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FORGING

Ji;V"BERG
 library

ot tbe

{University of Wisconsin
 FORGING
MANUAL OF PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION IN HAND FORGING OF
WROUGHT IRON, MACHINE STEEL, AND TOOL STEEL;
DROP FORGING; AND HEAT TREATMENT OF
STEEL, INCLUDING ANNEALING, HARD
ENING, AND TEMPERING

JOHN JERNBERG
INSTRUCTOR IN FORGE PRACTICE AND HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
MEMBER, SWEDISH ENGINEERING SOCIETY

ILLUSTRATED

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

CHICAGO
1919
 Copyright 1917. 1919
BY
AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

Copyrighted in Great Britain

All Rights Reserved
225972
JUN 17 1919
INTRODUCTION

'HE art of blacksmithing is an ancient one and for centuries,

only metal-working profession. With
the development of the method of casting iron, the cheapness
of this useful process brought about a wider adoption of cast-
iron forms than was justified by the fragile nature of the castings
used. In later years the fields of usefulness of the two types
of metal work have been very definitely fixed by the require
ments of construction, the element of tensile strength, and the
expansion of the methods of production manufacturing. The
development of drop forging had also a marked effect upon
the return to forging methods, particularly in the small tool
field, the skill in the use of power hammers and the use of gang
dies having made forging the very cheapest possible method
of manufacture..

Q In the last few years the adoption of so many new types

of steel—particularly of the high-speed and self-hardening variety
—has made extensive demands on the machinist's knowledge
of heat treatment of these metals. In fact, the importance of
heat treatment is often lost sight of in the business of selecting
a certain type of steel for a given class of work. The compo
sition of the steel and the processes of forging, annealing, hard
ening, and tempering the stock are of vital importance in
producing a finished article which will endure, and it therefore
behooves every metal worker to look carefully to the acquirement
of the information necessary to handle this kind of work.

<J The author of this article has had many years of experience,
not only in practical work but also in the field of instruction,
and therefore the information which he has given should be
doubly valuable. This discussion of the heat treatment of steel
is particularly timely and is the result of many experiments with
different types of steel. It is the hope of the publishers that the
treatise will prove of distinct value, not only to the trained man
but to the layman who wishes to keep abreast of the times.
I
 CONTENTS V,

MECHANICAL DETAILS
PAGE
Materials and equipment 1
Forging materials 1
Heating apparatus 2
Forges 2
Furnaces •
Common tools 9
Hammers "
Sledges 10
Anvils 10
Tongs 12
Swages 13
Machine tools "»
Drop hammers 15
Power hammers 16
Presses 18
Bulldozers 19
Bolt headers 19
Cranes 19
Forging operations 20
Smith welding 20
Welding heat 20
Scale 21
Fluxes 21
Scarfing 22
Lap welding 22
Butt welding 26
Split welding 27
Angle welding 27
T-welding 28
Simple bend forging 29
Forging operations 29
Calculation of stock for bent shapes 33
Bend types 35
Medium forged work *9
Calculation of stock 49
Standard large types 54
Tool-steel work 67
Standard forms ^7
Miscellaneous processes 78
Shrinking 78
Brazing
Bending cast iron 81
 CONTENTS
PAGE
Forging operations (continued)
Miscellaneous processes - ■ -
Pipe bending ....'. 81
Duplicate work 82
Die forging : 83
Heavy forging 85
Drop forging 90

HEAT TREATMENT
Heating for forging 96
Uniform heating essential. . . 96
Proper forging heat 97
Test of heat effect. . 98

Annealing 98
General process 98
High-speed steel 99
Copper and brass . 100

Hardening 100
Carbonizing r- 105
Cyanide hardening 112
Casehardening 113
Tool work 113
. Measuring and testing instruments ; . 116"
Pyrometers 116
Shore scleroscope 121

Tempering 123
Essentials of process 123
Reduction of brittleness 124
Baths for tempering 125
Furnaces for tempering 127
 GAS HEATING FURNACE
Courtesy of American Gas Furnace Company, New York City
 FORGING
PART I

MECHANICAL DETAILS
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
Forging Materials. Forging in general treats of the hammer
ing, working, or forming of heated metals. The materials upon
which forging or blacksmithing is done, are wrought iron and steel.
As explained in "Metallurgy", wrought iron is an iron from which
the silicon, phosphorus, and most of the carbon has been removed.
Steel usually contains some of the impurities that are characteristic
of cast iron with the marked peculiarity of holding a varying per
centage of carbon. Mild steels are so called on account of the small
amount of carbon which they contain. As the percentage of carbon
increases, it becomes more difficult to weld the metal. Greater care
must also be used in heating lest the metal be burned and its strength
destroyed. Until recently all heavy forgings involving welding
were made of wrought iron, but now it is customary to make most
forgings of mild steel, particularly large ones, although wrought iron
is somewhat more satisfactory where a great amount of welding is
required.
Classes. These metals may be roughly divided into three general
classes, although the division line may not be sharply drawn be
tween any two classes, asfollows: (1) wrought iron; (2) machine steel;
and (3) tool steel. The characteristics and method of manufacture of
the metals are described in "Metallurgy." A rough distinction
such as a blacksmith would use is about as follows: Wrought iron
has a fibrous structure with stringy streaks of slag running length
wise of the bar, giving it a decided fiber similar to wood. Machine
steel, more properly described as mild steel, or sometimes called soft
steel, has much the same properties as wrought iron excepting that
it lacks the fiber and is somewhat stronger. Tool steel differs from the
other two materials in the fact that by suddenly cooling from a high
heat it may be made very hard, or hardens, to use the technical term.
Wrought iron or machine steel are not hardened by the same treat
2 FORGING

ment. Tool steel is practically the same thing as wrought iron or

machine steel with a small percentage of carbon added. In fact,
either of the two metals may be turned into tool steel by the addition
of carbon. This principle is used in casehardening. Norway iron
or Swedish iron is a grade of very pure wrought iron containing little
slag. It is more expensive than ordinary wrought iron. Refined
iron is a grade of wrought iron not as good as Norway iron but better
than ordinary iron. Norway iron costs about twice as much as
machine steel, which is somewhat cheaper than wrought iron of
almost any grade. Machine steel, made by both the open-hearth
and Bessemer processes, is used for forging.
Sizes of Stock. Material from which forgings are ordinarily made
comes to the forge shop in the shape of bars having uniform sections
throughout; generally round, square, or rectangular in section, and
varying from J inch thick to 18 inches square. Heavier sizes may be
had to order. Bars are ordinarily 12 to 20 feet in length. Thin
stuff, J inch or less in thickness, usually comes in strips of about 40
feet. This may be had from stock up to 6 or 8 inches wide. Tool
steel also comes in bars generally about 6 or 8 feet long. The ordinary
sizes of tool-steel stock are known as base sizes and the price is fixed
on these base sizes. Stock of a larger or smaller size than the base
sizes is generally charged for at an increase in price. Thus inch-
square tool steel, which is a base size, is worth in certain grades about
14 cents a pound. Steel of exactly the same grade and character,
ys of an inch square, costs about 18 cents.
Classification of Equipment. The outfit of a forge shop consists
in general of the heating apparatus—the forge, furnaces, etc.;
and the handling equipment—the anvil, the various tools, and the
machines for shaping and working.

HEATING APPARATUS
Forges. While forges or fires are of many shapes and sizes, the
principles of their construction remain the same. An ordinary
blacksmith forge is a fireplace in the bottom of which there is a tuyere
for admitting a blast of air to blow the fire. Where the air blast is
furnished by a hand bellows, the pipe leading therefrom to the tuyere
is open throughout. Where a power-driven blower furnishes the blast,
there is a valve in the pipe for regulating it.
 "FORGING

The usual form of tuyere consists of a single blast pipe, open

ing into the bottom of the fire pit. This may be a simple nozzle as
in Fig. 1, with the blast
regulated by a damper in
the pipe; or, it may have a
regulator at the mouth of
the tuyere as shown. Some
times the tuyere has several pwwwww
openings, and is then in the
form of a grate. Whatever
kmmw
its form, it should be pos Fig. 1. Tuyere
sible to clean it from below,
in order that coal and clinkers falling into it may be removed.

Fig. 2. Modern Forge

Courtesy of Buffalo Forge Company, Buffalo, New York

A modern type of forge is shown in Fig. 2. This is provided

with a hood for carrying off the smoke. The pipe connected to the
4 FORGING

hood extends downward to an underground flue leading to an

exhaust fan which draws out the air. The blast pipe is also under
ground, and a small pipe leads upward to the tuyere, the amount of
blast admitted to the fire being regulated by a slide in this pipe.
This system of underground piping is known as the down-draft
system.
In some shops no provision is made for carrying off the smoke,
while in others hoods are placed above the forges and connected to

Fig. 3. Motor-Driven Exhauster or Blower

Courtesy of Buffalo For9e Company, Buffalo, New York

overhead pipes, which may be either connected to an exhaust fan or

led directly to the roof. The down-draft system is the more modern
and generally the best.
Blast. The blast is furnished to the fires of a blacksmith shop
by blowers of various kinds. For many years the ordinary bellows
was used. This has been superseded by the fan blower which is now
almost universally used, even for hand power.
Such a fan blower is shown in Fig. 3. It is formed of a thin
cast-iron shell in which there are a set of rapidly revolving blades.
 FORGING 5

These blades set up a current of air which presses against the side
of the shell and escapes through the tangential opening. The
pressure of the blast used for an open blacksmith fire varies from
about 2 to 7 ounces per square inch. The lower pressure is used
for a light fire and light work. The higher pressure is suitable
for heavy classes of work.
Fuel. The common fuel for small fires is soft or bituminous
coal, coke for large fires and furnaces, and occasionally hard coal in
small furnaces. The soft coal used is of a grade known as smithing
coal. It should be very clean and free from impurities. A lump of
good forge coal breaks easily with a crumbly looking fracture and
the coal shows clean and bright on all faces. It will not break up
into layers as "steaming" coal will, such seamy looking breaks being
caused by the more or less earthy impurities. If forge coal splits
and shows dull looking streaks or layers, it is poor coal. Good coal
has little clinker and breaks easily. When used, the coal is damp
ened and kept wet before putting on the fire. It should be broken
up fine before dampening, and not used in lumps.
Fires. The fire must be carefully watched. It is very important
that it should be in first-class condition at all times for the work in
hand. A certain depth of fire is always necessary. If the fire be too
shallow, the cold blast will penetrate the fire in spots, making it
impossible to heat the metal. There should be depth enough to
the fire to prevent this. For small work there should be at least
three or four inches of fire below the metal that is heating. There
should also be thickness enough of fire above the work being heated
to prevent the metal from losing heat to the outside air. The fire
should be kept as small as possible to heat the work properly. As a
general rule the fire will follow the blast. If the fire is wanted larger,
it may be made so by loosening the edges of the fire by a bar, allowing
the blast to come through around the sides, and causing the fire to
spread. When a small fire is wanted the damp coal should be packed
down tightly around the sides and the center of the fire loosened up
slightly. For light work a small round fire is used. For heavier heat
ing the fire is started by placing a large block on top of the tuyere,
on each side of which green coal is packed down hard in the shape
of an oblong mound. The block is then removed and the fire started
in the hole left. These mounds are left undisturbed and fresh fuel is
6 FORGING

added to the fire in the shape of coke which has either been previously
made by loosely banking a quantity of green coal over the fire and
partially burning it to coke, or is bought ready made. With a small
fire the fuel is constantly added around the sides where it is turned
into coke. This coke is raked into the center of the fire as wanted
and more coal added around the sides and patted down to keep the
fire in shape.
When too much blast is blown through the fire all the oxygen
is not burned out of the air. This attacks the iron, forming a heavy

Fig. 4. Small Heating Furnace

coat of oxide or scale (the black scale which falls from heated iron).
This sort of fire is known as an oxidizing fire and should not be used
when it is possible to avoid it. When just enough air is being admitted
to keep the fire burning brightly and all of the oxygen is burned, the
fire is in good condition for heating. Very little scale is formed and
some of the scale already formed may even be turned back to iron.
This sort of a fire is known as a reducing fire. In other words, when
the fire is in condition to give oxygen to anything, it is an oxidizing
fire. If in condition to take away oxygen, it is a reducing fire.
 FORGING

Banking. The fire may be kept for some time by placing a

block of wood in the center and covering over with fresh coal.
Furnaces. In nearly all manufacturing work and in large work in
the jobbing shop, the heating is done in furnaces. The heatis generally
supplied by either hard coal, coke, oil, or gas—coke being more com
monly employed in jobbing shops. Sometimes ordinary coal is used.
. Small Type. A furnace used for heating small work for manu
facturing is shown in Fig. 4. This
may be used with either ordinary
coal or coke. Gas furnaces, a simple
type of which for all around work
is shown in Fig. 5, are used when
an even heat is wanted, particularly
for hardening and tempering. For
manufacturing work the furnaces are
sometimes fixed to do the heating
automatically. The pieces to be
hardened are carried through the
furnace on an endless chain which
moves at a speed so timed that the
pieces have just time enough to be
heated to the right temperature as
they pass through the furnace. Such
a furnace is shown in Fig. 6.
Reverberatory. A reverberatory,
or air furnace, is a furnace in which
Fig. 5. Simple Gas Furnace
ore, metal, or other material is Courtesy of American Gas Furnace Company,
New York City
exposed to the action of flame, but
not to the contact of burning fuel. The flame passes over a bridge
and then downward upon the material spread upon the hearth.
Such furnaces are extensively used in shops where heavy work
is being executed. They are also used for melting iron or other metals.
For this purpose, however, they are not economical, since they
require about twice as much fuel as that used in the cupola for the
production of good hot iron. To be effective the flame must be made
to reverberate from the low roof of the furnace down upon the hearth
and work. The form of the roof and the velocity of the currents
determine the hottest part of the furnace.