HOW TO IDENTIFY

MUSHROOMS
TO GENUS I:
Macroscopic Features
BY DA VID L. LARGENT

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Illustrations by Sharon Hadley

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Key by Da niel E. Stuntz
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 David L. Largent Sh;iron Hadl ey D;iniel E. Stuntz Tu 111 .1· 11•ife. Pu111cla.
Biology Dcpartrncnt P.O. Box 1::! I Botany Dcpartmcnt
Humb oldt Statc Univcrsity Pai slcy, Orc go n University of Washington
Arcata, California 9552 1 97636 Seattlc. Washington 98 195

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MAA .UV~& l&~.S.S &H,.

© David L. Largent

Published by Mad River Press, ln c.

Route 2, Box 1518
Eureka, CA 95501
Printed by Eureka Printin g Co. , lnc
106 T Street
Eureka, CA 95501
ISBN 0-916-422-00-3

......
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Plates ... 2

List of Figures ... 3
Preface ... 4-6
How to Use This Book ... 9
l. Part One: Macroscopic Fea tu res of th e Basidiocarp ... JO
A. Measurements ... 1O
B. Color ... 10
C. Characters of the Pileus ... 11
1. Size . .. 11
2. Shape ... 11
3. Color . .. 15
4. Margin ... 16
5. Surface ... 20
6. Flesh ... 27
7. 1.atex ... 28
D. Characte rs of 1.amellae ... 28
1. Atachment ... 28
2. Spacing ... 29
3. Relative thickness ... 31
4. Color and color changes ... 3 1
5. Margin ... 3 1
6. Gill Face . . . 33
7. Edge-on-view . . . 33
E. Characters of the Stipe .. . 34
l. Si ze .. . 34
2. Attachm ent ... 34
3. Shape ... 36
4. Surface ... 39
5. Color and color chan ges . .. 39
6. Consistency ... 41
8. Presence or absence of veils ... 41
F. Growth Habit . .. 45
G. Type of Fruitin g Body Attachment . .. 45
H. Spore Color ... 48
l. Guidelines for safe Mushroom Collecting .. . 49
II. Part Two : Stature Types . . . 51
III. Part Three: Generic Identification by Sta tu re Type ... 60
IV. Part Four : Key to genera of Mushrooms using only Macroscop ic
Features . .. 65
Literature Cited ... 79
1
lndex ... 80
1

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;:~. lltunuro l'~aclo.a'I de lnvest1yarnnie•
,,. : · · ·· , 1 . · Sghre Recuraos Bióticos
~; ·: BIBLIOTECA
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 ''

LI ST OF FIGU RES
LIST OF PLATES

13 1. Devclopm ent of Amanita , from butt on

Pl ate 1. Pil eal Sh ape . . . . . . . . .8
14 to mature fruitin g bod y . . .
Plate 2. Depresse d & Umbonate Pil ei .9
18 2. Basidi os pores vs. Ascos pores . . .. .
Pl ate 3. Pil eal Margin s . . . . . . . . 15
19 3. Pil eal Shapcs . .. . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ate 4. Pil eal Margin (surface vi ew) 17
23 4. Sh ape of Pil eal Ma rgin (surface vi cw)
Plate S. Pileal Surface . . 29
2S S. Spac ing of Gi ll s . . . . . . . . . .
Pl ate 6. Pileal Surface .. 36
30 6. lnse rtcd Stipc .. . . . .. . . . .
Plat e 7. Gi ll Attachment 48
32 7. Typcs of Fruitin g Body Attachm cnt
Pl ate 8. Gi ll Margin . . . 52
3S 8. Zoned Volva Typ ica l of Amanita muscaria
Pl ate 9. Stipe At tachment S4
37 9. Dccurrent Gill s of Clitocybe avellaneialba
PI ate 1O. Sti pe Shape . . . S6
38 10. Double Ann ulus of Agaricus .. . .
Pl ate 11 . Sti pe Shape .. . S8
40 11 . Free Gill s of Pluteus cervinus
Pl ate 12. Su rface at th e St ipe Apex S8
42 12. Lacunose Stipe of He/ve/la /acunosa
Pl ate 13. Position of Ann ulus
Pl ate 14. Types of Partía! Veils .. 44
PI ate 1S. Types of Unive rsal Vei ls . . 44
Pl ate 16. Types of Va lvas . 46
Pl ate 17. Sporoca rp Attachm ent & Shape . . 47
Plate 18. Stature Types with Free
or Finely Attached Gills .. . .. S3
PI ate 19 . Sature Types with Attached
Gill s & a Fl eshy- fib ro us Sti pe . . . SS
Plate 20. Stature Types with Atlached Gill s
& a Ca rtil agin ous Stipe . .. . . . .. . S7
Pl ate 2 1. Stature Types with an Eccen tric or
Laterall y Attached Stipe or With out a Stipe S9
 4 5
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION let ters.
1 want to es peciall y ac knowl edgc my pa rtn er in this crim e, Sharon Hadley,
For th e pas t five yea rs 1 have bee n teachin g a course on fl eshy fun gi through who did thc drawings for this boo k. 1 have never met a more bright and chee rful
the Extension School of California Sta te University , Humboldt. The most com- person, nor a more broadl y knowl edgeable amateur naturali st.
mon question asked of me by studen ts, amateur mycologists, or casual observers Fin all y, 1 wish to dedica te this book to my wi fe Pamel a. 1 thank her for her
is, constant companion ship at home and in th e fi eld, for her help in typin g, and fo r
"How do you tell poisonous from edible mushroom s?" just being herself. She made this book possibl e.
The only way to tell edibl e from non-edible mushrooms is to know what the
name of the mushroom is , then look up this in a reference book to see if it has David L. largen t
been safely eaten befare. Eureka, California
There are a number of good reference books on mushrooms. Sorne of them October, 1973
are ...
lange & Hora A Cuide to Mushrooms and Toadstools
O. K. Miller Mushrooms of North America
Smith The fl.'ushroom Hunter's Field Cuide
Stuntz The Savory Wild Mushroom
Ali of these contain pictures and short descriptions of the most commonly
encountered fleshy fungi.
But an important omission in ali of thesé reference books is a complete ,
well-illustrated portian explaining the fundamental features that a professional
mycologist uses to name (identify) fl_eshy fungi. The best available source of
information on features used to identify fungi is Alexander H. Smith's Mush-
rooms in their Natural Habitats. lt con tains chapters on macroscopic and micro-
scopic characteristics but is clifficult to use.
The purpose of this book is to teach the reader how to identify mushrooms
using only macroscopic features of the fruiting body. Macroscopic feat ures, or
those that ca n be seen with the naked eye, require no special equipment and are
thus useful for everyone. Included at the end of this manual is a key to man y of
the mushroom genera using only the macroscopic characters herein described. A
second volume is planned to follow that will deal with microscopic features.
This book began as a mimeographed, non-illustrated Jist of features used in
mushroom identifica tion put together by Harriet Peters (now Harriet Burge) and
myself in 1961. At that time we were both studying under Dr. H. D. Thiers of
San Francisco Sta te College. The mimeographed lists have since been revised and
enlarged by Dr. Tiuers and myself in our respective courses in the study of fungi.
1 would like to here ackn owl edge and express my gratitude to Dr. Thi ers for
introducing me to the world of fungi and for his patience and encoura gement in
teaching 111e so much about this area that has becom e my major professional
interest.
Th c rn 1H.:e pt or habit type (gro upin g 111ushroo 111 s with si111 ilar fca tures ) is use d '.,
by Dr . D:rni cl E. Stu11t 1. in his tut oragc o r th ousa nds of a111 ateur mushroo111
hunt ers throu g.l10 ut th c Pac ifi c No rthwcs t. 1 was fo rtun ate enough to al so have
studi cd und cr Dr. Stu11t1.. an d a111 very gratci"ul to hi 111 fo r fos tcrin g 111 y int cres ts
and for co ntinuin g to direc t 111 y cdu ca ti on in th c fun gi. 1 a111 i"urth cr ind cbt ed to
l he Pu gc t Sound Myco logic al Soc icty. wh osc sc icn ti r.c ad viso r is Dr. Stun tL.
since thc id ea for th c scc ti on o!" thi s bou k on ··1-1uw to Collcc t Mushroo111 s" (pp
49-5 0) rcsultcd fro111 th eir su111111ary o f a similar arti clc in o nc o f th eir news-

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6

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 1NTRODUCTION

Thi s book has now been use d by various agaricologists, amateurs and profe s-
A mushroom is th e "fruiling body " ol'tcn ca ll ed a basidiocarp of a fungus.
sional s alike , ror tlirce and one half ycars. lt has been reprintcd five tim es and
has rcccived nulllerous positive co mments: therefore it appears to have achievcd 111e fruiling body is thc struclure that bcars thc microscopi c propagu lcs ca ll cd
it s purpose . 1 am extremely grateful for that and would li ke to take this space to spores that reproduce the fun gus. A mu shroom is therefore similar toa n applc
on a tree - the apple bears small seeds whi ch ultimately reproduce thc trec.
thank everyone who has found this book use ful.
1 would like to acknowledge more specifica ll y th e co ntributi ons of Dr. Daniel The remainder of the fungus ·is ca ll ed the vegetative (fceding) portion, and
E. Stuntz. Not on ly did 1 copy th e concept of lwbit type from him but 1 also consists of microscopic filaments call ed hyphae (singular hypha) which forma
used his keys. These part s of this book sho uld be attributed more to his know- mass known as the mycelium . Fun ga l mycelia occur in a wide varicty of sub-
ledge and cfforts than lo mine. Furthermore 1 would like to take this opporlun- strates. If th e mycelium grows in th e soil, the substrale is said to be terrestrial: if
it y to say that 1 consider him to be one of the most outstanding human beings 1 il grows in wood, it is ca lled lignicolous : if in dung, it is called coprophilous:
have eve r met. Stand proud Daniel E. Stuntz, you have every right to do so. occasionally, mushroom mycelia gro w in other mushrooms, and this is known as
Th e information contained within this edi tion is basi cally the sa me as the first a fungicolous substrate.
cdition excepl for grammatical errors and a few technical changes (such as the 1he mycelium obtains food from the organic producls prese nt in these var-
use of Naucorioid and Annellarioid , for example) which were gratefully made by ious substrates by liberatin g enzymes that break down complex compounds ,
Roy Watlin g. Not only did he make them once. but twice; it seems 1 mislaid the such as cellulose and lignin , in to soluble products. The soluble products are th en
first changes. So, Roy , please accept my thanks as well as my apologies. absorbed and used by the hyphae as food, resulting in growth of the mycelium.
1 failed to give Charlie Brown his due in the- first edition of this book. Severa! 111e mycelium continues to grow as long as the combination of various envi-
of the drawings were his: Plate 12, Fig. A; Plate 15 , Figs. A, B; Plate 16, Fig. C; ronmental factors (such as moi sture, temperature, pH, C/N ratio) remains favor-
as well as Figures 8 and 9. Ali the other drawings were done by Sharon Hadley able. 111e proper combination of factors varies with every fun gus. lt appears that
who has received "super-kudos" fro1n everyone. lf anyone wants to contact biological factors are often importan!. For example, many fungi are found only
Sharon, she can be reached a t the following address: P. O. Box 12 1, Paisley , associated with cerlain k.inds of trees. (In sorne of these cases, the myce lium is
Oregon. 97636. Write her; she will be delighted. known to form a symbiotic relationship with the lree roots called a mycorrhizal
Finally 1 wish to rededica te thi s book to my wife, Pamela . My life has become association.)
dclightfully calm since 1 married her in 1970. Everyone should be lucky enough At sorne point in lhe developmenl of the mycelium, presumably duelo subtl e
to find lh eir Pamela. Thanks Pam, 1 !ove you. alterations in the various physical , chemical and biologi ca l factors thal comprise
the fungal environment, changes occur that eventuall y result in the formation of
David L. Largent the reproductive stage, the mushroom. 111e factors causing lhe shift from vegeta-
Eureka, California tive to reproductive growth are not understood, but moisture seems to be impor-
July , 1977 tan!. But even though the cause of the changes is unknown , the changes them-
selves are well-documented.
Two k.inds of mycelia are necessary for the changes to begin . They differ in
the nature of their nuclei. The mycelia look alike, but belong to different mating
strains, one of which is called the "plus"(+) slrain, and th e other the "minus"
(- ) strain . bne or more cell s of eac h myceli al strain fuses with cells of the
opposite typc to form a so-called secondary mycelium th al co nlains both ty pes
of nuclei. (Th e original mycelia are ca ll ed primary mycelia .) Th e secondary
mycelium might cont inue to grow independently of th e primary myce lia , but
sooner or later will develop into th e fruitin g body. Thi s response is aga in caused
by complex and unknbwn environmental effec ts, but see ms lo occur in th e
following way.
The seconda ry myce lium acc umulates int o a sma ll heap which ultimalely
form s the primordium . The prilllordiulll can be found within or 011 th e surfa ce
of the substrate a11d is not more than two millimeters in diameter. The time
required for development oí th e primordium is quite variable - a11ywhere from
011e day to tliree weeks dependi11g 011 th e species and/or enviro11111e11tal factors.
Ultimately, the primordium e11 larges i11to a macroscopica ll y visibl e. usu:11l y
8
9
round mass o f inl crwovcn hyph ae call cd a button . Th c bull a n is mos l o ft cn The second stage of mushroom growth emph asizes lateral developmcnt o f th c
found just pro lrudin g out o f th c substralc and ca n va ry is sizc. 1 have scc n pil eus resulting in ex pansion o f th e cap , but littl e if any in crease in height of
bullons o f AZvcena lilacifolia which were no large r th an 1/32 nd of an inch in stipe. Due to lh e lateral growlh , th e partial veil is ruplured. In Ama11ita , the
di ameler, as wcll as buttons o f Amanira cal_rptroderma th at werc six inches in rupluring occ u~s ali around th e pileal margi n, leavin g a skirt-like palch call cd th e
di a meter! annulus (ring) altached to the slalk. ll1e lamellae (gills) are now visibl e on th e
lf lh e bulla n is cut lcngthwi sc int o halves, th e fo ll owin g stru ctures can be undersurface of lh e pileus. Linin g ali surfaces of th e gill s are ce lls ca lled basidia ,
seen. Th e universal veil is a cotton y roll o f 111 yceliu111 that co mpl elely (univer- which at maturily bear th e spores (sometimes referred lo more spec ifically as
sally) covers th e button . ll1 e gill cavities contain tissue thal will become lhe gills, basidiospores). TI1e function of the mushroom is to produce these spores whi ch
slruclures on which th e spores are born e. In lh e case of A manita and many olh er are liberated from the basiclia and develop in to another generation of hyphae.
mushroom s, the gill cavi ty is covered by anolh er !ayer of lissue, at this lim e The vast majority of fungí producing fleshy fruiting bodies belong lo th e class
almost indislin guishable from surroundin g layers, call ed lh e partial veil. Th e Basidiomycetes, so-named because of the production of basidiospores. Sorne,
button tissue above the gill cavities will develop into the pileus (cap) and the however, belong to the class Ascomycetes, which differ in having the spores
part belween lhe cavities will develop in to the stipe (stalk). (called ascospores) borne within a sac called an ascus. The difference between
The butlon grows in lo lhe mature fruilin g body in two slages. (See fi gure 1, these two modes of bearing spores is illustrated in Figure 2. Among the most
page 8) First, the button increases in height , due moslly to elongation of lh e familiar of the Ascomycetes that produce fleshy fruiting bodies are the morel s
tissue between the gill cavities. ll1is results in a rupturing of th e universal veil, and their relatives . This book will consider only the Basidiomycete mushrooms.
with the cap and the stalk becoming visibly distincl parts of the mushroom. The
rupturing of the universal veil may leave pieces or remnants of the veil (abbrevi-
ated u.v.) on the surface of the pileus or at the base of the stipe. On the pileus ,
the remnant may be a single patch, or various kinds of warts. The remnant of the
universal veil attached to the base of th~ stipe is called a volva (cup). At this
point the gi lls are still not visible in the example we are using because lhey are
covered by the partial veil, which stretches from the apex of the stipe to the Basidium Ascus
margín of the pileus. (The partial veil is abbreviated as p.v.) Basidiospores Ascospores

FIGURE 2: Basidia and Asci

<?> .
di> ,f'f In order to identify fungí, one must be able to understand the features used
for th.is purpose. Since the mycelium of the various species of fungí are so similar
to one another the features of the fruiting body are used exclusively for !hose
fungi that form this structure.
Almost every conceivable feature of the fruiting body has been used to ident-
ify the various species : macroscopic features, features visible only with the aid of
a microscope , the reaction of the frui ting body to various chemical reagen ts, and
even the detection of special compounds using paper chromatography. Obviou s-
ly, sorne features are more easily used , and give more useful infom1 ation than
others. The novice will be able to tell wh.ich mushrooms are poisonous and
which are eclible by learning no more !han spore color and macroscopic charact-
eristics, and th.is book is designed to teach him how to accomplish th.is.

HOW T O USE THIS BOOK

In my op1nron an amateur learns to identify mushrooms well by becoming

very good at recognizing features. After recognizing features and after correlat-
ing severa] combinations of features an amateur will be able to identify mush-
FIGURE 1: Developm enl o f A manita rooms to genus with some degree ofcertainty .
 10 11

ll1 is bnok is divided into four parts. A novice al identifying mushrooms ll1erefore , always note th e color ranges of young and old mushrooms of one
should stud y thc cha pters in ordcr. Perso ns with so rn e experiem:e can use th e type. In you r color description, also note th e condition under which the colors
chapters in any sequence they wish. were desc ribed (e .g. in sunlight immed iately after coll ec tin g: under artificial
The first part di sc usses th e macroscop ic fea tures in detai l. defining term s as light ; al night ; 8 hours after coll ec tin g; etc.)
co mpl etely as possible and providin g seve ra! liJ1e drawings as illu strative aids. In
the second p:.irt th e macroscop ic features are arra nge d in vari ous combina ti ons to 1. Shape of the spore bearing layer
define thirt een stature types. To understand th e second part , a th orougJ1 under-
standin g of macrosco pic fcat ures is an absolute prerequisite . The thi rd part Fungi with fl eshy fruiting bodies are grouped within the Basidiom ycetes
organizes th e comm on genera of mushroo ms into th e stature types outlined in on th e basis of the shape of the !ayer which bea rs th e basidiospores - these are
part two and differentiates th e ge nera within one type on the basis of spore as follows :
color. Obvi ously, to und erstand th e charts, yo u must comprehend stature types A. Fl eshy with spores borne on gills - the gilled fun gi or com monl y call ed
which in turn is dependent on a th orough knowledge of macroscopic featu res. Mushrooms (Agarics).
ll1 e fourth part provides the reader with a dichotomous key to th e ge nera of B. Fleshy with spores borne on blunt ridges or wrinkJes - th e Chanterelles.
mush roo ms usin g only macroscopic features and gives references in standard C. Fleshy with spo res borne in pores or tubes - the Boletes.
" How to Kn ow Mushroom" books availabl e mos t anywhere . D. Tough to woody with spores borne in pores or tu bes - the Polypores.
E. Fleshy to tough with spores borne on teeth or spines - the Teeth or Spine
l. PART ONE Fungi.
F. Like Coral - with spores ali around solitary or clustered finger-like
... A. MEASUREMENTS OF THE FRUITING BODY branches - the Coral Fungi.
G. Flesh to tough - with spores borne on a smooth to bumpy surface - the
Ali measurements should be taken in millim eters and centimeters and suf- Smooth or Resupinate Fungi.
fi cient measurements should be taken so that the following rat ios ca n be calcu- The following features can be used for aJmost ali fungi with fl eshy basidio-
lated: pil eus width / pileus height : lam ell a length / carps; however they are used most often with those that have gi ll s.
!amella width: stipe length /stipe width at the apex
or base; pil eus contex t/stipe width at th e apex. C. CHARACTERS OF THE PILEUS.
Compariso ns of th ese ratios may prove usefu l in
Aspect determinin g th e aspect of th e fruiting bod y. 1. Size
1 find it convenient to arrange ali measurements of th e fruitin g bod y in a way Size is variable and usually correlated with th e width of the stipe and thick-
to allow for ratios to be easily calculated. For example .. . ness of the pileal flesh . A species with a broad pileus usually has a thick stipe and
Pil eus: Stipe: width len gth Lamellae: width length Tram a: th.ick flesh. Size can sometimes be used to separate species in different ge nera.
(1) {l) (1) (1) For example, Crinipellis piceae has a pileus up to 2 mm broad and Agaricus
(2) (2) (2) (2) diminutivus has a pileus measuring from 5 to 15 mm across . On other occasions
0) 0) 0) (3) it may be used to separate species within one genus - Boletus satanus with a
(4) (4) (4) (4) pileus from 75 - 325 mm broad cou ld not xbe confused with Boletus piperatus
with a ca p up to 50 mm broad . Size is most often used , therefore, as a "nega-
B. COLOR tive" feature ; that is, a way o f eliminatin g cer tain spec ies from considera ti on.
But by itself, cap size is rarely, if ever, used to positively identify a mushroom
Th e colors exhibited by íl eshy fungi are as varied as those fo und in fl owers, species.
ran ging from pure white to pink to reds of ali shades. But yell ows. yell ow- Wh en taking size measurements of the pileus, measure at the point o f widest
browns, orange-browns, and red di sh-bro wn s are the most co111111on . Blu e-grays cliameter and great est hei ght.
and various shades of black are relatively uncommon , and when encountered are
usuall y vividl y remembered. 2. Shape of Pileus
Comm on term s for colors tend to be usc d differently by different people, and
since th e color ran ge of a mushroom is important in spcc ies dcsc ripti ons, tcrm s a. SIDE VIEW (Platcs 1 an d 2).
used to describe colors must be appli ed uniforml y. Numerous color standards
and guides have been devi sed, and whenever possible, one of th ese standards The shapc of th e ca p is characteristi c for givcn spccics of mushroo ms, but
should be used when desc ribin g th e color of a mushroom . onl y within broad limits. Th erefore, a range o f shapcs, dcsc ribin g both yo un g
Color is o ft en affectcd by th e age of th e fruiting body and thc environm ent. and old basidi oca rps, shou ld be uscd rathcr than an ubso lut e shape.

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12 13
These various shapes of the pileus can be arra nged in a continuum in which
the cap can be thought to expand laterally while at the same tim e appear to
become shorter in height. (see Platc l) The shape
having a relatively srnall pileal width compared to B
Conic (PI. l B) height is called conic (e.g. the pileal shape of
Hygrophon1s conicus); usually the margin is
straight. If the margin llares out and the apex of
the cap is not as sha rply pointed as in the conic
Campan ulate (PI. l C) shape, the cap is called campanulate (e.g. the nar- ' r

rowly carnpanu late pileus of Panaeolus campanu-

latus) beca use it has the appearance of a bel l. One
of the rnost cornmonly encountered pileal shapes e
is one that has the appearance of an inverted bowl,
Convei< (PI. JA) i.e. is regularly rounded. 111is is called convex. Th e
width of a convex cap is normally greater than its
height. If the height is greater than the width, but
D
Parabolic (PI. 1D,E) the cap is still regularly rounded, the terrn par- ~ ·t .,::.;.:
abolic is used. One of the greatest extremes of a
parabolic cap is foun? in man y species of Coprinus E
in wh.ich the cap resembles a darning egg. Most
convex caps continue to enlarge laterally with age,
causing the width/height ratio to increase. Often
this results in the cap appearing almost flat , a
Plane ( = applanate) shape called plane or applanate (e.g. the pileal
(PI. l F) shape of Crepidotus applanatus 1 ). Finally, with
age and usually also correlated with loss of water,
the margin of the cap becomes turned upward, a '";'· ·'\;
Uplifted (PI. 1G) shape called uplifted.
Descriptions of the side view of the cap rnust take in to account not only the
overall outline of the pileus, but also whether or not there is a protrusion or a
cavi ty at the apex of the cap. (see Plate 2) A pro-
trusion, or bump at this position is called an
umbo, and pilei that possess this structure are call- .~ "I F
ed umbonate (e.g. pileus of Suillus umbonatus) . !. .'
Umbonate
Broad_ly um bonate The umbo ca n be sharply pointed, call ed acute i¡
(PI. 28) (e.g. the umbo of Cortinarius acutus) ; or it can be
rounded, termed broadly umbonate.
Acutely umbonate Additionally, th e ·urnbo ca n be sharply deline-
(PI. 2A) ated but rather elon gated, which is cal led cuspi-
Cuspidate date (e.g. the umbo of Entoloma cuspidatum), or
the urnbo can be sharply delineated but not elon g-
G
ated , making the pileus appear breast-shaped,
known as mammilate or papillate (e.g. the umbo
of No/anea papilla ta).

10ft e n, ge neric or specific names of fungi are derived from the same te rm that describes a n
obv ious mac roscopic featur e of the fruitin g body. When this occurs, we have in c lud ed th e PL. 1 Pi lea l S hape A. co nvex, B. co ni c, C. ca mpanulat e, D. broadly parab o li c, E. narrowly
spec ies nam e in parentheses that shows th e use o f th e term. parabolic, F . plane, G. uplift ed.

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14

The opposi te condition from a bump is thc devclopmcnt of a dcprcssion in

th e ce n ter uf th e pilcus. The shapc hcrc is calkd
Shall owly depressed depressed and is oftcn correlat cd with uplifting or
(PI. 2C) th e pil ea l margi n. The cap can be shallowly de-
:;...
Deeply depressed (PI. 20) pressed or deeply depressed .
Th e depression might be so deep as to rescmblc
lnfundibuliform a funn el, ca ll ed infundibulifonn (e.g. th e pileu s of
Clit ocy be in[un di bu /iform is/Ca11 thare/lu s i11ji111-
d ibu/1fon11 is). 1l1e depression might be of small
A B Narrowly depressed diameter , narrowly depressed, or of large diametcr.
Broadly depressed broadly depressed .
In sorne mushroom s, an umbo occurs in th c
Umbilicate depression , a cond ition refe rred to as umbilicate
(e.g. of the pileus of Clitocybe umbilicatum).

b. SHAPE WHEN LOOKING DOWN ON THE PILEUS (top view).

\ Orbicular (Ovoid ): Flabelliform : Petaloid :
(round) (fan-sha ped) (petal-shaped)

....

(e .g. fruiting body of

Spathulate: PIeuro tus petaloides )
(spathula-shaped)
__.,..,..,..,.. Dimida te :
Conchate: (oyster-shaped) (semi-circular)

)
1

. (e.g. fruitin g body of

Panus co nchatus)
~ (e.g. "früiling body of
Spathu/aria spathularis) FIGURE 3: Shape of Pil eus
D
3. Color of Pileus

Color is disc usse d on page 1O, but the fo ll owin g specia l point s abou t color of
the cap should be noted.
PL . 2. Depressed & Umbona te Pilei A . mammilat e ( um bo), B. b road ly umbo nat e , C. l. Note the color o f th e pileus al diffcrent ages. Oftcn young fr uiting bod ics
s hall owl y depressed, D . deep ly d e pressed . change co lor with age.
16
17
2. Observe the color of the disc (central region of tJ1e cap) and of tJ1e margin .
Unicolorous lf the cap is uniformJy colored , it is unicolorous lf the interruption s are irregular, the margin is
(e.g. the pileus of Ca/erina unicolor). Eroded (PI. 4A) referred to as eroded. (see Plate 4) lf th e interrup-
In sorne cases these two regio ns are differen tly tion s are in the form of splits which run radially
colored, in which case the cap is said to be toward the pi leal disc , the margin is said to be
Bicolorous bicolorous (e.g. the stipe of No/anea bicoloripes) Rimase
rimose . Tili s term is also used when describing the
3. Noti ce any color changes due to bruising or simply rubbing the pileal surface of the cap. The pi lea l margin of a few spe-
surface. cies has patches or pieces of the partial veil at tach -
Appendiculate ed to it. 1l1is is called appendicu late (e.g. the pilcal
4. Textured caps may show complex colorin g. Note whether the background (PI. 48,C,)
color of the cap is different from the color of th e fibrils or squamules. margin of Psathyre/la appendiculata).

4. Margin of Pileus

o o
1l1e features of the pileal margin fall roughly into three general categories:

o
those dealing with the shape of the margin as seen from side view when the cap
is cut in half; those fea tu res seen from top view , looking down on the pil eus ; and .
those dealing with the surface of the pileal margin. . . .
.
a. SHAPE OF MARGIN (as seen in cross section) (Plate 3) A) Crenate 8) Crisped C) Undulating
From th is view, the margin of a mushroom 'Cap may vary from completely
unexoanded to completely expanded. lf the margin is rolled inward so it points
lnrolled (PI 3A) towards itself, it is call ed inrolled or involute (e .g. FIGURE 4: Shape of Pil ea l Margin (Surface View)
the pileal rñargin of Paxillus involutus).
1t might be curved in less, pointin g to the gills,
c . SURFACE OF MARGIN
lncurved (PI. 3 B) which is call ed incurved.
1t might be more or less parallel or pointing to
Oecurved (= straight) the stipe , termed decurved , or straight. Often lhe margin of th e pileus appears to have lin es of varying lengih s
(PI. 3C) As the pileus expands, the margin usually be- ori ent ed radially, si milar to spokes of a wheel. The li nes or striations might
Plane (PI. 30) comes pulled up wa rds to become plane (approxi- representan image of gill s seen through th e top of
mately perpendicular to stipe) or pointed upward ,
Translucent-striate a wet pileus, a cond ition known as a translucent-
Upturned ( = uplifted) called uptumed , or uplifted. It should be obvious ( = pellucid) striate (or pellucid ) (e.g. pileus of Tubaria pe/luc-
(PI. 3E) that the margin in side view varies rad icall y with ida) pil eus. This cond iti on is almost always associ-
age hence these features should be described as a range, and not absolut ely. An a ted with a hygrophanous ca p. lf th e lin es are not
example of a typical description wou ld be, "incurved to decurved when young, th e image of the lamellae, but are part of the cap
becoming decurved lo plane, or at tim es even uplifted with age." itself, the margi n is ca ll ed stria te (e.g. th e pileus of
Stri ate ( = pecti nate) /11 ocybe striata or if small striae then the pileus of
b . SHAPE OF MARGIN (surface view). (Figure 4)
f,accaria striatu/a). A striated margin is ordinarily
The pileal margin of a young mushroom begins associatcd with a wavy margin shape. as sce n in
Entire as a perfect circle, a cond iti on known as entire. As top view.
the mushroom gets older the margin usually be- lf the lines form definite grooves. th c margin is
comes inlerrupted to various degrees. lf the inter- sulcate (e.g. thc pilcal margin or Lentinus
ruptions are regular, like the edge of a scallop , the Sulcate su/catus).
Crenate ( = scalloped) margin is said to be crenate, or scalloped (regu larly
(Fig. 4A) There may be fold s between thc siriac, a con-
wavy). Plicate-striate dition known :1s plicate-sulca te (e.g. pileu s of
Crisped ( = crenulate) lf the margin is finely wavy, it is ca lled crisped Co110c:Fbe plica1el/a ).
(Fig. 48) or crenulate; if broadly wavy , it is term ed undulat- lf small bumps are prcsent on thc stri ac. the
Undulating (Fig. 4C) ing (e.g. the fruiting body of th e Ascomycete, Rhi- Tu be re ulate-striate margin is called tubercul ate-striate. Thcse last two
zina undula ta). features are freque ntl y found in species of
R 11ss11 /a.
 19
18

,,, :~.

B
. ..:·~·
·~ .-,
:,,_.·~'i.ii~iék:~~i(t¡.;;;;:;¿ .
"'
A

A . .\' _
! ·>:!~

l~ry4'1i

e
e

.
\~ .-.
1 .I'
)

l'L. 3. Pil ea l Ma rg ins (sect ion vi ew ) · A . inro ll cd. B. in c u rvc d . C . d cc urvccl , D . p la n c, E .

up t urn e d . PL. 4 . Pil ea l l\1 a rgin (surface vi e w) A . cro d ed , B., C . appe n di c u la te
 20
5. Surface of Pi feus 21
meaning silky is sericeous (e.g. lhc sl1pe oi
The desc riplio11 of th c surface of the cap is emphasized strongly by investi- No/anea sericea ).
gators in distinguishing spccics. The diffcrenl-looking surfaces ofvarious kiflds of
b . WETNESS OF PILEAL SURFACE
llcshy fungí rellect differing manners of development from the button stage and
thus revea! fundamental and importan! differences in the fun gi. Consequen tl y,
Dry ( = arid) The su rface of thc cap is ca ll ed dry or arid (e .g
the student should lcarn to pay particu lar attcntion to this character when
attempting to identify the llcshy fungí. Phaeo111aras111ius aridus) if it feel s as if it has rH
The type of pileal surface ca n be more intimately see n by fooking at a moisture in it at ali. TI1c exact opposite of dry i ~
sectioned pileus under high magnification. Th e sys teni of hyphae which com- when the pi lea l su rface has a heavy coati11g ol
prise the surface is ca ll ed th e pileipeflis (or the gooey materia l on it resulting from th e absorptio1 1
Pileipefl is ( = cuti cl e)
cuticle). Ali surfaces of a fruiting body excep t th e of so much water by th e surface that it has lh r
spore-bea rin g surface have a cuticl e. Professionaf co nsiste ncy of liquid gl ue or jell y. Such a surface i ~
Glutin ous
aga ri cologists (those wh o stud y mushrooms) often call ed gl utino us (e.g. the veil of Co111phid11.1
Gelati nous
emph as ize th e ty pe of cuti cle possessed by a fungus as much or more than the glutinosus) if it is like liquid glu e, or gelat inous il
the spore-bearing surface have a cuticl e possessed by a fun gus as much or more it is jelly-like. Ali of lh e remai nin g terms lisled
than th e na ture o f th e surface wh en differentiating among similar species. Here, here describe si tu a tions between th e two above
the cuti cle wi ll be considered a microsco pi c character and therefore not within ex tremes.
Moist
our scope, but students should remember that the surface (a macroscopic char- Moist if the sur face feels wet but does not fil
acter) is determin ed by the na tu re of th e cuticl e (a rnicrosco pic cha ra cter). Th e any of th e following ca tego ries.
Lub ricous ( = oify)
same system of hyphae is involved in both ; the difference is only in how closely Lubrico us if th e surface fee ls slippery as if il is
one looks at the structure. covered with a layer of oil or cream (e.g. the
Fruiting body surfaces have many characleristics, and they are often difficult fruitin g body of th c A scomycete, leotia lubrica.
to describe. Th e multipli ca tion of terms designed to describe th ese surfa ce or th e pileus ofPholiota lubrica).
properti es is probably greater than for any other fe ature, and has resulted in The terms tacky, subviscid and viscid refe r lo
bewi ldering array of adjectives that makes und erstandin g thi s fea ture a formid- different degrees of stickin ess of a pil ea l surface. A
Vise id
able task. The followin g pages define so rne fifty-five terms that can be applied to viscid (e.g. the pileus of Chroogomphus viscidus)
pileal surfaces. surface is one in which the hyphae have absorbed
To make this section more understandable, we have tried to ill ustrate as many water and the walls of the hyphae have begun to
terms as possible with. line drawings. Sorne of the fea tu res , however, can only be gelatini ze (to forma type of gluten), orto become
prope rl y demonstrated with photographs. It is hoped that a future edition of partly dissolved in water. Such a surface feels
this volume will include such photographs. sticky to the touch (touc h is the most reliab le of
A fi nal word about terms. Nature has provided a whole set of fea tu res. Man, th e field tes ts for viscidity). An oth er fi eld indi -
in attempti ng to desc ribe these features , erects terms to signify the various éator of visc idity is the accumu lation of debris on
Subviscid the pi leal surface. Subviscid refers to a very
features, the extremes of which are fairly easy to understand . But the natural
variation is usual ly co ntinuous, and it is the area between the ext remes that it is sligl1tly slicky surface (e.g. lh e pil ea l surface of
Tacky
difficult to exp ress in words. lt is th ese middle areas whe re additional terms Psilocybe s11b1Jiscida), whereas tacky is an infre-
proli fera te. Understanding the manner in wh.ich term s evolve might make quently uscd lerm 111ea11ing less sticky tha11
lea rning th em a bit easier. subvi sc id.

c . HYGROPHANOUS NA T U RE OF P I LEAL S U RFACE

a. S HININ ESS OF PI LEAL SURFACE
In many mushrooms, when the pil ca l surface dries out it may changc color
Shiny ( = lucidus) TI1 e sur face can be shiny or lucidus, as if it were sharply from what it was while moist. Thi s condi-
polished (e.g. th e pileus of No/anea lucida) or it Hygrophanous ti on is ca ll ed hygrop hanous. TI1 e process may tak c
Dull ca n be dull , lack.ing a luster. A co nditi on more or as long as half a day, or on ly a few minutes. In th c lattcr case, unlcss th c invcsli-
less betwee n th ese term s is describin g the surfa ce ga tor is aware of the hygroph anous conditi on, th e color chan gc as wcll as olhcr
Silky ( = sericeous) as silky as if it were mad e of silk . An oth er word moisture-related fea tures (such as a tran sluce nt-s triatc margin) may be ovcr-
loo ked .
 23
d . TEXTURE OF PILEAL SURFACE

The surface texturc of thc cap can vary in csscntia ll y two ways. Thc first i~
the dcgree of wrinkling, splittin g or pitting; and thc second is th e degrce of
associa ti on of the hyphac which mak c up th c surface. In the first case, th e
property result s from th e way thc hyphac are laycred below the cuticle . TI1 c
second gro up of feat ures result from varying lypcs of associations of th e hyphac
whi ch make up th e cuticl e (= pileipelli s).

i. Degree of Wrinkling, Splitting or Pitting

A
B

lf a pil eus has no cracks , wrinkles or pils , it is

Smooth called smaoth . Otherwise, it ca n be one or a
ca mbination of th e following.
l. Pitted - the pits or depressions ca n be
Scrobiculate shallow , a co nditi on ca ll ed scrobiculate (e .g. lh e
stipe apex o f lactarius scrobiculatus), or dee p, th e
Alveolate pores of which are ca lled alveolate (e.g. th e pores
o f Fa vo lus alveolaris). lf th e pits are very deep , e D
Lacunose surrounded by ridges, the surface is ca lled lacunose
(e.g. the -stalk of th e A scomycete He/ve/la
/acunosa) (Fi g. 12 P. 58).
11. Split or Cracked - the surface can be split ,
usually in a radi al manner, with thc splits normally
extendin g through the cuticle . ln this case th e
Rimase pileus is call ed rimase (e .g. the pileal surface of
lnocybe rimosa). lf the splits and cracks are deep ,
cutting the surface into rather large segments, th e
Lacinate condition is called lacinate (e.g. the bran ches of E F
Hericium /acinatum) . lf th e surface ge ts torn into
shreds or split s are irregular and result in th e
formation of block-like areas like thase form ed
when a mud fl at dri es up , the condition is sa id to
Areolate be arealate (e.g. Gymnopilus areolatus).
111. Wrinkled with lines - !he surface might
have lin es shaped li ke a river and its tributaries , a
Rivul ose con di ti on call ed rivulase (e.g. Clirocybe rivulosa ).
lf th e cap is irregul arly finely wrinkled , it is ca ll ed
Rugulose rugulase (e .g. the pileus of l epiota rugulosa). lf G H
Corrugate ( = rugase) coarsely wrinkled or ridged, it is call ed rugase or
carrugate (e.g. the pileal sur face of Cortinan·us
corruga tus or Pholio ta rugosa or th e an nulu s of
Stropharia rugoso-annulata) . Or th e wrinkl es mi ghl
be as co nsp icuous as fold s, which is term ed gyrase
(e.g. lh e pileus of th e Asco mycete, Gyromitra PL . S. Pileal Surface A . ve lutin o us, B. hi s pi d, C . pubesce n! D. c an esce nt , E. fl occose, F.
spp .). to m en tose, G . matt e d fibrillos c, H . villoic.
 24

ii. Degree of Hyphal Association on Pileal Surface. (Plate 5, 6)

The hypha e of the outer surface of the pileus can be oriented and associated
with one another in different ways to form easily obse rvable surface lexturcs.
The pilcus might be perfcctly "bald", in which case it is ca lled gfabrous. This is
contrasted with a surface consisting of crect, stiffhairs lhat is call ed hispid, ora
surface with erect, stiff scales (squamules), call ed scabrous . Ali other term s used
here reílect intermediate conditions.
Glabrous Glabrous - ba ld, even, smooth, like a waxed
Glabrescent surface. Sometimes the term glabrescent is use d,
which means "becom ing glabrous", or somewhat
glabrous. A glabrous pi leus may have sorne appar-
ent texture which is more or less of an optical
illusion , and is dependent on light reílection. lf it
appears as though covered by minute , shining
Atomate particles it is ca ll ed atomate (e .g. Pscthyrella
atom1ta) . lf it looks as though it is covered by
Micaceous gl istening mica-like particles, it is call ed micaceous
(e.g. the pileal surface of Coprinus micaceus).
The hyphae of the pileal surface may be associated, grouped or agglutinated
'\.
(stuck together) with each other. The result is that the surface appea rs to be
cove red with powde r, gran ul es, fibrils , hairs, or

Superficial

lnnate
scales. lf the fibrils, etc. are present on young
spec imens, but disap pea r in older forms, they are
sa id to be superficial. lf they are lasting prese nt on
youn g and old specim ens alike, they are ca ll ed
innate. The superfi cial particles are usually the
"' ~ fl

... 1\

~\/ '/ .
'1
JI

:·,...{

~-~, \!'- \J
remains of the partial veil or universal veil o r both, \
whereas the innate structures derive from an inter- \.
growth of the hyphae in the pi leal cu ticle (= "
pi leipe lli s). ll1e amount of hyphal association and the manner of the ssociation ,,
'.
(whether laterall y stuck together, or apically, or both) is the important factor in
differentiating the fo ll owing terms.
..
If the pileus is covered with a fine powder as if
it were sprinkled with a very fine íl our, it is called
Pruinose ( = pulverulent) pruinose or pulverulent (e.g. the veil of Pufvero- ,,
boletus or the stipe of Russula pulllerulen ta or th e ~ i ~ '°"
pileus of lepiota pulveracea) . If the powder is
bran-like in size and the pileus appears scurfy
(composed of dry externa! scales of cuticl e, like
Furfuraceous dandruff), it is said to be furfura ceous (e.g. th e
pi leus of Tubaria furfu racea). If the powder is
larger yet , like grains of sa lt , th e surface is ca lled
Granulose ( = granular) granulose or granular (e.g. thc pileal surface of
Cystoderma granulosum).
Wh en the hyphae agglutinate latera ll y on the pileal cuti cle, th ey form a
texture with visib le fi laments or fibrils . A cap with PL. 6. Pil ea l Surface A . rec urvcd squamulose, B. app rcssed squamulosc.
:26 2
Fibrillose a surfacc of thi s kind is ca ll ccl fibrillose (e .g. thc Strigose stipe , a condition called strigose (c .g. thc pilc;i f
pilcus of f,ecci11u111 jibrillosw11). lf this conclition surface of Panus strigosus).
is combincd with a split surface , it is referrecl to as Agglutination of fibril s can occur al thc tips of th e hyphae as well as laterally
Rim ose-ti b ri 11 ose rim ose-fibrillose . When the tips stick together , a scale is formed. A scaly surface is ca ll ed squamose
Fibrils appressecl (flattened) on the surface are Squamose (e.g. the pileal surface of Psat/1yrella sq11a111osa )
Appressed-fi brill ose termed appressed-fibrillose. lf the appressed fibri ls Squamulose 1 (or, if the sca les are sma ll , squamu lose 1 ) . Thi ~
appear as if they are mere streaks. the surface is condition may result from splitting or tearin g ol
Virgate call ed virgate (streaked) (e.g. the pileal surface of the surface as well as agglutination . As with fibrils .
Tricl10!0111a 11irgatum). The fibrils might appear sca les may be flatt ened (appressed), givin g
parallel to the surface, but not flattened. A Appressed-squamul ose appressed-squamulose su rfa ces, or th ey may even
number of terms are applied here depending on (PI. 68) overlap with one another, giving a surface called
the appearance of the fibrils as seen en masse. For lmbricate-scaly imbricate-scaly (e.g. the pi leal sur fa ce of Tri-
example, the pileal surface is ca ll ed downy- choloma imbricatum). lf !he sca les are erect, a
Downy-fibrillose fibrillose when the fibril s forma downy !ayer. If it series of terms are applied to signify the degree of
Canescent ( = hoary) is densely downy, it is ca ll ed canescent or hoary erect ness. Th ey are:
(PI. SD) (e.g. Hygrophorus canescens). When the fibri ls Recurved squamulose recurved sq uamulose - th e tips of the sca les are
have the appearance of co tton flann el, the term (PI. 6A) erec t and turn backwards.
Floccose (PI. SE) floccose is normally used. Sometimes this same Squarrose sq uarrose - !he sca les are upright, particularly
Downy-wooly property is ca lled downy-wooly to denote a in the area of the ce nter of the pileus (e.g. the
condition intermediate between downy-fibrillose pilea l surface of Pholiota squarrosa). At times this
Tomentose (PI. SF) and the nex t term, tomen tose, which refe rs to is used in a similar way to scabro us (see Smith ,
fibrils that are densely matted and wooly, like a 1949) or as recurved squamu lose (see Snell and
woolen blanket (e.g. the pileal surface of Chroo- Di ck, 1957).
gomphus tomentosus). A condition close to tom- Punctate-squamul ose punctate-sq uamulose - the surface is dotted
entose where the fibrils are matted and inter- with minute sca les or points.
Matted-fibrillose (PI. SG) woven , appearing li ke fe lt is called matted- Scabrous scabrous (scabrulose 1 ) - the surface is rough to
1
fibrillose . Scabrulose the touch due to large sca les or points. This term is
The fibrils ca n also be more or less perpendicular to the pileal surface, making often used for the stipe apex of leccinum (e.g. th e
the surface look like it is made of distinct hairs. The stiffness of the hairs can stipe apex of l eccinum scabrum).
vary from weak to st i ff, and the surface can feel CA UTION! Wh en describing the surface of the fruit in g body , !he conditions
li ke velvet or like a bristle brush, respectively. lf of the surface may vary widely with age, maturity , weather, time, etc. Therefore,
the hairs are weak and more or less flexible either collect as many specimens as possible al ali stages of development and under ali
Velutinous (PL SA) of two terms can be used. Velutinous refers to a condit ions being su re to relate data with ali notes taken.
su rface where the hairs are compact, short, fine
and soft (velvety) (e.g. the pileal surface of 6. Flesh of Pileus
Psatliyrella 11elutina or the stipe of Collybia
velutipes). lf the hairs are rather long ancl weak, it The following features of the pileal flcsh (also referred to as trama) are
Villose (PI. SH) is called villose. If the hairs are short, it is ca ll ed sporadica lly emphasized in descriptions of fleshy fungí and shou ld be noted
Pubescent (PI. SC) pubescent (e.g. the pileus of Crepidotus pub- when describing a frui ting body.
escens). lf the hairs are stiff and rather inflexible, 1. Color and color changes.
Hirsute the pileal surface can be ca ll ed hirsute (e.g. th e 2. Thickness - measured in millimeters, al the margin and at the ce nter.
pileal surface of lnocybe hirsuta). If the hairs 3. Consistency - whether it is soft , hard , turgid (full of water), fragil or
retain a bit of ílexibility resu ltin g in a surface tough. '
lend in g to villose, the term hispid (e.g. Pluteus 4. Taste and odor.
Hispid (PI. SB)
hispidulus) is app rop riate . Sometimes the hairs are
bristle-like, long and coa rse and more or less
1
oriented as if apprcsscd cither on thc suría ce of 0ften th e suffix -11 /ose is addcd t o a term if a condi li o n is almost but not cxac tl y like thc
parcnt tcrm 1 o r if th e co nditi on is a sn1a ll er vcrsion of th e parent tcrm .
thc pileus or on thé' subs iraté' a1 Lhe b:l 5<' of 1he
 28
.,,
T:J slc and odor are COllllllOn fca turcs uscd by agaricologists to dist inguish Secedi ng from th e sli pe. Th ey are sa id to be seced ing. Th 1
among closc ly rclatcd spccics. fVlany of the terms used to define different odors ca n be confuse cl with th e attacl1mcnt modc ca ll cl
:.irc use d differently by different people. Thi s is due not onl y to lack of prec ision free , but shoulcl be easy to detect sin cc sma ll lin es
and uniformity in th e descriptive term s co lllm onl y used, but also to the fac t th at rep rese ntin g thc rem nants of !h e gill , can be see1
individual hum an perceptions in laste are variab le. Jusi as some people are color remainin g on th c st ipc apex .
blind, oth ers are '"laste blind" or ·'odor blind " . (fro111 S111ith, 1949) Adnexed (PI. 7C) Adnexed is where the gill s appcar as if lh ey :.irl
\Vh en one smell s a small piece or crushed pi lea l fl esh, th e hands and fin gers atlached al onl y a port ion of their width and tlll
should be absolutely clean. Sorne of the more useful odors are: unpleasant or resu ltan! shape is as if a la rgc tri:.ingu lar piccc ha l
disagreeable (check ali spec im ens to 111ake su re you are not smellin g a putrefying been removed from that portion of th e gill wher,
mushroo m), fragrant and pleasant to swee t: (e.g. th e odor of Clitocybe fragran s), il mee ts th e stipe.
anise-like (or like lico rice ), rap hanoid (e.g. th e odor of Cortinarius raphan oides) Emarginate { = abruptly Emarginate appli es if th e gi ll s appear s harpl ~
(like a radish) , fabaceous (bean-like) (e.g. l eptonia fabaceola), and farinous , adnexed) (PI. 78) adnexed and th e tri angul ar piece is relatively small
whi ch is like the odor of fresh 111eal. Any of these latter ca tego ri es can be ap plied AJso called abruptly adnexed .
to pl easa nt or unpl easa nt, depending on lhe individual. Notched ( = sinuate) Notched (= sinuate) desc rib es gill s th at appea
Tas te is as importan! as odo r in describi ng 111ushroo ms, and jusi as difficu lt to (PI. 70) as i f a small notc h has bee n taken out a t !he poin
desc ribe. On e important point here is th at laste is nol indicative of edibility! where they mee t the stipe (e.g. Entolo111a si1111
Sorn e species have pleasa nt tas tes but are poi sonous. Agaricus albolu tescens has atum).
an an ise odor, but is potentially toxic. Agaricus placomyces has an unpleasant Adnate Adnate desc ribes th e situation where th e gi ll ~
(creoso te) odor, but sorne people can eat it. Sorne of th e more common are more or less sq uarely attached to th e sti pe
categories of laste are mild , peppery or ac rid (leavin g a burnin g se nsat ion on th e meanin g along mos t of th e gi ll width (e .g. the gil
tongue (e.g. the laste of lacturius piperatus) , and fa rinou s. Often th e taste can attachment of Amanita adnata (= A111a11ita ge111
be mild at first , but become di stinctive aft er.awhile . In this case th e taste is sa id mata) or of l epiota adnatifolia) .
to be latent (e.g. lactarius n1fus). Arcuate-decurrent Arcuate-d ecurrent desc ribes gill s shapecl like ;
bow , curvin g upward and th en runnin g clown th l
7 . Presence or Absence of Latex stipe for a short clistance, (e.g. Tricholo nu.
arcuata).
111e flesh of the pileus, as well as the gi ll s, sometimes exudes a milk-like
substance, or latex, when cut. Such an exuda te is characteristic, for example, of Decurrent (PI. 7F ; Fig 9) Decurrent is th e term use d when th e gill s ru n
species of lactarius. 111e prese nce or absence of color and color changes on th e down the stipe. If lhe distan ce down th e stipe i ~
. gills, as well as the taste and odor of the latex should be noted. relatively short, the attachment is sa id to be
Subdecurrent (PI. 7 E) su bdecurren t.
D. CHARACTERS OF THE LAMELLAE
2. Spacing of Gills
1. Attachment (Plate 7) This is an arbitrary feature , but still use ful since it gives knowledge of th t
The manner in which the gill s are attached to the apex of th e stipe is overall as pect of th e gil ls. 111e terms use d are cro wded if !he gill s are so clos,
considered an importan! feature when differe nti atin g spec ies of mushroom s. toge th er such that the spaces between the gill s can not be see n: close, th er
However, since it ca n vary with the maturity of th e fruitin g body, and with subdistant , if the gill s are sli ghll y more open th an th e closed situation , a1H
differen t en vironm ent al co nditi ons, or even on the sa me fruitin g body, it must distant (e.g. th e gill s of Cortinarius distans). if th e gill s are quile Ca r apart
(Figure 5)
be interpreted with considerable lati tude. 111e attachment ca n vary from
squarely on the stipe to nol attached al all , or to runnin g down the stipe.

~
Th e following terms and accompany ing illustration s desc ribe the various ways
that gi ll s attach to th e sti pe.
Free (PI. 7 A; Fi g. 1 1) Free appli es to th e situ ati on wh ere the gill s do
not mee t th e stipe al ali. In lhis instance, a porti on 1
of the pileus ca n be see n as a small ring al the top .¡
Remate o f lhe stipe. lf th ere is a bi g ga p, th e lerm remote A) Distant B) Subdistant C) Close O) Crowded
is use cl . With age ancl /o r clry conditi ons, or wh en
1
th e pil eus is uplifted, th e gills frequ ently pull away 1 FIGURE 5: Spacing of Gill s

,,.I:
IJ
 31
~;u

3. Relative Thickness of Gills

Thi s is another arb itrary characteristic. Th e wid th is considercd in rclatio11 tt

th e sizc of th e cap and the si1.e or thc basidiocarp in general. Thc tcnn s usc d ar.:
Narrow; broad narrow, ror extre111cly th in gill s: broad . for thid
Moderately broad gill s: moderately broad , for gill s whosc 1hick11cs' 1·
A Ventricose inte rmed iate bc twcen 11 arrow and broad: ve ntri
cose (e .g. P/111/iura l'l'ntricosa ) rcferri ng to thc gill
whic h are swoll en midway be twee n th c stipc an t
th e margin of th e pil eus. lt is use ful to di stingui,I
Gill thickness between gil! thickness (d is t<rn ce be twec n adj:1cc11
B Gil! width ( = gill breadth) gi ll s) and gill width (= gi ll breadth) (th c relativ,
di stance fr om rh e top part of th e gill where it joi11
th e pilea l contex t and th e bo tt o111 . cxposcd cd g
o f th e gil!).
e
4 . Color and Color Changes of Lamellae (and Latex)

It is very important to note th e color o f yo un g gill s befare spore maturati or

1l1is fe ature is used to se pa rate many spec ies and takes on grea tes t import ance i
the genus Cortinarius. The color o f mature gill s shoul d be obse rved beca use tl 11
can be used to predi ct spore color. (Be Careful: ali too frequ ent! y th e colo r o
mature gill s is not due to th e col or o f th e spores ).
o

5. Margin of Gills (Pl ate 8)

1l1e fcatures o f th e gil! edge are import ant sin ce unusual shapes of colo
oft en represent the presen ce o f steril e cell s call ed cystidia that do no t pro du t
basidi os pores . Mos t of th e features desc ribl'
below ca n be easily see n with a hand lens. If ti
gill edge is colored differently than th e fa ce (sid·
Marginate of th e gill , it is ca ll ed margínate (e. g. th e reddi sh t
rubro) gill edge of Mycena rubromarginata) . Wh ,
th e gill edge is uninterrupted, it is refe rred to
Smooth smooth. If th e edge is minutely torn or frin ged.

r
Fimbriate is fimbriat e (e.g. lfygroplwrus fi111hratupl!.l'//a ).
th e tea rs of fri nges are large so th at th e ed
appea rs too th ed like th e edge or a saw. it is said ¡
Serrate (PI. SE) be serrate or serrulate if th e tee th are sm;tll (e
Serrulate (PI. 8 F) th e gil! edge of 1, eptonia serrulata). lf thc marg111
regul a rl y wavy li ke th e edge o f a sca ll op, th e ter
Crenate ( =scalloped) crenate o r scall oped is use d.
(PI. 8A.D) Wh en th e wa vin ess is irregul ar and th e wa1

·~ 1
Eroded (PI. 80) perha ps a bi t to rn , it is call ed ero ded. Wh e11 11
wavin ess is more or less regular but quit e s111all.
PL. 7 . Gill Attac hm ent A . fr ee, B . e mar gin a t e (ab ru p tl y a d nexe d ) C . a d n ex~d. D. s inuat e Crisped (PI. 8 B) is crisped (e.g. Conrllyhe crispa) . /\ condi ti011 wt
(n o t ch e d) E. s ubd ecurre nt F . d ec urre nt. . 'I Undulating broader waves is ca ll cd undulating. Th c rcadc1 ''

JJ
'~ '1'
32 _,_,
'.,

recall lhal man y of these terms hcrc applied to th c

gil! margin wcre also applicd earlicr lo lhe pilc:.il
rn argin.

6. Gill Face

Th c fcatures of !he face of Lh e gil! are also importan! sin ce th ey may indi ca le
the prescnce of cysti dia . Terms such as pruinose (or pulverulent) meaning
powdery in appearance, or pubescent a minul ely
A B
hairy appearance, are used Lo desc rib e gi l! faces
with projecting cystidia. At times, the gill facc is
lustrous because of thickness and bein g wat ery : it
often appears as if covered with wax, a conditi on
Laccate ( = waxed) ca lled laccate or waxed (e.g. th e gill s of Laccaria
lacea ta).

7. Gill Features Observed by Viewing from Edge to Pileus

lf one turns the mushroom upside down , setting it on its pileal surface and
looks al the gills "edge -on", sorne additional features are rea dily apparent. For
example, sorne gi ll s do not extend enti rely from
the margin to lhe stipe . Such gills are called
e D Lamellulae Iamellulae. Belween adjacent gill s there may be
one se t or series of lamellae extendin g approxi-
mately one-half to one-third the length of lh e gil!.
A second series may be present which extends
between Lhe lamellulae of the firsl series and th e
com pl ete lamellae.

Rath er than run con tinuously in one lin e, gi lls may divid e int o distinct
branches belween the pileal margin and slipe apex. Th e pattern of such
bran ching is the basis of severa! more term s. lf th e
bran chin g is irregular and sporadi c. lh e gill s are
Furcate (bifurcate) said lo be furcate (e.g. R11ss11/a fi1rcura) . lf lh c gi ll
divides inlo jusl ll\"ü branc: hcs. whc th cr lhc
branchcs are regu lar or no t. il is ca llc d bifurca te. lf
thc bra nching is repcated, <llld eac h branch is lo
E Dichotomus lwo branchcs of equa l length , lh c gi ll s are s:.1id lo
.( = dichotomusly be dichotomus , or dichotomusly branched (c.g.
branched) Can r liare//11s dicho1011111s ).
Frcquenlly, snwll gill s connec t th e foce o f onc gil! o r lamellul a with th c si de
I' of an adjaccnl one. Thi s rnakcs lh e enlirc gill arca appea r as if il were vcincd.
Th e co nd ition of havi"i1 g such int crco nnecl io ns is
Anastomosing tcrm cd anasto mosing gill s. Th c ly pc of branchin g
¡, Interven ose ( = costate) pattern is refc rrcd lo as int ervenose or cos tate (c.g.
l'l.. 11 . Gill Marg in A . crcnalc . B. c ri spcd, C . wavy, D . ero d e d , E. se rrar e, F . se rrula! e.
-~ th c gi ll s of H11ro/0111a subcos1a1w11) .
1f:
o
 35
3-1

E. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STIPE

1. Size of Stipe

Mea sure111ents in 111illi111eters should be t:iken of the dia111eter of the stipe

apex. 111idclle and base: and the length of thc stipe fro111 the att:ichment of the
gi ll s to th e subs trat e.

2. Attachment of Stipe (Platc 9)

a. ATTACHMENT TO PILEUS

Th e usual pattern is for th e st ipe to attach in A ;_

:-:·
Central (PI. 9A ) th e cc nt er of th e pileus, called central. If the
attachment is at th e margin of th e pileus, it is
Lateral (PI 98) called lateral. Any attachment intermediate be-
Excentric twee n central and lateral is term ed excentric (e .g. B
Crepidorus excentricus ).

b . ATTACHMENT TO SUBSTRATE ANO BASAL TOMENTUM

Thc most typica l manne r in whi ch th e st ipe is attached to th e substrate is by

a mass of hyphae originating in the substrate and superfi cially runnin g up the
surface at th e base of the stipe . This mass of
Basal tomentum hyphae is call ed the basal tomentum , and its
relative abundance should be noted, using such
terms as absent , scarce, moderate , or abundan t.
At times, th e hyphae at the stipe base ca n be
large and rather distin ct from one another, in
Rhizoids which case the hyphae are called rhizoids , and the
Rhizoidal basal tomentum is defined as rhizoidal (e.g. of th e
white (albi-) rhizoids of Clitocybe a/birhiza).
So111eti111es the hyphae are large, long, and stiff
Strigose like bristles. Thi s conditi on is ca ll ed strigose. In
so rne cases, th e hyphae are cord-li ke and more or
Rhizom orphs lcss clastic in consiste ncy, and are named rhizo-
morphs. lnfrequently, the stipe is com plctely
devoid of any hyphae, rhizoids or rhizomorphs,
hence is complctely nakcd where it ori ginales from
th c substral e. In thi s sit uati on, the stipe is sa id to
1nserted ( Fig. (1 ) be insert ed. (Fi gure 6)
Somc mushrooms havc a stipe that continues as
Pseudorhiza a root-like proccss ca ll ed a pseudorhiza . In thi S'
Radicated case, th e stipe is sai d to be radicated (e.g. the stipe
of Collybia radica ta). l'L . 9. Stipe Attachment A . cent ra l. B. lat eral.

t!
.i;. .
36
37

,..
..:-~1
· .. . ....f.
, A ...,
.,..__ _
t'
....y ·

~~-
, 1,, ' .• ..

cy ?-·· ~~: ' ~-

--........_.__.:..
. ..~........___
::1,... .
'•,
,....
.. . ,.
"'
- ,.
FIGURE 6: Insert ed Stipe

3. Shape of Stipe (Pl ate 1O, 11 )

f.
¡:..
· " "·.
,¡,,
{'~
,
:i,
: ,·''_,
.,.
B
,. ~vt
~-:: .....
a. CROSS SECTION
p.
~1~f~ ·•
r'"-. .· ..
t1 h,fl/.,'
·- ; 4r·'~ ~­
Usually the stipe is perfectly round if seen from t~/\
..... ~'Ji
Terete end view , a condition called terete. Al times, , .. " ./1..;
however, it appears flattened, a condition called
Compressed compressed (e_.g. of the stipe of Clitocybe com-
pressipes ).
=-·
b . LONGITUDINAL VIEW ~ ...
·¡
If the stipe is of equal diameter from the apex
Equal (PI. 1OA,B) to the base, it is ca ll ed equaL More often th an not, -~·/
Tapered (PI. J08,C,D) however, it is tapered in one direc ti on or the
ot her. lf it is thickened more toward th e base, a D
number of different terms might be appli ed, ·•¡
dependi ng on the degree of the thi cken in g. If it is
thickened notic1''1bly, so that th e stipe has the
Clava te (PI. JOF) appearance of a club, the term clavate (e.g. the
stipe of Clitocybe clavipes) is used. An intermedi-
ate shape (not quite club-shaped) is termed sub- F
Subclavate (PI . IO E) clavate ; a shapc not quite subclavate is ca ll ed
1ncrassate incrassate. If it is thi ckened only al the base,
somethin g like th e base o f a gree n oni on, it is
Bulbous (PI. 11 B) call ed bulbous (e.g. ti 1e stipe base of Ca/erina
bulbifera and o f Corti11arius bulbosus). An inte r-
mediat e condition betwce n bulb and club-shaped
Clavate-bulbous (PI. 11 A) ~:
is called clavate-bulbous.
In a bulbou s stipc. thc ~hapc o f lh e bulb
becomes an importan! fe ature. Th c bulb is call ed
Marginate marginate if there is a distin ct margin around th e
edge. lf marginatc and th c upper surface is sha ped
like the upper surfacc of a sa uce r, it is termed PL . 1O. St ipe Shap e A . e qual, B . equal , s li ght ly tap e rc d at th c b ase, C . ta pe re d fr o rn apcx to
ha se . D . ra pe re d fr o m b ase ( O .ape x, E . s uhcla vat e , F. c lava te.
 iK 39

Margi nate-depressed marginate-depressed whi<.:11 ca n o nl y be scc n in

(PI. 110) scc tional view. lf th e bulb is so shar pl y defined
thal lhc angle fonncd by th e uppcr parl of th e
/ \
bulb whcrc il hil s lhe slipe is almosl a ri ght an gle
'
// Abruptly-bulbous il is ca ll cd abruptly -bulbous (e.g. thc stipe base of
(PI. 11 C) Agarirns abnipribulbus ).

A 4. Surface of Stipe

Th c samc tcrms usc d in dcscribing thc surí<icc oí the pileus rnn be use d in
describing th c suríace oí th e stipc. P<irti cul<irly important is the differcnce
betwcen th c suríace at th e apex oí the stipe and that in th e middl e or th c base .
Oíten, this difference indi cates th at a veil was atlach ed at the point wh ere th e
two surfaces are distin ct from one m1other.
Bec<iuse oí th e possibility oí veils alla ched to the stipe, one shou ld be
B cspecially attentive rega rdin g powder, bran-like arcas, gra nul es , íibril s, hair or
scales. Note ca reíully wheth er such íeatures are
innate, i.e. p:.irt oí th e cuti cle oí the stipe, ora re
superfic ial, and ca n be easily removed.
Three surface íeatures important in identiíyin g
the boletes are th e íollowing. lí the st ipe apex is
Glandular-do tted dotted with what appears to be colored spo ts
(PI. J 2C) (glandules), the surface is call ed glandular dotted .
lí the stipe apex is rougl1ened du e to erect.
Scabrous (PI. 12 8) pointed scales, th e term scabro us is used . lí th e
stipe <ipex has fin e lines or less frequ ently íibril s in
the íorm oí a distinct net, th e co ndition is a
Reticulate (PI. l 2A) pattern oí raised lin es reíerred to as reticulate .
··'-·
(Plate 12)
The surface ca n also be ridged or wrinkled, with differenl terms used to
desi gna te the relative strength oí the ridges or wrinkles. lf th e ridges are just fin e
lin es, and th e lines tend to be longitudin al and
more or less parall el to one another, the suríace is
Longitu di nal-striate called longi tudinal striate . lf the strialions or lin es
are interconnected and íorm wrinkles , th e suríace
D Rugulose is called rugulose ií íinely wrinkled , or rugose if
Rugase coa rsely wri n kled (e.g. /,ecci1111111 rugosus ). Wh en
e th e wrinkles are more deíinite and have ro unded
edges, they are ca ll ed veins or ribs. Su ch surfaccs
:. ~ Veined are ca ll cd veined o r ribbed (= cos tate). Fina ll y, th e
( = ribbed; costate ) edgcs migl1t become sha rp , making the stipe
appear as ií il had cana ls o r channels altern atin g
Canaliculate ( = fluted) with íurrows. 111is so rt oí effecl is lcrm ed ca.nali-
Lacunose (Fi g. 12) culate o r flu ted or even lacunose.

5. Color and Color Changes of Stipe

l'L. 11. Stipe Shap e A . clavate-bulb o us, B . equal with hulhous hase. C . .:q ual w ith ahruptly
hulhou s ha se. D . eq u \l1 with m arginate -depresse d hulhou s ha se. Note thc color oí youn g and old fruitin g bodies , befare.a-mi after bruising o
 41

rubbin g. TI1 c co111111cnts on color an<l color chan gcs of thc pilcus (pagc 15 ) apply
--·---- ~ al so th c th c stipc.
/' -= ~
..,...<·
- . -.,_.~"'-
' ... -rr· ___..--:;;:;.,, - ·_->...,.

; ,rr,· ·
J , . '~~
~-:.~-"
6. Consistency of Stipe

,~'~,. .
The texture oí the stipc was strongly cmphasize<l in the past, but thcsc
, o '\'.

(!<... ---:. á\ distinctions are nol currently considercd lo be quite so importan!. Some
distinctions are useíul , however, in dislingui shin g groups oí mushrooms.
l "
r-:"/ Cartilaginous One oí the common slipc lexlures is cartila-
¿-; ginous (e.g. the stipe oí Clitocybe carrllagi11ea).
~}
Such a stipe is usually thin and breaks with a firm
'~
~.lo
split when bent in two, similar to ca rtilage.
~&· On occasion, a stipe will have a fibrous (see below) core, but sti ll ha'{e a
~ cartilaginous rind. l would characlerize this slipe as cartilaginous.
'";· Fibrous ( =fleshy -fibr'ous) A fibrous (or fleshy-fibrous) stipe is usually
rather lhick, and when broken in two , leaves a
ragged edge. In the past, size has been used to
distinguish a cartilaginous from a fleshy-fibrous
slipe, with the former bein g defined as less than 5
mm thick at the apex and th e latter as being
greater than 4 mm . Of course the size criterion
becomes ambiguous for the many mushrooms having stipes in the nei ghborhood
of 4-5 mm in diameter. A rule oí thumb regarding this size-texlure relationship is
that it applies about 75% oí the lime. But be careful with the olher 25%.
Sorne other stipe texture íeatures that are used
less than the above l wo are:
Woody woody, having the texture oí wood;
B Corky corky, having lhe lexture oí cork;
Leathery ( =coriaceous) leathery (or coriaceous), having the texture oí
leather.
e One of the most distinctive and therefore useíul
textures is a stipe that íeels and breáks like chalk
in the hand . When crushed, it breaks up into
Chalky powder or chunks. Such a stipe is called chalky.

7. Flesh of Stipe
¡;:';_ ...
._. . .. The flesh oí the stipe varíes from one in which the hyphae are closely packed
·,
." r'
Solid and is ca ll ed solid , to onc where the ce nter
; .. t '• ,, Hollow ( = fistulose) beco mes emp ty and is ca ll ed hollows, or fistulose
(e.g. Russula fistulosa)'. An intermedia te cond iti on
Stuffed between solidand hollow is ca lled stuffed.

8. Presence or Absence of Veils on Stipe

a. PARTIAL VEIL (Plalc 13 & 14)

L. 12. Surface at the Stipe Ap ex A . rcticulate, B. punctatc (scabrous) C. glandular dottcd. TI1e partía! veil covcrs the lamella e from lh e stipe to lhc margin of lhe pilcus.
-~ 2 43
/--~-.......

' As th c cap expa nd s, th c vcil breaks ami rcmnant s might he Jcft. cit hcr on the
pi leal margin in th c form or patchcs or fibril s. or on thc stipc. or both. Thc
partial veil rc111aining on the slipc can taJ.:c eithcr ur two general furms.
dcpending on how il ruptures. lf th e veil tears in a circle cunccntric 10 thc stipc,
/ lhc slipc will relain patches. flaps of ti ssuc. or 111c111brancs. Thi s surt of vci l is
callcd membranaceo us. Th e ring of tissue for111cd by a mc111branou s veil is callcd
! .~=-'~.. l'h. . ··-...
¡ ..,,,
an annulus (ring). The other pattern is thal th e veil can sp lit radially. su that th c
~ ......
·. ~. ~ ...... porlion remainin g on the stipe has th e form of fibrils. often res~111bli n g a
f
'
·,
,
.,' ·....
cobweb . Thi s pallern is cal led arachnoid ora cortina (e.g. Corti11ari11s).

~
A Whalever the nature of thc vei l as it rc111ain s on the stipe, if it is locatcd in th c
·,
-, top half of the stipe. it is said to be superior (so 111eti111cs the ter111 apical is used).
.....,,,,
Supe ri or ( =a pical) and if lh e lowe r half. it is in ferior (or basal). 11
~-::....
(PI. J 3A,B) loca ted approxi mately in th e middle. thc term
··;.~ Inferior ( = basal) centra l is appli ed.

\~,)
(PI. 130 ) Severa! term s are designed to describe th e
Cent ral (PI. J 3C) annulu s, lh e membra nous partial veil remaining on
lhe slipe. First of ali , th e annulus can be eilh cr
Attached attached or moveable. Also it may have a co n ony
Moveable rol! of lissu!! o n the undersid e, in which case il is
. Double annulus (Fig. 1O) ca ll ed a double annulus. lf the undersurface is
1
Single annulus (PI. 14A) smoo th , lh e an nulus is 1er111ed single.
.) Occasional ly, lh e hyp hae which make up lh e parlial vei l cover the en tire basal
porti on of lh e slipe like a sloc kin g, and flar es o ut in toa n annulus al th e apex.
Peronate (PI. 148) Thi s co ndilion is cal led a pero nate partial veil.
o flen inlerpreted as a universa l veil.

b . UNIVERSAL VElL

A universa l veil can be prese nl or absenl on a 111ushroo 111 bullon . lf present ,

remnants of the veil can be left on lh e pil ea l sur face and /or around the base of
the slipe after lh e mushroo m as matured .
Th e universa l veil as il remains around lh e base is ca ll ed a vo fra. Th e main

\ feature of lh e volva is whelher lh e lissue is mostl y free fro111 th e slipe base, o r

largely inl erwoven with th e hyphae of th e base and difficult lo remove. Th e
lal ler cond ili on is ca ll ed adhere11 t . One shou ld always corre late th e vo lva with

\ .. .... o
lhc type of uni versa l veil remnan ts seen o n th e pileal sur face. so lhat so 111 e idea
can be obtaincd on how th c veil ruptured. and for those dcaling with
\ microscopic characlers, on th e type of ce ll s lo expect when observing th e vei l
m icroscopica ll y.
\ i. Types of Free Volv as (Pl ate 15)
\
\Vh en th e veil appears like a largc bag lause ly

\j Saccate (PI. 1 5 B)

Membranous saccate
fi tt ed aro und th c base. th c valva is termed sacca te.
lf th c tissue is strong and dues n't tear casi ly, it is
call ed a membra nous sacca te volva . This type of
valva usuall y remain s a11achcd to the base of th c
l'L. 1 3. Posito n o f An nulu s A . apica l and partial vc il s till in tac t , B. api c al (superior) , C .
ce ntral. D . basa l ( in fe ri or).
slipe when th e 111ushrao111 is picked .
.+.+ 45
. i ). In so111c inslanccs, lh c lissue 111aki ng up ih c
. .~) F ragile saccate sacca lc vo lva is vcry fra gil e and is hard ly ad hercnl
-¡ 10 the base. In lhi s case, th e vei l re 111 11a n1 s usua ll y
re111 ain in the substra te when th e 111ushroo111 is
\~ ~\~' '"
l pi<.:kcd.
. ~ /
I'

\11~_/ ii. Types of Adherent Vol vas (PIate 16)

' t'
..
~-·tr;.:- ,;:~~· Flaring (PI. I SA) A famili ar palt ern here is the flaring va lva. lt
remain s in one pi ece and is adh erent along mos l of
·'./ \ t ·t
.,..; ..
. J..
\ "\
it s length exce pt at th e top wh ere it fl ares out int o

~\\·
a loose, free laye r o f ti ss ue. Similar to this is th e
A \
_rr\. )--·,. ..;
~
B
Circumsessile (PI. I 6C) circumsessile volva, wh ere in stea d of th e fl are at
.r th e top as above. th ere is simpl y a li ght rim o f
~ ··,1. -
/
tissue. At tim es. the volva is so ti ghtl y adh erent to
.Y .__ ·~l.;I i>
.....,... th e stipe base th at when th e stipe elonga tes , so rn e
PL. 14 . Types of Partial Veils A . sin gle a nnulu s, B . pe ronal e (can be int e rprete d as a
o f the tiss ue of th e volva is split into rin gs . Th ese
uni ve rsal ve il} . rin gs are carri ed upward and form zo nes just above
Zoned (PI. l 6A ,D; Fig. 8) th e larger part o f th e va lva. This is called a zoned
volva. Similar to th e zo ned patt ern , but with scal es
Scaly (PI. 16 B) developin g in place o f zones is a scaly vol va . Th e
mos t difficult kind o f volva to recogni ze is
Powdery ( = farinose) powdery or farinose (e .g. th e veil of Amanira
farin osa). Thi s results when th e universal veil is
composed o f oval cell s th at mac rosc opically give
th e appeara nce of a powdery surfa ce.

F. GROWTH HABIT
Growth ha bit refers to th e manner in which numbers of a mu shroom grow in
an arca - whether they are widely spaced, clumped, etc. This is considered an
.~ 11 / • '
¡';\ import an! feature since it reveals the number and am ount o f mycelia involved .
The various categories of growth habitare:
1,
r· 'I
!'. ..
Sol ita ry
Scattered
Soli tary (e .g. A man ita so litaria) ;
Seattered , wh ere th e fruitin g bodies are
grouped one to two feet apart ;

t{
l~ . ·. Gregarious Gregarious , where th ey are gro uped close to·
ge th er; and
A B ·:- ... . :._, _.\ Caespitose Caespitose (e.g. Clilucybe caespiwsa, Currin·
arius caespirosus ), where th ey are gro wing ex-
tk . .· \ tre mely close toge th er, in fa ct, ap parentl y out of
t•
••:
.¡
' th e sa me mass. A variati on of caes pit ose is th c
;~
r.:
,j Connate situ ati on ca ll ed co nnate (e.g. l yuphy l/u111 con·
11arum) , whcrc seve ra! sti pes are gro wn toge th cr
fo r quit e a distance fro m lh e base upward .
' · v . ./
:
G. TYPE OF FRUITING BODY ATTACHMENT (Pl ate 17 & Fi gure 7)
PL. 1 S. Types of Universa l Veils A. co n slri c t ed (adh ere n l with a ílar in g mar gin) B. sa ccat e. Norm all y, fruitin g bodi es are atta ched to th eir subs tral e by th e stipe. Thi s is
 ,.,/'""" ..p
(l

.,,,,~"'
""'e:,. o o
o.. ~
\, ~ ~

1' .,
~ .. .._\
A B
-.... '\
'·-¡.-:---,\
1
1
v\' \,•
.1,
,1 "-,1

'-¡ ¡ .....
,>--..
,--.;~t A
:::.:.y
~.,,

"'°\,
)1
,/ ~.._

e '· "·
,\

"·' .

. ...
/. --~
~
.,

.
,

~
'
.
'

PL . 17 . Sporocarp Attachment & Shape A. p il catc & 'cssi lc - un gulatc. B. pilcat c & scss il c.
PL . 16. Types of Valvas A .. B . sca ly . C . ci rc urn scss ile, D . co n cc ntri c rin ge d (zoncd) . C . s uhs tipitat c dut! t o a psc ud os t ipc , D . imbri ca tc.
 .f8 -19
¡crmcJ stipitate . Howcvc1. lllhcr attachmcnts are seen. Sometimes a flap of thc mushroom in qucstion. 111 both of thcsc cases. howcvcr. takc carc 1Hll 10
tissue (but not thc pikus) that 1s not distinctly a stalk serves for attachment. confusc color of thc fruiting body itsclf with spore color. Fu1hcr111orc rc:ili1c'
ll1is structure is callcd a pseudostipe. and the condition is described as that damp sporcs are often more stro ngly colorcd th:rn 1l10sc which are d1\·.
subst ipitate. lf the attachmcnt is directly to the pileus with no stipe or Of1e11. masses of sporcs can be scc n on the substratc. dircctly bcncath tl;c
pscudostipe. the mushroom is rcfcrred to as sessile (Plate l 7C). mushroom in it s natural habita t. lf no evidence of masscs of liberatcd spo rc s ..::111
Sessile fruiting bodies vary in the degree to which the pileus is attached. lt is be found. examine the color of thc gills of a mature spcc imen. Oftcn . especially
called pileate and sessil e if il is attached in one place in such a way th at the in those mushrooms with white or pallid colored gills. the color of the maturc
Pileate and sessile pileu s is still definitely observable. lf part of th e gills rcílccts thc color of thc spores. CAUTI0\' 1 This la st shortcu t is only
(PI. 17 A,B) fruiting body is close ly appressed to the substrate accuratc about two-thirds of the time. There are man y examples of mushroom s
exccpl for the margin which ílares out to form the having white spores and brown, black, gray, lilac, or pink gi ll s. Consequcntly.
Effuso -reflexed (Fig. 7 A) pilcus. it is called effu so-refl exed. lf the en tire one should rcly on this method only after al i othcr alternatives havc been tricd.
fruiting body looks like a horse's hoof, it is cal led If you are planning to ea t th e mushroom. and there is any doubt in your mind
lmbricate (PI. 170) ungulate . And. if the complete fruiting body is about the spore color. throw th e spec im ens away ~
close ly appressed to th e substrate, it is called Th e co lor of th e spores in mass can be put into th e following five general
Resu pinate (Fi g. 78) resupinate. At times, fruiting bodies overlap o ne ca tegories .
another . and thi s condi ti on is called imbricate. l) Spores bright or li ght colored - inclu des white, pa le cream 10 cream
colored, pale to brigh t yell ow (greenish in one case).
,.. 2) Spores sa lmon to pink colored - more appropriately ca ll ed ílesh or ílesh-
brown co lored.
3) Spores various shades of yellow brown or brown - clay colored , clay-
brown, yel low-brown, cinnamon-brown, earth color, ru st co lor, or rusty-brown.
4) Spores purple brown to chocolate brown .
5) Spores smoke co lor to dark gray brown to black.
A) Effuso- Reílexed

FIGURE 7: Types of Fruiting Body Atta chment

l. GUIDELINES FOR SAFE MUSHROOM COLLECTIN G
(Adapted from Spore Prints 1)

Mushroom collec tin g has been ca ll ed th e most dangerous of ou tdoo r spo rt s.

H. SPOR E COLO R llii s will not be true i f we play by the rules.
A. Know prec isely and positively what you're after wh en coll ec ting for th e
Probably th e si ngle mo;t importan! fea ture to learn aboul mushro oms is th e table .
co lor of th e basidiosporcs e11111asse. Th e bes! way to de termi ne thi s is to make a B. Coll ec t only one species al a time . ln case you do co ll ect more th an one
spore prinr . Spore prints can be tak en of agarics. boletes. chantrelles, po lypores, species , keep each kind and each collect ion sepa rate . 1 find it bes t to pla ce each
teeth fungi and cora l fungi: hut not of puff balls and their allies such as stin k coll ec ti on in a separate wax co nt ain er - ei th er waxed sandwich bags (u se
lwrns. earth stars. cte. ma terial s simil ar to wax tex , NOT baggies or th eir equiva len t becau se th ey cause
To 1rnk<' a ;purc ¡11int. ,clc..:t a frcsh but maturc.: fru1Ling body ami cut off the increased temperature and humidity that hastcn s thc spoilin g prnccss ) or \\'a\
stipc ;Jt the ¡¡pcx. Pl ac:e thc cap !lat on a picce of white paper or cardboard with paper. NeFer mix more than one species in a single wax container. NeFer j11S1
the sporc-beari ng surfoc:c (gill s. pores. cte.) down. Thcn cover the cap and paper rhrow al/ kinds of 11111shroo111s in rhe same basket.
entircly in \\'JX papcr orina jar or retain in a tinto elimina te air curren Is. lf !he C. Use a ílat, rigicl co nt ainer such as a cardboard box ora wickcr basket for a
fruiting body is in the right condition. you should have a print within 30 or 60 collecting co ntain er. Make sure it has good. securely attached handl cs. A stu(knt
minutes. Sporc prints ..::rn be hegun in the field immediately after collec lin g, or of min e, Robert Smith, prepared a box as follows : He punched hules in oppmitc
one ..:an wait and do it later at home or in the laboratory . co rn ers of a ca rdb oa rd box, throu gh which he threaded a solid rope. Th c arc:1
Solllc timcs thc ;purc print will not work. Wh en thi s happcn s, th ere are slill where th e rope was to be held was lapcd for a bct ter grip. He th c11 \prayed tl1c·
way;; to estimatc th<' c:olor of spurcs. One trick is to look in places where spores
might naturally be dcpositcd. such as along the stipe of the same mushroom. lf 1
your lllLJsliroullls havc bc.:c11 pilcd 011 top oí une another in your co ll ec tin g ver~ion
Thi s scc.: tion is a nu1dificU of an artick thal first appcarcd in T'lle Spore Prints th c
ll t!wsl e ct cr of lh c l'ugct Sou nd Myc.:o l ogica l Sol'ic t y whid1 in l urn c;_1111 c from a pa111phlc 1
basket. or growing that way naturall y, louk at !he top (>Í !he cap directly below ca l kd May is Mure! ~ 1 onth hy ln ~rid Ua n elli .
 51

bux. insiJc anJ out. with a good water rcpe llanl. ami fínally waxed th c box
us1ng 111.:ltcd paraffín. whid1 he applicd with a ¡nint brush. Alter lcaving to dry 11. PART TWO
u\'Crl1 1!!ht. he was ablc to use thc box. rain or shin e. for 111 os t of une coll ec tin g
scaso n~ Such a ri gid con tainer prevents unduc crushing oí th e mushrooms and
Jocs not spill casil y. A. STATURE TYPES OF FRUITING BODIES
D. Onl y yo un g and frcsh spec im ens are sui tabl e for food. Aftcr a 111ushro o111
matures and begins to detcriorate, its ed ibl e qualiti cs lik ewisc dctcriorate. lf you have fallowed th e orga nizati on of thi s book thu s far yo u 1101\' shoulJ
E. Keep you r coll ec tion s as clean as possiblc. Pi ck th e en tire fruiting body so have a fir111 foundati on in understandin g th e various macroscop ic featuri:s uf
you are positivc it 's the ri ght kind. Clean off any dirt befare pl:icing in the wax mushroom s. You should be able to go out into th e fí cld. coll ec t various
container. but be careful not to rcmove th e valva. sca les. or any ot her mushrooms and properly desc ribe th c features oí th e pil eus. gill s. and stipc.
i Jen l ifyi ng cha rae teri st ic s. But , up until now we have disc ussc d th e fcatures of the fruiting body as
F. Ha vc a tri111111ing or cuttin g knife , preferabl y in a shea th. Unless yo u want though they were independent of each other. However, certain fa milies of
tu kee p knife manufacturcrs in business, l find ita necessit y to dril! a hal e in the
fea tu res are seen to occur together in recognizable comhinations. Thcsc
handl r and attach it with a chain or rape to the basket. combinations were fírst recognized by Elias Fries, the grand 111aster of
G. Havc a pencil and notebook or 3x5 cards in case you wi sh to make not es agaricologists, and havc been used extensive ly by the En gli sh agar ico logists like
or !cave any note s (should you ge t lost). Note th e subst rate, tree(s) associated Rea and Massee. Combinations are extre111ely use ful far 111any reaso ns. lt forces
with th e 111ushroo111 . and th e elevation. th c student to study the whole fruitin g body and to corre lat e se ri es oí fcaturi: s
H. Ha ve a compass avai lable and note the direction of your car. rath er than one or two ata time and 111ore importantly to stu dy over and owr
l. Keep co ll cc ted specimens in as good sh~pe and as well aired as is possible aga in the macroscopic features of the 111ushrooms. Additionally, one can identify
until you gct ho111e. íleshy fungí al least to genus with sorne degree of ce rtainty.
J. \Vhcn home, pul your mushrooms in a cool, dry. shaded place, preferably CA UTION. Mushrooms vary a great deal with age and environ111ental
~ rcfri ge rator . or und er the house. until you are rea dy to identify them. Ifyou conditions. Thercfore, do not expect to identify ali mushrooms to genus usin g
have coll ec ted the fungí in wet weather, you may want to change the wet wax the following diagrammatic charts. Also, expect variation and when in doubt .
..:ontainers for dry ones. use the dichotomous key thal follows.
K. Clean. process and coo k your mushrooms as soon as possible after yo u get
ho111c. Most 111ushroo 111s deteriora te very rapidly afte r thcy are picked. To clean , Stature Types are basc d on th e fa ll owing importan! features.
-;pli t th e cap lcn gthwi sc to check far spoilage or in sec t infestation.
L. Gel yourself a good 111anual on fungal toxins. The Pu get Sound Myco- 1. Presence or absence of an annulu s.
il''!Ícal Sucicty has one available far S 1.50. entitled Mushroom Toxins . 2. Presence or absence of a vol va.
M. Th c first time you eat a mushroom, eat sparingly! You'll want to observe 3. Consistency of stipe.
yuur ri:action to it. Always sa ve a few fresh spec imens far identifícation in case 4. Attachment of stipe.
yuu hccomi: ill . 5. Atlach ment of gil Is.
N. AnJ what if you should make a mistake? l f you should eat a poisonous 6. Shape of pileus.
111ushrnu111 . .:111pty you r stomach and call a doctor. Then keep your manual on 7. Type ofpileal margin.
111uslirou111 toxins hanJ y for co nsultation .

Note : The classifi ca tion use d in th e fallowing pages follows more or less th at
found in C. H. Kauffman 's Agaricaceae of Michigan with so rn e natahi<:
excep ti ons. No attempt has been mad c to in corporate thc ncw or less widcly
accepted mushroom names because lh ese are constantly changing. Th c sanie
classifícation system with so rne exce pti ons is use d in the refcrenc e books citi:d in
thc back oí thi s book .
Thirteen stature lypcs are presentcd and thc i111portanl fe<Jtures to noticc ;ir..:
found al th e top of the chart s as well as additional features li stcd to th c ri ~lit " '
left oí th e dia gram whi ch is typica l oí that parti cular staturc type. 1 havc tri i.:J '"
use a namc oía co111mon ge nu s of mushroo ms to assisl you in und cr~ tandin µ 1l1 c·
slaturc types. The fírst twclvc have a ce nt rally attached stipe.
 53
1. Types with Free or Finely Adnexed Gills
PLATE 18
The firsl se l of types are similar in 1ha1 cach onc has either fre e gil ls or finely
STATURE TYPES WITH FREE OR FINEL Y
adnexcd gills which appear as if they are free to th e naked eye and a centra ll y
ATTACHED GILLS
atta ched stipc. Each stature lype with thi s typc of gi ll and stipe attachment
varíes from each oth er on the prese nce and/or absence of a volva and/or an
annulus (not a cortina) . Pl easc note that some feature s are not involved in these Amanitoid Yaginatoid
stat ure types - such as the consist ence of the stipe. shape of th e pileus or the
type of pi leal margin. Th e following possibilities ex ist:
Cho ices 1 2 3 4 ·;:;-~~·~ ..;

annulu s present absent present absent

vol va present present absent absent
Choice # 1 is called Amanitoid , after the genus Amonita which typifies this
stature type , and which is th e only genus of mushrooms found in North America
with free to fin el y adnexed gills and the presence of both an annulus anda volva.
Choice :!±2 is cal led Vaginatoid after the old genus Vaginata which is
synonymous with Amanitopsis. The la tter is now considered synonymous with
A111a11ira . Ali mushrooms with free or finely adnexed gills and the presence of a
volva are considered to have a Vaginatoid Stature .
Choice #3 represents those mushrooms with an annu lu s but nota volva and
do have a centrally attached stipe and free or finely adnexed gills. Th.is stature
type is called Lepiotoid after the genus lepiota which typifies it.
The last choice, #4, is typical of those mushrooms with no annulus nor vol va
but with free gills. Such a slature type is ca lled Pluteotoid and is typified by the
genus Pluteus.
These are summarized in Pl ate 18. Annulus: present Annulu s: Absen t
Vol va: presen t Volva: Prese nt

,-'
--
Lepiotoid Pluteo toid

~~ --~·~
·..;.,"5$-: \~. ,,.·V.:-L.if< ..>.,,__¿--
:-.--~:;;~- :~·~ - ""
:-~ ~ \~-\,"·\...:. .:':" :.,,:· .... ·T~-".u:. . ~··.:,,.'. ; ·~· .., ..
·~v... ,:-,.·.·~~~·~,
,,- ... ··:·--·.

.:
',\,:' . ~1\L.
\l:
. '..-~;:r~·
" . ,.

\·~ :
:.. .
. ·t5\.
,. . ·.~ - .." ·"!.-.__.~·
.

,,
··' . ··· .

--..-~ _, ,. . .
......=,~;,\. ~ l ·:... :.\- '. \~, ,,...:.
;'.\:· \. ..
.
}\ ."..: \ \.<.:· ~ J~~
. \ . ~~ .3
' \~~
. \ . ),-

' 'F '·

\ \~~
. -·~
'\
,,.· ...,· ·lf
..
'

FIGURE 8: Zoºncd Volva of A111a11ita muscaria Annulus : Prcscnt Annulu s: Absc nt

Vol va: /\bscn t Volva : Absc nt
5-l 55
2. Types with Attached Gills and a Central, Fleshy- Fibrous PLAT E 19
Stipe
STATURE TYPES WITH ATTACHED GIL LS
Th c stature types c.liagra111med 0 11 the opposite page (Plate 19) have the ANO A FLESHY-FIBROUS STIP E
foll owing fcaturc s in co111111on :
1) th c gil ls are attached to th e sti pe. Tricholomatoid Armillarioid
2 ) th c stipc is eith cr fl eshy fibrous or chalky in consiste ncy.
3) th e st ipc is ce nt rally attachcd or possibly vcry slightl y excen tri c.
4 ) a vol va is absen t.
Th e fca tures whi ch vary are the prcse nce or abseqce of an annulus and th e
spcc ifi c kind o f gil! attachment. Picase note that so111 c features are not used in
th ese stature types - nam ely , th e type of pileal margin and th e pileal shape.
Th e Armillarioid type is th e only one with an annulus: th e gill atta chment
varies within th e various ge nera. The type is named after A rmillaria which is th e
most typical ge nus.
Th e three rernaining types differ fr om each o th er by the type of gill
:.ittachmenl. Those with sinuate (o r notched) gill s are ca lled Tricholomatoid
ba se d on th e ge nus Trichuluma; those with adna te, adnexed or emargin ate gi ll s
are called Naucorioid after Nau curia ; and those with any type of decurrent gi ll
attachment are ca ll ed Clitocyboid after the ge nus Clitucybe.

Gill Attachm ent : Sinuate or Notched Gill Attachment: Variabl e

Annu lus: Absent Annulus: Present

Clitocyboid Naucorioid

· ·-~ · /"r~-'i:··~·

\. \ 1
\J I~

FIGURE 9: Decurrent gill s of'Clitulybe avel/aneialba

Gill Attachm ent : Dec urrcn t, Arcuat e- Gill Attach111 ent : Adnate ,
Dec urren l Adnexed or EmarginatC'
or Subdecurrent Annulu s: Abse nt
Annulus: Absent
 57
56
3. Types with Attached Gills anda Central, Cartilaginous Stipe PLATE 20

STATURE TYPES WITH ATTACHED GILLS

Thcsc staturc types as seen from Lhe <liagrams Lo Lh e right (Plate 20) are
ANO A CARTILAGINOUS STIPE
gro upin gs of those rathcr small (in most in sLances). fragile mushrooms wiLh
car tila ginous, cent rall y attached st ipcs an<l atLached gi ll s. In these hed stipes and Mycenoid Collybioid
attachcd gill s. In thcsc examples, Lhe onl y fca ture not emphasized is the volva
which is abse nt in alm os t all exa mpl es.
The types are se paraLed on variations in pil eal shape , pileal margi n, gill
attachmcnt and the prese nce or absence of an annulus. Four types ca n be
observed: Myeenoid with Myce11a being th e typ ica l ge nus, Collybioid based on
Collybia, Omphalinoid based on 0111phali11a and Anellarioid with A11ellaria th e
most typical. They differ as follows:
Type Pileal Pileal Margin Gill Annulus
Shape When Young Attachment
Con ic to Dec urved or Variabl e but Usually absen t

'
Mycenoid
Campanulate strai ght to th e stem not decurrent

Collybioid Convex to Incurved to Variable but Usually absent

Parabolic Decurved not decurrent Pileus: Conic to Campanulate Pileus: Convex
Pileal Margin: Decurved at first Pileal Margin : lncurved Lo lnrolled at first
Omphalinoid Broadly Variabl e Oecurrent Absent Gill Attachment: Variable but not Gill Allachm en L: Variabl e but not decurren t
Convex to Subdecurrent decurren t Annulus: Absent
Plan e Are ua te-decurren t Annulus: Absent Volva : Abse nL
Volva: Absent
Anellarioid Variable Variabl e Vari able Prese n t
Omphaloid Anellarioid

--~
¿ ?-"l'lC· ,_,.,·. -1
-· .· .
'V~~
. . .'
""'•~·;,,i.;
-- ·: . . ~ ..;,... ~ .\~

<;;~-: . ,, .'~· ·:-

{": ;,.. . !1 ' . ..

1, . ·: '.'.-;< .
:-.~
~ 1 ·1 ., ,,·
~·~ ··
- -'>,

t.i/.-.~
. ·->::$>· ~-.
}.,:.._ - -
ifc~
-

·. <;;_: ·
~~ r · ~~- -~>·,..
~. '/
1jl- ).·(
: ;, ::1 · . "
,. / y "'
~)
/
./
/ •
.
-4~/
.,,,= :../ Pil eus: Broadl y Convex to Plan e and at tim es
-.. .~
Um bil ica te Pil eus: Variab le
Pil ea l Margin : Variable Pil ea l Margin : Variable
Gill Attachment: Decurrent to Subdecurrent Gill Attachment: Variabl e
Annulus: Abse nt Annulus: Prese nt
Volva : Absent Volva : Abse nL
FIGURE 10: Doubl c Annulu s of Agaricus sp.
 59
4. Type with an Excentric or Lateral Attached Stipe, Or The PLAT E2 1
Stipe is Absent
STATURE TYPES WITH AN EXCENTRIC
Th c last staturc type. Pleurotoid . is di agramm ed to th e ri ght. (Plate 2 1) lt OR LATERALLY ATTACHED STIPE
cnco mpasscs ali th osc mushrooms with di stin ctl y laterall y att achcd or di stin ctl y OR WITHOUT A STIPE
excc ntric stipcs such as mos t spcc ies o f Plmru tus whi ch is thc gcnu s aft cr which
the stiturc type wa s nam cd. This stature ty pe is admitt cdl y arti cifi ca l sin cc th e
gene ra in cluded are classifi ed in severa!. diffcrent famili es.

----~~~
,~-~

~' 1
;
1

.. · '

FIGUR E 11: Free Gill s of Plw eus cervinus

Pleurotoid

FIGURE 12: Lacunose Sti pc uf th e Asco myce te. /-le/11e/la /a c1111usa

 61

111. PART THREE A . GENERA WITH FREE OR FINELY ADNEXED GILLS

Spore Color ! WHITE

PI NK BROWN
PURPLE- 1
TI1e fo ll owing pagcs organize the various genera of lllUshroolll s which can Type BROWN 1 BLACK
:asily be identified on macroscopic features into their respective stature types.
1.s can be seen frolll the charts, the genera within a COllllllOn stature type differ A manitoid
mly in spore color and have a whole se ri es of features in cOlll lll On. Elias Fries.
he gra nd mas ter of agaricology, recognized thi s when organ izin g the lllUShrooms Armillaria
±26
nt o hi s classifica ti on schemes. Silllilar sou ndin g nallles were used. 1 surm ise. to Oarkc111Ja
( rore.
:mphasize thc fact that th csc mushrooms had lllany featurcs in comlllon and tropical.
liffe red frolll eac h other lllainly in spore color - c.g. Tric/10/011ia. Hebelu111a, Asia /
".:nto loma , and Hy pho luma ali have a tri cholomatoid hab it and differ respec- Amonita
=26
:;vely by havin g wh.ite, pink, brown, and purple brown spores. Othcr examples
:>f similar so undin g nam es, th c same sta ture type, but havi ng different spore
:·olor are Pleuro tus, Claudopus, Crepidotus ali with Pl euro toi<l habit and
.4.rmillaria and Stropharia with an Armillarioid habit.
To use these charts, scrutini ze the mushroom yo u desire identified and Vaginatoid
identify its stature type. These are located in th e left vertical colullln of the
chart. Then, identify the spore color and loca te the proper choice from th e five
possibilities on the top of th e chart. Come down th e vertical column of th e A manita Vo frariella Agaricus Copri1111s
appropriate spore color until it meets th e chosen sta ture type. This will pl ace 5 · 170 t..!- 105 5· 189 5 · 222

1íer
M ·2S 5M· l IO M · l26 M· ll 3
you within one square within which are eith er one genus nam e or more th an 5M ·26 S~l · I 36 SM - 154
onc. If just one nam e - you wi ll find page reference to three reference books to
assist in identifyin g th e species as follows:

Millcr - Mushrooms of Norih America .M

Stuntz & McKenny - Th e Sa vo1:y Wild Mushroom .S-M
Smith - Mushroom Hunters Field Cuide .S Lepiotoid

l epiota
If more than on e genus name appea rs , you will find a number which refers

t~
.:- ·i ,_
#32
you to the key lin e number in th e key found beginning on page OO. You ca n
Agaricus Copri1111s
either key th e mushroom to genus from that po int or attempt to identify the Chamaeota S. 189 5 · 222
mushroom to genus by referrin g to the respective genera found in the indices of M - 126 M - 113
SM · I 36 SM - 154
the refe rence books. A manita
.!:32
The use of stature types to identify mushrooms to ge nus is by 110 m eans
infallible . Nu mero us problems a rise due to envi ronm en tal varia ti o ns such as th e 'v 1 ""'

weathcr is too dry or duc to changcs of th c fruiting body with time such as the 0
annu lus falling off of Coprinus comatus or th e partial veil disappearing in
Stropharia ambigua or thc difficulty in determ inin g the type of pileal margin , or Pl111eo toid
th e prcscncc of an annu lus in Tricholu111a cingulatw11 - or , or, or. But you can lfygrophur11s
use stature typcs to iden tify many mushrooms to ge nus - review the charts and

íl
:4 1

you will sec that 26 spaces out of 46 have only a sin gle genus. The uscfulness of Plut eus Agaricus Copri1111s
stat ure types is basically twofold; it narrows down th e possible choices you have Lcpiota 1 5· 200 5 · 18 S.222
P/u reolus
=4 1 ~t - 10 5 ~1 - 1 ~ 6 M · l IJ
to make to id entify th c mushroo m and , more important in my op ini on, it makes S ~l - 1 12 S\l - 1 36 SM - 154
you carefully look at your mushrooms and makc so me criti ca! eva lu ations of Ama1111a
# 41
many of the important macroscopic features. But remembcr - th e ca rdinal rul e
in ali identification procedurcs - if you absolutely ca n' t iclcntify a feature with
100% ce rtainty cilh cr co nsult a spcc ialist wh o ca n or throw th e mushroom away.
62 63
B. GENERA WITH ATTACHEO GIL LS ANO C. GENERA WITH ATTACHEO GILLS ANO
A FLESHY-FIBROUS STIPE A CARTILAGINOUS STIPE
-
Spore Color WH ITE TO PURPLE-¡ Spore Color 1 WH ITE - 1 PURPLE-
CREA~! TO PINK BROWN BLACK PINK BROWN !3LACK
Type BROWN Type ; YELLOW BROWN
YELLOW
Naucoria
1
Tricholomatoid .:;9 1 Mycen oid
1 Trie/u 1/r mio flebelo111a
=86 .:!9 1 Ca/erina Psilocybe Cupri1111s
=1g :54
Mycena =82
R11ss11 /a E111oloma lnocybe

tl
(s1ipe chalkr) !:g9 #9 1 #73
/~1 ·plwloma No/an ea Bolbirius Psa1/1yrella Panaeo/11s
=86 Corrinarius 1 M· l 19 = 1g :t:s2 :94
Tric/10!0111a Marasmius
:t9 1
;:73
~1 ·groplwm s :g9

'
Plwliola .Vaucun'a Panaeolus Psa1hyrella
(sripc 11n 1 ="18 =82 :54
chalky ) (Fla111111ula)
=86
i #9 1

Paxi/111.1
:9¡

Cli1ocybe 1\ 'auo1ria
Naucorioid 1 = 19 =91 Colly bioid
R11ss11/a
# 19 En10 /oma l frb eloma
(chalky ) M - 107 !:91 Collybia lepronia B11/hi1ius Copri1111s
5M · l 14
'"
1':"7 3 #76 =1s Psilocybe
l.ac1ari11s /11ocybe S- 122
:91
M - 122 M·l I J

TíT
.;:=g6 Marasmius No /anea Naun1ria 5M -210
SM · I 54
Corrinarius #73 =#16 = 1s
f/ygrophom s
#9 1
T!86

Loccan·a Pholio1a
=86 (Fla111111u/a)
(nu1 chalky ) #91
-
Oitocyboid I Russula
: 19
Omphaloid
Paxillus
Laclarius Cli1opi/11s #69
# 19 M · l07 Marasmius
(chalky) 1 Gomphidius #62 Psilocybe
Pholio1a 1 S-227 leplonia Tu baria
r¡:1a111111ula) M - 122
M- 109
flygrophorus Tr 69 Omphalina 5M -210
5M - I SI
#62
#6s
ln ocybe
Cli1ocybe #69
#6s
(nol chalky)
·-
A rmillarioid Anellarioid
- 1 P<01hyrella

~
Armillaria Fla11111111/a :94
:t26 & 29 #36 Srropharia
# 44 1 Go111phidius Ca/erina
f>si/O(l'be Pa110l•olu s

u~
Ama11i1a f/ebelu111a 5 -227 5·2 1 s
M - 109 M - 141
M- 12 2 ( rl ne/la ria )
# 26 & 29 # 36 SM -210 =sa
Hyplw lo111a SM - 1s1 S M· I 34
le11ti11us Plw liu1a #44 ,, Coprtnus
#29 #36 ~ . :: 84
64 65
D . GENERA WITH AN ECENTRICALLY OR LATERAL
ATTACHED STIPE OR WITHOUT A STIPE IV. PART FOUR
1 Spore Color 1 WHITE 1 PI NK !1 BROWN 1 PURPLE-
BROWN 1 BLACK
Tvoe 1
A . KEY TO IDENTI FY MUSHROOMS TO GENUS USING ONLY
Schi:11ph.' ·l/11111
=1 2
MACROSCOPIC FEATURES (* )
Pleurotoid
Ple11ro111s
=12 In thi s key, only characteri slics of lhe mushrooms lhat ca n be seen with th c
Crepidorus
Pa11us =11 unaided eye (or at most with a handl ens ) are used . Bea r in mind th at il is nexl to
Claudo¡ms
=12 Paxil/us
impossible to const ru ct, wilh suc h a basis, a key th al will lead un errin gly to th e
l. enrinus = 11 corree ! ge nus, and be prepared lo ex pl ore th e alternative key lea ds, if th e ones
= 12 yo u have chosen seem to be ge ttin g you nowhere .
Plicarura The key herein presented is ca ll ed a di chotomous key sin ce it presents you
=12
with flvo choices at eac h step. To use th e key , pretend th e two choices, each
Le11:ires wit h th e sa me number, :irc act uall y two se parate questions which ca n be
= 12
answered with a yes orno answer. For example, choice # 1 could be writt en ... ''
is lhe sporoca rp (= fruitin g body) l have, attached direc tl y to th e fruitin g bodi es
of other mushroom s? or is it not gro wing on other mushrooms?" You must have
one yes answer and one no answer; whi cheve r choi ce is yes you are to fo ll ow a
dotted lin e and another number is given. This number is the choice on the key.
For example, if you answered yes to Sporoca rp no t growin g on olher
mushroom s, yo u are refe rred to choice 5. Aga in two choi ces are present - if you
answe r yes to th e second choice yo u are refe rred to choice #8. Choice 8 asks
you if the sporoca rp has a pleurotoid habit or not. lf it does you are refcrred to
choice 9. lf your pleurotoid fungu s has pink spores, you answer yes to the first
of th e two choices and you've identifi ed the mushroom as a C/audopus species.
lf you answer no to both choices, yo u've made an error and lllusl backt rack
to th e previous choice until you reach a point where you were not 100% su re of
your decision . You've mos t probably made an error a t this point a:id shou ld try
the alternative choice . To assist you in backtrackin g, notice that so rne of th e key
choices have another number in parentheses immediately followin g it. TI1i s is th e
number which led yo u to your choice, for exalllpl e to gel to key choice .=3 you
had to say yes to one of the two choices in key choi ce # 5.
On ce you've identified th e mushro om to genus you will find letters anti
numbers followin g it which will no! on ly help you verify your id entifi ca tion , but
will also help you make a species identification . The numbers refer to pages in
reference books, th e letters identify th e refere nce books as follows:
~¡ = Mill cr, Mushroollls of North Arneri ca
K = Kauffman , Aga ri caceae o f Michi ga n
SM = Stuntz & McKenn y, Th e Savory Wil d Mu shroom
S = Smith , Mushroo m Hunter's Field Cuide
Bu t remem bcr, i f yo u aren ' t 100% pos i ti ve either consulta specialist or thro 1v
the mushroom away .
Good Lu ck & Good Hunting.

*Constru c re d m os ll y b y Dr . Da ni e l E. S tunt z, Uni vc rs it y of Washing lon.

66
1. Sp orocarp attached direc tl y to th e spo roc arps o f oth er 8. (5) Pileus scssile ; laterall y attached and shclvin g,
mu shroo ms (e.g., parasiti c o n mu shroo ms) ... .. ............. 2 or attached by a shorl la teral tubercle or "psc udo-
stipc ", or basall y attached and funn el-shaped o r
spatu lale (Pl eurot oid habit) .... . . . .... . . . . .... . ...... 9
1. Sporocarp not growing on oth er mushrooms ..... ... .. ....... 5
8. Pi leus wilh a definit e stipe, lh at may be ce ntral,
2. Volva prcsent; gill s free; spores pink .... .. .. . . . .. Voh1ariella (K 526.
ccce nlric, o r (rarcly) cven lateral .... . .. . .......... . .. 17
S M lI 0 . ~ 1 87)

9. Spores pink or salmon-color or browni sh pink . .. .. . Claudupus ( K 590 . ali

2. Yolva lacking; attachm ent of gill s varies; spo res o t h er s see Rhudophy l-
white or purpl e-brown ... . ........... . .. . . . .. . . . . ... 3 lus M I 09 . S \111 4, s 20 1 )
3. Spores purpl e-brown; stipe with a floccose wh ite 9. Spores nol pink, salm on-co lor, or brow nish pink .... ... . . . . . 1O
an nulus ......... . . . . . . . ...... . .. . . . .... . ..... Stropharia ( K246,
M ll 9 , SM 146 , S2 16) 1O. Spo res sorn e shade of brown or brownish ochre . . .. . . . .. . 11
3. Spo res whit e; stipe lacki ng an annulus ....... . . .. ......... . .4 1O. Spores whi te to pale yell owish or crea m color,
or (rarely) pale din gy lilac ..... . . . . .... . .. . .. .. ..... 12
4. Pileus 1 cm. or more broad ; stipe 3 mm or more thick,
fl eshy or pulpy, no t arising from a sclero tium ;gill s 11. The whole hymenoph ore read il y peelin g away from th e
often thick and vein-li ke , or more o r less suppressed; pil eus as a unit ; gi ll s stro ngly intervenose, often
pil eal contex t becomin g transformed in to a powdery alm os t poro id , nea r th e point ofa ttac hment ... ... . .. . . . .Paxillus ( K 284,
mass of chl amydospores ............... .. .... . Asterophora (K 3 I , M 13 O, S M 1 2 8 , S 2 0 4 )
M 62)
11 . Hymenoph ore no t se parab le as a unit from th e pi leus
4. Pileus less th an 1 cm. in dia m.; st ipe 1-2 mm th ick , (but individua/ gills may brea k off rea dily); gi ll s
ari sing from a small sclero tium th at rese mbles a no t stro ngly intervenose at th e point ofa tlachm enl ... . Crepido 1us ( K 5 I 6 ,
grain of wheat ; gi lIs normal, well developed ; pil ea l M 13 4 )
cont ex t not becomin g transfo rm ed into chlamydos pores . . ... Collybia
( K74 9, Sl3 5, M8 9, SM 10 5) 12. (1 O) Gills splil lon gitudin all y along th eir edges,
and roll ed back laterall y, hence appea rin g li ke
S. ( 1) Instea d of normal, blade-li ke gill s, th e under two parall el, radi all y o rient ed tub es . . . . ......... . .. Schizophy llum
surfa ce of th e pileus bears fo lds or wrinkles with ( K42 , M 6 7)
blunt , rounded edges, or bea rs a network of thick,
obt use ve ins ... .. ... .. ... . .... . . . . ... .. . . ... . .... . .... 6 12. Gills not split along th eir edges and roll ed back
laterall y ....... . . . . . .. .......... . . . . . ..... . .. . .. 13
5. Under sur face o f pil eus with norm al, bl ade-like gi lls ........ . . . 8

13. Gill s narro w, slro ngly cri sped and sinu ous; pil cus
6. Sporocarps tcrrestr ial, often fun nel-shaped o r thi n, membranous, tough and pliable (when moist ) . ... .. . .Plicatura ( K 4 I )
trum pc t-shaped, or with a stem and funne l-li ke,
fl aring pi leus . . .. .... .. .. .. ... . . .. ..... .. .. ... . Camharellus & 13 . Gi lls narrow or broad , but no t stro ngly crisped or
Gomphus (K 3 2, M 149 , sinu ous; pi lea l th ickness varies, but if thi n enough
SM22, S l 22) to be mem branous, i t is also soft and fle shy . .. ...... .. .. . .. 14
6. Sporocarps ligni co lous, so mctim cs stipitat c. but
thc pil eus not trumpct-shapcd or funn cl-shapetl ... . 7 14 . Pileus very tougl1 and corky; gi lls tough and
lea th ery . . . ....... . ... . . . .. . . . .. .. ... . .. .... Lenzit es <no t in-
7. Pilcu s scss ilc, lat erall y att ac hctl , shclvin g. or c ludcd by K ; MI 8 3 ¡
shell -shapcd . . . . .... . .... . .......... . . . . ......... .P/ica rura i K-l I 1
14 . Pileus va ryi ng in consistency from so ft and pul py lo
7. Pil cuss tipitat c .. . .. . . . . .................. .. .. \faras111i11s iK s- . \1 80. pliabl e or lea lh ery, bul nol corky ; gill s no t
S \1 10 9. S I ~5. 155 1 tough and lca th ery .. .................... .. . . .. . ... 1 5
 (1l)

15 . E<lgc uf gills scrra tcd ........ . ........ .. ......... ... lentinus (K49,
~164, SI34)
25. Annulus present .............. ... . .............. . !1111a11ifll 1 K5lJ .1 .

\125 . S \126 . S I 7111

15 . Edgc uf g.i ll s en tire (cve n J ............... .. .. •.. ....... . 16
25. Annulus lacking ... . ........... ... .. . . . . ....... ... . .. .... l 'agi11a1a
16. Pileu s tough an<l pliablc or fibrou s ............... Panus (K43,M74) 1=A111011i1u¡isis1
Cno" pul in .-l111a11i1a1
16 . Pilcu s soft and pulpy or fleshy .................. P/eurotus (K656, 1K6~1 1
M69, SM79, Sl34) 26. (22) Yolva sheathing the en tire lowcr half or two thirds
17 . (8) Gills deliquescent (in mature sporocarps) .. .... ......... 18 of the sti pe, and flaring out wards at its u pper edge .. A nnillaria 1K6 .¡ 7.
17. Gillsnotdeliquescent ...... . .... . ..................... 19 ~174. S \14 3. S l 34l

18. Spores black ........................ . . . ..... .Coprinus (K 206, 26. Yolva truly basal, not sheathing the lower part of thc
M 113, SM 156, S222) stipe (but it may sheath the bulb at the base of the
stipe) ........ . ..... . ... .. .................. A111a11i1a tK593.
18. Spores rusty brown .. .............. . ...... ... .Bolbitius (K502, ~I 25 . s ~I 2 6. s 1 7 (1 )
M 132)
27. (21) Annulus present ............... . .... . ............. 28
1tJ. ( 17 ) Stipe breaking like soft chalk, without any tra ce
of fibrous con text .................................... 20 27. Annulus lacking ..................... ...... .......... .45

19. Stipe when broken or spl it lengt hwise showing evidence 28. Spores either white to pallid yellowish or pale cream
uf fibrous context .................. . ..... . . ... ..... . .21 color, or pink to dingy sa lmon-pink .... .. ............. 29

20. Sporocarp exuding a wat ery" or milky or colored 28. Spores sorne shade of brown, purple-brown, or black ...... 35
juice where cut ..... . ..... . ................ ·. . . lactarius (K83,
29. Edge of the gills serrated: pileal con text and st ipe
M46, SM94, S231)
tough and pliable .. . .................... ....... .... le11ti11us <K49 .
20. Sporocarp not exuding a juice where cut ... .... . ... .Russula (K 11 8, ~ 1 64.Sl34J

M56, SM82, S249)

29. Edge of the gills entire; pileal context and stipe
21 . ( 19) Vol va presen t ...................... . .. . .......... 22 soft, pulpy, or fleshy-fibrou s . . . . . .. . . .... ....... . ....... 30

21. Vulva not present .......................... . ......... 27 30. Gills free ............. ......... .. . . ... .. . . . . ... .. 3 1

..,.., Gills free ... .. .......... . . .. .................... .23 30. Gills attached .... .. .............................. 34
11
Gills attached .. . ........ .. ....................... 26 31. Spores pink or dingy salmon-pink .................. Chamaeota (K533¡

~3. Spores purple-brown (mature gills dark brownish purple 31. Spores white to pallid yellowish or pale cream color .. .. ...... 32
or chucolatc color) .............. . ..... . .... . ........... Agaricus
32. Pil eal surface truly vi sc id .... .. . .. . ......... Lepiota <K625. \134 .
(=Psalliota) (K232,
SM40 , Sl70¡
Ml26, SM136, S189)
32. Pileal surface not truly vi sc id (it rnay be
:23. Spores pink or whi1c (mature gills never purpli sh lubricous in frc sh, moi st plants) . .. .......... .. ...... .33
brown or chocolate color) .............................. 24
33. Pileal surface bearing remnants of the universal veil,
24. Spores pink (mature gills dcfinitely pink or in th e form of felty or friable warts or patches, on a
din gy s:i l 111011 color) .. ... .. .. .... ... ........... .... Vo/11ariella smooth, glabro us surface ................... . .. Amonita IK593. ~1 25.
(=Va /varia) (K526. S~ l 26, S 171J¡
SM llO , M 87)
24. Spores white to pallid yellowish (mature 33. Pi leal surfa ce not with wart s ur patclles uf universal
gi ll s not pink or sa lm on co lor) ....... .. .............. 25 vcil: it is. l10wcver. ortc11 scaly ...... ..... ........ l.epiora íK62 5. \1 34.
S \14 0.S l 86l
70

3-L (30) Gills only slightly attached, and stipe with 42. Gills strongly decurrent, rather thick and
a conspicuous bulb ous ba se ................ A111a11i1a (K593, M 25, subdistant; spores black ................ . .... Go111phidius IK 169
SM26, SI70J M109,SM151.S227
34. Gills definitely attached: stipe with or without 42. Gills adnexed to squarely adnate or slightly
a bulbous base (usually if the base is bulbous, the uncinate, but not truly decurrent, not thick, not sub-
gi lIs are more or less decurrent) . . ........ .. . . ... Armillaria (K64 7, distan t; spores blackish purple or purple-brown . ... Stropharia(K 24 6
M74, SM43, Sl34) Mll9,SMl46,S216
35. (28) Spores orange-brown, bright rusty brown , dull
43. (41) Pileus bell-shaped or parabolic, not expanding;
rusty brown, cinnamon-brown, dull earthy browñ, or
gills mottled by the maturation of the spores in
umbre ........ . ................................... .36
distinct patches ; spores black ...................... Panaeolus (K22 8
35. Spores purple-brown, dusky purple, or black .............. .40 Ml17 ,S M158

43. Pileus expanding and becoming campanulate to convex or

36. Sporocarps lignicolous ............................. 3 7
plane; gi lls uniformly colored; spores purple-brown
36. Sporocarps terrestrial ..... . ................ . ...... .38 or blackish purple ............................. . . ... . .44

37. Annulus on ly sli ghtly developed, consisting of an 44. Annulus thin and poorly developed, because most of the
inconspicuous band of fibrils ; stipe not scaly .... Flammula (K483, M 140) velar material adheres to the margin of the pileus;
37 . Annu!us well developed and consp icuous (often membranous, sporocarps lignicolous ............. ......... Hypholoma (K 25 4
M 119
or even felty), or stipe definitely scaly, or both ...... . ......... Pholiota
(K289, Ml37, SM118, S207) 44 . Annulus membranous and usually well developed, if
38. (36) Pileus viscid ................................ .39 velar material adheres to the margin of the pileus,
sporocarps terrestrial . .. . .................... Stropharia (K 24f
38 . Pileus not viscid ....... . ..... . . . .... . .... . . Pholiota (sce above) Mil9,SM146 , S216

39. Pileus scaly; or if it is glabrous, then the stipe is 45 . (27) Gills free ... ... . .. . .... ... ..................... .46
co nspicuously peronate below the ann ulus with floccose
material ..................................... Pholiota (see above) 45. Gills attached ........ . .............................. 52
46. Spores white to pale yellowish or cream color ....... . .. .47
39. Pileus glabrous, and stipe more or less fibrillose below
the annu lus, but not peronate with floccose material 46. Spores pink, brown, purple-brown, or black ............ .49
(in Hebeloma) or annulate (in Agrocybe, R ozites) ...... Hebeloma (K468,
Ml44 , SMl28) 47. Pileus viscid; gills thick, subdistant , and waxy-looking ...... Hygrophoru.-
(K 172, M38 , SM69, S229
Agrocybe (M 132)
Rozites (M 140 , SM 118 , 4 7. Pil eus not viscid; gills not thi ck and waxy-looking . ... ....... .48
S214)
48. Large, fleshy sporocarps; pileus 5 cm or more in
40. (35) Gills free ... .... . .. . ................. .Agarirns l=P~alliota) diameter, stipe more than 5 mm thick ............ . A manita (K5 9
1K 2 3 2. \1 1 2 6 . S \1 13 6. 1\125 , SM216, S170
Sl89)
40. Gills attached . . .... . ... . ........ . ....... . ....... .41 48. Medium-sized or small, slender sporocarps; pileus usually
less than 5 cm in diameter, st i pe 1-5 nim thick .. . lepiota (K 6 25, M 34
41. Annulus dry; membranous, floccosc. or fíbrillose; pilcus SM40,Sl86
mayor may not be viscid , but th e stipe is no t viscid below
the annulus .......... .. .... . ..................... . . .43 49. (46) Spores pink (mature gills pink or rose-salmon) Pluteus (K535, M 10 5
SM l1 2,S200
41. Annulus viscid, co llapsin g as a viscous band upon th c
stipe: pilcus and stipc (below thc an nulu s) also viscid .. .... .. .42 49. Spores brown or purEle-brown or black .. ... .......... . ... 50
7?. 73

50. Sporcs brigh t rusty bro wn or orange-brown: pileus 57. Spores yell owish brown , or ochraceo us ........... .Paxil/us (K 28 4, Ml 3 O
viscid ................. ... ....... .. ........ Plureolus (K 5 05 ¡ S~l 128, S204 J

50. Sporcs purple-brown or choco late brown or black . .. . ... .5 1 57. Spores pink or dingy sa lm on-co lor ... . ..... . ......... . ... 58
58. Gill s s1rongly decurrent .............. . ..... . .. Clitopilus (K562,
51. Pil cus fl eshy (con tex t at lcast 2-3 111111 thick at the center): ~11 07)
stipe íl eshy-fibro us: spo res purp le-brown or c hocolat e
58. Gills ad nexed to adnate . no t decurrenl . . . .. ...... . Entalama (K545)
color .... .. .. . .... . ............. ........ . .. Agaricus (= Psalliara)
(s ee Rhadaphy llus
(K232, Ml26, SM136,
s 189) 59 . (55) Gills definitely dec urren t, or al leas! broadly M109 , SM 114, S201)
ad na te-su bdecurren t ............ ..... ........ ... . .. .. .60
5 1. Pil eus 111e111branous (context usuall y 1 111111 or less thi ck al
the ce nt er ): stipe fra gil e; spores black ....... . ......... Caprinus (K206 59. Gills variously attached, but neither adnate-subdecurrent
M 113 , SM 156, S222) nordecurrent . ... .. ...... ......... . .... . ............ 71

52. Flesh or mature, fresh pil ei so ft and pulpy to sort- 60. Stipe slender , abou1 1-3 mm in diameter, always less than
to leathery, or even co rky (revivin g when moi stened 5 mm thick, often fibrous-pliant, or fra gile , or brittle ;
after having been dried): spores white to pale pileal ílesh thln , often membranous ...... ........ . ... .6 1
yellowish ................................. .. . . .. 53
60. Stipe stouter than the above, 5 mm or more thick ,
52. Flesh or mature, fresh pilei soft and pulpy to soft- íleshy-fibrous and soft , or pulpy , or with a firm
fibrous, or very fra gile (not revivi ng when moistened cartilagi nous "rind" and soft interior; pileal
after having bee n dried) ; spores white, pink, brown, ílesh ordinarily at least 3-5 mm thick at the ce nter,
purple-brown , or blac k ........... . ... .. .. . ......... 55 rarely thin enough to be called membranous . . .... ..... 65 ,

53. Edge ofgills serrated ......... .... ...... . ...... lenrinus (K49, M64, 61. Spores white to pale yellowish or pallid cream color . . _ . . . .... 62
s 1 34) 61. Spores pink, or dingy sa lmon-co lor, or sorne shade of
53. Edge of gills en tire .. . .................... .. ......... .. 54 yellow-brown or umber , or purple-brown .................. 63

54. Stipe slender, usually 1-3 mm thick, or at least less 62. Stipe co rneous and rigid , or tough-elastic ...... Marasmius (K57, M80 ,
than 5 mm in diameter, often corneous or very tough- SM109, S135,155)
elastic; pileal context usually membranous and pliable ..... Marasmius
62. Stipe soft and fl eshy, often brittly or fra gile . Ompha/ina (=Omphalia)
(K57 , M80, S~tl09 , S135,155)
(K812, M83)
54. Stipe stouter than in the above , 5 mm or more thick;
63. (61) Spores pink (mature lamellae becoming pink) ......... leptania (see
pileal co ntext thick, usually more or less rigid , or
Rltadaphy//us M 109,
at least very firm ........ . .... . . . ... .. . .. ... Panus (K43, M64)
SM114 , S201)
55. (52) Stipe definitely and co nsistently eccentric, so me- 63. Spores so rne shade of brown, or purple-brown . .... . . ... . ... 64
times almost lateral ... . ........ . ................... .. . 56
64. Spores purple-brown , or brownish red , o r choco late-
55. Stipe ce ntral , or ncarly so .................. . . . . . ....... 59 co lor with a purplish cas t ........ .... .. ........ Psilacybe (K272,
M122 ,S M210)
56 . Spores white to pal e yel lowish or crea m color ,
o r pallid lilac ........... . . . . . .. . . ..... .. . . . Pleurvrus (scc also 64. Spores rus1 y brown o r yellowish brown .. . . ..... .Tubaria (not r ecog-
so m e spcc ies uf Pa1111s) ni zed by K a uffm a n)
(K656. ~16 9. S~ l 79,
65. (60) Spo res white to pale cream co lor . ... . .. ...... ... .. . .. 66
s 134 )
65. Spores pink , dingy salman-color, brownish salman ,
56. Spores pink or brownish salm on, or sorne shad e of
ye llow-brown, ochraceous, ru sty brown , umber, or black .... .. 67
ochre or brown ........ ......... . ... . ............. 57
 75

66. Gill s thick, subdi stant , and waxy-lookin g . ...... Hygrophorus (K 17 2, 73. Stipc tough and clastic to corncous allll ri gid : pil ca l
M38, 5M69, 5229) co nt ex t usuall y pliabl c and rathcr tough (marccsce nt)* .. Jllarasnlius !K57.
MR0 . 5 \110 9.5 1 35.
66. Gill s thin, usually at least close, sometimes 155 )
cro wded, and nol waxy-appearin g ..... ... .. .Clitocybe (K 715 , M 84,
73. Stipe so ft and fl cshy. or brittle and fra gil c: pilcal
5M58 , 5135)
context casily torn or brokcn when frc sh and moi sl
67: (65) Spores pink , din gy sa lmon-pink, or brownish salmon ...... Clitopilus (not marcescc nt) ............ . ........... ...... ....... ?.+
(K562, M 107)
74. Mature pileus parabolic or bcll-shaped, or at lcast
67. Spores ochraceous to ru sty brown , or umber, or black . .. .... .68 deeply convex; pileal margin stra ight in unexpanded
sporocarps, not inrolled . . . ..... .... . .......... . .Mycena <K 77 8.
M93, 5134)

68. Spores rusty brown , umber, or cin namon·brown ..... . ... 69 74 . Mature pileus plane to shallowly convex: pileal
68 . Spores black .... ... ..... . . . ........ . ...... Comphidius (K 169 , margin inrolled at first .. . ..... .. ........ . . ...... Cullybia <7 -l 9.
Ml09, 5Ml51, 5227) M89 , 5M l 05 , 5135)

69. The en tire hymenophore peeling away as a unit from the 75. (72) Spores pink or ochraceous salmon or brownish
pileal ílesh; either the stipe is covered with dark salmon (mature gills becomin g more or less pink
brown to black velvety hairs, or the giHs quickly stain from the spores) ........ . ...... .. ........ .. ...... . ... 76
reddish brown wh ere bruised ... ............ . ........ Paxillus (K284, 75. Spores sorne shade of yellowish brown or ci nnamon brown
Ml30, 5Ml28, 5204)
or bright rusty brown , or in the purple-brown se ries,
69. Hymenophore not separating readily as a unit from the orblack ....... .. ...... ...... .......... . .... ... . . ... 77
pi leal ílesh (though individual gills can be broken off 76. Mature pileus parabolic or bell-shaped. or at
readily); st ipe neither velvety , nor gill s bruising least deeply convex; pileal margin strai ght in
reddish-brown .. .. ...... . ............. . .... . ..... ... .70 unexpa nded sporocarps, not inrolled .. . ........ No/anea ( K 5 79: sec
Rhuduphyllus MI 09.
5M ll4 , 5201)
70. Lignicolous, or if terrestrial, then also the pileus
is viscid ............................ . . Flammula (K483, M 140) 76 . Mature pileus plane to shallowly convex: pileal
margin in roll ed in unexpanded sporacarps .. . .. . .. L ep1011ia (5 7 1. sce
70. Terrestrial, and the pileus not viscid . ..... .. .. fnocybe (K442, M 142, Rhoduphyllus M 1 09 .
5M 131)
5M ll 4,520ll

71. (59) Stipe slender, about 1-3 mm in diameter, always 77. (75) Spores ye ll ow-brown to cinnamon-brown or rusty brown .. 78
less than 5 mm thick, often fibrous-pliant, or brittle, or
fragile ; pileal íl esh thin , often membranous ................. 72 77. Spores purple-brown or black .... .. . ........... .... . .. . .8 1

71. Stipe stouter than the above, 5 mm or more thick, fl eshy- 78. Pileus vise id ........... .. .. . ....... . .. .. .. .. .. ... 79
fibrous and soft, or pulpy, or with a firm cart ilagin ous 78. Pil eus not viscid ............... . . . ................ 80
"rind" and soft interior; pileal ílesh ordinarily al
least 3-5 mm thick at the center, rarely thin enough 79. Spores brigh t rusly brown or orange-brown: un ex pandcd
to be called membranous ..... .. . ............ .... . .. .... 85 pilei con ica l to bell -shaped , with slrai ght margin . . . .. ... .Bolbitius (J.:502 .
\11 32)

72. Spores white to palc cream-co lor ...... . . ..... . ........ 73 79. Spores cinnamon -brown to umber: unexpanded pilci
co nvex , with inrolled margin ..... . ...... .... .. Naucuria (K508, M 134¡
72. Spores pink, dingy salmon-pink, brownish salmon,
yellowish brown , umbrinous, cinnamon brown, purplish
brown, purple , or black .. . . . ........... .. ...... . ... 75
*Ma rcesce nt = ahlc t o revive wh e n moistencd; does not putrify when drying.

j
 80. (78 ) Pil cus con ic:.il to par:.ibolic or bell -shaped. 87 . St ipc with a rigid , firm. cart il agi nous (brittlc)
th c 111 argi11 at first strai g.ht .................. . ... Ca/erina (K492, "rind", and th e interior soft, or so metimes holl ow..... 87 A
MI 32,SM 134,S2 15)
87. Stipe of a more or less uni form pulpy or fl eshy-
80. Pil cus convcx to tlat. th e margin :.it first fibrous tex ture ....... . .................. ... Tric/10!0111a ( K6 7 s,
incurvcd or inrollcd ..................... Naucoria (K508, M 134) M 102, SM48, S I SO)

8 1. (77 ) Sporcs purplc-brown or fusco us purple .. .. . ... . ... . ... 82 87 A. Gills ad na te or broadly ad nexed . . ....... . .. . . Clitocybe (K7 1 S, ~! 84)

8 1. Spores black . .......... . .. . . .. .... . .............. . .. 84 87 A. Gill s sinuate or notched ........ . ............. . . Tricholoma <K 6 7 s,
1\110 2, S~l48, SISO)
82 Pil cus viscid . . .. . ........ .. .................. Psilocybe (K272,
Ml 22,SM2 10) 88. (85) Spores pink , din gy salm on, or brownish salmon . . .... 89
82 . Pileu s not vi sc id ... . ........ .. .. . ... . ...... . . .. ... 83 88. Spores sorne shade of brown or purple-brown .... .. ..... 90
83. Mature pil ei bell-shaped or parab olic or co nica l. th e 89. Mature gills becomin g definitely pink form the spores ......... E1110/0111a
margin at first strai ght .... . ... . . . ................... . .. Psathyrella (KS4S; see Rhodophy llus MI 09,
(K268,Mi l 8) SM 114 , S201)

83. Mature pil ei co nvex to plane , th e margin at first 89. Mature gills not pink from the spores .......... . ... . Tricholoma (K67S,
strongly in curved or inrolled ..... . : ............... Psilocybe (K272 , M102 , SM48 , SISO)
Ml22 , SM210)
90. (88 Spores yellow-brown, umber , cinnamon-brown
84. (81) Gill s mottl cd from th c ripening of th e sporcs or rusty-brown . ............ . . ......... .. .... .. ... 91
in patches: pileal margin not su lca te or pli ca te-
stri ate: sporocarps mostly gro win g on dun g ... ... .. Pa11aeolus (K 228, 90. Spores purple-brown or fusco us purple ..... .. .. Hypholoma (K2S4 ,
M 11 9)
MI17 , SMIS 8)
84. Gill s not mol!led: pileus sulca te or plicate-striate: 9 1. 1-!ym enophore separable as a unit from the pi leal fle sh :
sporocarps not gro wing on dun g . .. . .... .... ... . Psathyrella ( K 226 , gi ll s often strongly intervenose at the stipe, often
quickly staining redd ish brown where bruised .. . . ...... . .Paxillus (K 284,
M 118) (see al so sm ali
Ml30 , SMI28 , S204)
species of Coprinus)
85. (71) Spores white to pale cream-color (rarely cream- 9 1. 1-!ymenophore not separatin g as a unit from the pileus
color with a fa int pinki sh tin ge ) . ...... .............. . .. .86 (though individua/ gills may break off readily ); gil Is
notas in the above in the other particulars ... . ... .. .. .... .. 92
85. Spores pink , brown . or purple-brown .... . ..... .. ... . .. . .. 88
92. Pileus viscid . ......... . ................. .. ....... 93
92. Pileus not visc id . .. ... . ... . ............ . ..... . .... 96
86 . Gill s thiá. subdi stant. and usually very soft
and waxy-appea rin g ... . ......... . ............... 86A 93 . Spores bri gh t rust y brown or ora nge-brown ......... .. . .. .. 94

86. Gills thin . usua ll y close or crowded. rarcly 93. Spores cinn amon-brown or umber or dull brown ......... . . .95
subdi stant . and not wax y-appea rin g ............ .. .... .87 94. Cortina presc nt, usually abundant and read il y scen
86 A . Gill s purpl e vinaceous red lo tlcsh co lor. in unexpanded pil ci: stipe not decply radicating .... Cortinarius (K 3 14 ,
MI4 S . S ~112 S.S202 )
oftcn thi ck and rather hard & brittl c . ........ .. ....... Laccaria (~197 ,
s~! l o3' s 1 3 s) 94. No trace of a co rtina , or any oth er kind uf partial
86A . Gills usuall y co lorcd othcrwisc, usuall y vcil, even in th c youngest spcc imcn s: stipc dcc pl y
soft ........... . .......... .. ........ ... .... !!ygropl10rus (K 172, radica tin g ........... .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... . . ..... .Naurnria ( K 5 08.
\ ·f 1 34 )
M38, SM69, S229)
78 7lJ

95 . (93) Gil Is of maturc spceimen s gray ish einnamon or dull V _ LITERATURE CITED
gray ish yellow-brown, almost always with eonspicuously
whitc edgcs ....... .... .. ... .... . ........ ... .... /-leb elu111a (K468, Kauffman. C. H. 1965 . Tite Agaricaceac afMicltigan. John so n Rcpnn1 Curp.
M 144, 5~ 11 28)
Lange, M. and F. B. Hora. 1967. A Cuide tu Mushrua111s and Toads100/s . l'\1:w
95. Gills of mature speeimens rather bright ycllowish brown , York : E. P. Dutton & Co .. !ne.
or rust-color, or dark smoky brown ....... ... ........ Flam11111/a (K483,
M 140) McKenny, M. 1962. Savo0 · IVild Mushroum. Revise d and Enlarged h\' D. 1·..
96. (92) Sporocarps lignicolous ............. . ........... 97 Stuntz. Univ. \Vash . Press: Seattle , Wash.

96. Sporocarps terrestrial ............. _ ............ .. .. 98 Miller. O. K. Jr. 197'2. Mushruu111suf Nort h America. New York : E. P. Du11on &
Co .. !ne.
97. Spores and mature gi lIs brigh t orange-brown
or rust-colored .... ..... ... .... ..... ... . ......... Flammula (K 4 8 3 , Srnith. A. H. i 949 . Mushrua111s in th eir Natu ral Habitar. Sawyers. !ne. Por11JnJ .
M 140) Ore .

97. Spores and mature gills dull grayish umber ... ... . ... ... lnocybe (K442, Smith_ A. H. 1963. /l/11sltroo111 Hu111 er's Field Cuide: revised and enlarged. L:ni\'.
Ml42 ,5 Ml31) of Mich . Press: Ann Arbor, Mich .
98. (96) Spores and mature gills bright orange-brown
or deep, rich, rusty-brown; co rtina present and
obvious in unexpanded pile_i ........ ........... Cortinarius (K 314,
M 145 , 5M 125, 5202)

98. Spores and mature gills dull gray ish umber, ora
simi lar dull or grayish brown ; a cortina may be
present in unexpanded pilei , but rather more
frequently it is lacking, or very poorly developed ..... Inocybe (K442 ,
M142, 5M131)
 :-:o :-; ¡
INDEX caespitosa 45 Cri spcd l (), 17*.3 1.32*
(* = lll ustration) carti/agi11 ea 4 5 Crowdcd 29*
c/a11ipes 36 Cup 8
Abruptly adnexed 29,30* Atomate 24 co111pressipes 36 Cuspid:Jtc 12
Abruptly-bulbous 38* ,39 Attached annulus 43 fragra11s 28 Cutidc 20
Acrid 28 Attachment , type of inji111dibulifo r111is 15 Cysticli:1 3 1
Acute 12 fruitin g bocly 45 rivulosa 22 Cys111den11a gra1111/os11111 2-1
Adnatc 29 11111bilicatu111 15
Adn exe d 29,30* Basa l annulus 42*,43 Clitocyboid 54,55* ,62,73,74 Dec urrcnt 29,30*
Agarirns 6 1,68. 70,72 Basal tomentum 34 Clitopilus 62, 74 Dec urved 16 .1 8*
abr11ptib11 /bous 39 Bas idia 9 Close 29* De111i1111111 w11bilicatu111 15
albolutescens 28 Basidi omyce tes 9 Coll ect in g, Guid elin es for Depressed 15
di111i11utivus 1 1 Basidiospores 9 Safe Mushroom 49 broadly 15
placo111yces 28 Bicolorous 16 Co l~)lb ia 56,63 ,66, 7 5 decp ly 1-1 *. 15
Agro(l'be 70 Bifurca te 33 radica/a 34 na rrowl y 15
AJ vcolat e 22 Bolbitius 63,68,75 ve/u tipes 26 shallowly 1-1* , 15
A manita 7,52,6 1,69,70,7 l Bo fetus Coll ybioid 56, 57* ,63 Deve lopme nt of Ainanit a 8
caly ptroderma 8 piperatus 1 1 Color 1O Di chotomous 33
adnata 29 Bro.ad 31 Color of Pil eus 15 Dichotomously bran ched 33
caly ptroderma 8 Broadly umbonate 12, 13*, 14* Compressed 36 Dimida te 15*
(arinosa 45 Bulbous 36,38* Concha te 15* Di sagrecab lc 8
ge111111ata 29 Button 8 Conic 12, 13* Distan! 29*
muscaria 52 Connate 45 Doubl e annulus 43
solitaria 45 Caespitose 45 Conocybe crispa 3 1 Down y-fibrillose 26
Amanitoid 53*,6 1 Campanulate 12, 13* plica/ella 17 Down y-wooly 26
Anianitupsis 52,69 Canesce nt 25,26 Convex 12, 13* Dry 2 1
Anastomos in g 33 Canaliculale 39 Coprinus 6 1,63 ,68,72 ,76
Ancillary cell s 3 1 Cantharellus 66 comatus 60 Eccentric 34
Ani se-like 28 dichotomus 33 micaceus 24 Effuso-reílexed 48*
Anellaria 56 ,63 infundibulifonnis 15 Coprop hil ous 7 Emargin ate 29,3 1*
An ellari oid 56,57 * ,63 Cap 8 Cori aceaous 4 1 Entire 16
Annulus 9 Ca rtilaginous 41 Corky 4 1 Entolonia 60,62,73,77
Apical 4 2* ,43 Central 34, 35*,43 Corruga te 22 c11spida1w11 12
Appendicalate 17, 19* Chalky 41 Cortina 43 si11ua111111 29
Applanat e 12 Chamaeota 6 1,69 Cortinarius 43,62,77,78 s11bcus1a111111 33
Appressed-fibrillose 26 Character of, ac11 t11s 12 Equ;_¡ I 36.37*
Aprcsse d squamulose 25* lamell ae 28 bulbvsus 36 Erodcd 17, 19*,3 1,32*
Arachn oid 43 pil eus 11 caespitosus 45 Excetric 3-1
Arcuate-decurrent 29 stipe 34 cvr111ga111s 22
Areola te 22 Chroogo111phus to111entosus 26 distans 29 Faba<:i:~o u s 28
Arid 2 1 viscidus 2 1 raplia11oides 28 Fan-shapcd 15
Ar111illaria 54,6 0,61 ,62,69,70 Clarkeinda 6 1 Costa te 33 ,39 Farinous 26
Armillarioid 54,55* Claudopus 6 0,64,65 ,6 7 Cracked 22 Fa m lus ah'eolaris 22
Ascomycctes 9 Clavale 36,37* Crcnatc 16. 17*.3 1.32* Fibrillosc 26
Ascospores 9 Clava te-bu lbous 36,38* Crepidutus 60,64 ,6 7 appressed 26
Asc us 9 Clitocybe 54,62 ,77 applanatus 12 downy 26
Aspee! 1O avellaneialba pubescens 26 matted 26
Asterophora 66 caes pitosa Crinipellis piceae 1 1 Fibrous 4 1
 "'
''·'
82

Fi111briate 31 Hoary 26 sulca!us 17 ÜUl>I 11

Fist ulose 41 Hollow 41 /,c11:i1es 64,Ci 7 0111plwlia 7.~
Flabclliforn1 15* Hygrophanous 2 1 /,cofia lubrica 2 1 0111plwlia 5<1.(13.73
F!a11111111la 62, 70,74,78 Hygrophorus 61,62,71,74,76 /,epiola 52,6 1.69. 71 Omphalo1<l 5(1.57*.(i3.73
Flcsh of Pileus 27 ca1111esce11s 26 adnat ij'olia 29 Orbicular 15*
Flcshy-fibrous 41 conicus 12 pu!Jlcracea 24 Ovoi<l 15*
Fl occose 23 *, 26 fimbratophylla 3 l nigulosa 22 Oystcr-shapc<l 15
Fluted 39 Hypha(e) 7 Lcpiotoi<l 52.53 * ,61
Fragilc saccate 45 Hypholoma 60,62 ,7 1, 77 /,eptonia 63.73.75 Panaeolus 63 ,71. 76
Fragrant 28 serrufala 3 l ca111pa1111lat11s 12
rrcc 28.30* lmbricate 47*,48 j'abaceola 28 Panus 6-1.68. 72
Fruiting body attachment 45 Imbri ca te-scaly 27 Lignicolous 7 co11clia111s 15
Fungicolous 7 Incrassate 36 Longitudinal striatc 39 s1rigosus 27
Fun:atc 33 lncurved 16 ,18* Lubricous 21 Papillatel2
Furfuraceous 24 Inferior (basal) 42*,43 Lyophyllum co1111al11111 45 Paraboli é 12
Infundibuliform 15 111cid11s 20 Partial veil 8
Paxillus -l 2* ,6 2.6-L6 7. 73. 74. 77
(;a/erina (i3.76 lnnate 24,39
Mammilate 12, 14* i11Pol11111s 16
bulbijáa 36 lnocybe 62,74,78
rimosa 22 Marasmius 63,66,72,73,75 Pelluci<l 17
plicatella 8
hirsata 26 Margin of the pilcus 16 Pcppcry 28
unicolor 16
striata 17 Margínate 31,36 Pcronate 43,44 *
Gclatinous 2 1
lnroll ed 16, 18* Marginatc-depressed 38* .39 Petal-shapcd 15
Gill cavi ti cs 8
Inserted 34,36* Mattcd-fibrillose 26 Peta loid 15*
Gill brca<lth 3 1
lntervenose 33 Ma tted-tomen tose 23 * Phaeo11wras111ius aridus 21
Gill thi ck ncss 3 1
lnvolute 16 Meas u remen ts 1O Plw lio1a 62 .70
Gill width 31
Membranaceous 43 lubrica 2 l
Glabrcsccnt 24
Laccaria 62,76 Micaceous 24 squarrosa 2 7
Glabrous 24
laccata 33 Mild 28 11e111 ricosa 3 1
Glandular dollc<l 39,40*
striatula 17 Moderately broad 31 Pilcal charactcrs 11
Glutinous 21
Laccate 33 Moist 2 1 A. size 11
Co111phidius 62,71 ,74
Lacinate 22 Moveable annulus 43 B. shape 1 1
glutinosus 21
Lactarius 28,62,68 1. sidc vicw 1 1
Go111ph11s 66 Mycclium 7
piperatus 28 Mycena 56,63,75 2. top vicw 15
Granular 24
scrobiculatus 22 mbromarginata 3 1 C. color 15
Granulosc 24
mfus 28 Mycenoid 56,57*.63 D. margin 16
Grcgarious 45
Lacunose 22,39 E. surface 20
Growth habit 45 Mycorrh iza! associa t ion 7
Lamellae 9 1. sh inincss 20
Gui<lclincs for Sufc
2. wetncss 20
Mushroom Collcctin g 49 characters of 28
Narrow 3 1 3. hygropha nous 21
Gy11111opilus areola tus 22 Lamellulac 33
Narrowly parabolic 13* 4. tcxture 22
Cyro111itra 22 Latent 28
Naucoria 54,62,63,75,76.77 a. degrec of wrinklin g 22
Gyrosc 22 Lateral 34,35*
Naucorioid 54,55,62 b. dcgrcc of hyphal assoc. 2.+
Latex 3 1
No lan ea 63,75 F. ílesh 27
Habit Type 9 Leathery 41
bicoloripes 16 latcx 28
l!ebe/0111a 60,62,70,78 Leccinum 27
lucida 20 Pilcatc and Sessilc 47*,48
/ lelvel/a /acunosa 22 fibrillosum 26
papilla la 12 Pil cipellis 20
llericeu111 lacinatwn 22 mgosus 39
scabmm 27 sericea 8 Pil cus 8
Hirsut c 26
Le11ti11us 62,64,68,69,72 Notchcd 29,30* Pittcd 22
Hi sp id 23*.24,26
 84
85
Pl<Jn c 13*.16.1 8* Rugulosc 22,39 <1ppressed 25,'27 Tran slucent-slria te 17
Pl curotoid 58.59* Russu/a 17 ,62,68 punct<Jlc 27 Tric/w/0111a 54,60,62,77
Pleuro1us 58.60 .6-1-.6 8. n fistulosa 4 1 rccurved 25* ,2 7 arcua/a 29
pe1aloides 15 fiirca/a 33 Squarrose 27 ci11g11/atw11 60
Plic<Jte-stri<Jtc 17 pu /Jlerel// u la 24 Stalk 8 i111bricatw11 27
Plicalura 64.66.67 Swture typcs of fruitin g bodics 5 1-64 virga1u111 26
Pluleulus 6 1.72 Scabrous 24,27,39,40* Sti pe 8 Trichol omaloid 54,55 * ,62
Pl utcotoid 52,53*,6 1,6-1- Sc<Jbrulose 27 Stipc Ch<Jracters 34 Tubaria 63,73
Pluleus 52,6 1,71 Scall oped 17 ,3 1 A . size 34 ji1jiiracea 24
cerPi11us 58 Scattered 45 B. <Jttachment 34 pe/lucida 17
hispidulus 26 Sclli:ophyl/11111 6-1-.6 7 C. shape 36 Types, see stature types
Primary mycc lium 7 Scrobiculatc 22 D. surface 36 Tuben.:ulate-st riate 17
Primordium 7 Seceding 29 E. color & color chan ges 39
Pruinosc 24,33 Seconda ry mycelia 7 F. cu nsistency 4 1 Umbilicate 15
Psulliula 68,72 Semi-circ ular 15 G. flesh 4 1 Umbo 12
Psa1hyrel/a 63,76 Sericeous 20,2 1 H. presence or <Jbsence of veils 4 1 Umbonate 12
a/01110/a 24 Serrate 3 1,32* 1. partial veil 4 1 Undulatin g 16, 17*,3 1
11eluti11a 26 Serrulate 3 1,32* 2. universal veil 43 Ungulate -1- 7* ,48
appendiculata 17 Sessil e 48 a. types of free volvas 43 Unico lorus 16
Pseudorhiza 34 Shininess of Pil eal Surface :w b. types of adherenl vol vas 45 Universal veil 8
Pseud ostipe 47*,48 Shiny 20 Stipitale 48 Unpleasanl 28
Psiluc:vbe 63,73 ,76 Silky 20 Straight 7 Uplifted 12, 13*, 16
sub11iscida 2 1 Single annulus 43,44* Striate 17 Upturn ed 18*
Pubescent 23* ,26,33 Sin gle patch 8 Striale 17 Vagi11afa 52,69
Pulveruboletus 24 Sinuate 30* Stri gose 27 ,34 Yaginat oid 52,53*,6 I
Pulverul ent 24,33 Sm oo th 22,3 1 S1ropharia 60,62 ,66,7 1 Yege tative 7
Pun cate 40* Solid 41 a111bigua 60 Yeined 39
Solitary 45 rugusu-a1111ula1a 22 Vei ns 39
Radicated 34 Spathula-shaped 15 Stuffed4 1 Yelutinous 23*,26
Raphanoid 28 Spalhularia spalhularis 15 Subclavate 36.37* Yenlricose 3 1
Rec urved squam ul ose 25* Spathulate 15* Subdec urrent 29 ,30* Yill ose 23*,26
Remnants 8 Split 22 Subdistant 29* Yirga le 26
Remole 28 Spore color 48 Substipilate 47* ,48 Yisc id 2 1
Resupinate 48* Spore print 48 Subviscid 2 1 Yolva 8
Reticu late 39 ,40* Spores 7 ,9 Sui//us u111bu11a1us 12 adhercnl 44
Rhizinia undula/a 16 Squamose 27 Sulcate 17 circumsess il e 45,46*
Rhi zo idal 3-1- Squamul ose 27 Super fi cial 2-1-,39 co nc cn lric rin gcd 46*,52*
Rhi zo ids 8,34 Superior 42*.43 constri cted 44*
Rhi zomorphs 34 Surfacc of Pil eus 20 íarin ose 45
Rhodophy llus 6 7, 73. 7 5, 77 flaring44 *,45
R.ibbed (costa te) 39 Tacky 2 1 free 43 ,
R.ibs 39 Tapcred 36,37* mcm branou s 43
R.i mose 17. 22 Taste 28 powdery 45
R.imose- fibrillose 26 Terete 36 sacca tc 44 *
R.ivulose 22 Terresl ri al 7 scaly 45 ,46*
Round 15 Tcx turc of pilcal surface 22 zoned 45,52*
Rozi1es 70 Tomen losc 23*,26 Po /varia (18
Ru gose 20,39 Trama 27 Volvariella 6 1/1(1 /i8