- Are there alternative work practices that can be used or
developed?
B. Engineering controls
Engineering controls deal with the hazard right at the source, by
adding safety features to machinery or by redesigning a system or
task.
C. Administrative controls
These involve the use of policies or written safe work procedures to
minimize exposure to the hazard. Administrative controls include
reduction of exposure time, and worker training and education.
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D. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Trainee who use PPE must understand the hazards and accept the
importance of using PPE consistently and correctly. PPE must also be
chosen, used, and maintained correctly.
Step 4: Monitor and evaluate the control measures
Determine whether your controls have been implemented as planned:
- Are controls in place?
- Are they being used?
- Are they being used correctly?
Determine whether chosen controls are working:
- Have changes had the expected result?
- Has exposure to the identified hazards been eliminated or
adequately reduced?
Determine whether there are any new problems. Implemented controls
should not introduce new problems or worsen existing problems.
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Self- Check 1.1-2
Multiple choice
Instruction: Chose the letter of the best answers. Write the letter of your
choice on your answer sheet.
1. This will help you prioritize the hazards so you know which ones
should be dealt with immediately and which ones can be dealt with
later.
a. Assess the risk
b. Control the hazard
c. Monitor and evaluate the control measures
d. Identify Hazards
2. This can be identified through: Observation Inspection, Testing,
Communication and consultation with staff, Review of injury statistics
and incident investigations
a. Assess the risk
b. Identify Hazards
c. Control the hazard
d. Monitor and evaluate the control measures
3. It Determine whether your controls have been implemented as
planned.
a. Assess the risk
b. Control the hazard
c. Identify Hazards
d. Monitor and evaluate the control measures
4. Which does not belong to the group?
a. Elimination or substitution
b. Engineering controls
c. Administrative controls
d. None of the above
5. These involve the use of policies or written safe work procedures to
minimize exposure to the hazard.
a. Elimination or substitution
b. Engineering controls
c. Personal Protective Equipment
d. Administrative controls
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ANSWER KEY 4.2-3
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. D
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Selection, Use and Maintenance of PPE
1. Identify the suitable safety equipment to be used in the competency
2. Determine the uses of different PPE
3. Identify the proper maintenance of PPE
Selection, use and maintenance of PPE

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) refers to any specialized
equipment or clothing worn by trainees for protection against health and
safety hazards. PPE is designed to protect the eyes, head, face, hands, feet,
ears, or torso. PPE does not prevent accidents, but it does prevent or reduce
injury and even fatalities when used. (University of Wyoming Extension)
Goggles- offer good protection against front and side impact. Unvented or
indirect vented chemical splash goggles provide protection from chemical
vapors and liquids.
Face masks- Offers protection against non-toxic solid and liquid aerosols.
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Vinyl/neoprene gloves- Protects hands against toxic chemicals.
Nitrile protective gloves- Provides good protection when using many

different pesticides.
Padded cloth gloves- Protects hands from sharp edges, slivers, dirt, and
vibration. Not acceptable for handling hazardous materials.
Hard hats- offers protection to the head.
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rubber footwear- Resists chemicals and provides extra traction on slippery
surfaces.
Sun protective clothing- When in the sun, wear long-sleeve shirts, long
pants, and socks.
Selecting PPE
It is very important to select the correct PPE. Just as important, the PPE
must be working correctly every time you use it, either alone or in
combination with other PPE. When several pieces of PPE are used together,
they must not interfere with each other.
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Read the PPE user instructions carefully before every use and seek
assistance if needed.
Before and after every use, check for any type of deterioration of or damage
to all the components, seams, etc. of the specific reusable PPE and, if
necessary, dispose of properly. (Wayne Buhler, PhD. and David Jefferson)
Cleaning and Disposing PPE

It is important to clean and discard PPE without causing contamination to
yourself, garbage collectors or the environment. Some PPE, like non-
disposable gloves and certain respirator parts, can be washed with hot,
soapy water and reused. Protective clothing, if not too soiled, can be
laundered but should be laundered alone and separate from the family
laundry. After washing contaminated PPE, run a complete cycle through the
empty washer. If a dryer is used, dry on the high heat setting. Clothing
should be line-dried to avoid contaminating the dryer, if possible. Clothing
that is drenched with a pesticide product should be discarded as household
hazardous waste and not cleaned.
Gloves should be checked for integrity by filling clean gloves with water and
checking for leaks. Once PPE has reached the end of its service, ensure that
it is disposed of properly. Discarded PPE should be rendered ‘unusable’ so
that no one else will be tempted to reuse it.
PPE that is disposable and washable should be cleaned with soap and water
to remove pesticide residues. Once it is properly cleaned, it is acceptable to
dispose of as regular garbage. (P. Hensen & T. Walker)
Storing PPE
Storage instructions from the PPE manufacturer must be followed for both
reusable and disposable PPE. Most PPE must be protected from chemicals,
sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive humidity, and moisture, or the
specified shelf-life will be reduced. Disposable, reusable, or limited-use PPE
must be discarded if not stored properly.
Keep PPE in its sealed package until use, and never store PPE with
pesticides or personal clothing. (Wayne Buhler, PhD. and David Jefferson)
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Self- Check 1.1-3
Multiple choice
Instruction: Chose the letter of the best answers. Write the letter of your
choice on your answer sheet.
1. It refers to any specialized equipment or clothing worn by trainees for

protection against health and safety hazards.
a. PPE
b. storing
c. goggles
d. IPM
2. Example of sun protective clothing.
a. T-shirt
b. Long-sleeve shirts
c. Shorts
d. None of the above
3. It offers protection to the head.
a. boots
b. face mask
c. hard hat
d. gloves
4. Once PPE has reached the end of its service, ensure that it is disposed of
properly.
a. Yes
b. No
c. Maybe
d. All of the above
5. What is the meaning of PPE
a. Protective Personal Equipment
b. Public Protective Equipment
c. Personal Private Evaluation
d. Personal Protective Equipment
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ANSWER KEY 1.1-3
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. D
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Environmental implications of site cultivation and
legislations
1. Determine the Environmental implications of site cultivation
2. Determine the different legislations in connection to agriculture
Environmental implications of site cultivation and legislations

The Philippines is predominantly an agriculture-dependent country;
about one-third of the land area of 30 million hectares (ha) is classified as
agricultural lands.
The major concerns of the Philippine agricultural sector revolve
around the urgency for: (a) increased production to sustain the food needs of
the growing population (or food security), (b) employment generation to meet
the 10-point agenda of the government, and (c) greater global
competitiveness. Along the path to achieving these goals, however, the
country must also contend with the threat to the sustainability of the
croplands and fishery resources. Agricultural intensification, for example, as
practiced especially in corporate, large-scale farms, has solved certain
problems of low production but, at the same time, it has also created
environmental and social problems.
The Philippines’ croplands are presently under severe environmental
stress: prime or productive agricultural lowlands and alluvial plains are
rapidly shrinking and the decreasing man-land ratio has led the landless to
occupy and cultivate ecologically unstable marginal lands. Such practice
has resulted in the severe degradation of the agricultural resource base,
with subsequent problems of accelerated soil erosion, siltation of irrigation
systems, intense flooding, and water pollution.
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Soil erosion problems in the Philippines are quite pronounced due to
the geographic and climatic conditions that are aggravated by improper
cultivation practices. Two-thirds of the country’s total land area are hilly
and mountainous, making these areas susceptible to soil erosion (DENR
2003). Soil erosion inflicts on agriculture a number of negative direct
impacts and side-effects, namely: low crop productivity, reduction of the
capacity of water conveyance structures, destruction of wildlife habitat, and
destruction of standing crops.
About 9 million ha (out of the total land area of 30 million ha) are
under varying degrees of erosion, and approximately 1 million ha of
agricultural lands are very susceptible to soil erosion especially during the
rainy season (EMB 2003). According to a 2003 study of the Bureau of Soils
and Water Management (BSWM), approximately 5.2 million ha of the
country are classified as severely eroded, 8.5 million ha as moderately
eroded, and 8.8 million ha as slightly eroded.
The Philippine uplands are even more vulnerable to accelerated soil
erosion primarily due to inappropriate land uses. Over the years, the
uplands have been subjected to encroachment due to increasing human
pressures. The annual rate of deforestation in the 1970s and 1980s was
about 130,000 ha per year. There is also a continuing population movement
to the uplands where public lands are considered as free-access resources.
Shifting cultivation and indiscriminate logging are the major causes of soil
erosion in the Philippine uplands.
Chemical Pollution from Farming Practices - Farming systems in the
Philippines during the past few years can be generally characterized by
intensive farm production using inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. While
production inputs offer advantages in terms of increased crop production
and protection, there are certain negative externalities involved in their use.
Over-utilization of these inputs decreases the soil’s humus content, which
adversely affects its infiltration and water holding capacities. The loss of
these two vital soil characteristics, in turn, makes the soil loose and more
susceptible to erosion.
Inorganic Fertilizer - following the introduction of high-yielding
varieties (HYVs) of rice in the Philippines in the late 1960s, fertilizer
consumption in the country has increased steadily through the years. The
government encouraged higher consumption of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides by subsidizing farmers through a multitude of crop improvement
programs. Nitrogen became the most popular fertilizer nutrient demanded
by Filipino farmers; this is mostly used in rice, corn, sugarcane, and other
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plantation crops. In fact, importation has been resorted to, given the
inability of local manufacturers to meet the demand for fertilizer.
There are ecological problems associated with chemical fertilizer use.
Excessive use of this input is known to cause acidification of the soil. For
example, in Loo Valley in Benguet Province, the excessive use of chemical
fertilizers in vegetable gardens has lowered the soil’s pH level to an average
of 4.4 (Medina 1990). Acid soils are vulnerable to erosion because of the
characteristic low electrolyte levels in the soil solution. Acidity also depletes
fertility through the development of toxic levels of iron and by lowering the
amount of most essential nutrients in the soil. In addition, soil microbia,
which are partly responsible for nutrient release, are adversely affected.
The use of chemical fertilizers also poses some health problems. The
contamination of drinking water with nitrate concentration greater than 45
parts per million (ppm) can cause metheglobinemia, a disease which affects
both livestock and human infants (Rola 1990). Another health hazard
results when nitrates in the food or in the digestive system combine with
protein to form nitrosoamines which are carcinogenic.
Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients from fertilizers are washed down
by run-off water into freshwater bodies, thus creating eutrophication
problems. One glaring example is the much eutrophied Laguna Lake in
Southern Luzon. Of the 3,600 mt of nitrogen that enter the lake and
primarily cause the recurrent growth of algal blooms, 77.2% is agricultural
in origin [Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) 1998].
Pesticide - The emergence of the pesticide industry in the Philippines
in the early 1950s coincided with the introduction of DDT, 2,4-D, Endrin,
and Malathion (Elazegui 1989). With the launching of the Green Revolution
in 1965, the government embarked on a program of crop protection based
on chemicals. Since then, the massive use of pesticides has become the
norm in the various government national food production programs.
However, the use of pesticide as a crop protection agent has many
negative effects. One effect is the health hazards it poses to farmerusers.
Loevensohn’s (1987) study showed that the widespread use of pesticides by
farmers in Central Luzon was followed by a 27% increase in deaths among
them from causes other than physical injury. An average of 503 cases of
pesticide poisoning, of which 15% died every year, had been reported from
1980 to 1988. Human milk in some towns of Laguna Province was found to
contain DDT.
The widely used insecticides in the country are carbofuran, endrin,
parathion, and monocrotophos, which are all classified by the World Health
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Organization as extremely or highly hazardous (Macracken and Conway
1987). Another problem with the continued reliance on chemical pesticide is
its capacity to cause pest build-up. One documented case is that of the
diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella, L.) which exhibits multiple
resistance to malathion, methyl parathion, DDT, diazinon, meviaphos, and
carbaryl, and is developing resistance to newly introduced insecticides
(Barroga and Rejesus 1981, cited in Alcantara 1988).
Rola (1989) attributed the continued use of pesticides by farmers to
the lack of knowledge of alternative pest controls that would give them the
same level of production and profit. Several studies have pointed out that
current pesticide utilization by farmers are not efficient. For instance,
Medina (1990) found out that reduced spraying (4 times) has not
significantly lowered the yield when compared to the actual farmer’s practice
which consists of nine sprayings. Similarly, in the trials covering 105
farmers in 1980-1983, only 50% yielded a significant difference in yields
between completely protected and untreated fields. This was probably
because of the use of resistant varieties and the presence of natural
enemies, implying inefficiency in the present level of pesticide usage (Rola
1989).
Pesticide hazards in the country are compounded by the widespread
ignorance of the hazards involved, poor labeling, inadequate supervision,
and the lack and/or difficulty of wearing protective clothing due to the
prevailing hot farm conditions (Briones and Robles 2005).
Conversion of Prime Agricultural Lands into Other Land Uses - As an
offshoot of the constant government urgings to attract foreign investments,
to generate more employment opportunities, and to decongest major
population centers, thousands of hectares of agricultural lands across the
country have been, and are being, converted into other land uses. In the
process, vast fertile agricultural lands go to waste as they are converted to
non-agriculture land uses, while environmentally critical, marginal areas
have been opened up for agricultural purposes. Landless farmers dislocated
from lowland communities usually encroach on forestlands where they
practice lowland agricultural practices that further cause resource
degradation.
Apart from directly altering the physical environment through clearing
farmlands and building industrial projects, land conversion lessens the
coverage of the government’s Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP). The shift in land use has provided landowners (of rice, corn,
sugarcane, and coconut) with another viable pretext for circumventing the
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redistribution of lands to the tenant-farmers that have long tilled these
lands.
POLICY RESPONSE TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN
THE AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES SECTOR
Environmental concerns are firmly based on the country’s political
agenda and are reflected in the changing policies of the government. The
administration and management of the environment and natural resources
has been bureaucratically centralized and vested to certain national
government agencies. Two lead agencies, the DENR and the Department of
Agriculture (DA), have been mandated to ensure the sustainable use of
resources through proper management, protection, and rehabilitation of
degraded coastal and marine environments.
The management of Philippine environment encompasses both
preventive and proactive approaches; it involves government and
nongovernment institutions as well as communities that support various
ecological and conservation restoration programs. The formulation of a
national plan of action for sustainability began as early as 1989 with the
adoption of the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development. Taking into
consideration global action plans in the UNCED’s Agenda 21, the Philippine
National Action Plan for Sustainable Development was formulated. This plan
provides a framework for the action aimed towards achieving the goal of
sustainable development (Briones 1999).
The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) of 1997 is
“an act prescribing urgent related measures to modernize the agriculture
and fisheries sectors of the country in order to enhance their profitability,
and prepare said sectors for the challenges of globalization through an
adequate, focused, and rational delivery of necessary support services,
appropriating funds therefore and for other purposes” (DA 1999).
An outstanding feature of AFMA in relation to environmental
sustainability is the identification and delineation of the Network of
Protected Areas for Agriculture and Agro-Industrial Development (NPAAAD)
and the Strategic Agriculture and Fishery Development Zones (SAFDZ). The
NPAAAD and SAFDZ “shall serve as basis for the proper planning and
strategic agriculture and fishery development and in the identification of
suitable crops, livestock, and fishes that can be economically grown and
commercially developed for local and international markets, without
irreversible environmental and human health problems.”
AFMA requires that all lands suitable for the economic and
commercial development of agriculture and fishery be identified, set aside,
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and protected from unwarranted future conversion from other competing
uses. There are four types of lands that need to be identified for agriculture
and fishery modernization and protected from unlawful land use conversion
(DA 1999; Elazegui 1999):
a) the Network of Protected Areas for Agriculture and Agro-Industrial
Development (NPAAAD) – referring to privately-owned lands
identified from the alienable and disposable lands;
b) the Strategic Agriculture and Fishery Development Zone (SAFDZ);
c) the Model Farms – identified from SAFDZ; and
d) the Watershed Areas, identified in coordination with DENR.
AFMA is hoped to transform the Philippine agricultural landscape but
as of now, its meager budget is inadequate for its full implementation. What
can be considered a concrete accomplishment though is that the country
has already put in place the legal and administrative framework to insure
environmental sustainability in relation to agricultural practices.
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Self- Check 1.1-4
Enumeration
Instruction: Enumerate what is being asked.
1. What are the negative direct impacts and side-effects of Soil erosion?
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ANSWER KEY 1.1-4
1. Low crop productivity
2. Reduction of the capacity of water conveyance structures
3. Destruction of wildlife habitat
4. Destruction of standing crops
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Prepare the cultivating equipment
Contents:
1. Types, uses and selection of vehicles and equipment for site

cultivation
2. Maintenance and servicing of vehicles and equipment
3. Proper disposal of wastes related to maintenance and servicing work
4. Documentation and record keeping of maintenance and servicing
activities
Assessment Criteria
1. The vehicles and equipment required for site cultivation are selected
according to the planting plan and organization guidelines.
2. The vehicles and equipment are serviced, adjusted for the conditions
and worn parts are replaced to ensure reliability during cultivation
following manufacturers’ specifications and operating manuals.
3. All containers, leftover fluids, waste and debris from the maintenance
and servicing work are disposed of safely and appropriately based on
organization guidelines and environmental legislations.
4. All maintenance and servicing is documented according to the
requirements of the organization’s record keeping system.
Conditions
1. Workplace
2. Vehicles, farm tools and equipment for site cultivation
o 4-wheel tractor/hand tractor/work animal
o Appropriate plow and harrow
o Rotavator
o Pick mattock, shovel, etc.
3. Tools for vehicle and equipment maintenance and servicing
o Pliers, wrench, screw driver, Phillips screw, vise grip, jack, etc.
o Rag
o Fuel, oil, grease, lubricants, etc.
Assessment Method:
1. Written exam
2. Actual Demonstration
3. Observation
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Types, uses and selection of vehicles and equipment for site
cultivation
1. Identify the different types of vehicles and equipment for site
cultivation.
2. Understand and know the uses and how to select the right vehicles
and equipment for site cultivation.
Types, uses and selection of vehicles and equipment for site cultivation
This lesson introduces the concept of farm power and the different
types of power sources. It also provides hands on experience in basic tractor
maintenance and operation.
Farm power is one of the most expensive and critical inputs when
growing a rice crop. All operations require a certain amount of power and
often the success of the crop depends on the ability to get the task
completed on time.
In the past much of the power used on farm came from human inputs
but with much of the rural labor force now moved to cities, farmers are
becoming more dependent on machines to complete tillage, planting and
harvesting operations. Humans, animals and machines are all used as
sources of power in agriculture production.
When undertaking different operations on a farm, a certain amount of
work/energy is required to complete the task. When this work is undertaken
over time, it is then called power. Power or the rate of doing work can be
expressed as horsepower (hp) or Kilowatt (kW). One horsepower is equivalent
to 0.75 Kilowatt. Often it takes the same amount of energy to complete a
task and as the table shows, time is the major variable.
Table Comparisons of different power source to plow 1 ha
Human 2 animals 2 wheel 4 wheel
tractor tractor
Power 1kW 12 kW 40kW
Distance 750 m‐3 50km 20km 5km
moved or
100
truckloads
soil
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Time (days) 120‐140 10‐12 1 2hr
Hours/Days 5-6 5‐6 8‐10 10‐12
Energy 2MJ 22MJ 170MJ 775MJ
(hour)
Work 1560 1584 1530 1550
(MJ/ha)
Human Power
Many tasks on farm are still undertaken using people as the power source.
Manual tasks undertaken and time
required include:
 Land preparation (120‐160
days /ha)
 Plant establishment (25‐35
days/ha)
 Weeding (30‐40 days/ha)l,
 Crops harvesting and
transporting (30‐40days /ha)
 Transport. (5‐10days)
In some instances, manual labor is still more efficient and precise than
machine. Many countries are now suffering from rural labor shortages and
have had to develop and use machines to complete tasks on time. In Africa
between 80‐90% of all farm tasks are still done manually.
Animal power
Animals are still widely used as the major power source in many
countries. Land preparation, weed management, crop threshing and
transport are undertaken using animal power. Oxen and caribou or buffalo
are the most popular animal power source for agricultural practices
although horses, donkeys, mules and camels are used in many countries for
transportation. Caribou/buffalo are considered to be hardier and stronger
than oxen. Oxen are normally used in pairs while buffalo are often used
singularly. In Africa, between 10‐15% of tasks are undertaken using
animals.
The advantages of using animals include

they are cheap to maintain, have a
multipurpose use for meat and milk, are self‐
replacement and produce manure. The
disadvantage of using animals include: they
have limited daily working hours ,animals need
feeding and protection against pests and
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disease, they are slow, a high man/power ratio is needed, they have limited
range of working conditions and they require training. One animal will take
approximately 10‐12 days to plough 1 hectare.
Engine powered tractors
There are 3 broad groups of engine powered tractors used for rice
production. These are 2 wheel tractors, 4 wheel tractors and track laying
tractors.
Two wheel tractors (also called walking tractor, iron or steel buffalo,
hand tractor) Two wheel tractors are used in many rice producing
countries. These tractors have a forward mounted engine which is counter
balanced by the equipment attached behind the two drive wheels and the
operator walking behind.
They are normally powered by 6‐12 kW gasoline or diesel engines and
are fitted with either rubber tires or steel cage wheels. Rubber tires are
commonly used when dry land plowing and for transportation. Cage wheels
are necessary for all wet workings. Most makes incorporate an independent
drive clutch as well as individual steering clutches or brakes. Three forwards
and one reverse working gear are most common. Two wheel tractors are
used for land preparation, which includes plowing and land leveling,
transportation and pumping water. The attachments used with 2 wheel
tractors are the moldboard plough, the disc plough, harrows, and rotovator.
The advantages of two wheel tractors are:
Multi purpose vehicle especially for
transport
Operate in harder conditions than animals or
humans
Operate in both wet and dry conditions
Fairly simple mechanical design Disadvantage
Cost of owning and operating
Operators fatigue, although rides on versions
are now available.
One 9 kW walking tractor, with two operators, is capable of plowing 1

ha / day. While fuel usage depends on engine size and working conditions,
fuel consumption will range from 2‐5 liters per hour.
Four-wheel tractors can be divided into 3 categories; two-wheel drive,

front wheel assist or unequal four-wheel drive and equal four-wheel drive
tractors. Each one of these tractors has different tire configurations and
different ballast requirements. Two Wheel Drive tractors (2WD) are the most
commonly used tractors in dry or upland farming situations and for
transportation. They range in size from 4‐150 kW and require 75%‐ 80% of
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the weight distributed over the rear axle to maximize traction. These tractors
are capable of delivering 45‐ 50% of their rated engine power at the drawbar.
The advantages of this type of tractor over other 4 wheel tractors are:
 Smaller turning circle,
 Simplicity of design
 Fewer mechanical parts, and
 Lower purchase price.
The major disadvantage is the

inability to work in very wet and muddy
conditions. When these tractors are used
in a wet farming situation, they will require cage wheels attachments to the
rear drive for traction.
Front Wheel Assist or Unequal
Four-Wheel Drive (FWA) are the most
popular 4-wheel tractor used in rice
production in Asia and Africa. These
tractors range in size from 15‐180 kW and
are capable of delivering between 50‐55%
of the rated power at the drawbar. The
front drive tires, whilst larger than two-
wheel drive front tires, are smaller than
the rear tires. These tractors require 40%
of the weight over the front axle and 60%
over the rear axle to maximize traction as
all four wheels turn simultaneously, the front and rear tires must travel at
the same speed. Because the front tire is generally 30% smaller than the
rear tire it must turn at least 30% faster. Tire pressures must also be set
and maintained correctly (18psi front‐14psi rear) Front wheel drive should
be used at all times when the tractor is working in the field. If not at least
10% efficiency will be lost. Various Tractor Implements and Attachments
that can be used along with a tractor in the fields are:
The major advantage of a FWA tractor is that it can deliver 10% more power
to the ground for the same fuel consumption, and has much better traction
and flotation capabilities than 2 wheel tractors of the same size. These
tractors normally cost about 10‐15% more than the same size 2‐wheel drive
tractor. A major disadvantage is that this tractor type has more mechanical
failures, displays unequal tire wear front to rear and may be less
maneuverable than a 2 wheel drive tractor.
Other Types of tractors
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Equal Four Wheel Drive tractors (4WD) have all four tires of equal
size and range in size from 25‐ 450kW. Irrespective of size, these tractors
should be ballasted with 60% of the weight distributed over the front axle
and 40% over the rear axle. This tractor type has the greatest power to
weight ratio and can deliver between 55‐60% of power at the drawbar. Very
few of these tractors are used in rice production in Asia or Africa because of
their large size, greater turning radius and high purchase price
Track laying tractors. (Chain
tractor, crawler, Caterpillar)
Agricultural track layers range in size
from 15 ‐ 250 kW. Tracks can be made
from rubber or steel and vary in width
depending on the application. Weight
distribution for agricultural purposes is
different from that for industrial use.
Because the load is applied to the rear
of these tractors, weight distribution
should be similar to that for an equal 4
wheel drive tractors. These tractors can
deliver between 60‐65% of their engine power at the drawbar and are most
efficient where flotation is a problem.
Tracklayers have been imported into many rice growing countries but
their major use has been in industrial and forestry regions. Very few are
used in rice farming as they have high purchase price, high repair and
maintenance costs and are not efficient when working in smaller paddy
fields or water.
Rotavator
Rotavator (Counted in Tractor Implements) is modern machinery used to
break, churn and aerate the soil which in turn increases the oxygen count of
the soil and makes it better for cropping and easier for harvesting.
Rotavators, used as Tractor Implements, is formed by joining a set of blades
or rotors which are connected to the motor which breaks through the soil
when the spin.
Cultivator
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Cultivator (counted in Tractor Implements) is purpose specific machinery
used to plough or reduce the soil into fine particles, which in turn is done to
sow the seeds before the cropping process starts or might be done to kill the
weeds. Cultivator, used as Tractor Implements is a set of metal thorns which
move along the field and function.
Plough
Plough (counted in Tractor Implements) resembles the age old traditional
equipment called ‘Hal’ and works on the same principle. Plough now used as
tractor implements is one of the most important tools used to turn and
break the soil, in addition, it is used in controlling and prevention of Weeds.
Harrow
Harrow (counted in Tractor Implements), is an up gradation in the usage of
Plough. Plough as is used for basic cultivation and goes deep into the soil; a
Harrow whereas works by cutting into the soil in the above and surface
layers and breaking it up. Harrow used as tractor implements rather than
the Plough works for clod rupturing and making the soil suitable for sowing
and other agricultural purposes.
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Tractor Implements such as Cultivator, Rotavator, Plough, and Harrow have
been adding to the industry to a very large extent. These have benefitted the
farmers all over the world and have been a source of economic up gradation.
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Self- Check 1.2-1
Identification
Instruction: Identify the following images.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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ANSWER KEY 1.2-1
1. Two Wheel Drive tractors
2. Hand tractor
3. Front Wheel Assist or Unequal Four-Wheel Drive
4. Harrow
5. Rotavator
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Maintenance and servicing of vehicles and equipment
Learning Objective:
1. Determine the different Maintenance and servicing of vehicles and
equipment.
Maintenance and servicing of vehicles and equipment
It is so important to do proper maintenance on farm machinery. Farm

machinery is hardly cheap and the breakdowns are often just as expensive
to repair. Untimely breakdowns can also affect your productivity and
income when you are not able to bring in that harvest on time.
Safety is a huge issue with machinery that isn’t properly maintained and
can result in property damage and operator injuries. Properly maintained
machinery has a much lower chance of breaking down when you need it the
most and these machines pose much less risk to those working with them
and your resell value is a lot higher when you take great care of your
machinery.
So why do so many farmers neglect the maintenance of their machinery

when they always end up paying for negligence? Well, the answer is simple.
Most people just don’t know how to properly care for these big, bulky and
expensive machines.
Here are a few things to ensure that farm machinery is always maintained
properly.
Get the Right Operator Training
Most farms have quite a few operators using the same machinery. It is
important to get all operators up to date on maintenance and operation
requirements as well as the manager or supervisor. If everyone knows how
to effectively man the farm machinery then the chances of missing out on
maintenance are much lower. Employees or operators will also know how to
properly handle and maintain their machinery.
Another good practice is to keep manuals close by so operators can brush

up on their understanding of the machine whenever needed. If manuals are
particularly challenging then the maintenance sections should be rewritten
in easy-to-understand terms.
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Remember to Lubricate Your Machinery
Lubricants should be used on all moving parts on farm machinery.

Lubricants reduce friction and enhance the life expectancy of machinery and
parts. It is important to use a good quality lubricant and to always clear up
dirt and messes found on the machine before adding new lubricant.
Buildups and dirt should be cleared out so your machine parts can run
smoothly at all times.
Know the Signs of Wear and Damage
If you know your machine well enough then you should be able to tell the
moment something goes wrong. Vibration, shock, overheating, friction and
strange noises are all signs of wear or damage. It is important to keep an eye
or ear out for these signs so you can get your farm machinery serviced
before a major breakdown happens.
Keep Machinery Clean
It is tough to spot signs of breakdowns and wear and tear when your farm
machinery is too dirty. Keep your machinery clean so you can spot danger
signs such as oil leaks and grease build ups easily. It is also important to
do proper cleaning maintenance such as filter cleaning, buildup removal,
vacuuming and dusting inside farm machinery so your machinery will look
great for a long time to come.
Keep a Schedule
The farm life can be quite busy and it can be easy to forget when a machine
is due for a service or for repairs. Create a schedule of the time your farm
machinery should be maintained and keep a track record of previous repairs
and maintenance that have been done on the equipment.
It is also important to keep track of the operators that man and maintain
farm machinery so you will know exactly who is slacking off in their job or
who is damaging your machinery by working the farm equipment too hard.
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Self- Check 1.2-2
Enumeration
1. What are the 5 maintenance and servicing of vehicles and equipment?
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ANSWER KEY 1.2-2
1. Get the Right Operator Training
2. Remember to Lubricate Your Machinery
3. Know the Signs of Wear and Damage
4. Keep Machinery Clean
5. Keep a Schedule
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Proper disposal of wastes related to maintenance and
servicing work
1. Identify the 3 Rs.
2. Determine the ways on how to dispose wastes related to maintenance
and servicing work.
Proper disposal of wastes related to maintenance and servicing work
Automobile repair shops produce many types of waste -- some

hazardous, some not necessarily hazardous but still potentially damaging to
the environment if not handled properly, and all requiring proper treatment
and/or disposal at significant cost to the business. A list of the types of
waste that must be contend with would include:
 solvents (paints and paint thinners)

 antifreeze
 scrap metal
 batteries and other auto parts
 oils and oil filters
 fuels of various types
 acids and alkalis (contaminated rags and towels)
Whatever the nature and characteristics of the waste may be, it all has one
thing in common: All waste represents loss of resources and loss of money.
The most effective way to minimize these losses associated with waste is to
avoid producing the waste in the first place. This is the concept behind
DNREC’s Pollution Prevention Program, which has produced this Fact Sheet
to assist you and others in the automobile repair business to reduce your
losses while at the same time helping to improve the environment.
Businesses throughout the country have implemented waste reduction

programs and found that there are many benefits to be gained from such an
approach to the management of resources. Reducing the amount of waste
your business generates can help you:
 reduce operating costs

 reduce waste disposal costs
 reduce long-term liability
 help sustain environmental quality
 improve workplace safety and health
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 project a positive public image
Getting Started
Getting off to a good start is crucial to the success of any endeavor.

Here are some important things to consider in undertaking a waste
reduction program:
 Make a commitment to pollution prevention. This commitment must

start at the top, with the owner or manager of the shop, and extend to
every employee.
 Involve the employees in designing and implementing pollution
prevention measures.
 Provide training in waste reduction techniques and practices. Don’t let
this be a one-shot effort -- “periodic refresher courses” will help to
increase employees awareness of the importance of waste reduction.
 Establish incentives to encourage workers to use waste reduction
techniques and to suggest changes, in design or operating procedures
that would further reduce waste generation.
 Assess the shop’s waste. Identify sources, types, and amounts of
waste being produced. This will make it easier to pinpoint areas where
waste reduction techniques can be applied and to measure the
success of your efforts.
Establishing Good Housekeeping Practices
Improving a business’s housekeeping practices is often the easiest and least

expensive way to reduce waste. Good housekeeping includes good inventory
control and efficient operating procedures. Here are some housekeeping tips:
 Keep storage and work areas clean and well organized, and keep all
containers properly labeled.
 Inspect materials upon delivery, and immediately return unacceptable
materials to the supplier.
 Keep accurate records of material usage so that you can measure
reductions in use. Mark the purchase date on each container and
adopt a “first in, first out” policy so that older materials are used up
before new ones are opened; assign someone to distribute and keep
track of the materials.
 Locate and repair all leaks to prevent loss of raw materials. Practice
preventive maintenance to avoid future losses.
 Keep all containers covered to prevent evaporation and spillage.
 Keep waste streams separate to increase their potential for reuse,
recycling, or treatment. Don’t allow nonhazardous materials to
become contaminated with hazardous materials, as this will result in
all of the waste needing to be treated as hazardous waste.
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 Install flow meters, flow control devices, and shut-off nozzles to cut
down on water usage.
Solvents -- Reducing, Reusing, and Recycling
Auto repair shops typically use solvents in a variety of operations,

including parts cleaning, degreasing, and painting. Many of these solvents,
may be classified as hazardous waste, and may therefore require expensive
treatment and/or disposal. A number of pollution prevention strategies can
be used to reduce both the toxicity and the quantity of spent solvents
requiring disposal:
 Try to find one multi-purpose solvent that can serve a variety of uses,
rather than having a different solvent for each operation. This will
minimize the number of waste streams and increase the recycling
potential of the spent solvent.
 Substitute less hazardous substitutes for solvent cleaners. Consider
water-based cleaners or water-soluble cutting fluids, or install a
pressure wash system if feasible.
 Extend the life of solvent baths. Some ways to do this are by pre-
cleaning parts with rags before placing them in the bath (then having
the rags cleaned for reuse) or by using old solvent as a pre-soak to
remove most of the dirt or grease before introducing the parts into the
fresh bath.
 Minimize the amount of cleaning solvent lost during drainage of
cleaned parts. Remove parts from the bath slowly to prevent spillage;
install drip trays or racks near the bath for draining cleaned parts;
return the drainage to the bath.
 Use on-site recovery techniques to make solvents reusable. Consider
leasing or purchasing solvent recovery equipment. Common methods
of recovery are:
o Decanting -- drawing off liquids from the settled sludge. Alternatively,

the bottom sludge may be drained out.
o Filtration -- passing solvent through a porous medium to remove the
solids.
o Distillation -- separating liquids from each other by taking advantage
of their different boiling points.
If the solvents cannot be made reusable, try to find a way to recycle

them. One possibility for accomplishing this is to purchase solvents from a
company that will pick up and recycle the spent solvent.
Applying the Three Rs to Other Shop Wastes

Oils
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 Use drip pans to catch lube oils for reuse. Handle oils carefully to
avoid spillage.
 Contract with a reputable recycler to collect your used oil.
Caustic cleaners
 Substitute detergent-based solution for caustic cleaning solution.
 Clean parts mechanically, rather than chemically, whenever possible.
Other
 Use paints with higher solids content, or water-based paints with no
solvent, whenever possible.
 Collect all scrap metal and take it to a metal recycler.
 Make sure all freon is properly handled and recycled. Even small
amounts of freon pose a serious environmental threat because of their
tremendous potential for destruction of stratospheric ozone.
 Arrange to have waste antifreeze picked up by a recycler.
 Consider recycling scrap tires. Depending on the shop’s location and
the number of tires collected, it may be cost effective to contract with
a tire retreader/recycler to take the tires, rather than send them to a
landfill.
Following up
As long as wastes are being produced, there is the potential for waste
reduction. Less-polluting materials, equipment, and procedures are
constantly being developed, so that wastes that are difficult or costly to
control today may be easily eliminated tomorrow. Stay alert for such
developments.
When buying new equipment, look for equipment that will minimize both the
amount of toxic materials used and the amount of waste produced.
Reassess the shop’s operations and waste handling practices periodically. A
successful program requires diligence so as to avoid the temptation of
slipping back into old more wasteful ways of doing things and to identify
additional waste reduction possibilities.
Publicize the shop’s commitment to waste reduction. Customers will feel
good about doing business with a company that is environmentally
responsible.
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Self- Check 1.2-3
Enumeration
1. What does 3Rs stand for?
2. Give at least 3 wastes
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ANSWER KEY 1.2-3
1.
a) Reducing
b) Reusing
c) Recycling
2. Possible answers1
 solvents (paints and paint thinners)
 antifreeze
 scrap metal
 batteries and other auto parts
 oils and oil filters
 fuels of various types
 acids and alkalis (contaminated rags and towels)
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Documentation and record keeping of maintenance and
servicing activities
Learning Objective:
1. Determine what is record keeping
2. Know the importance of record keeping.
Documentation and record keeping of maintenance and servicing

activities
Every farmer relies on the health of its equipment in one way or the other.
The downtime or unavailability of equipment leads to time wastage and
potentially lost sales. This is why taking good care of the equipment you own
should be a top priority.
However, it can be quite a struggle to ensure that all these important assets
are maintained and inspected as often as needed. It is crucial to maintain
an equipment maintenance log for many reasons. For starters, it helps
ensure that the revenue-generating operations are constantly progressing as
required without any disruptions in the form of unexpected downtime.
Moreover, keeping track of equipment maintenance can also help decrease

the risk of injuries at the job sites. According to a study, 272 out of 773
accidental events at work were due to equipment failures. 13 of such
accidents even resulted in human injuries. It is believed that equipment
failures have an immense effect on the severity and number of accidents in
different industries.
The equipment maintenance log is a simple document that contains a list of

all actions that have been performed on a certain piece of equipment. It
helps keep track of the maintenance history. It generally contains the
following two different sections, each containing different types of
information:
1. General information
The first section has to do with general information. This information is used
to identify the piece of equipment. It most commonly includes:
 Name of equipment
 Model or manufacturer
 Serial number
 Location
 Person responsible for equipment
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Some equipment maintenance logs also include the Purchase date and
Purchase price in this section.
2. List of maintenance actions
The second section lists all the maintenance actions performed on the
equipment. It commonly includes the following fields:
 Date when the action was performed

 Description of the action itself
 Name of the person performing the actions
Lastly, some logs also include a Remarks section. This section is useful in
case the person performing the maintenance might have any special notes to
add for future reference.
Why are equipment maintenance records important?
Equipment maintenance logs/records are recorded histories on all the

actions that have been taken on your equipment. Keeping track of the
condition of your equipment helps you keep your fleet at optimum working
condition and minimizes the risk of unscheduled downtime or unavailability
of your equipment. They make sure you can spot the little problems, so they
don’t turn into bigger ones.
Several benefits of keeping an equipment maintenance record

consistently.
Establish individualized/specialized maintenance programmes
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Not every maintenance programme out there will work for all equipment.
Each one of the equipment works different, operates under different working
conditions and varying imperfections.
Daily inspection and proper record keeping will help to point out these
differences and determine the maintenance programme to be scheduled for
a specific equipment type.
Increase safety for operators
The safety of the operator is key and by keeping track of the equipment’s
condition, ensuring they are not subjected to danger at all times.
Especially since the fault or malfunction will happen to the equipment, the
chances of the operator being affected are high as they are in direct contact
with the machinery. By documenting your equipment’s maintenance history
– you are letting yourself be aware of its performance. Concerns like signs
which potentially refer to equipment failure will be easily spotted.
Increase the resale value of equipment
Aside from informing you of your equipment’s health, record keeping also
boosts its appeal for resale. Buyers who are looking to purchase used
equipment, in particular, will prefer to view past information regarding the
equipment to fully understand what they’re working with.
The more thorough, the better. Buyers look forward to having a well-
documented and detailed record and will be more convinced to purchase
when they receive comprehensive information of the equipment.
Keep a track of who is operating which machine
Different machines are assigned to be taken care of by different operators.
And at times, it’s not the machine that has worn out over time but a result
of mishandling of equipment. When you note down who handles which
equipment, you will be able to find out the culprit responsible for the
damage inflicted.
However, the main concern here is to educate others on the importance of
proper equipment care. Eventually, leading to a higher responsibility in
operators and better operator care.
Spotting trends across makes, models and parts
Records also tell you about trends like components, makes, operators,
models and other aspects surrounding the equipment.
Proper records of maintenance issues will inform you which equipment has
incurred the lowest cost per hour of ownership. On the other hand, when
you notice the same component from the model of a machine requiring
repair or replacement – it would mean the same thing for other equipment of
the same model as well.
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Once you are able to identify the similar trends reoccurring over and over
again, you will know what action to take.
Avoiding costly repairs
When you are able to identify the minor problems early on, you can fix these
issues first. On the flip side, when you don’t – you are letting all these tiny
problems build up into a major one – leading to a huge sum of repair costs.
Most equipment, for instance, your generator – will show signs when the
equipment is failing. In other words, generator overhauling might be
necessary to find out what’s the specific problem. And once you diagnose
the problem, there leaves no need for any unnecessary costly repair.
Justifies warranty claims accurately
When the time comes to claim your warranty – you need to present evidence
to successfully claim it.
By recording each one of your past maintenance works, along with the
precise dates and facts – it will be much easier for you to get a hold of your
warranty claim and make sure it goes through.
When you keep an eye of your equipment’s condition regularly, you
understanding how your equipment is performing. Whether it’s
underperforming or operating normally – you will figure it out by updating
your records on a consistent basis.
If generator rewinding has to be done to get your generator back in shape –
contact your engineer and let him take a look at the records to double
confirm it. Sometimes, there really is no need for an all-rounded repair so
it’s best that you get your trusted engineer down to check on the
equipment’s condition.
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Self- Check 1.2-4
Essay & Enumeration
Instruction: Answer the following question.
1. Why record keeping is important?
2. Enumerate the Several benefits of keeping an equipment maintenance
record consistently.
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ANSWER KEY 1.2-4
1. Equipment maintenance logs/records are recorded histories on all the
actions that have been taken on your equipment. Keeping track of the
condition of your equipment helps you keep your fleet at optimum
working condition and minimizes the risk of unscheduled downtime or
unavailability of your equipment. They make sure you can spot the
little problems, so they don’t turn into bigger ones.
2.
a) Establish individualized/specialized maintenance programmes
b) Increase safety for operators
c) Increase the resale value of equipment
d) Keep a track of who is operating which machine
e) Spotting trends across makes, models and parts
f) Avoiding costly repairs
g) Justifies warranty claims accurately
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Cultivate soil
Contents:
1. Land clearing / Removal of previous crop

2. Cultivation practices and procedures
3. OHS hazards and risks related to soil cultivation
4. Selection, use and maintenance of PPE
5. Operation, including adjustments, of vehicles and equipment
6. Interpretation of schedule, resources and cultivation requirements
from the planting plan
Assessment Criteria
1. Previous crop or land clearance debris is removed or incorporated

according to the organizations’ guidelines.
2. The cultivation plan is followed and completed for each site based on
the pulverizing, plowing, and harrowing recommendation.
3. OHS hazards are identified, risks assessed and suitable controls are
implemented in accordance with OHS requirements and procedures.
4. Suitable personal protective equipment is selected, used and
maintained according to job/OHS requirements and procedures.
5. Vehicles and equipment are operated properly to suit the site
conditions per manufacturers’ specifications and operating manuals.
6. The quality of cultivation is maximized by continually checking and
adjusting the vehicles and equipment as necessary according to the
cultivation plan and manufacturers’ specifications and operating
manuals.
Conditions

1. Workplace
2. Vehicles, farm tools and equipment for site cultivation
o 4-wheel tractor/hand tractor
o Appropriate plow and harrow
o Rotavator
o Pick mattock, shovel, etc.
3. Tools for vehicle and equipment maintenance and servicing
o Pliers, wrench, screw driver, Phillips screw, vise grip, jack, etc.
o Rag
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o Fuel, oil, grease, lubricants, etc.
5. Personal protective equipment
6. Learning materials (machinery/equipment operating manuals)
Assessment Method:
1. Written exam
2. Actual Demonstration
3. Observation
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Land clearing / Removal of previous crop
Learning Objective:
1. Determine activities and operation in land clearing/ removal of
previous crop
2. Know the different land clearing methods.
Land clearing / Removal of previous crop
Land clearing is the removal of native vegetation for agricultural

purposes and other developmental projects. When clearing land, particularly
for agricultural purposes, the density of native cover and soil type must be
considered to help conserve the topsoil.
This is an operation usually carried out before the conventional tillage

in a farm land. Generally, there are several operations that are involved in
land clearing depending on the type of vegetation, soil condition,
topography, the extent of clearing required and the purpose for which the
clearing is done. The land clearing operations include the following listed
below;
1. Removal of all vegetation at the ground level and moving and stacking
them in windrows for burning so that roots are left to decay or to be
removed at later dates.
2. Removal of all tree and stumps include roots, and moving and
stacking them in windrows for subsequent burning.
3. Ploughing and mixing in the vegetation to a soil depth of about 20cm
and allowing it to decay.
4. Knocking all vegetation down and crushing it to the surface of the
ground to be either burnt or left to decay.
5. Killing or retarding the growth of small trees by cutting the roots
below surface of the ground and leaving them to decay or removing
and stacking them for subsequent burning if necessary.
Mechanized agriculture requires a proper land clearing completion

that will avert premature failure of the conventional tillage machines put in
use subsequently and minimize soil nutrient depletion and structural
damage due to interacting heavy land clearing equipment-bulldozer and so
on. To avert these adverse effects, it is usually advisable that land clearing
should be better done in the dry season when the soil has adequate
mechanical stability or impendence to resist soil deformation or structural
damage. This is at minimal soil moisture content; the risk of soil structural
damage is minimized with the corresponding high shear strength which can
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withstand both the vertical and horizontal loads of the tractor – implement
aggregate.
Total removal of vegetation is required for land clearing done for

highway, dam construction and as well as building site for poultry. In these
particular requirements, the need to preserve the top soil (that houses the
essential nutrient) and avert the soil structural damage is inconsequential
unlike in mechanized agriculture. The following factors among others, affect
the rate of clearing;
1. Rainfall
2. Topography
3. Equipment used
4. Skill of equipment operators
5. The end use of the land being cleared
6. Sizes and kinds of trees
7. Density of vegetation
8. Soil condition
The aforementioned factors listed above determine the various

capacities of equipment used for land clearing for farm operations.
Bush clearing for crop production referred to as agricultural bush

clearing is different from bush clearing for other purposes. This is because,
whereas the cardinal objective in clearing for other purposes is not only the
removal of all bush, rubbish, debris and other objectionable materials, the
top soil is also removed and may be replaced with sub soil (lateriting) and
where necessary compacted or stabilized depending on the type of project. In
agricultural bush clearing, the top soil must be preserved. The top soil
contains nutrients needed by crops for optimum performance Agricultural
bush clearing is therefore defined as the process of scientific removal and
disposal of existing material, vegetation, rubbish and other obstructions
from the land by manual, mechanical and chemical means for agricultural
food production. Agricultural bush clearing operation is effective only when
all the unwanted vegetation including all roots and stumps are removed
with minimum disturbance to the top soil. This is done to a maximum depth
of 20 cm.
Objectives of Land Clearing
The basic objectives of agricultural bush clearing and land

development are to remove unwanted materials from the land and to
increase the size of land to be cultivated. Unwanted materials include trees,
boulders, stumps and tree trunks. These materials cause obstructions to
smooth operations of the tractor during subsequent tillage and other
operations on the land. Tall trees also prevent rain and sunlight from getting
to the soil by shielding. The area to be cultivated could be limited by
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presence of unwanted vegetation and undulating terrain, and stumps which
could be easier removed using mechanical means.
Bush clearing in general increases erosion and sedimentation of waterways

and reduces water quality. Also, the operation removes habitats leading to
the direct loss of millions of native animals and plants. To reduce the
negative effects of agricultural bush clearing especially in the tropics the
operation requires. Soils in the tropics are known to be delicate and low in
organic matter content both down the depth and in profiling. In Nigeria for
instance, about 63% of the soils are low in productivity and over 90 of them
are alfisols and ultisols which are low in inorganic matter and have low
activity clays
Techniques of Agricultural Land Clearing
Land clearing operation can be accomplished through the use of one or

more of these methods:
1. Hand method
2. Burning
3. Chemical method
4. Explosive blasting.
5. Mechanical methods.
Hand Method
This method involves use of hand tools such as cutlass, hoes, axes,
diggers for land clearing. However, when vegetation is thick, it is very
tedious and costly. This method does not encourage mass production in
agricultural production because of drudgery involved. It is also very difficult
to work in the field cleared by this method because of the presence of
stumps and underfoot which forms impediment to agricultural machines.
Burning Method
Burning method of land clearing is very common in the savanna belt of

Nigeria for a variety of reasons: it clears the land for cultivation and for
travel; it provides grazing at the time of the year when the grass is at its
scariest; it drives game from cover thus facilitating their capture; man,
appears to enjoy the sight of a good blaze especially at night. However,
preliminary results indicate that this method adversely affects the soil in
that the earthworm and microbial populations decrease as do the organic
matter and nitrogen content and general fertility.
Chemical Method
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Stumps and regrowth can be eliminated or killed by the use of arboricides.
These are artificially prepared chemicals which kill unwanted forest trees.
The arboricides that contain sodium arsenite are highly poisonous and
should be handled with care.
Explosive Blasting Method
This method is employed to remove very big stumps to avoid excessive

excavation of the soil. A wood auger is used to make a hold in the centre of
the big stump and an appropriate quantity of dynamite is applied and
remotely detonated to shatter the wood. In cases of smaller stumps, the soil
auger may be used to bore hole in the soil and apply the explosive under the
stump. This again shatters and removes the stump upon detonation.
Mechanical Method
Mechanical method is employed usually when a large area of land is

required because of the cost. In this method of land clearing, various
mechanical equipment are used. Some of the procedures for mechanical
land clearing are: surveying, knockdown of trees, windrowing, burning and
removal of debris, and pioneer ploughing. Survey helps to determine the size
of tractor, the type and size of matched equipment, and the clearing method
to be used. Two main operations are involved in mechanical land clearing:
knockdown and windrowing, and removal of debris. The knockdown is the
process of pulling or pushing down of the trees. Various mechanical tools
are employed for the process which are: bulldozer blade, the rolling chopper,
the anchor chain, and the winching cable.
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Self- Check 1.3-1
Identification
Instruction: Identify the following. Write your answer on the answer sheet.
1. This method involves use of hand tools such as cutlass, hoes, axes,
diggers for land clearing.
2. This method is employed to remove very big stumps to avoid excessive
excavation of the soil.
3. Is the removal of native vegetation for agricultural purposes and other
developmental projects.
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ANSWER KEY 1.3-1
1. Hand Method
2. Explosive Blasting Method
3. Land Clearing
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Cultivation practices and procedures
Learning Objective:
1. Determine what is cultivation.
Cultivation, also known as tilling or soil refinement, is the act of digging into
or cutting up an existing soil bed to better prepare it for planting. You might
use a tractor, a rototiller, or hand tools such as a shovel or soil fork.
Typically, farmers add amendments to boost the soil's nourishment when
they cultivate it.
Cultivation is an important part of farming and gardening, but it's possible

to overdo it. It's critical to know when and how to cultivate your specific
soils in order to provide the best possible environment for your crops to
thrive.
What Is Cultivation?
Cultivating is the process of tilling or unsettling the soil to make it more

suitable for planting. When done properly, it can be an essential component
of a nontoxic, integrated pest-management solution.
Organic cultivation practices specifically aim to get the soil into healthy
shape by using nonchemical, pesticide-free methods and by encouraging the
soil's natural ecosystem to thrive.
How Cultivation Works?
The aim of cultivating your soil is to help your plants grow better. Aerated
soil allows your plant's roots to get enough oxygen. Soil should also be free
of weeds and have good drainage so you don't drown your plants or
encourage root rot.
In terms of organic farming, it’s not just about adding nutrients to the soil.
It’s about encouraging the life forms within the soil to thrive. Earthworms
are the most obvious soil dwellers, and they are needed to process organic
matter into rich, fertile soil. Earthworms also keep your soil aerated.
But your soil is also home to billions of beneficial microorganisms such as

bacteria, algae, and mold. When these organisms are happy, thriving, and in
ideal balance for your agricultural conditions, they turn lifeless dirt into
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living, nourishing soil. The right mix of digging up dirt and working in
natural amendments helps your plants thrive.
The Dangers of Over-cultivating
Over-cultivating can damage soil, however, so there are times when you
shouldn’t cultivate, both seasonally and year-to-year. Spring is often the
ideal time to cultivate your soil in preparation for new plantings. Fall, on the
other hand, can be a better time for simply mulching, which involves
spreading a thick layer of organic material over your soil to protect it during
the coming cold months. Digging up your soil in the fall can kill essential
organisms, disturb the balance of life forms in the soil, cause erosion, and
even encouraging weeds to grow.
Additionally, your soil might benefit from heavy cultivating with a rototiller
in some years, while it’s best to use gentler hand-shoveling or forking to
prep the soil in other years. Fruitful gardening means learning to know what
your soil needs each year.
Diagnosing Your Dirt
Your type of soil should dictate when and how you cultivate. Dense clay soil
can be difficult to dig up and cultivate, and it doesn’t respond well to being
heavily worked when it is waterlogged. It's better to cultivate clay soil in the
fall in some climates when it's relatively dry. Because clay retains water and
can overhydrate some plants, it's a good idea to incorporate sand from a
riverbed into the clay to break it up a little bit.
Loose, sandy soil does not retain water as well as clay and can benefit from
springtime cultivation to provide enrichment that helps it retain moisture.
The amendments you work into your soil will vary greatly depending on its
type and the nutritional needs of the crops you intend to plant.
Encouraging Healthy Crops

Cultivating your soil is one step in the process of growing healthy plants. It's
important to see your crops through their entire lifecycle, from seed to table.
Keep some important decisions and practices in mind along the way.
Crops and seed selection: To have the most success with your crops,
choose plants that will thrive in your particular climate and select the
highest quality seeds.
Planting: Whether planting seeds or transplanting crops, it's important to
leave enough space between each plant to allow roots to take hold and so
each plant can have access to enough sunlight and nutrients. Gardening
Know How provides a handy chart that lets you know how much space to
allow for most common crops.
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Water management: Know the needs of the crops you are planting. Many
beans, for example, are capable of thriving in dry conditions, so if you live in
an area with little rain, beans might be a good crop option. Plants with deep
roots, such as tomatoes, can also thrive with limited watering because their
deep roots can draw moisture from the ground. On the other hand, crops
such as lettuce, cabbage, and celery require a lot of water, so avoid these
and similar crops if you live in a dry area.
Plant health: Making sure plants are healthy involves several practices.
Test your soil to know what nutrients it has and where it's deficient. Add
fertilizers high in the nutrients your soil lacks to create a healthier
environment. You'll also want to protect your crops from outside threats,
including animals and insects that might like to munch on your vegetables,
fungal diseases, and weeds that might compete for moisture, sunlight, and
necessary nutrients.
Harvesting: The most important part of harvesting is knowing when crops
are ripe and then picking them as soon as possible. Read up on the crops
you are growing so that you know what to look for, and go through the
garden every day to pick what is ripe.
Postharvest: After the harvest is usually a good time to test your soil. You'll
be able to see at this time what your plants may have been lacking and what
can be done differently for the next growing season.
Your cultivation practices are but one part of this whole picture. Learn to
know what your soil—and your crops—need to thrive each year, and you'll
have a bountiful harvest.
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Self- Check 1.3-2
Enumeration
Instruction: Enumerate and write you’re your answer on the answer sheet.
1. What are the factors that encourages a healthy crop?
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ANSWER KEY 1.3-2
1. Crops and seed selection
Planting
Water management
Plant health
Harvesting
Postharvest
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OHS hazards and risks related to soil cultivation
Learning Objective:
1. Identify the factors may increase risk of injury or illness for farm
workers
OHS hazards and risks related to soil cultivation
Many hazards are present in the farm. If the farmers are not
aware of these hazards these may cause injury to their body or
may cause diseases and even death. Farmer should always apply
appropriate safety measures while working in the farm.
Hazard, Risk And Exposure In The Farm
Agricultural crop production deal with a lot of activities to
be done in the different workplace. While performing these
activities we expose ourselves to a lot of risk. Workplace hazard is
a major cause of accident, injury, or harm to a worker who
performs such task. These hazards should be the major concern
of all who are involved in a certain job or work.
It is important to distinguish hazard, risk and exposure
when undertaking risk management.
 Hazard is the potential for harm, or adverse effect on
an employee‘s health. Anything which may cause
injury or ill health to anyone at or near a workplace is
a hazard.
 Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will cause injury or
ill health to anyone at or near a workplace. The level of
risk increases with the severity of the hazard and the
duration and frequency of exposure.
 Exposure occurs when a person comes into contact
with a hazard.
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The following factors may increase risk of injury or illness for
farm workers:
1. Age – Injury rates are highest

among children age 15 and under
and adults over 65.
2. Equipment and Machinery –

Most farm accidents and fatalities
involve machinery. Proper machine
guarding and doing equipment
maintenance according to
manufacturers‘ recommendations
can help prevent accidents.
Farm work that in hazardous tools and equipment
Land Preparation Using Tractor
 Victims fall off or are thrown from the tractor
 Run over by either the tractor or an implement being towed,
or both.
 Overturn
Safety Reminders:
 Tractors are not passenger vehicles.
 Use seat belts when driving tractors.
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 ROPS will protect the operator from serious injuries.
Causes of run over accidents:
 Sudden stops
 Driving over holes, stumps and debris, or a sharp turn
How to prevent runover:
 Never allow riders on tractors.
 Discuss with family members and farm workers the
potential risks of riding tractor.
 It's also helpful to post 'no riders' decals on all tractors to
remind others about the policy.
 Use or provide other vehicles that allow passengers, such as
trucks or cars, when transportation is needed to fields or
remote work sites.
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Self- Check 1.3-2
Enumeration
1. What are the factors that may increase the risk of injury or illness for
farm workers?
2. How to prevent runover?
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ANSWER KEY 1.3-2
1. – Age
- Equipment and Machinery
2.
- Never allow riders on tractors.
- Discuss with family members and farm workers the
potential risks of riding tractor.
- It's also helpful to post 'no riders' decals on all tractors to
remind others about the policy.
- Use or provide other vehicles that allow passengers, such
as trucks or cars, when transportation is needed to fields
or remote work sites.
3.
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Learning Objective:
1. Identify the different PPEs used during land preparation.
2. Determine the use and maintenance of PPEs.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) can reduce the number and

severity of farm work related injuries and illnesses. Personal protective
equipment not only helps protect people but also improves productivity and
profits. Farmers and ranchers can share in these benefits by using the
appropriate protective equipment for themselves, family members and
employees when the job and its potential hazards call for it.
Solutions for eye and face protection
Eye protection should always be worn where there is potential for

injury to the eyes or face from small particles, toxic chemicals, flying
particles, large objects, thermal or radiation hazards, and lasers. According
to the types and extent of hazards, different PPE should be worn. These
must always remain clean and free of contaminates.
Sun protective sunglasses
Look for ultraviolet (UV)-protection on product

labels. Choose sunglasses that block 99 to 100
percent of the sun’s UV rays. Opt for larger
lenses rather than smaller lenses — better yet,
the wraparound variety to protect the sides.
Safety glasses
Safety glasses should be impact

resistant with wrap-around lenses for
the most complete protection.
Solutions for respiratory protection
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The risk of contracting severe lung disease or death can be significantly
decreased by using respiratory protection.
Air purifying disposable particulate
masks with exhalation valve
Offers protection against non-toxic solid
and liquid aerosols (e.g., oil mists and
dust). Exhalation valve makes breathing
easier and reduces hot air build up.
Product must be discarded when clogged.
Solutions for hand protection

Selecting proper gloves is very important since the hands are used to handle
hazardous materials. In addition, traumatic injuries such as cuts, sprains,
and punctures may occur. With the wide range of hazards, there are also a
wide range of gloves that may be used as PPE.
Padded cloth gloves
Protects hands from sharp edges, slivers, dirt, and
vibration. Not acceptable for handling hazardous
materials.
Metal mesh
gloves
Better protection than cloth gloves against
sharp edges and cuts. Not acceptable for
handling hazardous materials.
Solutions for head protection

Head injuries are commonly caused by impact from falling or flying objects
and walking into hard objects.
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Bump caps
Designed to protect bumping head on
protruding objects. Normally does not have a
suspension system inside the cap that acts as
a shock absorber.
Solutions for foot protection

Did you know... “When your feet hurt, you hurt all over?” Proper footwear
not only protects feet from injuries but also reduces the pain and fatigue
that can lead to injuries.
Steel toe footwear

Protects toes from falling objects and from being
crushed.
Reinforced sole footwear

Offers added protection from
punctures.
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Solutions for clothing protection
Protecting the body with the proper clothing can help prevent injuries or
contamination, or lessen the impact of any that occur. Various farm and
ranch jobs require different protective clothing.
Sun protective clothing

Closely woven fabrics are more protective against
the sun’s ultraviolet rays (UVR) because they lack
open spaces to let UVR through to your skin.
When in the sun, wear long-sleeve shirts, long
pants, and socks
Equipment and clothing is shown that can help farmers and ranchers
remain safe when working around the many hazards on farms and ranches.
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Self- Check 1.3-2
Identification
Instruction: Identify the following images write the answer on the answer
sheet.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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5.
ANSWER KEY 1.3-2

1. Sun protective sunglasses
2. Air purifying disposable particulate masks with exhalation valve
3. Padded cloth gloves
4. Bump caps
5. Sun protective clothing
6.
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Operation, including adjustments, of vehicles and equipment
Learning Objective:
1. Operate the mechanical tractor and maintenance in accordance with
the prescribe standard.
Specialized machinery and equipment refers to machinery and

equipment used principally in agriculture and horticulture, work where
there is high wear and tear on components. It requires the ability to carry
out engine and equipment checks, undertake transmission checks, maintain
high wear components and attachments, and record maintenance work.
Performing specialized machinery maintenance requires knowledge of
general machine function principles and maintenance, and operational
replacement wear component requirements and procedures.
Field Operation Tillage (Plowing/Harrowing) Patterns

 Circuitous Pattern
 One Way Headland Pattern
 Gathering Headland Pattern
 Casting Headland Pattern
Circuitous Pattern
Plowing begins at the edge of the field and works
toward the center of the field always throwing the soil
towards the outside of the field.
One Way Headland Pattern

The field is plowed in runs parallel to each other. It
starts at one boundary of the field and ends at the
opposite with turns being made on the headlands.
Gathering Headland Pattern

This system requires plowing to begin in the center
of the field and works out to the edges.
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Casting Headland Pattern
This system is similar to the gathering pattern but requires ploughing
to begin at the edges.
Two types
of tractor
4 Wheel Tractor Two Wheel Tractor
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Types of controls of a four-wheel tractor
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General Mounting and Dismounting Safety Precautions
• Face the tractor at all times.
• Use the three-point contact method.
• Never mount or dismount a moving tractor.
• Always use the designated hand holds and steps.
• Never use control levers as a hand hold and do not step on foot
controls when mounting and dismounting.
• Never mount or dismount a tractor from the rear.
• Clean your shoes and wipe your hands before mounting.
• Never jump off a tractor.
• Remove any trash or obstructions on the steps or operator’s
compartment before mounting.
Mounting Procedures
1. Clean shoes of any mud, oil or any other residue preventing firm
contact with the steps.
2. Be sure hands are free of any oil or other residue preventing a firm
grip of hand holds.
3. Face the tractor operator’s compartment and secure a firm grip with
both hands.
4. Place one foot on the first step, then while using both hands and foot
to pull yourself up, place the other foot on the next step.
5. With both feet firmly on the steps, move one hand to secure a second
hold and then move the lowest foot on the steps to the next step.
6. Repeat this procedure until you have both feet on the operator’s
platform.
Dismounting Procedures
1. Unlock the seat belt, if provided, secure a firm grip with both hands
and stand in front of the seat.
2 While still maintaining a firm grip with both hands, move both feet to
one side of the operator’s platform.
3 Turn facing the operator’s compartment and while looking at the
steps, place one foot on the top step, keeping a firm grip with both
hands.
4 Obtain a new grip with one hand if necessary, then move the other
foot down to the next step.
5 Repeat step 4 until you have both feet firmly on the ground.
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6 Release both hand holds, turn facing away from the tractor and walk
away.
Tractor Controls
 These are devices (typically levers and switches) designed to give the
operator a means of communication with the tractor and the ability to
regulate and command the tractor to perform all desired responses.
 The controls are located within reach from the operator’s seat.
Agricultural tractors have three basic type of controls.
1. Foot controls - these controls are operated by the operator’s feet.

2. Hand controls - these controls are operated by the operator’s hands.
3. Combination controls - these controls can be operated by the
operator’s feet and/or hands. The most common is the engine speed
control.
Basic Control Common to All Agricultural Tractor
1. Brake control - this gives the operator control over stopping, turning,
and parking.
2. Clutch control - this allows the operator to engage or disengage power
to moving parts of the tractor. A clutch control can be considered the
go-no-go control. This includes: traction controls, combination
traction and brake controls, PTO controls, and field implement
controls.
3. Engine speed control (throttle)- this allows the operator to regulate the
revolutions per minute (RPM’s) of the engine.
4. Ground speed and directional controls (transmission gears)- these
controls give the operator control over ground speed (how fast you are
traveling) and direction (forward or reverse).
5. Differential lock - this control locks together the rotation of the main
drive wheels.
6. Steering control - better known as the steering wheel - gives the
operator the ability to turn right or left while moving in either a
forward or reverse direction.
7. Electrical controls - these controls are either on or off. Electrical
controls activate accessories such as the engine starter and lights.
8. Engine stop controls - on gasoline engines, it stops the spark going to
the spark plugs; on some gasoline and all diesel engines, it shuts off
the fuel to the engine. Stop controls can be either electrically or
manually (push-pull) activated.
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9. Lift controls for implements or equipment - these are typically hand
type controls and give the operator the ability to position or maneuver
any attachments into a desired position.
Instruments
These are the devices that allow the tractor to communicate with the
operator and notify him/her of safe and/or unsafe conditions. Instruments
may be in the form of a warning light, analog gauge, or digital display.
1. Engine speed indicator (tachometer)- this indicator identifies the
engine speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).
2. Oil pressure indicator - the oil pressure indicator will either tell the
operator the actual oil pressure or warn of low oil pressure during engine
operation.
3. Engine temperature indicator- the engine temperature indicator will
either indicate actual operating temperature or notify the operator of an
unsafe operating condition.
4. Electrical system condition - this is commonly referred to as the battery
condition indicator. However, it’s actual purpose is to indicate if the
electrical charging system is supplying adequate voltage to maintain all
electrical components while in operation.
5. Miscellaneous instruments - some manufacturers include a variety of
other instruments. Some additional indicators may include: fuel gauge,
coolant level, air filter condition, transmission temperature, hydraulic oil
level and many more.
Pre-operational Check
Battery condition - when checking the battery, safety has priority over
everything you do. When checking the battery, the operator should:
 Wear the proper safety equipment. (gloves, apron, face shield, etc.)
 Keep fire or flame away from the battery.
 Inspect for loose and/or corroded connections.
 Inspect electrolyte level (fluid level). (not required on maintenance free
batteries)
 Inspect battery hold down. -- Battery should be secure and unable to
move around.
 Inspect condition of cables (cracked, chaffed, torn, or melted
insulation).
 Look for cleanliness of the battery top. --No build-up of dirt.
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Fuel level - check the fuel level by removing the fuel cap and visually
checking the level in the tank. The fuel level may also be read from a fuel
gauge if the tractor is so equipped.
Coolant - check the coolant level by removing the radiator cap and visually
checking for the proper level. WARNING - NEVER REMOVE THE RADIATOR
CAP IF THE ENGINE IS HOT. Allow the engine to cool until the radiator is
cool to the touch.
Oil (engine) - check the oil level by removing the dip stick and reading the
level indicated on the dip stick.
Oil (hydraulic) - Check the transmission and hydraulic oil levels according
to the operator’s manual.
 check for any wet or damp areas on the machinery as well as any
puddles on the floor or ground under the agricultural tractor.
Check tire condition by looking for cuts, bruises or breaks in the sidewalls,
excessive weathering, uneven tread wear, damp spots on tires filled with
fluid, and air pressure. See the operator’s manual for correct air pressure.
Check for any loose or missing bolts, pins, wiring, or shields. Tighten all
loose accessories and guards and replace anything found defective.
Air filter - check the air filter every day.
Platform - should be clear of any trash, mud or other clutter and have an
anti-slip surface. Seat - should be adjustable and positioned to where the
operator can reach all controls comfortably. The seat should also be
equipped with a seat belt if a Roll Over Protective Structure (ROPS) is
attached to the tractor.
Controls - should all be identifiable and within comfortable reach of the
operator and functional. Instruments - should all be identifiable, functional,
and readable from the operator’s seat. ROPS - should be attached according
to the operator’s manual with no unauthorized modifications.
Pre-start Checklist
1. Make sure everyone is clear: no one else should be on or next to the
agricultural tractor.
2. If parked inside a building, open doors to allow for adequate ventilation
during starting.
3. Properly mount the tractor and adjust the operator’s seat.
4. Fasten seat belt if tractor is equipped with a ROPS.
5. Check all controls
 Place hydraulic controls in a neutral or static position.
 Place three-point lift control in a down or locked position.
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 Put PTO in an off or disengaged position.
 Place brakes in a set or locked position.
 Set ground speed and directional controls in neutral or park position.
6.Clutch pedal is in disengaged position.
7.Turn ignition switch to “On” position and check gauges and warning lights
for operation. Starting a tractor from the ground can result in the tractor
riding you instead of you riding it.
8. Check mirrors for adjustment and cleanliness. Check for proper
ballasting (weights). Check for properly attached connections, and that
you have the proper size tractor for the job.
Pre-start Safety
Never start a tractor while standing on the ground. Always start from
the operator’s seat.
Safe Operating Procedures
 Watch where you are going, especially at row ends, on roads, and
around trees and low hanging obstacles.
 When backing, use a spotter to guide you when your vision is blocked.
 To avoid upsets drive the tractor with care and at speeds compatible
with safety, especially when operating over rough ground, when
crossing ditches or slopes, and when turning corners.
 Avoid operating the tractor near ditches, embankments, and holes.
 Stay off slopes too steep for safe operation.
 Travel straight up or down a steep slope rather than across it.
 Lock tractor brake pedals together when transporting on roads to
provide two-wheel braking.
 Keep brakes evenly adjusted to provide even braking when brakes are
locked together.
 Keep the tractor in the same gear when going downhill as used when
going uphill. Do not coast or free wheel down hills.
 Any towed vehicle whose total weight exceeds that of the towing
tractor must be equipped with brakes for safe operation.
 Always check overhead clearance, especially when transporting the
tractor or towing high objects.
 When operating at night, adjust lights to prevent blinding an
oncoming driver.
 Make sure seat belt is fastened if ROPS is installed.
 Do not permit others to ride on the tractor. Tractors have only one
seat for one person.
 Operate the tractor smoothly - no jerky turns, starts or stops.
 Hitch only to the drawbar and hitch points recommended.
 When the tractor is stopped, be sure the brakes are securely set.
 Never use attachments unless they are properly matched to your
tractor.
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 Operate controls only from the operator’s seat.
 Never leave the tractor unattended with the engine running.
 Pay attention to what you are doing.
 Never operate nor allow anyone else to operate agricultural tractors or
machinery while under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
 Do not let your tractor bounce. You may lose steering control.
 Do not brake suddenly. Apply brakes smoothly and gradually.
 Never use a tractor to round up farm animals.
Roll-over Warning
Carelessness on hillsides, around ditches, near embankments and
holes can lead to serious injury or death.
Tractor to Equipment Connections

Connections can be classified as:
 Single point connection (drawbar connection)
 Three-point connection
 PTO connection
 Hydraulic connection
 Electrical connection
 Multiple connection consisting of two or more individual type
connections.
 Transportation of Equipment and Loads
 Never exceed the rated load capacities of your tractor.
 Make sure the tractor is properly ballasted for the equipment and/or
load.
 Select a safe ground speed.
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 Always let the engine assist with braking when going down hills.
 Lock the brakes together.
 Avoid transporting equipment and loads along hillsides and near
ditches and holes.
Highway Travel
 Refer to the operator’s manual for transporting instructions.
 Lock the brake pedals together.
 Raise all implements to their transport position and lock them in
place.
 Place all implements into their narrowest transport position.
 Disengage PTO and differential lock.
 Make sure tractor and towed equipment are equipped with SMV (slow
moving vehicle) emblems.
 Make sure any required clearance flags or hazard lights are in place
and in working order.
 Make sure you use a proper safety hitch pin with safety clip retainer.
 Make sure any towed implements are equipped with a safety chain
linking tractor and implement.
 Clean off all reflectors and road lights, front and rear, and be certain
they are in working order.
 Allowing passengers to ride can become a deadly mistake.
 Make wide, gentle turns.
 Signal your intent to slow, stop, or turn.
 Shift to a lower gear before going up or down hills.
 Keep tractor in gear. Never coast with clutch disengaged or
transmission in neutral.
 Drive defensively. Anticipate what other drivers might do.
 When towing a load, start braking sooner than normal and slow down
gradually.
 Watch out for overhead obstructions
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TASK SHEET 1.3-5
Title: Tractor Driving
Performance Objective: Given the Information Sheet 1.2, proper PPE,

materials and equipment you should be able to
perform the right mounting and dismounting
procedures and use all control procedures.
Supplies/Materials : information sheet & PPE
Equipment : Tractor & implement/attachment
Steps/Procedure:
MOUNTING PROCEDURES
1. Clean shoes of any mud, oil or any other residue
preventing firm contact with the steps.
2. Be sure hands are free of any oil or other residue
preventing a firm grip of hand holds.
3. Face the tractor operator’s compartment and secure a firm
grip with both hands.
4. Place one foot on the first step, then while using both
hands and foot to pull yourself up, place the other foot on
the next step.
5. With both feet firmly on the steps, move one hand to
secure a second hold and then move the lowest foot on the
steps to the next step.
6. Repeat this procedure until you have both feet on the
operator’s platform
DISMOUNTING PROCEDURES
1 Unlock the seat belt, if provided, secure a firm grip with
both hands and stand in front of the seat.
2 While still maintaining a firm grip with both hands, move
both feet to one side of the operator’s platform.
3 Turn facing the operator’s compartment and while looking
at the steps, place one foot on the top step, keeping a firm
grip with both hands.
4 Obtain a new grip with one hand if necessary, then move
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the other foot down to the next step.
5 Repeat step 4 until you have both feet firmly on the
ground.
6 Release both hand holds, turn facing away from the tractor
and walk away.
BASIC CONTROL COMMON TO ALL AGRICULTURAL
TRACTOR
1 Brake control - this gives the operator control over
stopping, turning, and parking.
2 Clutch control - this allows the operator to engage or
disengage power to moving parts of the tractor. A clutch
control can be considered the go-no-go control. This
includes: traction controls, combination traction and brake
controls, PTO controls, and field implement controls.
3 Engine speed control (throttle)- this allows the operator to
regulate the revolutions per minute (RPM’s) of the engine.
4 Ground speed and directional controls (transmission
gears)- these controls give the operator control over ground
speed (how fast you are traveling) and direction (forward or
reverse).
5 Differential lock - this control locks together the rotation of
the main drive wheels.
6 Steering control - better known as the steering wheel -
gives the operator the ability to turn right or left while
moving in either a forward or reverse direction.
7 Electrical controls - these controls are either on or off.
Electrical controls activate accessories such as the engine
starter and lights.
8 Engine stop controls - on gasoline engines, it stops the
spark going to the spark plugs; on some gasoline and all
diesel engines, it shuts off the fuel to the engine. Stop
controls can be either electrically or manually (push-pull)
activated.
9 Lift controls for implements or equipment - these are
typically hand type controls and give the operator the
ability to position or maneuver any attachments into a
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desired position.
Assessment Method:
Observation and Actual demonstration
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Performance Criteria Checklist 1.3-5
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….?
1. Follow the proper mounting procedures.
a. Clean shoes of any mud, oil or any other
residue preventing firm contact with the steps.
b.Be sure hands are free of any oil or other
residue preventing a firm grip of hand holds.
c. Face the tractor operator’s compartment and
secure a firm grip with both hands.
d.Place one foot on the first step, then while
using both hands and foot to pull yourself up,
place the other foot on the next step.
e. With both feet firmly on the steps, move one
hand to secure a second hold and then move
the lowest foot on the steps to the next step.
f. Repeat this procedure until you have both feet
on the operator’s platform
2. Follow the proper dismounting procedures
a. Unlock the seat belt, if provided, secure a firm
grip with both hands and stand in front of the
seat.
b.While still maintaining a firm grip with both
hands, move both feet to one side of the
operator’s platform.
c. Turn facing the operator’s compartment and
while looking at the steps, place one foot on the
top step, keeping a firm grip with both hands.
d.Obtain a new grip with one hand if necessary,
then move the other foot down to the next step.
e. Repeat step 4 until you have both feet firmly on
the ground.
f. Release both hand holds, turn facing away
from the tractor and walk away.
3. Used the basic controls of the tractor
a. Brake control - this gives the operator control over
stopping, turning, and parking.
b. Clutch control - this allows the operator to engage
or disengage power to moving parts of the tractor. A
clutch control can be considered the go-no-go
control. This includes: traction controls,
combination traction and brake controls, PTO
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controls, and field implement controls.
c. Engine speed control (throttle)- this allows the
operator to regulate the revolutions per minute
(RPM’s) of the engine.
d. Ground speed and directional controls
(transmission gears)- these controls give the
operator control over ground speed (how fast you
are traveling) and direction (forward or reverse).
e. Differential lock - this control locks together the
rotation of the main drive wheels.
f. Steering control - better known as the steering
wheel - gives the operator the ability to turn right or
left while moving in either a forward or reverse
direction.
g. Electrical controls - these controls are either on or
off. Electrical controls activate accessories such as
the engine starter and lights.
h. Engine stop controls - on gasoline engines, it stops
the spark going to the spark plugs; on some
gasoline and all diesel engines, it shuts off the fuel
to the engine. Stop controls can be either electrically
or manually (push-pull) activated.
i. Lift controls for implements or equipment - these
are typically hand type controls and give the
operator the ability to position or maneuver any
attachments into a desired position.
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Interpretation of schedule, resources and cultivation
requirements from the planting plan
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Prepare site for planting
Contents:
1. Planting layout
2. Soil profiling
3. Fertilizers, ameliorants, and/or other pre-planting treatments
4. Weed and pest control measures
5. Environmental implications of site preparation and legislations
Assessment Criteria
1. The planting layout and soil profiles are completed as required by the
planting plan.
2. Fertilizers, ameliorants, and/or other pre-planting treatments are
applied as required by the planting plan
3. Weed and pest control measures are taken as required by the planting
plan.
4. The environmental implications of site preparation are assessed and,
if necessary, responsible action is taken based on company guidelines
and environmental legislations.
Conditions
1. Workplace
2. Materials
o Chemicals and fertilizers
o Ameliorants and other pre-planting treatment materials
3. Facilities, tools, and equipment (sprayer, soil auger, etc.)
Assessment Method:
1. Actual demonstration
2. Questioning
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Planting layout
Learning Objective:
1. Identify the different planting arrangements.
Planting layout
The ‘Farming for the Future’ (FFTF) program can help you to plan the
best farm layout. It is an initiative of NSW Government agencies focusing on
whole farm planning. A whole farm plan considers the farm’s physical,
financial and human/personal resources for both now and the future.
Site assessment
An on-site assessment of a farm is necessary so that a map can be
drawn of the property’s topography, boundaries, soils, water resources and
so on, and a farm business plan can be formulated.
Government plans
Acquaint yourself with relevant Regional Environmental Plans (REPs),
Local Environmental Plans (LEPs), and Development Control Plans (DCPs)
and their short and long-term effects on your proposed or existing farm
enterprise. This will help reduce unforeseen risks and enhance your farm
business. Council’s building approval or development consent (DAs) may be
needed for siting greenhouses, siting and constructing dams or erecting hail
and windbreak netting. Council approval to clear land or a ‘no burning of
crop debris or waste materials on farm’ may apply. Consent will be required
if odor or noise is a nuisance likely to be generated from the development.
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How Crops are Arranged in Row Planting
Row planting as applied in conventional horizontal farming or
gardening is a system of growing crops in linear pattern in at least one
direction rather than planting without any distinct arrangement. It is
practiced in most crops whether direct seeded, transplanted or grown from
vegetative planting materials, both in monocropping and multiple cropping.
Crops are planted in rows or straight lines, either singly or in multiple
rows, mainly to enhance maximum yields as well as for convenience. An
east-west row orientation is preferred to maximize light absorption, but this
is not always possible. In many cases the topography that includes the
shape, terrain and slope of the land, as well as the location of existing
vegetation, roads, irrigation lines, buildings and physical barriers, dictate
the row orientation.
The specific advantages of row planting over broadcasting or scatter
planting include the following: (1) light absorption is maximized and,
conversely, the excessive shading effect of other plants is minimized thus
favoring more efficient photosynthesis and improved crop yield; (2) wind
passage along the interrows is enhanced which increases gas exchanges and
prevents excessive humidity; (3) access through the interrows facilitates
cultivation, weeding, and other farm operations including hauling; (4)
movement within the crop area is convenient and allows close inspection of
individual plants; and (5) visibility is enhanced.
Row Planting Arrangement
Row-planted crops are either arranged in equidistant single rows or
in multiple rows. Planting in single rows is most common in monocropping
or sole cropping, the growing of a single crop.
Different systems of planting arrangement within the row are
practiced in both single and multiple row planting, depending on the
characteristics and requirement of the crop, particularly its extent of canopy
expansion. In the hill method of planting crops by direct seeding, the crops
are arranged, singly or in group, in uniform distances. But in the drill
method, the only consideration is a uniform number of plants per linear
meter.
In row-planted fruit trees and other perennial crops like coconut, oil
palm and rubber, the common types of planting or spatial arrangement are
the square, rectangular, quincunx, and triangular or hexagonal.
Multiple Row Planting Arrangement
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Multiple row planting is a system of growing crops in blocks or strips
of 2 or more rows. The adjacent blocks are separated by a space which may
remain vacant or planted to other crops. This planting arrangement is
common in multiple cropping in which two or more crops are grown in the
same piece of land. It is also employed in monocropping where an alley wide
enough to facilitate passage is needed.
Coconut and other perennial crops are often intercropped with multiple
rows of annual crops like corn and pineapple. This is a common practice of
maximizing the use of vacant interrow spaces when the maincrop has not
fully developed thus allowing sufficient light exposure. In some farms, the
intercrop consists of multiple rows of such crops as coffee, cacao and
banana. In this system, both single row planting (for the maincrop) and
multiple row planting (for the intercrop) are combined.
In vegetable production that employs close spacing and where crops should
be within easy reach, the common practice is to plant in plots having
multiple rows. A space between plots is provided to allow passage.
Spatial Arrangement in Intercropping
Spatial arrangement is the systematic apportioning of the farm area
or any growing surface for crop production. In multiple cropping by
intercropping, the intercrop can be planted in any of the following ways: (1)
within the rows of the maincrop, (2) between the rows of the maincrop, and
(3) in replacement series Planting of the intercrop between two adjacent hills
within the same row of the main crop allows interrow cultivation but the
intercrop has limited exposure to sunlight. This is exemplified by the
planting of peanut or mungbean between corn plants within the same row
or two coffee plants that are 3 m apart between coconut plants.
Single row planting of the intercrop can also be done between the rows
of the maincrop. For example, peanut or mungbean can be dibbled between
two adjacent rows of corn. This system of planting arrangement is likewise
common in coconut farms where fruit trees like durian, lanzones and
mangosteen are grown in single rows between coconut.
In replacement series, one or more rows that are intended for the
maincrop are replaced with the intercrop. For example, a 3:2
corn+mungbean intercrop means that for every 4 rows that are intended for
sole corn, only 3 rows are planted to corn and one row may be substituted
with 2 rows of mungbean. Another practice is in strip intercropping, for
example the simultaneous growing of 6 rows corn and 12 rows soybean in
alternating strips. These particular examples result to multiple row planting
arrangement.
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Methods of Planting Crops in the Farm
In general, there are two methods of planting crops: direct seeding and
transplanting. Direct seeding is either by broadcast, hill or dibble, or by drill
method. The hill and the drill methods are alternative options in row
planting.
Direct seeding or direct sowing is a method of planting in which seeds
are directly planted on the ground in the farm or any growing surface while
transplanting makes use of pre-grown plants, seedlings or vegetatively
propagated clones. The term transplanting is also used to refer to the
practice of replanting an already established plant in one location and
moving it elsewhere.
Direct seeding generally applies to large-seeded vegetables as well as
in cereals and grain legumes. Transplanting is most common with small-
seeded vegetables, vegetatively propagated crops, ornamental crops, fruit
trees and many perennial crops. The term direct seeding is also commonly
used to refer to the planting of seedpieces or underground vegetative
planting materials directly into the soil.
Planting crops by broadcasting or sabog tanim, or scatter planting,
commonly applies to small seeds, like rice and mungbean, that are capable
of germination and sustained growth without soil cover. There is no control
of plant-to-plant spacing. The seeds are simply distributed on a well
prepared ground by hand or with a mechanical broadcaster.
With hand broadcasting, a volume of seeds is held by the hand and
thrown with a wide swath. Skill is important to ensure even distribution of
seeds per unit ground area based on the desired seeding rate per hectare.
For example, a seeding rate of 100 kg per hectare means that the seeds have
to be distributed at an average of 0.01 kg or 10 g per sq meter. Assuming
that the crop is rice with a weight of 1000 grains of 29 grams, this is
equivalent to a seeding rate of about 345 seeds per sq meter.
Excessive seeding per unit area will mean that the prepared seeds will
have been completely sown but a portion of the farm is still unplanted, and
so additional seeds need to be procured. Conversely, seeding below the
average will complete the planting of the entire farm with some seeds still
left.
In lowland rice, the seeds are broadcasted on puddled soil or over
water and allowed to germinate without covering. The broadcast method of
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planting crops is also common with mungbean and cowpea grown as green
manure. But in upland farming, it is best to pass a tooth harrow or rake
after broadcasting to cover the seeds. The soil covering will hide the seeds
from seed-harvesting organisms like chicken and birds. It will also ensure
that the seeds have full contact with the soil which will maximize
germination and improve the chance of the seedlings to fully develop. In
pasture establishment, a large herd of livestock can be released after
broadcasting to press the seeds into the ground by their hooves.
Dibbling is an old method of planting crops practiced by subsistence
farmers in hilly lands. My late cousin used to do this on a portion of the
farm in Akle, San Ildefonso, Bulacan. That part of the farm, now grown to
coconut that is regularly harvested for copra, has a very steep slope with
shrubs, stumps of trees, and large limestone. Plowing by carabao was
impossible so that the only way to prepare the land was by slash-and-burn
or kaingin system.
Slashing and burning are done during summer when the grasses are
dry, and corn is planted at the start of the rainy season. With a dibbler or
“panghasok” (a pointed, spear-like stem) held by one hand, he strikes the
ground to make holes about 2 inches ( 5 cm) deep and 1-2 steps apart. As
the pointed tip of the dibbler is lifted, someone else immediately drops 3-4
seeds of an indigenous, open-pollinated corn into the hole. The hole is not
refilled with soil, that part is done naturally by the cascading downward
movement of surface soil and fragments of rock. Between harvesting and
burning, the area is fallowed.
In both the hill and drill methods of planting crops by direct seeding,
there is a desired row-to-row spacing. Hills with a single or multiple number
of plants are spaced uniformly within each row so that in the hill method
there is always a reference to hill distance and number of plants per hill. A
hill is that specific spot on the ground on which a plant or a group of plants
is grown. In contrast, there is no uniform spacing between plants in the row
in the drill method, but uniformity in number of plants per linear meter is
intended.
The hill method of direct seeding is done by dropping seeds in holes
made by a dibbler or in furrows that are more or less equidistant. But with
mechanized farming, a combine furrower-planter is commonly used.
In planting corn under rainfed conditions at a population density of,
for instance, 60,000 plants per hectare at 1 plant per hill in rows 70 cm
apart, the farmer walks forward along a furrow and drops a seed every 23.8
cm to the bottom of the furrow. He does not carry a measuring tool, he just
estimates distances on the ground with impressive accuracy borne of long
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experience. To cover the seeds, he merely sweeps the ridge at either side of
the furrow by one foot to push some soil toward the seed and steps thereon
to press the soil on top of the seed.
The drill method of planting crops is done, either manually or
mechanically, by releasing seeds continuously, as if pouring water from a
bottle with a small opening. Manual drilling applies to small seeds like rice,
millet, and mungbean and is usually done by hand. It can also be
accomplished by placing small, roundish seeds in a bottle with a hole on the
cover. The seeds are simply released by tilting and slightly shaking the
bottle so that the seeds drop one after the other or in a cascade through the
hole and toward the ground.
The seeds are drilled with or without furrows. In rice, drilling in
puddled soil in linear direction is a modification of seed broadcasting in
which plants are dispersed without plant-to-plant spacing. But in rainfed
sorghum, mungbean, and other grain legumes, the seeds are always drilled
at the bottom of the furrow, covered with soil by raking or by foot, and
stepped on to press the soil.
Just like in the hill method of planting crops, an even distribution of
drilled seeds is intended but varies with the seeding rate per hectare and
row distance. With a seeding rate of 100 kg per hectare in rows 20 cm apart,
the calculated average seeding rate per linear meter in the row is 2 grams.
With 1000 grain weight of 29 grams for rice, this is equivalent to a seeding
rate of about 70 seeds per linear meter. But if the row distance is widened to
25 cm, the average seeding rate will increase to 2.5 grams or 86-87 seeds
per linear meter.
In contrast to direct seeding, transplanting is a method of planting
crops in which potted plants or pre-grown seedlings or clones are planted on
the ground, other growing surface, or any growing structure. Transplanting
is also convenient with a few plants that can be transferred with a ball of
soil around the roots. In some vegetables, it is common to prick seedlings
from the seedbed and transplant them bareroot to the garden plot. In
perennial species like coffee at a time when rainfall has become frequent
and light is not intense, uprooted wildlings or bareroot transplants have
been directly planted.
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Self- Check 1.4-1
Fill-ion the blanks
Instruction: Write you’re your answer on the answer sheet.
1. An east-west row orientation is preferred to _____________.
2. ______________is the systematic apportioning of the farm area or any
growing surface for crop production.
3. Single row planting of the intercrop can also be done between the rows of
the________.
4. Slashing and burning are done during _____________when the grasses are
dry, and corn is planted at the start of the rainy season.
5. The ______________method of planting crops is also common with
mungbean and cowpea grown as green manure.
6-8.The intercrop can be planted in any of the following ways:
(6)________________, (7)___________________, and (8) ____________________.
9-10. In general, there are two methods of planting crops:
(9)________________and. (10)________________.
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ANSWER KEY 1.4-1
1. Maximize light absorption
2. Spatial arrangement
3. Maincrop
4. Summer
5. Broadcast
6. Within the rows of the maincrop
7. Between the rows of the maincrop
8. In replacement series
9. Direct planting
10. Transplanting
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Soil profiling
Learning Objective:
1. Determine the components of soil profile
2. Identify what are the Master horizons.
Soil profiling
The soil profile is an important tool
in nutrient management. By examining a
soil profile, we can gain valuable insight
into soil fertility. As the soil weathers
and/or organic matter decomposes, the
profile of the soil changes. For instance, a
highly weathered, infertile soil usually
contains a light-colored layer in the
subsurface soil from which nutrients have
leached away. On the other hand, a highly
fertile soil often has a deep surface layer that contains high amounts of
organic matter. With clues provided by soil profile, we can begin to predict
how a soil will perform under certain nutrient management conditions.
In the previous section, we looked at how soil is actually an
integration of water, air, minerals and organic matter. Now we will view the
soil as a vital part of the earth’s physical landscape.
The world’s soils are like blankets that cover
most of the earth’s land surfaces. We could not
survive without it since most crops would not be
able to grow in the dense rock that lies
underneath. There is no uniform depth to our
earth’s soils. While it can be absent in places of
exposed bedrock, soil may extend up to tens of
meters into the earth’s surface. Although this may
not seem insignificant when compared to the
depth to the core of the earth, the soil profile can
be very intricate and diverse. In fact, the soil
profile is made up of distinct layers, known as
horizons. The five most common horizons are
collectively known as the master horizons.
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Scientists have developed methods to describe the various
components and characteristics of the soil profile. By using common
terminology, soil profile descriptions are valuable for deciding how the soil
might be used and/or predicting how the soil might react to its intended
use. Technical descriptions of the soil are not only useful for farmers, but for
scientists, ecologists, soil engineers, hydrologists and land use planners.
Components of the Soil Profile
A soil horizon makes up a distinct layer of soil. The horizon runs
roughly parallel to the soil surface and has different properties and
characteristics than the adjacent layers above and below. The soil profile is
a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile
extends from the soil surface to the parent rock material.
The regolith includes all of the weathered material within the profile.
The regolith has two components: the solum and the saprolite. The solum
includes the upper horizons with the most weathered portion of the profile.
The saprolite is the least weathered portion that lies directly above the solid,
consolidated bedrock but beneath the regolith.
Master Horizons
There are 5 master horizons in the soil profile. Not all soil profiles
contain all 5 horizons; and so, soil profiles differ from one location to
another. The 5 master horizons are represented by the letters: O, A, E, B,
and C.
O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material
at various stages of decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas
where there is the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand,

silt, and clay) and with appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon
is predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grasslands and
agricultural lands.
E: The E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached.

Leaching is the process in which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due
to precipitation or irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color. It is
generally found beneath the O horizon.
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B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the
layer(s) above. It is a site of deposition of certain minerals that have leached
from the layer(s) above.
C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon.

Also known as the saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.
The master horizons may be followed by a subscript to make further
distinctions between differences within one master horizon.
A portrayal of the horizons

within the profile of a
typical forest soil. Forests
soils tend to have 5 layers,
including a surface layer of
decomposing plant debris,
as well of a zone of
leaching.
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Grassland soil profile. This
soil profile has a surface
horizon that has high levels
of organic matter. It may be
representative of a fertile
grassland soil.
The soil profile develops over time as the result of the weathering of minerals
and deposition of organic matter.
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Self- Check 1.4-2
Identification
Instruction: Identify what is being shown below.
________________ 1.
________________ 2.
________________ 3.
________________ 4.
________________ 5.
________________ 6.
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ANSWER KEY 1.4-2
1. O
2. A
3. E
4. B
5. C
6. Unweathered parent material
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Fertilizers, ameliorants, and/or other pre-planting
treatments
Learning Objective:
1. Determine the pre-planting treatments used in crop production.
2. Identify the different pre-planting activities and applications.
Fertilizers, ameliorants, and/or other pre-planting treatments
Depending on the soil type, fertilizers can be applied to crops before
planting, right after planting or throughout the growth of the crop.
Applying fertilizers prior to seeding or planting is referred to as pre-
plant fertilizer application. This practice can help bring soil nutrients to an
adequate level and ensure that the crop has a sufficient pool of nutrients to
use at the time the nutrients are required. Compared to other fertilizer
application methods it is easy to apply and fertilizers can be uniformly
spread over the field.
Pre-plant fertilizer rate
The amount of fertilizer to be applied as a pre-plant application
depend on the soil nutritional status, soil texture and the properties of the
nutrients to be applied.
Soil analysis – the decision of which nutrients to apply in the pre-plant
application and at what rates, should be based on soil test results.
Soil texture – light, coarse soils are usually able to hold less nutrients than
heavy-textured soils. Therefore, pre-plant application in sandy soils might
result in nutrient losses by leaching and, as a result the crop might suffer
nutrient deficiencies and the applied fertilizer might be wasted. On the other
hand, silt and clay soils can retain higher amount of nutrients and higher
pre-plant application rates can be applied.
Pre-plant application of nitrogen – nitrogen in the nitrate form (NO3–), is
not retained by soil particles and, therefore, might quickly leach to below the
root zone of the crop. Therefore, the recommended pre-plant application of
nitrate is up to 30% of the total nitrogen requirement of the crop, depending
on the soil texture. In coarse-textured soils, pre-plant application might not
be effective.
Pre-plant application of phosphorus – phosphorus is generally immobile in
soils as a result of interactions with other elements in the soil, such as
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calcium, aluminum and iron. Therefore, pre-plant applications of
phosphorus are common. The common phosphorus rate applied as a pre-
plant application is within the range of 50-100% of the total phosphorus
requirement, where 100% is more often applied in silt and clay soils.
Pre-plant application of potassium – potassium is cation, i.e. carries a
positive charge. Therefore, it can be adsorbed to soil particles. The mobility
of potassium in soil is intermediate. Therefore, the rate of pre-plant
potassium application lays within the range of 20-50% of the potassium
requirements.
Risks involved in pre-plant fertilizer application
Although pre-plant application is convenient and more easy to apply than
in-season split applications, it also involves some risks.
Nutrient leaching – as mentioned above, nutrients that are applied too
early in the season, might leach below the root zone, especially in light-
textured soils. High levels of precipitation or irrigation amount that is too
high, might result in nutrients leaching to below the root zone and to
nutrient deficiencies.
Runoff – phosphorus is not mobile in soil and remains mainly in the topsoil.
Therefore, it might be lost by runoff. Phosphorus lost by runoff reaches
lakes and river and cause an environmental problem.
Volatilization of nitrogen as ammonia gas – occurs when urea or
ammonium-based nitrogen fertilizers are applied close to the surface of
warm, moist and high pH soils. Under such conditions, urea and
ammonium are converted into ammonia gas (NH3) and volatilize. Pre-plant
application of ammonium and urea fertilizers may lead, therefore, to major
nitrogen losses if the nitrogen fertilizer is not incorporated properly into the
soil.
Salinity – the application of high rates of fertilizer prior to planting raises
the salinity of the soil. This might damage young seedlings or avoid
germination. The salt index of the fertilizer, which is the measure of the
potential of the fertilizer to damage the crop, should be considered.
Toxicity – ammonia applied as anhydrous ammonia or formed as a result of
urea application and ammonium at high concentrations are toxic to seeds
and seedlings. Therefore, the conditions under which urea or ammonia-
based fertilizers are applied and the placement method should be carefully
considered.
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Self- Check 1.4-3
Identification
Instruction: Identify what is being asked and write your answer on the
answer sheet.
1. Is the decision of which nutrients to apply in the pre-plant application
and at what rates, should be based on soil test results.
2. Is the light, coarse soils are usually able to hold less nutrients than
heavy-textured soils.
3. It occurs when urea or ammonium-based nitrogen fertilizers are
applied close to the surface of warm, moist and high pH soils.
4. the application of high rates of fertilizer prior to planting raises the
___________ of the soil.
5. This may occur when there is a high level of precipitation or irrigation
amount that is too high.
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ANSWER KEY 1.4-3
1. Soil analysis
2. Soil Texture
3. Volatilization
4. Salinity
5. Nutrient Leaching
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Weed and pest control measures
Learning Objective:
1. Determine what is IPM.
2. Determine how does IPM works.
Weed and pest control measures
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally
sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of
common-sense practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive
information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the
environment. This information, in combination with available pest control
methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means,
and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment.
The IPM approach can be applied to both agricultural and non-
agricultural settings, such as the home, garden, and workplace. IPM takes
advantage of all appropriate pest management options including, but not
limited to, the judicious use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food
production applies many of the same concepts as IPM but limits the use of
pesticides to those that are produced from natural sources, as opposed to
synthetic chemicals.
How do IPM programs work?
IPM is not a single pest control method but, rather, a series of pest
management evaluations, decisions and controls. In practicing IPM, growers
who are aware of the potential for pest infestation follow a four-tiered
approach. The four steps include:
Set Action Thresholds
Before taking any pest control action, IPM first sets an action threshold,
a point at which pest populations or environmental conditions indicate that
pest control action must be taken. Sighting a single pest does not always
mean control is needed. The level at which pests will either become an
economic threat is critical to guide future pest control decisions.
Monitor and Identify Pests
Not all insects, weeds, and other living organisms require control. Many
organisms are innocuous, and some are even beneficial. IPM programs work
to monitor for pests and identify them accurately, so that appropriate
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control decisions can be made in conjunction with action thresholds. This
monitoring and identification removes the possibility that pesticides will be
used when they are not really needed or that the wrong kind of pesticide will
be used.
Prevention
As a first line of pest control, IPM programs work to manage the crop,
lawn, or indoor space to prevent pests from becoming a threat. In an
agricultural crop, this may mean using cultural methods, such as rotating
between different crops, selecting pest-resistant varieties, and planting pest-
free rootstock. These control methods can be very effective and cost-efficient
and present little to no risk to people or the environment.
Control
Once monitoring, identification, and action thresholds indicate that pest
control is required, and preventive methods are no longer effective or
available, IPM programs then evaluate the proper control method both for
effectiveness and risk. Effective, less risky pest controls are chosen first,
including highly targeted chemicals, such as pheromones to disrupt pest
mating, or mechanical control, such as trapping or weeding. If further
monitoring, identifications and action thresholds indicate that less risky
controls are not working, then additional pest control methods would be
employed, such as targeted spraying of pesticides. Broadcast spraying of
non-specific pesticides is a last resort.
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Self- Check 1.4-4
Identification
Instruction: Identify what is being asked in the questions and write you’re
your answer on the answer sheet.
1. It is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest
management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices.
2. It is where appropriate control decisions can be made in conjunction
with action thresholds.
3. This may mean using cultural methods, such as rotating between
different crops, selecting pest-resistant varieties, and planting pest-
free rootstock.
4. It is done before taking any pest control action.
5. It is required once monitoring, identification, action thresholds
indicate that pest and preventive methods are no longer effective or
available.
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ANSWER KEY 1.4-4
1. Integrated Pest Management / IPM
2. Monitor and Identify Pest
3. Prevention
4. Set Action Threshold
5. Control
6.
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Environmental implications of site preparation and
legislations
Learning Objective:
1…
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Self- Check 1.4-5
Enumeration
1….
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ANSWER KEY 1.4-5
1…..
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Complete land preparation operations
Contents:
1. Land preparation operations for a range of crops

2. Cleaning and maintenance of equipment according to manufacturers’
specifications, organizational procedures and regulations
3. Proper disposal of wastes from cleaning and maintenance work
4. Documentation and record keeping
Assessment Criteria
1. Land preparation is completed according to the planting plan.

2. Vehicles and equipment are cleaned and stored to minimize damage
according to manufacturers’ specifications, organizational procedures
and regulations.
3. All containers, leftover fluids, waste and debris from the cleaning and
maintenance work are disposed of safely and appropriately based on
organization guidelines and environmental legislations.
4. All required records and documentation are completed accurately and
promptly according to organizational system.
Conditions
1. Workplace
2. Vehicles and equipment
3. Cleaning materials (rag, brush, dipper, pail, etc) and supplies
(detergent, oil, grease, fuel, plastic bags, etc)
4. Tools and equipment (wrench, pliers, jack, screw drivers, etc)
Assessment Method:
1. Actual demonstration
2. Questioning
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PRODUCTION Developed by:
149
NC III Ana Maylene S. Basilio
& Jhunell M. Tagata Revision # 00
Land preparation operations for a range of crops
1. Identify the land preparation operation for a range of crops
2. Identify the different operation/practices in crop husbandry
3. Determine the economic classification of crops
Land preparation operations for a range of crops
Soil Information
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) that are primarily
composed of minerals, mixed with at least some organic matter, which differs
from their parent materials in their texture, structure, consistency, color,
chemical, biological and other characteristics. It is the unconsolidated or loose
covering of fine rock particles that covers the surface of the earth.
A soil survey of the land area should be conducted. Soil survey reports
include:
 Description of soil, topography, climate
 Soil classification along with the base map & soil profile characteristics.
 The nutrient level of the soil.
A soil survey report is prepared on the basis of soil characteristics such as soil
structure, soil texture, soil types, etc.
The soil survey report will help in deciding the suitability of the area for
agricultural and non-agricultural uses; the type of crop production it’s suitable
for; land cultivation principle to adopt, and the nutrient level in the area. This
information will help when deciding on the use of manure and fertilizer and the
application rates.
Land Preparation
This is one of the foremost operations that are carried out on the farmland in
preparation for cropping. Land preparation (also called tillage or cultivation)
and crop establishment go together since land preparation influences the
ability of the crop to emerge and produce a good, uniform crop stand. For
successful farming in Nigeria experience, this step is very crucial.
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As a major pre-requisite for a good yield; Land preparation has changed from a
manual to a power-assisted activity over the centuries, depending on the
availability of different energy sources. Today tractors provide a major power
source for tillage that allows many different variations. (Click here to see our
article on farm equipment). Manual and animal-assisted tillage is still practiced
though. Various activities are associated with land preparation to pave way for
planting on the field. The kind of operation to adopt depends on the vegetation
present on the field. This includes tree felling, stumping, plowing, harrowing,
ridging, etc.
 Felling of trees: This involves removing the vegetation and clearing the
farm site. It is usually done using a bulldozer, chain saw, etc.
 Stumping: The removal of perennial roots and tree stumps present in the
soil.
 Ploughing: The primary purpose of ploughing is to turn over the upper
layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface, while burying
weeds, the remains of previous crops, and both crop and weed seeds,
allowing them to break down. It also aerates the soil, allows it to hold
moisture better and provides a seed-free medium for planting an
alternate crop. It can be carried out using manually with a hoe or a
plough.
 Harrowing: It is often carried out on fields to follow the rough finish left
by ploughing operations. The purpose of this harrowing is generally to
break up clods (lumps of soil) and to provide a finer finish, a good tilth or
soil structure that is suitable for seedbed use. A mounted harrower is
used for this purpose.
 Ridging: This involves making ridges for planting. Ridge making can be
achieved either with animal-drawn ridger or a tractor driven one.
 Planting: The act of sowing the desired seeds on a prepared field. There
are different fabricated machinery that could be used to achieve this,
depending on the type of crop (planter).
Crop husbandry
These are the various practices followed in farming that aimed at ensuring the
crops are maintained optimally to maximize production. This include:
1. Mulching: This involves the use of either plant residue or mulching
material, to cover the soil in a bid to prevent excessive moisture loss; or
to reduce the effect of high temperature on germinating seedlings, plant
root, etc. This practice is crop-specific.
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2. Irrigation: This allows crops to be grown during the off-season period (dry
seasons) when rainfall is not regular or not available. Water is channeled
from available source (lake, rivers, stream, dam, borehole, etc.) to the
crops to meet its optimum requirements.
3. Weed management: Weeds can be controlled both mechanically or
chemically or by a combination of both depending on the crop. Often
weeds growing on a fallow plot can be controlled by being ploughed
under. Ploughing prior to cropping may also serve to kill the weeds
present. Tillage between rows of growing crop can be an important
method of weed control.
4. Staking: Staking provides physical support so that plants don’t break
under the strain of fruit or inclement weather. Staking enables better
airflow through plants, which results in less internal moisture that can
result in disease. Crops like tomato, yam requires staking.
5. Pruning: is a horticultural practice involving selective removal of parts of
a plant such as branches. It entails targeted removal of diseased,
damaged, dead, non – productive, structurally unsound, or otherwise
unwanted tissue from crop and landscape plant. It only applies to certain
crops and fruits.
6. Pest management: Pests are organisms that attack crops at different
stages of growth, which often have an adverse effect on the productivity
of the crop, and reduced output realizable from the farm. There are
different approaches to pest management which include:
 Pesticide based approach such as fungicide, insecticide, etc.
 Biological pest control approach: such as the use of trap crops cover
crops.
 Biotechnology-based approach: such as plant breeding and genetic
modification.
7. Disease management: is the practice of minimizing disease in crops to
increase quality or quantity of harvest yield. It involves making conscious
decisions related to numerous agronomic factors over which control can
be exercised. Plant diseases are caused by microorganisms such as
fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes. Various methods used to control
pest includes: Developing new crop variety, Crop rotation, rouging, etc.
ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS
 Cereal or Grain crops: Cereals are grasses grown for their edible seeds,
the term cereal being applied either to the grain or to the plant itself.
Cereals include wheat, oats, barley, rice, maize, sorghum, millets, etc.
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 Root and tuber crops: These include sugar beets, carrots, sweet potatoes,
yams, cassava, potatoes and cocoyam.
 Legumes: These include groundnuts, cowpeas, soybeans, lima beans,
and pigeon peas. They all belong to the family Leguminosae and are
grown for their edible seeds.
 Oil crops: The oil crops include soybean, peanuts (groundnuts),
sunflower, safflower, sesame, castor bean, mustard, cottonseed, corn
and grain sorghum, and flax.
 Vegetable crops: This group includes potatoes, tomatoes and onions.
 Fiber crops: These are grown for their fiber. They include cotton, jute,
kenaf, hemp, ramie, and sisal.
 Sugar crops: These are crops that are grown for their sweet juice from
which sucrose is extracted and crystallized. They include sugarcane and
sugar beet.
 Forage crops: These are vegetable matters fresh or preserved that are
utilized as feeds for animals. They include grasses, legumes, crucifers,
and other cultivated crops.
 Rubber crops/latex crops: These crops which include Para rubber are
grown for the milky sap or latex which they produce.
 Beverage crops: These crops are also sources of stimulants. They include
tea, coffee and cocoa.
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Self- Check 1.5-1
Identification
Instruction: Identify what is being asked and write you’re your answer on the
answer sheet.
1. It is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) that are primarily
composed of minerals, mixed with at least some organic matter, which
differs from their parent materials in their texture, structure,
consistency, color, chemical, biological and other characteristics.
2. This involves the use of either plant residue or mulching material, to
cover the soil in a bid to prevent excessive moisture loss; or to reduce the
effect of high temperature on germinating seedlings, plant root, etc. This
practice is crop-specific.
3. It is a horticultural practice involving selective removal of parts of a plant
such as branches.
4. This allows crops to be grown during the off-season period (dry seasons)
when rainfall is not regular or not available.
5. What is the economic classification of wheat, oats, barley, rice, maize,
sorghum, millets, etc.
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ANSWER KEY 1.5-1
1. Soil
2. Mulching
3. Pruning
4. Irrigation
5. Cereal or Grain crops
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Cleaning and maintenance of equipment according to
manufacturers’ specifications, organizational procedures and
regulations
1. Determine the different procedures in cleaning and maintenance of
equipment according to manufacturers’ specifications, organizational
procedures and regulations
Cleaning and maintenance of equipment according to manufacturers’
specifications, organizational procedures and regulations
Farming machinery and equipment is indispensable. Nevertheless, farm
machinery is prone to breakdowns owing to the rough nature of their work.
Considering the costs involved when purchasing and repairing this equipment,
smart farmers put great emphasis on proper care and maintenance of farm
machinery.
Care and maintenance of farm tools and equipment vary depending on one’s
needs, but there are several general maintenance services that come in handy
for every farmer.
Cleaning and Lubrication
Farming machinery and equipment are bound to get dirty every time they
are being used. This, however, shouldn’t discourage the farmer from keeping
them clean. Cleaning is essential for preventing complications such as clotting
and rusting. Getting rid of the dirt and mud also clears the way for easy
inspection so it can easily spot defects such as oil leaks and cracks, among
others. Finally, cleaning also goes a long way in ensuring your farm machinery’
durability.
Lubrication is also just as important as cleaning. Every movable part of
the farm machinery and equipment should always be lubricated to prevent
friction. Friction is one of the leading reasons for wear and tear of mechanical
machinery. It leads to costly breakdowns, and it contributes to poor
performance and shorter life expectancy for the equipment. Be sure to use good
quality lubricants that will last.
Look Out for Rusting
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Rust is one of the biggest problems for farm tools and machinery. The
exposure to moist soil and water eats away the metal with time, and this
compromises the machinery’s performance. Rusting in the engine and other
internal parts may also compromise the machinery’s integrity and necessitate
costly repairs.
Fortunately, it is possible to prevent rusting; or at least put it off for
years. The first solution is keeping the farming tools and machinery clean by
washing them after use; store them in a warehouse where they can stay dry
away from the harsh weather elements, especially during the rainy season.
Farmer or operator can also go an extra mile to prevent rusting on your
farming tools and equipment by coating them in paint and wax – this will also
keep them looking good. They can also spray them in the special anti-rusting
spray.
Keep the Glasses Intact
The glass on a tractor and truck is meant to keep the operator safe as
they plough and go about the work. Unsurprisingly, the auto glass is bound to
develop cracks or even shutter.
The slightest defect on the auto glass should not go ignored. The operator
is guaranteed to find auto glass services for whichever problem the operator is
dealing with. If it is just a slight crack, then take the machinery in for auto
glass repair. Bigger defects, however, may necessitate an overall auto glass
replacement.
Be sure to seek out the best auto glass services. Quality services will not
only assure the durability of the machinery’s glass but also fortify the
operator’s security whenever he’s out in the field.
Schedule Professional Inspections
The best way to be sure that the farming tools and machinery are in good
shape is by consulting a professional mechanic. The mechanic will perform a
comprehensive inspection especially for the engines and other integral
components that may be beyond the farmer’s grasp. The mechanic can also
perform any necessary repairs needed to keep the machinery in top shape. It is
also recommendable to take operator training lessons especially if he is
working with sophisticated farming machinery.
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Self- Check 1.5-2
Identification
Instruction: Identification and write you’re your answer on the answer sheet.
1. It is essential for preventing complications such as clotting and rusting.
2. Every movable part of the farm machinery and equipment should always
be lubricated to prevent friction.
3. It is one of the biggest problems for farm tools and machinery. The
exposure to moist soil and water eats away the metal with time, and this
compromises the machinery’s performance.
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ANSWER KEY 1.5-2
1. Cleaning
2. Lubricating
3. Rust
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Proper disposal of wastes from cleaning and maintenance work
1…
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Self- Check 1.5-3
Enumeration
1….
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ANSWER KEY 1.5-3
1…..
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Documentation and record keeping
1. Determine the importance of documentation and record keeping
2. Identify the basis of record keeping.
Documentation and record keeping
The basis of record keeping
• Who: A person must be assigned to handle the record keeping and work with
the auditors. In a family owned and operated farm, or a farm operated by a
couple, one of the family members can be the person in charge of keeping
records. Record the names of the people involved in any activities that are
directly or indirectly related to your farming operations. If possible, obtain the
person’s signature. Examples of activities that should be recorded include crop
maintenance operations, pesticides applications, harvests and worker training
sessions. A daily record also should be kept of all visitors to the farm.
• What: Record the basic information of the important activities performed on
your farm that potentially could affect the quality and productivity of your
crop. Record how the activities were performed? If any corrective actions were
taken, how was those implemented? If crops were damaged due to animal
intrusion, how were they separated from other harvested crops, and how you
will measure or monitor the potential risk? Record any farming operations like
irrigation, pesticide spraying, fertilizer application, composting processes,
harvesting and so forth. Some of the basic information that should be
documented includes:
○ Field designation code or number for multiple fields
○ Land use documentation for each season or year
○ Names of workers attending training sessions and lists of training materials
provided to them
○ Water/Soil testing results and sample locations
○ Activity logs, such as cleaning schedules
○ Sanitizer types and concentrations used for water treatment
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○ Processes used to clean and sanitize harvesting containers and aids
○ Maintenance and restocking activity of field sanitation units
○ Any observed or reported illness or injury of workers
○ Composting processes, types of feedstock and date of application
• When: Record the date and time of all the activities at the time an event
happens; when it is fresh in your mind. Do not wait a day or two to record the
information. Set aside a specific day or time to work on record keeping.
• Where: Record the name and/or location of the farm where activities were
performed. If you have multiple farms, assign each farm a code or number and
use this code or number to record where the activities were performed. If there
are multiple plots on one farm, number each plot. Keeping records of
harvesting dates and times, commodities, packing information and the buyers
of crops harvested from a particular plot will help you keep track of the supply
chain. If you confirm a food safety issue with a particular crop, you don’t have
to recall your entire product line from the market. You can track and recall the
particular products that are questionable.
• Why: Keeping records of all farm activities will facilitate your ability to take
corrective actions as a result of potential food safety hazards. Documentation
of your farm activities is important if you are planning to get certification for
following good agricultural practices and good handling practices.
• How: Each farm may have different record-keeping needs. Depending on the
activities performed, different farms may be required to keep different
information. The record-keeping system depends on the intended use of the
records and the certification required by your retailer and supplier.
Overall, the records should provide accurate and necessary information, fit
with farm organization and farming practices and help to locate your produce
at least one step forward and one step backward. For small farms, record
keeping by a traditional paper method may be convenient and economical. In
other cases, electronic methods using software packages may be best.
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Self- Check 1.5-4
Identification
Instruction: Identify and write you’re your answer on the answer sheet.
1. a person must be assigned to handle the record keeping and work with
the auditors according to the basis of record keeping.
2. Record the basic information of the important activities performed on
your farm that potentially could affect the quality and productivity of
your crop.
3. Record the date and time of all the activities at the time an event
happens; when it is fresh in your mind.
4. Record the name and/or location of the farm where activities were
performed.
5. Keeping records of all farm activities will facilitate your ability to take
corrective actions as a result of potential food safety hazards.
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ANSWER KEY 1.5-4
1. Who
2. What
3. When
4. Where
5. Why
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HOW TO USE THIS MODULE

Welcome to the Module “Preparing land for agricultural crop

The unit of competency “Prepare land for agricultural crop

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order

If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask your teacher for

 Begin by reading and understanding the Learning Outcome/s and

 Do the required learning activities. They begin with one or more

 Demonstrate what you learned by doing what the activity / operations

AGRICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION NC III

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Prepare land for agricultural crop

Prepare for cultivation

1. Planting plan and its interpretation for a range of crops.

1. Requirements for the cultivation method and order are prepared in

The students/trainees must be provided with the following:

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Compare the answers to the

Evaluate performance using the

Answer Self-Check 1.1-4

Compare the answers to the

Evaluate performance using the

This module description describes the methods and techniques in preparing

When establishing a new date plantation, certain actions need to be

The purpose of land preparation is to provide the necessary soil

It is not enough for the farmer to plant the recommended variety; it is

Step 1: Identify Hazards

Step 2: Assess the risk

Selection, use and maintenance of PPE

Nitrile protective gloves- Provides good protection when using many

Hard hats- offers protection to the head.

Cleaning and Disposing PPE

1. It refers to any specialized equipment or clothing worn by trainees for

Environmental implications of site cultivation and legislations

1. Types, uses and selection of vehicles and equipment for site

The students/trainees must be provided with the following:

The advantages of using animals include

One 9 kW walking tractor, with two operators, is capable of plowing 1

Four-wheel tractors can be divided into 3 categories; two-wheel drive,

The major disadvantage is the

Maintenance and servicing of vehicles and equipment

It is so important to do proper maintenance on farm machinery. Farm

So why do so many farmers neglect the maintenance of their machinery

Get the Right Operator Training

Another good practice is to keep manuals close by so operators can brush

Lubricants should be used on all moving parts on farm machinery.

Know the Signs of Wear and Damage

Keep Machinery Clean

Proper disposal of wastes related to maintenance and servicing work

Automobile repair shops produce many types of waste -- some

 solvents (paints and paint thinners)

Businesses throughout the country have implemented waste reduction

 reduce operating costs

Getting off to a good start is crucial to the success of any endeavor.

 Make a commitment to pollution prevention. This commitment must

Establishing Good Housekeeping Practices

Improving a business’s housekeeping practices is often the easiest and least

Solvents -- Reducing, Reusing, and Recycling

Auto repair shops typically use solvents in a variety of operations,

o Decanting -- drawing off liquids from the settled sludge. Alternatively,