lntroduction

This unit provides an overview of English tenses,

focusing on their use in academic English, and on the
areas that can sometimes cause dif{iculties.

1 Choosing between simple and continuous forms.

. Pointers see things that the untrained eye might easily
miss. (present simple)
. Many countries, both rich and poor; are already
seeing the effects of an ageing population.
(present continuous)

2 When to use the present perfect.

. In recent months uegetable oils houe seen uolatility in
the spot price more reminiscent of petroleum.

3 When to use the past perfect.

. The conseruation ofendangered species is safeguarded
by the world's best zoos, whose scientists and stoff
haue successfully reintroduced species to areas where
they had died out.

4 The various future forms.

. Harrison argues that more countries will be enteing
f neaA the text and then trg to name the verb the European Union ouer the next ten years and, as
they do, greater tensions will aise between the richest
tenses used. Can Uou saU whg each tense is
and the poorest.
used?

For centuries, people on sea coasts around

the world 'have hunted whales. From the r Present simple and continuous page oo7
mid-nineteenth century onwards, with the a Past simple and continuous page 008
advent of modern factory ships, the annual 3 Pre5ent perfect (and past simple) page oo8
worldwide catch' i.n c re a sed until it r e a che d
z
a
4 Past perfect (and past simple) page 010
5 future page o1o
peak in the r96os. A rapid decline +followed,
however, because the plastics industry shad
Other units that deal with tenses are unit 9 Passiues,
invented substitutes for most of the products unit 11 Modal uerbs, and unit 17 Conditionals.
of the whale's carcass. The whale-hunting that
,takes place today 7ls
mostly done for food.

2,3,4

6,7

Suggested answers: see page 189

01 Tense review
flf,] Present simple and lnp- State verbs such asbelieve, know, mean; like, prefer,
want; belong, own, possess; contqtn, depend, and matter
continuous are usually used in the present simple.
. The Church Commissioners' report indicates that the
1.1 studg Church of Englandisewnittg owns around lzo,ooo
In academic writing and speaking, the primary use of acres of rural land.
the present simple is for factual descriptions.
. Almost a billion people ere+peaking speah Mandarin,
the official language of the People's Republic of China. 1.1 test Uourselt
. When you heat a substance, its particles moue faster, Circle the correct option.
and so collide more frequently. 1 Boston College tooks for/is looking for an
international marketing manager for their
This includes:
overseas recruitment drive.
1 describing regular activities 2 Social enterprises can be defined as those which
. 49,000 people ere<ntering enter the underground are placing/ptace environmental concerns
stqtion at Waterloo euery day, during the three-hour alongside profit.
morning peah. 3 Monetary policy is operating/operates by
influencing the price at which money is lent.
2 describing processes (often in the passive in academic 4 Smartphones are establishing/establish
English) or giving instructions (in the active) themselves as the dominant mobile device
. The fabic is thenwasheil, dyed, and cut into patterns. amongst younger consumers.
. Then you wash the fabric, ilge it, and cut it into 5 David Hare's plays, as Felton (2009) notes/
patterns. is noting, provide actresses with some of the
strongest roles in modern drama.
3 summarizing or reporting the main arguments of 6 According to the Broadcasters'Audience
other academics. Research Board, the average Briton watches/
. Steele explains that suruiuors oftragic euents often is watching just over thirty hours oftelevision
undergo periods of guilt. per week.
(See page 145 in unit 16 Paraphrasing for more 7 Most people are recognizing/recognize that a
examples of reporting verbs.) respect for the law is the fundamental basis for
a civilized society.
4 talking about the plots of books, films, etc.
. Brooklyn by Colm T6ibin tells the story of Ellis Lacey,
I When a team works/is working intensively on
a project, the ieam leader should protect them
o young u)oman who is sent by her family from lreland
from distraction.
to the USA to get a good job.
9 Stevens argues that consumers these days are
The present continuous is used to describe events preferring/prefer to do business with companies
or actions that are happening at the moment that have environmentally-friendly policies.
(now or around now). These might be continuous 10 Babcock suggests that attitudes to work
events/actions or a series of regular events/actions. amongst young people are changing/change.
. Kayston plc is aduertising for a new CEO after
Hugh Alexander's sudden departure.
. Chinese construction companies are securing a
number of major contracts to rebuild Ethiopia's
infrastructure.
They include temporary situations and trends in
society or the world around us.
. Kingston Enterprises, which is currently operating
from premises in Wandsworth while its new factory
outside Cambridge is being completeil, is one of the
UK's leading manufacturers of computer hqrd diues.
. More people are shopping online these days, and the
seruice standards that consumers expect are ising.

01 Tense review i007i

 IEI Past simple and continuous 1.2 test Uourself
1.2 studg Circle the correct option. lf both are possible,
circle both.
The past simple is used, often with dates, times or
places, for finished events, whether they are long,
1 At the momentwhen the earthquake was
short, or repeated.
striking/struck, most people were sleeping/
. The Mughal Empire wa*eo*reling controlled a large slept.
part of India for more than 300 years. 2 Phillips asked/was asking her subjects to watch
' clips of people smiling, and measured their
. Boo.com uas launched in the autumn of 1999 as an
heart rate afterwards.
online clothing retailer The company then spent $55
million of uenture capital in iust eight months, but
3 During the 18th century merchants would/
used to transport their goods around England
went into receivership on 18 May 2000, one of the
by canal.
most spectacular failures of the 'dotcom' era.
. During the summer of 2010, Theatrespace frGyputtW
4 Audi used to launch/Iaunched its new family
saloon in 2010.
on put on a new show euery week for twelue weeks.
5 At the time of the crash, high street banks were
In the second example above, three separate events investing/invested in some very risky products.
occurred, one after another, so the past simple was used. 6 The yacht White Tiger made/was making
But if events overlap or 'interrupt' one another, the past excellent progress when an unusually high wave
continuous is used for the longer, 'background' event. destroyed/was destroying its mast.
. Brooks Brothers of New York performed was
berforming reasonably weII when the tqkeouer bid r
came from Marhs and Spencers. . EE Present perfect Iand past
. At the time of his death, Einstein was still worhing on
his attempt to unify the lqws of physics.
simple)
Note, however, that state verbs (see fln on page 007)
1.3 studg
are not normally used in the continuous form.
The present perfect is the tense that connects the past
As an alternative to the past simple, you can use used and the present. In the example below, the present
to and would + infinitive without to to refer to habitual perfect is used to describe 'the very recent past up
actions and events in the past. until the present' - with the focus on the present.
. Before the Clean Air Act of 1956, London used to/ . In acquiing Duogame, Gamesmaster plc has become a
would suffer from seuere air pollution hnown as major player in the UK computer games market.
'smog', a combination of smohe and fog. If the past simple was used, the focus would be on
.Portland Zinc weald used to mine most of its supplies 'when' (i.e. a finished moment in the past), and we
in Brazil. It shippeil/woulil shi| the ore from Sdo might include a date.
Paulo to processing plants further up the coast. . In acquiing Duogame, Gamesmaster plc last weeh
Note that in the second example above, you could became a major player in the UK computer games
replace used to by saying something like Portlqnd Zinc market.
mined most of its supplies in Brazil in the 1950s, or
Portland Zinc once mined most of its supplies in Brazil, The present perfect is the tense to use to describe
but you cannot use would until a past context has been people or things as they are now (present focus) in
established. terms of their experience in the past.
. The prouince of Alsace has changeil hands seueral
Note also lhat would is not normally used with state times in its history which explains its cultural
verbs, and that used fo is not used with numbers of heitage.
months, years, etc. Compare the example above with a sentence beginning
. Pqmpas Products woaldused to own a subsidiary Alsacechangedhandsin 1848 and 1872, ...which
in Floida, but it was obliged to sell it to recoup its focuses less on the present nature of Alsace and more
losses duingthe recession ofthe early 1980s. on specific events in its history.
. The company's headquarters tM were located
in Berlin for eight years.

..J"""":

008 i or Tense review

You can use the present perfect and the past simple to ffiF ar a general rule, contracted forms such as
present different aspects ofthe same subject. I've been looking at . .. are normally avoided in written
. In 2005, scientists measureil a land temperature of academic English, but may be used in presentations,
70.7"C in the Lut Desert of lran. (past focus) seminars, etc. (See unit 4 Being formal and informal
'--t No higher temperature has been recorded on earth
for more information on what is acceptable in a formal
since then. (present focus) context.)
+ This is the only time scientists hoae recorded a
temperature aboue 70"C. (present focus)
1.3 test UourseNf
Note howfusf is used with the present perfect to
Complete each sentence with the present perfect
emphasize that an action is recent.
or past simple form of the verb in brackets.
. A team of Russian scientists has just completed a
1 New research indicates that scientists
fiue-year study ofthe behauioural patterns ofthree
(discover)
Sibeian wolf packs.
a potential cure for some forms of dementia.
In academic writing, the present perfect is useful for The key finding
referring to earlier studies or to generally accepted (make) two months ago by a team working
theories in expressions such as: Studies haue shown for Dr Julia Davidson.
that ..., It has become accepteil that ..., Mqthematicians 2 Construction companies
haue proued that ... (build) a new village outside
(See page 127 inunil 14 Hedging for more ways of Perpignan for the past three years.
referring to the work of others.) 3 Thousands of UK citizens
(emigrate) to Australia to start
You can also use the present perfect to summarize the a new life in the 1950s and 60s. One of them
arguments you have made up to that point in an essay (write) an account
or presentation. in 1976 that
. The first part of this report has outlined the way (just/film).
in which one-u)ay road systems can be beneficial in 4 Currently editor of The Weekly Business Digest,
reducing trafflc congestion in town centres. Nout, Wendy Crozier.
some of the disaduantages will be considered. (have) an interesting career. It
(start) in L976 at the BBC.
The present perfect continuous is used to highlight 5 Research
the length of an activity (often with /o r, since, so far , (demonstrate) that people can delay the onset
up until now, all year, etc.). of Tlpe 2 diabetes by losing weight.
. General Motors has been designing its
6 A million Chinese people
new family saloon for the past six months. (move) to Africa in the past
.W (in a presentation) The problems that I'ue been twenty years to take advantage of new business
loohing at so far can all be resolued by an increase in opportunities. More than 250,000 Chinese
the general leuel of funding. immigrants
(arrive) in South Africa alone since 1994.
You can also emphasize the effects that the activity
has had on the present situation.
. Neither compony has much cash left because both
haue been inuesting heauily all year in a new plant.

Note again that state verbs are rarely used with the
continuous form.

.;'. ... ...:

01 Tense review ioog i
lfil Past perfect [and past 1.4 test Uourself
simple ) Correct each sentence bg addinghod.
1 The team of scientists iust left the laboratory
1.4 studg
when the flre broke out, so there were no
The past perfect is used to talk about a past event injuries.
which happened before another past event. 2 James Lott described the trip as a failure as
. Trade unionrepresentatiues returned (past) fo they expected to discover at least'three new
the talks on Friday 17 May, but by this time the ' species of insect.
management team *ithdru had already withdrawn 3 The regiment made a successful case for all
(earlier past) their offer. those who participated in the rescue voyage to
. G & M Business Machines lost a significant receive the Distinguished Service Cross.
percentage ofits market share between 2004 and 4 Petroleum Products finally admitted that crude
2010 because it hailfailed to anticipate the growth in oil been leaking from its tanker for more than a
Chinese demand. week.
5 Many companies signed contracts with
The past perfect is commonly used:
competitors by the time Holliwell Carlease
I after past simple forms of verbs connected with offered them the new Fiat.
speaking or thinking such as admit, agree, belieue, 6 The government denied that they announced
claim, confirm, deny, know and realize the new proposals before they were ready.
. A number of MPs claimeil that Tony Blair had misleil
Parliament during the debates ouer the Iraq war.
. Most obseruers agreeil that the merger hail tahen ' .flEt Future
place too quickly.
. Professor Bemard hnew immediately that her team 1.5 studg
had made a significant discouery. There are a number of ways of talking about the future
using the following words and structurcs: will, be going
2 in relative clauses
to, and present tenses; the future continuous and
. The report concluiled that no side fficts were
perfect tenses; be (due) to, be about to, etc., and the
apparent in the patients who had receiued low doses
'future in the past'.
of the new medicine.
L Will, be going fo and present tenses
3 in third conditional sentences
. If the company's accountants hail submitted the tax Will and be going fo can often be used interchangeably
return by the due date, GM Holidays would not haue with no change in meaning. W\II,however, is much
been fined. more commonly used in written academic English than
be going to.
4 in past situations where plans did not succeed. . The President will/is going to spend two days in
. Researchers had hopeil to complete their study by
Moscow, before trauelling on to Oslo.
2010, but found that they did not haue sufficient data.
. The chairman of the enquiry had wanted to question (| natural when announcing
Be going to is more
General Armstrong, but the General's legal team a plan in spoken English, or when describing the
refused to cooperate. announcement of a new initiative in written English.
. May I start my presentation? Thank you. l+ill I'm
The past perfect continuous is used in the same way
going to talk qbout water conseruation today.
as the present perfect continuous - to highlight the . A group of priuate uniuersities in Germany is going to
length and effects of an activity.
introduce a fast-track medical degree course next year
. The haulage company was prosecuted when health
and safety inspectors were able to proue that some of In the above examples, you could replace be going to
its employees had been ilriuing for up to twenty hours with the present simple or present continuous form
without taking a break. of a verb such as intend to or plan to (A group of
priuate uniuersities in Germany intends/is inteniling to
introduce ...).

ioroi 01 Tense review

The present continuous may be used as an alternative Be (un)likely to or certain fo + infinitive are normally
lo will for lixed arrangements, and the present simple used to express probability.
can be used for schedules. . The gouernment is unlihely to announce new reforms
. The UK is hosting/will host a summit in December to to the House of Lords until after the next election.
discuss the international response to global warming.
The theatre company begins/will begin its tour in In discussing the history of an event, you may want to
..
Chicago in May. use 'future in the past' with past forms of be to (was/
were to), be about to (was/were about to), will (would),
Wil/ is normally used after verbs that express and be going to (was/were going to).
uncertainty about the future such as doubt, expect, . President Obqmq was to attmd the opening euent, but
hope, andthink. a security alert changed the situation.
. Some critics expect that the new scheme will fail quite . Keirstonplcwas aboutto go banhruptwhen anew
quickly through lack of public support. order from Japan came through.
. The CEO of Spector Products realized in 2007 that
2 Future continuous and perfect tenses the economic situation would get worse.
. Some local communities were going to hold street
You can use the future continuous (uil/ + be + -ing
parties to celebrate the royal wedding until they
form) as an alternative to will + inflnitive without fo to
discouered that they were legally obliged to get
emphasize what will be happening at a specific time in
permission from the local authorities.
the future.
. Ttlo British astronauts will join/will be joining the Was/Were fo can also be used with be or proue to
Russian team qt the space station in October. emphasize the importance of a past event or action on
future consequences.
When you describe a future activity that will already . The opening of a seies of branches in the USA was
be in progress at a speciflc time in the future, however,
to proudwas to be qn expensiue mistake for the UK
you must use the continuous form.
retaileri Bourke and Msson.
. By this time next yeari it is possible that Bailey and
Sharp will<ryert will he acporting more of its tractors
to China than to EU countries. 1.5 test Uourself
The future perfect (will + haue + past participle) and Circle the correct option. lf both are possible,
future perfect continuous (will + haue been + -ing form) circle both.
are used to say that something will happen or be 1 Tesco doubtes/is going to double the number of
achieved before a specific time in the future. its hypermarkets in China by 2020.
. Man! commentators belieue thqt six or seuen of the 2 Government cuts mean that life will be/witt
smaller Ameican merchant banks will haue gone into have been difflcult for many people over the
receiuership by this time next year. next three years.
. In a year's time, Railton plc will haue been operating 3 The establishment of an offlce in New York in
in China for a quarter of a century. 2009 was to prove/would prove to be a very
successful move for the UK TV company.
3 Be (ilue) to, be about to, be (un)lihely/certain to 4 Ifeverything goes to plan, at 14.16 this
afternoon, a minute after starting his engine,
The present tense of the verb be + fo + infinitive
Andy Green will be driving/witt drive faster
is used as an alternativeto will to express formal
than anyone has driven before.
decisions, plans and requirements. Be due to is used in
5 Some economists argue that India is to/will
a similar way.
outperform China in the long-term.
. The UK and Argentina are to/are due to sign a new.
6 The new law on the advertising of cigarettes will
trade agreement in January next year
take/takes effect in April next year.
You can usebe about to + infinitive to describe 7 All of the parties would/were about to come
something that will happen in the immediate future. to an agreement when news broke of a new
Be on the point of + -ing form is used in a similar way. rebel attack.
. Scienfists are about to test the prototype of a scheme I A malor new aerospace factory is opening/will
to cool parts ofthe atmosphere. (: Scientists are on open in Sunderland in February.
the boint of testinC ...)

01 Tense review
& X Challenge yourself
A Complete the text with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
The business of tourism 1- (grow) massively over the past century.
lWEffiU
phenomenon i a fact
While extensive foreign travel has always been one of the pleasures of the wealthy, or an event in nature
its extension to the mass market 2- (be) a phenomenon of the last or societg, especiallg
Iifty years. Domestic tourism really 3- (begin) in the mid-nineteenth one that is not fullg
century, as workers 4- (gain) paid annual leave,. at flrst for one week understood
and then for two. Longer periods gradually 5- (become) common, in
domestic iof or inside a
some cases granted by benevolent employers such as Cadbury's, but more often
7- particular countrg; not
6- (light) for and (win) by the trade unions. This
foreign or international
was made possible as a result of the concentration of the labour force in factories
during the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century, which
8- grant:to agree to give
somebodg what theU
(change) the balance of power between employers and employees.
ask for, especiallg formal
or legal permission to do
something
concentrationia lot of
something in one place
labour;the people who
work or are available
for work in a countrg or
comPanu

B Match the beginning of each sentence with the correct ending.

1 At the beginning of mass tourism, the whole workforce of a factory would
2 This model of tourism was
3 Workers from the polluted industrial cities of Russia used to
4 For example, they might be told to
5 As much as possible, people wanted to

a travel en masse to the pristine shores ofthe lakes ofthe Central Asian republics,
where doctors examined them on arrival and prescribed speciflc food, drink,
exercise, and activities for the month.
b spend their vacation building up their strength, socializing with colleagues, and
relaxing with their families.
c move to the seaside, a resort town, or a spa, to spend their holiday together with
their workmates and immediate family.
d amplified in the Soviet Union.
e walk in the pine forests for an hour a day.

01 Challenge gourself
C Circle the correct option Ia-dJ to complete the sentences from a short text about
air travel.
1 The development oflarger planes in the 1950s and 60s down the cost of
air travel. -
a brings b brought c had brought d is bringing
? This led to the business of tourism that we today.
a are seeing b have seen c see - d saw
3 The relatively prosperous citizens of northern Europe their holidays within
their own country. -
a used to take b take c were taking d took
4 Now they to coastal resorts in Greece and Spain.
a are flying
- b were able to fly c had flown d had been flying
5 These sunny holiday destinations popular for decades.
a are b are being c used to be d had been
5 Previously, however, they a long journey by road or boat, taking several days in
each direction. -
a had required b were required c were requiring d require
7 This was not possible for someone with only a couple of weeks'vacation
allowance. With the advent of cheaper air travel, foreign destinations
accessible in a way they had never been before. -
a become b became c are becoming d did become

D Complete this paragraph about shopping, usingthe correct form ofone ofthe
verbs in the box. You will have to use the passive for one verb. @challengeia newor

,i b" contribute need pose serve take i

difficult task that tests
somebodg's abilitg
Thechangingretaillandscape1-achal1engeforbothbusiness and skill
1eadersandcityplanners.Towncentres2-asthecommercialcentre
hence i for this reason
of their communities. This is no longer entirely the case, and there are two main
reaSonS.Theflrst3-theriseoftheso.calledsuperstoresorbig-box trendia general
stores, usually grouped in retail parks on the outskirtqof cities, well provided with direction in which a
parking but poorly served by public transport. The secorid is the rise of internet situation is changing or
shopping.Thiscan4-theformofgiantwebretai1erssuchasAmazon developing
and eBay, or the online presence oflong-standing retail chains, or the digitization declineia continuous
ofcontentsuchthatnophysica1product5-,andhencenophysica1 decrease in the number,
shop either. Both these long-term trends, to big out-ofitown stores, and to internet value, qualitu, etc. of
shopping, 6-to the decline of the town centre. something

01 Challenge gourself
 E Correct the mistakes in the verb forms. There is one mistake in each
numbered section.
@
technological i relating
1 'There are fewer wheelbarrows waiting to be invented.' This contention appears to the practical use in
in a millennial essay on 'The road to riches', which was seeking to develop an industrg of scientific
explanation for the astonishing rise in living standards in the West over the past knowledge
couple of centuries.
innovation ithe
2 Why did The Economist's anonymous writers choose the wheelbarrow as their
introduction of new
exemplar of progress? Because it had transformed construction.
things, ideas or wags of
3 The pyramids of Eglpt are built without them; nineteenth-c€ntury skyscrapers
doing something
could not have been.
4 A corollary of this argument will be that the pace of technological innovation is previouslg i happening
bound to slow down, instead of, as was previously assumed, endlessly increasing. or existing before the

5 Scientilic discoveries are likely to continue indefinitely, subject to funding. If blue- event or object that gou
sky research is curtailed in one area, for example genetics in the United States, it are talking about

is going to be certain to migrate to another. assumeito think or

6 Technology, on the other hand, encounters, or is about to encounter, a ceiling, accept that something is
according to this argument. true but without having
7 The practical, tangible innovations that have lifted much of humanity from proof of it
poverty to affluence, from subsistence agriculture through the Industrial researchithe careful
Revolution to, in many countries, service-based economies - these innovations studg of a subject,
were already invented. especiallg in order to
8 There will be no more significant, radical new inventions that transform an discover new facts or
industry. Instead, gradual and incremental improvemen4s would be the path of information about it
the future.
technologg i scientif ic
9 The counter-arguments to this are twofold. Firstly, it can be argued that we were
knowledge used in
not capable of knowing what has not yet been invented.
practicalwags in
10 Before the wheelbarrow exists, no one felt the need for one. There may be plenty
industrg, for example in
more such devices waiting in the wings. There is no shortage of intelligent,
designing new machines
ingenious people eager to make their mark as inventors.
11 The second argument is pointing to entirely new areas of human activity, for encounter:to
discover or experience
example in personalized medicine and in human-machine interaction.
12 The future may see scientists inventing things we cannot yet imagine. Instead of something, especiallg

wheelbarrows - sturdy objects that anyone can use and understand - our future something new,

inventors may have been working at a microscopic, or indeed molecular, level. unusual, or unexpected
capable i having the
abilitg or qualities
necessarU for doing
something
device i an object or a

piece of equipment that

has been designed to do
a particular job

interaction i a process
or situation in which two
things communicate
with or have an effect on
each other

:0141 01 Challenge gourself

F Complete the text with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
Theinter-relationshipbetweendiabetesandobesity1-(be)for
some time a matter of interest to researchers and clinicians. The case of the Pima
Indiansisonethatcontinues2-(be)muchstudied.Theyareagroup
ofNativeAmericanswho3-(live)forthousandsofyearsinwhat
is now the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Their traditional
economy was based for the most part on subsistence agriculture, and they
4-(endure)periodsoffamineaswellasplenty.Inthetwentieth
century,thewayoflife5-(change)dramaticallyintheformer
country, but not so much in the isolated rural areas ofthe latter. By 2000, the
AmericanPima6-(become)obese,and7-(develop)one
of the highest rates of diabetes in the world. However, their Mexican cousins do
not suffer these problems to nearly the same extent.

G Circle the correct option.

The situation is as close to a scientiflc experiment as itlis/ r.uil/ be possible to find
@
intervention ithe act
in the field, that is, without direct and deliberate intervention. The American and or process of becoming
the Mexican Pima2share/are sharing essentially the same genotype, and until a involved in a situation
few generations ago they alsosshared/were sharingthe same phenotype. In other in order to improve or
words, although lhey ahaue/ would hsue very similar genetic make-up, the two help it
groups, which once had the same body shape, now swill looh/loo,k different and
6will suffer/suffer different health problems. This genotype-phenotype distinction similari like somebodg/
something but not
is a fundamental one for any study of genetics.
exactlU the same
Neel (1962) proposed that the predisposition towards diabetes Twill be caused/ distinctionia clear
is ccused by what he called a 'thrifty gene', one that 8/ros enabled/enables the difference or contrast
body to store fat when food is plentiful, in preparation for the famine thatewill especiallg between
lie/ies around the corner. This theory has undergone modification in the past people or things that are
half-century. Barker's hypothesis (1997) posits a 'thrifty phenotype': if a pregnant similar or related
woman is starved of nutrients, her baby tois/will be born small, and is likely to
fundamental iserious
develop certain diseases later in life. The growing foetus is prepared for a life in
and verg important
which famine ltis/is going fo be likely. In reality, of coulsq, famine t2has been/is
increasingly unlikely for most citizens in most countries today. We suffer from the undergoito experience
opposite problem, overnutrition. Our biology, whichl3had euolued/euolues in slow something, especiallg a
tiny steps, has not kept pace with the rapid changes in the way we live, and one change
consequence lahad been/is the epidemic of diseases of affluence, notably obesity modificationithe act
and diabetes. or process of changing
something in order to
H Write 100-200 words about the past, present, and future of the place Uou come improve it or make it
from [village, citg, or countrg J . more acceptable
eYolveito develop
graduallg, especiallg
from a simple to a more
complicated form

01 Challenge gourself