CHEMISTRY

Notes on Preparation of Salts

Preparing Soluble Salts

Salts

• A salt is a compound that is formed when the hydrogen atom in an acid is replaced by a metal
• For example if we replace the H in HCl with a potassium atom, then the salt potassium chloride
is formed, KCl
• Salts are an important branch of chemistry due to the varied and important uses of this class of
compounds
• These uses include fertilisers, batteries, cleaning products, healthcare products and fungicides

Naming salts

• The name of salt has two parts

• The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate used in the reaction
• The second part comes from the acid
• The name of the salt can be determined by looking at the reactants
• For example hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain
the chloride ion, Cl-
• Other examples:
o Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride
o Zinc oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce zinc sulfate

Preparing salts

• Some salts can be extracted by mining but others need to be prepared in the laboratory
• The method used depends on the solubility of the salt being prepared

Preparing soluble salts

Method A: adding acid to a solid metal, insoluble base or insoluble carbonate

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Method

• Add dilute acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame
• Add the insoluble metal, base or carbonate, a little at a time, to the warm dilute acid and stir until
the base is in excess (i.e. until the base stops disappearing and a suspension of the base forms
in the acid)
• Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base
• Heat the solution to evaporate water and to make the solution saturated. Check the solution is
saturated by dipping a cold, glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals form on the end
• Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize
• Decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry or blot to dry with filter paper
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Example: preparation of pure, hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals using method A

Acid = dilute sulfuric acid

Insoluble base = copper(II) oxide

Method:

• Add dilute sulfuric acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame
• Add copper(II) oxide (insoluble base), a little at a time to the warm dilute sulfuric acid and stir
until the copper (II) oxide is in excess (stops disappearing)
• Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess copper(II) oxide
• Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize
• Decant excess solution
• Blot crystals dry with filter paper

Equation of reaction:

copper(II) oxide + sulfuric acid → copper(II) sulphate + water

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Method B: reacting a dilute acid and alkali (soluble base)

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Method:

• Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator
(thymolphthalein or methyl orange)
• Add the acid into the burette and note the starting volume
• Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator changes to the
appropriate colour
• Note and record the final volume of acid in the burette and calculate the volume of acid added
(starting volume of acid - final volume of acid)
• Add this same volume of acid into the same volume of alkali without the indicator
• Heat the resulting solution in an evaporating basin to partially evaporate, leaving a saturated
solution (crystals just forming on the sides of the basin or on a glass rod dipped in and then
removed)
• Leave to crystallise, decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

Preparing Insoluble Salts

• Insoluble salts can be prepared using a precipitation reaction

• The solid salt obtained is the precipitate, thus in order to successfully use this method the solid
salt being formed must be insoluble in water, and the reactants must be soluble

Using two soluble reactants

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Method:

• Dissolve soluble salts in water and mix together using a stirring rod in a beaker
• Filter to remove precipitate from mixture
• Wash filtrate with distilled water to remove traces of other solutions
• Leave in an oven to dry

Example: Preparation of pure, dry lead(II) sulfate crystals using a precipitation reaction

Soluble Salt 1 = lead(II) nitrate

Soluble Salt 2 = potassium sulfate

Method:

• Dissolve lead(II) nitrate and potassium sulfate in water and mix together using a stirring rod in a
beaker
• Filter to remove precipitate from mixture
• Wash precipitate with distilled water to remove traces of potassium nitrate solution
• Leave in an oven to dry

Equation of reaction:

lead(II) nitrate + potassium sulfate → lead(II) sulfate + potassium nitrate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

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Solubility Rules

• Salts are prepared by different methods, depending on whether the salt is soluble or insoluble
so it is important to know the solubility of salts

Hydrated & Anhydrous Salts

• When salts are being prepared, some water can be retained within the structure of the salt
during the crystallisation process
• This affects the crystal's shape and colour
• Salts that contain water within their structure are called hydrated salts
• Anhydrous salts are those that contain no water in their structure
• A common example is copper(II) sulfate which crystallises forming the salt hydrated copper(II)
sulfate, which is blue
• When it is heated, the water from its structure is removed, forming anhydrous copper(II) sulfate,
which is white
• The hydrated salt has been dehydrated to form the anhydrous salt
• This reaction can be reversed by adding water to anhydrous copper(II) sulfate:

hydrated copper(II) sulfate ⇌ anhydrous copper(II) sulfate + water

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Water of Crystallisation

• Water molecules included in the structure of some salts during the crystallisation process are
known as water of crystallisation
• A compound that contains water of crystallisation is called a hydrated compound
• When writing the chemical formula of hydrated compounds, the water of crystallisation is
separated from the main formula by a dot

E.g. hydrated copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4∙5H2O

Hydrated cobalt(II) chloride is CoCl2∙6H2O

• The formula shows the number of moles of water contained within one mole of the hydrated salt

E.g. hydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4∙5H2O, contains 5 moles of water in 1 mole of hydrated
salt

• A compound which doesn’t contain water of crystallisation is called an anhydrous compound

E.g. anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4

Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is CoCl2

• The conversion of anhydrous compounds to hydrated compounds is reversible by heating the

hydrated salt:

Anhydrous to hydrated salt:

▪ CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4∙5H2O

Hydrated to anhydrous salt (by heating):

▪ CuSO4∙5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O

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Notes on States of matter

State Changes
Melting

• Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid

• Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move
• Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.)

Boiling

• Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas

• Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing for
liquid particles to escape from the surface and within the liquid
• Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.)

Freezing

• Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid

• This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence
the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water, for example,
freezes and melts at 0 ºC
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• Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a
specific temperature

Evaporation

• Evaporation occurs when a liquid changes into a gas and occurs over a range of temperatures
• Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from
the liquid's surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the liquid
• The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid surface, the more quickly a liquid can
evaporate

Condensation

• Condensation occurs when a gas changes into a liquid on cooling and it takes place over
a range of temperatures
• When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other they lack
the energy to bounce away again, instead they group together to form a liquid
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State Changes & Kinetic Theory
• When substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is converted into
kinetic energy. This is the basis of the kinetic theory of matter
• Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature increases, they
vibrate so much that the solid expands until the structure breaks and the solid melts
• On further heating, the now liquid substance expands more and some particles at the surface
gain sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular forces and evaporate
• When the b.p. temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to escape and the
liquids boils
• These changes in state can be shown on a graph called a heating curve
• Cooling down a gas has the reverse effect and this would be called a cooling curve
• These curves are used to show how changes in temperature affect changes of state

A heating curve showing the states, state changes and temperature changes as time progresses
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A cooling curve is like a heating curve, but is the mirror image

Diffusion

• This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix and is due to the random
motion of their particles
• Diffusing particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
• Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to occupy all of the
available space
• Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required although it occurs faster at higher
temperatures

Diffusion & Molecular Mass

• Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move much quicker
than liquid particles
• At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate.
• This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses
• Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further, therefore the lower its relative mass
the faster a gas will diffuse
• This can be demonstrated in the reaction between ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen chloride gas,
HCl, inside a long glass tube
• Where the two gases meet a white smoke of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, is formed
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• This does not occur in the middle of the tube as you might expect, but much closer to the end
with the hydrogen chloride (Mr = 36.5) and the ammonia (Mr = 17) molecules are smaller and
lighter
 Atomic Structure
Element

• A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons and cannot be split
into anything simpler
• There are 118 elements found in the Periodic Table

Compound

• A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined

• There is an unlimited number of compounds
• Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means
• E.g. copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), carbon dioxide (CO2)

Mixture

• A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are not chemically
combined
• Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation
• E.g. sand and water, oil and water, sulfur powder and iron filings

Atomic Structure
• All substances are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms which are the building blocks
of all matter
• Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons
• The protons and neutrons are located at the centre of the atom, which is called the nucleus
• The electrons move very fast around the nucleus in orbital paths called shells
• The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is contained within the
nucleus where the protons and neutrons are located
 • The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
• The symbol for atomic number is Z
• It is also the number of electrons present in a neutral atom and determines the position of the
element on the Periodic Table
• The Nucleon number (or mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom
• The symbol for nucleon number is A
• The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons of an atom
• Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.
• The atomic number and mass number of an element can be shown using atomic notation
• The Periodic Table shows the elements together with their atomic (proton) number at the top
and relative atomic mass at the bottom - there is a difference between relative atomic mass and
mass number, but for your exam, you can use the relative atomic mass as the mass number
(with the exception of chlorine)

Finding the protons

• The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which element it is

• Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element have the same number of protons (atomic
number) in the nucleus
o E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons) whereas beryllium has atomic
number of 4 (4 protons)
• The number of protons equals the atomic (proton) number
• The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass number
and number of neutrons:

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Number of protons = mass number – number of neutrons

Finding the electrons

• An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons

Finding the neutrons

• The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number
of neutrons in ions and atoms:

Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons

Electronic configuration

• We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams
called electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation called
the electronic configuration (or electronic structure or electron distribution)

Electron shell diagrams

• Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a different amount
of energy associated with it
• The further away from the nucleus, the more energy a shell has
• Electrons fill the shell closest to the nucleus
• When a shell becomes full of electrons, additional electrons have to be added to the next shell
• The first shell can hold 2 electrons
• The second shell can hold 8 electrons
• For this course, a simplified model is used that suggests that the third shell can hold 8 electrons
o For the first 20 elements, once the third shell has 8 electrons, the fourth shell begins to
fill
• The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more stable if it
can manage to completely fill this shell with electrons
 The Electronic Configuration of some Elements

• There is a clear relationship between the electronic configuration and how the Periodic Table
is designed
• The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of occupied shells
of electrons the atom has, showing the period in which that element is in
• The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the group that
element is in (for elements in Groups I to VII)
• Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
 • In most atoms, the outermost shell is not full and therefore these atoms react with other atoms
in order to achieve a full outer shell of electrons (which would make them more stable)
• In some cases, atoms lose electrons to entirely empty this shell so that the next shell below
becomes a (full) outer shell
• All elements wish to fill their outer shells with electrons as this is a much more stable
configuration

The noble gases

• The atoms of the Group VIII elements (the noble gases) all have a full outer shell of electrons
• All of the noble gases are unreactive as they have full outer shells and are thus very stable

Isotopes
• Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons but
a different number of neutrons
• The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then the
mass number
• So C-14 ( or carbon-14) is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 14 -
6 = 8 neutrons
• Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics
• This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells and, therefore, the
same electronic configuration and this is what determines an atom's chemistry
• The difference between isotopes is the number of neutrons which are neutral particles within
the nucleus and add mass only
• The difference in mass affects the physical properties, such as density, boiling point and
melting point
• Isotopes are identical in appearance, so a sample of C-14 would look no different from C-12
• Water made from deuterium oxide is known as 'heavy' water, and has a relative formula of
mass 20, compared to 18 for water, so it is 20% heavier, but it would look, taste and feel just
like normal water

Relative Atomic Mass

• The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar

• The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along with the
atomic number
• The atomic number is shown above the atomic symbol and the relative atomic mass is shown
below the atomic symbol
• Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the masses of
atoms
• The carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
• It is against this atom which the masses of all other atoms are compared
• Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:
o the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of
an atom of 12C

• The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12

o The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is twice as
heavy as carbon
o The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one-twelfth the mass of
one carbon-12 atom
• The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated from the mass number and relative
abundances of all the isotopes of a particular element using the following equation:

• The top line of the equation can be extended to include the number of different isotopes of a
particular element present.
 Experimental Techniques
Measurement
Variable Unit Apparatus

Time min/sec Stopwatch

Temperature ºC Thermometer [liquid in glass, thermistor or thermocouple]

Mass grams Balance

Measuring Volume in liquids:

Approximate measure to most accurate measure

Name Measuring Cylinder Pipettes [fixed volumes] Burettes [variable volume]

Image

Measuring Volume in gases:

A calibrated gas syringe is used to gradually measure the volume of gases

Criteria of Purity
Purity in substances

• Assessing purity

Pure substances Have a definite, sharp m.p./b.p.

Impure substances Have a lower m.p and a higher b.p

This assessment of substance purity is important, especially in food consumption, as its

intake can be dangerous.

Paper chromatography:

Method used to separate substances in a solvent with different solubilities

1. Drop substance onto the start line (pencil) drawn on chromatography paper

2. Paper is placed in beaker with solvent; the paper must touch the surface of the solvent

while the line must be above the liquid

3. Solvent travels up the paper by capillary action

4. Different solubilities lead to different travel rates [ high solubility-> high travel rate]

o Stationary phase is material on which separation takes place

o Mobile phase consists of the mixture you want to separate, dissolved in a solvent.
 • Interpreting simple chromatograms:

Chromatograms are the visual outputs on the chromatography paper

• Number of rings/dots = number of substances

• If two dots travel the same distance up the paper they are the same substance.

• Retention Value:

Used to identify a substance, calculated by the formula:

• Locating Agents

Used to make colorless chromatograms visible

• Dry paper in oven

• Spray it with locating agent

• Heat it for 10 minutes in oven

Filtration
Used to separate a solid from a liquid

• Mixture goes through a funnel with filter paper, into a flask.

• Insoluble residue remains in the funnel

• Filtrate goes through and collects in flask

Crystallization
Used to separate dissolved solid from solution

• Solution is heated to increase concentration (solvent evaporates)

• A drop of solution is placed on a slide to check for crystal formation

• Solution is left to cool and crystallise.

• Crystals are filtered from solution; washed with distilled water

Simple Distillation
Used to separate a solvent from a solution

• Impure liquid is heated in a round bottom flask

• When it boils, the steam rises into the attached condenser

• Condenser cools the steams to a pure liquid and it drops into the beaker

Fractional Distillation
Used to separate miscible liquids

• Mixture is heated

• Substances, due to their different boiling points, rise in different fractions

• A mixture of gases condense on the beads in the fractional column.

• The beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest substance, so that substance being

removed cannot condense on the beads.

• The other substances continue to condense and will drip back into the flask.

• The beaker can be changed after every fraction

Seperating Mixture of Two Solids
• Can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate solvent

• Then filter one and extract other from solution by evaporation

• If one solid is magnetic, can use a magnet e.g. sand and iron fillings

Solvent It dissolves…

Water Some salts, sugar

White spirit Gloss paint

Propanone Grease, nail polish

Ethanol Glues, printing inks, scented substances