Civil Engineering Materials and Constructions (BCE03002)

Module-V

Basic Building Construction

Module V Syllabus

Finishing, Services and Special constructions

Wall Finishes: Plastering, pointing, distempering and painting: Purpose, methods, defects and
their solutions. Vertical communication: Stairs: Terminology, requirements of good staircase,
classification; ramps, lifts and escalators. Damp proofing: causes, effects, prevention and
treatments, Fire resistant construction: Fire resistant properties of common building materials,
requirements for various building components.
1. WALL FINISHES:

1.1 PLASTERING:

Definition of Plastering:

plastering is a layer provide over masonry or concrete surface for the purpose of protect wall and

other concrete element against the atmospheric effect, and also provide finishing surface.

Purpose of Plastering

1)Plastering is a method that is used to increase the durability of the wall. The purpose of plastering

is to decorate the structures of the walls. Plastering of external walls refers to the process of

covering the uneven surface and rough walls with the help of a plastic material named as plaster.

2)The plaster is prepared by mixing sand and lime or cement concrete along with water. There are

various requirements of a plaster that must be fulfilled while doing plastering of external walls.

3)To prevent water ingress into brickwork / blockwork, since both bricks and blocks absorb water

from outside. This is the reason why most stoneworks are left un-plastered.

4)In case of walls - to make up the issues in underlying brickwork / blockwork - like plumb-outs,

diagonal-outs, etc.

5)To prepare a proper base for further painting works (Putty application, paint application, wall

paper application, etc.)

Requirement of Good Plaster

-The surface of plaster should be smooth

-The surface of plaster should be non-absorbent

-The plaster surface should not wash by water

-Plaster should not shrink when it dries or freezes

-The shrinkage cracks is not developed in plaster

-The plaster should be firmly attached to the masonry surface

-The fire resistance of plaster should be good

-The plaster should be sound insulated

-The surface of the plaster should be paintable

Methods of Plastering

Plater is applied in the manner mention below. To get uniform 150 x 150 mm and 10 mm thick

dots are prepared on the surface at a lower level.

Those dots are transferred on the upper level with a plumb bob, so the dots of the upper level and

lower come in one and vertical surface.

In this, any dots are applied on all the surface of the wall at 1500 to 2000 mm. Four dots are

covered masonry with the help or screed, and plaster is applied properly. Lime plaster is applied

in these coats or in three coats or in two cots. The background is prepared before applying plaster.

1) Three Coat Plaster

● Application of Rendering Coat

● Application of Floating Coat
● Application of Finishing Coat
2)Two Coat Plaster

3)Cement Plaster and Cement Lime Plaster

4)Two Coat Plaster

5)Three Coat Plaster

6)Single Coat Plaster

7)Plaster on Lath

● Wooden Laths

● Metal Lath
1). Three Coat Plaster

The procedure of applying three-coat plaster is similar to two-coat plaster only difference is that

an intermediate coat is known as a floating coat. The purpose of this coat is to bring the plaster to

an even surface. In the case of 3-coat plaster, the first coat is known id rendering coat, the second

coat is known as a floating coat, and third coat is known as setting coat or finishing coat.The

rendering coat is applied, and scratches are made. The floating coat is applied, and after seven days

finished coat is applied, after 6 hours of applying a floating coat.

-Application of Rendering Coat

The mortar is applied forcibly on the surface of wall. With masons trowel and pressed well into

joints and over the surface. The thickness of the coat should be such as to cover all inequalities of

the surface normally this thickness is 12mm.

This coat is allowed to harden slightly a then scratch marks are made on the surface with the help

of trowel ledge. During this period, the surface is curved and then allowed to dry completely

-Application of Floating Coat

The first coat is prepared properly to apply the second coat, i.e., a floating coat. All dirt and dust

are cleared. It is wetted properly. 10 cm wide strips or 15 cm x 15 cm patches are applied at a

suitable distance. These patches or strips act as a gauge for thickness or floating coat. The mortar

is dashed with mason’s trowel, spread, and rubbed to the required plain surface with a wooden

float. The floating coat is beaten with floats edge at the close spacing of cm. Then it is allowed to

dry completely. The thickness or floating coat is 6 to 9 mm.

-Application of Finishing Coat

The third coat is called a finishing coat. In the Case of lime-sand mortar, the finishing coat is
applied immediately after the floating coat cream of lime and sand in 4:1 are applied with a steel
trowel and rubbed and finished smooth.
2) Two Coat Plaster

The joints are ranked at a depth of 20 mm. The surface is cleaned, and water is sprinkled property

on it.Before the first coat is applied preliminary coat is applied to make an uneven surface in le.

Then, the first coat is applied. The first coat is racked as a rendering coat. The thickness first coat

is kept 2 to 3 mm less than a total thickness of plaster. To maintain interim thickness and vertically

of plaster 15 cm * 15 cm dots or are provided, Then a vertical strip of mortar known as the spread

is formed at a distance of 2 m. spacing.Then the spaces between screeds are filled with mortar and

properly finished.Scratches are made on rendering coat to provide mechanical key before it

hardens. The rendering coat is watered for 2 days and then dried.

Before applying the final/coat, the rendering coat is damped well. The final coat is applied with

wooden floats to a true even surface with steel trowels. The thickness of the final coat may vary

from 2 to 3 mm.

3) Single Coat Plaster

This is used only in interior quality work. It is applied similar to two coat plaster except that the

rendering coat as applied fro two-coat plaster is finishing off immediately after it has sufficiently

hardened

4) Cement Plaster and Cement Lime Plaster

For interior work single coat plaster is applied. For good quality works, either two coat or three

coat plaster is applied. But two coat plaster is more common sow shall discuss it first.

5) Plaster on Lath

Thin partition walls and ceilings are plastered using laths. Laths are provided as a foundation to
receive plasterwork. Laths may be.
-Wooden laths

-Metal laths
Wooden laths are well seasonal wooden strips 25 mm wide and 1 to 1.2 m long. Wooden laths are

used and ceilings.Laths are fixed in a parallel line with a clear spacing of 10 mm and secured to

the surface with galvanized iron nails.

Metal laths are available under various patent names. The plain expanded metal lath(exam) is

commonly metal laths are fixed to the surface by G.I Staples.In the case of concrete or masonry

surfaces, wooden plugs have to be embedded for fixing the lath. After fixing the lath, the surface

is plastered, usually, in there coats, cement mortar is usually used.

Plaster Defects and their Solution

Plaster is a common material used in construction all around the world. Easy to work with and also

easier to repair. However, there will be times when your plaster starts to show signs of wear and

tear or other problems.If the plaster quality is not good enough it can cause many problems later.

1). Blistering of Plastered Surface

Blistering is the formation of small patches of plaster, swelling out beyond the plastered surface,

arising due to late slaking (addition of water to lime) of lime particles in the plaster. This defect is

usually caused due to the uneven mixing of plaster.

How to prevent it: This can be prevented by ensuring appropriate mixing between cement and

it’s components used to form plaster.

2) Plaster De-bonding

De-bonding occurs when a plaster is separated from the wall. It can be caused by an excessively

thick plaster layer, inadequate substrate preparation or may be due to a dusty, oily or dry substrate.

How to prevent it: To prevent de-bonding of plaster, we need to take care of the following things

during plastering.

● Remove dust & oil from the substrate before plastering.

 ● Allow substrate to reach correct moisture content.

● If necessary you should use bonding chemical.

3) Cracks on Plastered Surface

One of the most common problems you would have observed in plastering is the crack. Cracks on

the plastered surface can be in different forms:

Crazing – It is a network of fine cracks like spider web. They are usually very fine and do not

extend through the whole depth of the plaster. It occurs due to presence of excess fine content in

the sand or due to dry base on which plaster is applied – when base absorbs the water and fines

accumulate on the surface, it leads to crazing.

Separation crack at joints – It usually occurs at joints of two different materials for example at

junction of RCC & Brick work. It occurs due to differential thermal movement.

Crack with Hollowness – This crack occurs due to hollowness in plaster. Other reasons could be

extra water in the plaster mix or due to poor workmanship.

How to prevent it: Mainly cracks occur due to bad workmanship or expansion and shrinkage in

the plaster during drying. Below are few tips to prevent cracks:

● Ensure the addition of water in mortar done is by skilled mason and not by unskilled labour

to ensure desired workability in terms of handling and application.

● It can be avoided by proper curing of the plaster in order to slow down any rapid drying.

● Taking care of workmanship and material quality issues will help in preventing cracks.

4) Efflorescence on Plastered Surface

When a newly constructed wall dries out, the soluble salts are brought to the surface and they
appear in the form of a whitish crystalline substance. This is called efflorescence. Efflorescence is
formed on plasters when soluble salts are present in plaster making materials as well as building
materials such as bricks, sand, cement etc. Even water used in the construction work may contain
soluble salts. It seriously affects the adhesion of paint with the wall surface and causes further
problems.
How to prevent it:
All Construction materials used for wall should be free from salt.
Ensuring that the surface is moisture-free.
5). Falling Out of Plaster
This defect can happen in two forms – Flaking of plaster and peeling off plaster.
● Flaking of plaster: The formation of a small loose mass on the plastered surface is known
as flaking. It is mainly due to bond failure between successive coats of plaster.
● Peeling off plaster: The plaster from some portion of the surface comes off and a patch is
formed. This is termed as peeling. It is also mainly due to bond failure between successive
coats of plaster.
How to prevent it: Both defects can be prevented with proper material selection and surface
preparation. Imperfect adhesion can be minimized by good workmanship.
6) Popping of Plaster
Popping is the formations of conical like holes that break out of the plaster. It is caused due to the
presence of contaminant particles such as burnt lime or other organic materials in the mix of
mortar.
How to prevent it: To prevent popping in plastering, you need to ensure that no contaminant
particles are present in the mortar mix.
7) Loose Plaster

When the plaster gets displaced on external impacts like application of material or tapping, etc, it

is termed as loose plaster. This is caused mainly due to improper mixture and inadequate curing.

How to prevent it: Good workmanship will help in avoiding this problem.

Apart from the above defects, Uneven or undulation also occurs at plastered surface. The plastered

surface should be in perfect plumb and without any undulations. Unevenly plastered surface

happens due to poor workmanship2 of the plastering work.

1.2 POINTING:

Definition of pointing: Pointing is the finishing of mortar joints in brick or stone masonry

construction. Pointing is the implementing of joints to a depth of 10 mm to 20 mm and filling it

with better quality mortar in desired shape. It is done for cement mortar and lime mortar joints.

Purpose of pointing:

Pointing is adopted due to the following purposes.

* For the protection of exposed surface from adverse effects due to atmospheric action like rain,

sun, wind, snow etc.

* To hide the interior mortar and inferior quality.

* To develop a decorative impact or to enhance the appearance.

Methods of pointing:

*Mortar joints of the surface (Brick Masonry or Stone Masonry) to be pointed are raked out to a

depth of about 13 to 20 mm.

*The raked joints are cleaned from loose mortar and completely wetted.Mortar is taken in small

flat rectangular plates made of iron.

*Pointing should be finished as per the expected finishing with the help of the particular tool.

*Curing should be done on the pointed surface for at least three days in case of lime mortar and

ten days in case of cement mortar.

Types of pointing:

1. Flush Pointing

Flush pointing is the most accessible type of pointing and is generally utilised in brick masonry

and stone masonry.In flush pointing, mortar is pushed into the raked joints and joints are made

flush with the edge of the stone or brick to provide a uniform appearance.
After that, with the help of a trowel and straight edge, edges are precisely trimmed. This type of

pointing doesn’t have a good appearance, but it doesn’t have any space for dust and water which

make it long-lasting.

2. Recessed Pointing

Recessed pointing has a vertical pointing face and provides a better appearance. A recessed

pointing mortar is pushed back inside the surface of the wall with a vertical pointing face with the

help of a suitable pointing tool.

3. Beaded Pointing

Beaded pointing is made with the help of a steel or iron rod having a concave edge. Beaded

pointing provides a better appearance, but it is susceptible to damage and maintenance is difficult.

4. Struck Pointing

In struck pointing, have inclined or sloping pointing face as shown in the image. The upper edge

of the joint is about 3 to 6 mm pushed back inside from the face of the brick.This joint helps to

dispose of water quickly. When the lower edge of the joint is kept inside from the face of brick or

stone, it is called overhand struck pointing. But it will not make an adequate joint because water

may collect in the joint.

5. Rubbed, Keyed or Grooved Pointing

In tuck pointing, a channel or groove of 5mm width and 3 mm depth is created at the middle of

the mortar joint. Then the groove or track is packed up by white cement putty having a projection

of 3 mm. If the node is made in the mortar, it is known as bastard pointing or half – tuckpointing.

6. Tuck Pointing

In this case mortar is pressed in the raked joint first and finishing flush with the face.While the

pressed mortar is green, groove or narrow channel is cut in the center of groove which is having
5mm width and 3mm depth. This groove is then filled with white cement putty, kept projecting

beyond the face of the joint by 3 mm. if projection is done in mortar, it is called bastard pointing

or half tuck pointing.

7. V- Grooved Pointing

This type of point is similar to keyed or grooved pointing except that instead of a normal groove,

v groove is formed using a suitable shaped steel rod.

1.3 DISTEMPERING:

Distemper: Distemper is a water based paint in which the binding medium consists essentially of

either glue or casein, or similar sizing material.  The major constituents of distemper are chalk,

lime, water and some coloring agents if necessary. They are also known as cement paint. This is

called so because such kind of paint can be applied directly on cement walls without any other

coating on them. They are a cheaper option and they stay good for more than 5 years. Distempers

are used for both interior and exterior walls usually needing two coatings.

Ingredients of Distemper:

Distemper is composed of base, carrier, colouring pigments and size. For base, the whiting or chalk

is used and for carrier, the water is used. Thus it is more or less a paint in which whiting or chalk

is used as base instead of white lead and the water is used as carrier instead of linseed oil.

The distempers are available in powder form or paste form. They are to be mixed with hot water

before use. The oil-bound distempers are a variety of an oil paint in which the drying oil is so

treated that it mixes with water. The emulsifying agent which is commonly used is glue or casein.

As the water dries, the oil makes a hard surface which is washable.
It should be remembered that most of the manufacturers of ready-made distempers supply

complete directions for use of their products. These directions are to be strictly followed to achieve

good results.

Properties of Distempers:

(i) On drying, the film of distemper shrink. Hence it leads to cracking and flaking, if the surface to

receive distemper is weak.

(ii) The coatings of distemper are usually thick and they are more brittle than other types of wa ter

paints.

(iii) The film developed by distemper is porous in character and it allows water vapour to pass

through it. Hence it permits new walls to dry out without damaging the distemper film.

(iv) They are generally light in colour and they provide a good reflective coating.

(v) They are less durable than oil paints.

(vi) They are treated as water paints and they are easy to apply.

(vii) They can be applied on brickwork, cement plastered surface, lime plastered surface, insulating

boards, etc.

(viii) They exhibit poor workability.

(ix) They prove to be unsatisfactory in damp locations such as kitchen, bathroom, etc.

Process of Distempering:

The application of distemper is carried out in the following way:

(1) Preparation of Surface:

The surface to receive the distemper is thoroughly rubbed and cleaned.

The important facts to be kept in mind are:

(i) The new plastered surfaces should be kept exposed for a period of two months or so to dry out

before distemper is applied on them. The presence of dampness on the surface results in failure of

distemper coating.

(ii) The surface to receive distemper should be free from any efflorescence patches. These are to

be wiped out by clean cloth.

(iii) The irregularities such as cracks, holes, etc. of the surface are to be filled by lime putty or

gypsum and allowed to become hard before distemper is applied on the surface.

(iv) If distemper is to be applied on the existing distempered surfaces, the old distemper should be

removed by profuse watering.

(2) Priming Coat:

After preparing the surface to receive the coats of distemper, a priming coat is applied and it is

allowed to become dry. For ready-made distempers, the priming coat should be composed of

materials as recommended by the makers of distempers. For local made distempers, the milk is

used for priming coat. One litre of milk will cover about 10 m2 of the surface.

(3) Coats of Distemper:

The first coat of distemper is then applied on the surface. It should be of a light tint and applied

with great care. The second coat of distemper is applied after the first coat has dried and become

hard.

Following facts are to be remembered:

(i) The distempering should be done in dry weather to achieve better results.

(ii) The oil-bound distemper or washable distemper adheres well to oil- painted walls, wood,

corrugated iron, etc. But a priming coat of pure milk should be applied before distempering is done

on such surfaces.
(iii) The application of distemper by a spraying pistol is superior to that by brushes. The spraying

affords smooth and durable film of distemper.

Defects in Distempering:

The following are the defects which may occur in distempering work.

1. Blistering: It is the defect caused due to the formation of bubbles under the distempering film.

The bubbles are formed by water vapours trapped behind the surface.

2. Bloom: In this defect, dull patches are formed on the finished surface. This may be due to the

defect in distempering material or bad ventilation.

3. Crawling or sagging: This defect occurs due to the application of too thick a distempering coat.

4. Flaking: Flaking is the loosening of some portion of the distempered surface.

5. Fading: This is the gradual loss of colour of distemper, due to the effect of sunlight.

6. Flashing: It is the formation of glossy patches on the surface, resulting from bad workmanship.

7. Grinning: This defect is caused when the final coat does not have sufficient opacity so that

background is clearly seen.

1.4 PAINTING:

Paints are coatings of fluid materials which are applied as a final finish to surfaces like walls,

ceiling, wood and metal works.

Painting is done to protect the surface from the effects of weathering, to prevent wood from decay

and metal from corrosion, to provide a decorative finish and to obtain a clean, hygienic and healthy

living atmosphere.

Purpose of painting:

1. Decoration to Interiors and Exteriors of a Building

 2. They are used to enhance the interior and exterior of a building by adding pigments,

lightness or darkness

3. Reflective surfaces can be also be obtained

4. Now a days textures are also added for different designs Protective Layer

5. Paint are used to protect the outer surfaces of a building or metals to protect them against:

○ Sunlight

○ Dampness

○ Dust

○ Abrasion

○ Weathering

○ Ease of Cleaning

○ To provide easily cleanable surfaces

○ To keep the substrates clean and tidy

Methods and Process of Painting on Different Surfaces

● New wood work

● Repainting Old wood surface

● New iron and steel surfaces

● Repainting of old steel and iron surfaces

● Galvanized iron surface

● Metals

● Plastered surfaces

● Painting on New Wood Work

Following are the steps for painting new wooden surfaces:

● Surface preparation

● Knotting

● Priming

● Stopping

● Under coating

● Finishing

1. Surface Preparation of Wooden Works

The surface should be well cleaned without any dust, spots, greasy matter etc. The nails used in

the wood work should be punched up to 3mm below the surface. The wood in wood work should

be well seasoned and should not contain more than 15% of moisture content. The surface should

be dry.

2. Knotting

Knots present in the wood may eject resins from wood. So, knots are killed or covered in this

knotting process. Knotting can be done by two ways as follows: 1. In this first method, two coats

of solutions are applied on surface. First coat consists 15g of red lead, 2 liters of water and 225

grams of glue. After adding these three, mixture is heated and applied and left for 10 minutes.

After that second coat is applied which consists red lead ground in boiled linseed oil and thinned

with turpentine oil. 2. In this method, hot lime coat is applied on surface and left it for 24 hours.

After that the layer is scrapped off from the surface.

3. Priming of New Wooden Surface

Priming is nothing but applying prime coat or first coat on surface. In this case, the surface is

smoothened with abrasive paper and then first coat of paint is applied to fill all the pores in the
surface. The ingredients used in this prime coat is same as subsequent coats but the quantity or

composition ratio may vary.

4. Stopping

After filling all the pores of wooden surface in priming, it’s time to fill up nail holes, dents, cracks,

etc. Putty is used as the fill material. When putty is dried, then the whole surface is rubbed with

glass paper or pumice stone. This process of rubbing sown the wooden surface is called stopping.

5. Under Coating of New Wooden Surface

In general, for good quality works, 4 coats of paints are applied (prime + under coatings +

finishing). For inferior quality works 2 to 3 coats can be used. So, under coatings are nothing but

second and third coats of good quality works which provides same look or shade as finishing coat.

For better results, enough time should be allowed for each coat.

6. Finishing of New Wooden Surface

Finishing is the last coat applied on surface which is generally applied on the under coatings. It

should be applied in smooth, uniform manner. It decides the whole final look of surface, so, skilled

workers is required for better results.

Repainting of Old Wooden Surface

Old wood work can be repainted but the previous paint work should be removed. The removal is

more important which can be done by many ways as follows:

Prepare a solution of 1 kg caustic soda in 5 liters of water and apply on the old painted surface.

When this solution is applied on the surface, the old paint gets dissolved and removed easily.

Another method is, prepare a hot solution consisting of soft soap, potash, quicklime in the ratio

1:2:1. This solution is applied on old surface and washed with hot water.
1:1 mixture of washing soda and quick lime is prepared and applied on old paint surface and then

washed with water.

After applying any of the three methods described above, the surface is ready for fresh painting.

Before that the surface is rubbed with pumice stone or glass paper and then 2 to 3 coats of paints

are applied.

Painting of New Iron and Steel Surfaces

Painting of iron and steel surfaces will resist the rust formation due to weathering. Before painting

the surface must be cleaned. If there is any rust or scales, should be wiped off using steel brushes

etc. stains on surface can be washed with benzene or lime water. Before applying prime coat, the

surface should be treated with phosphoric acid to get better adhesive nature. Now prime coat is

applied which consists 3kg of red lead in 1 liter of boiled linseed oil. This should be applied using

brush. After that, two or more under coats are applied which consist 3 kg of red lead in 5 liters of

boiled linseed oil. After drying up, smooth finishing coat of desired paint is applied.

Repainting of Old Steel and Iron Surfaces

Repainting of steel and iron surfaces is as same as new surfaces but cleaning of old paint is most

important. Oxy acetylene flame is used to burn off the paint surface and then it is scrapped with

brushes.

Painting of Galvanized Iron Surface

In general, Galvanized iron surface does not contain adhesive nature with paint. So, it is difficult

to apply paint on it without any special action. That special treatment may be applying different

solutions on surface. The solutions are 40 grams of copper acetate in one liter of water or 13 grams

each of copper chloride, copper nitrate, muriatic acid and ammonium chloride in 1 liter of water.
Any one of these two solutions are mixed in earthen vessel and applied on surface. When the

surface turns into black, then prime coat is applied after it dries, finishing coat is applied.

Painting of Plastered Surfaces

Painting of newly plastered surfaces is difficult because of moisture content present in the plaster

material. Heat of hydration of cement also causes severe problems for paints especially oil based

paints and distempers are liable to alkali attack. To overcome this, alkali resistant primer is used

in prime coat. The plastered surface contains pores in it, and whenever the paint is applied, liquid

from the paint is absorbed by these pores which is called as suction. The suction of surface depends

upon type of paint, prime coat composition, etc. Suction should be uniform throughout the surface.

So, the preparation of surface depends upon the type of paint used on the surface. For different

paints, different types of pretreatments are adopted on the surface which is described below.

Type of paint Preparation of surface

Oil paint A coat of thin primer or prime sealer

Emulsion paint A coat of paint thinned with water

Dry distemper Same distemper thinned with water

Size bound distemper A Coat of clearcole

Cement paint and lime wash Just wet the surface before applying.

DEFECTS:

The common defects that should be avoided in painting are:

Blistering: These are formed by water vapour trapped inside non-breathing types of paints.

Bloom or Flashing: These are formation of dull patches usually due to the defect in paint or bad

ventilation.

Brush marks: These occur due to defective work.

Cracking: It occurs due to the defect of paint and fast drying.

Crawling or sagging: It occurs due to application of too thick a paint.

Flaking: It occurs due to poor adhesion of paint to the surface.

Lack of opacity or body: It happens due to overthinning of paint or inadequate stirring of paint

during its application.

Pin holes: These are formed when there are small holes present in the surfaces such as walls even

before painting. The air from these holes can burst forth and create holes . Surface should be

levelled with putty before painting.

Slow Drying: It can occur due to a moist unhardened undercoat ,bad quality of paint or painting

in damp weather on a greasy surface.

Its solutions:

● Employ good surface preparation before the application of paint. Ensure that substrate

should be free from sand, dirt or any dust.

● Moisture content on the painting surface should not exceed 6% as it helps to avoid

efflorescence.

● Apply adequate primer to seal the surface before going for undercoat and topcoat.

● Use appropriate coating methods and select colours that are more stable to avoid

deterioration.

● Use non-yellowing paints, which does not affect by environmental situations. For areas

exposed to extreme weather conditions, prefer weather-resistant paints.

● Protect and treat all the metal parts to avoid rust stains or corrosion.

● Avoid details with very rough textures and use algae-resistant paint to prevent algae and

fungi growth.
2. VERTICAL COMMUNICATION

2.1 STAIRS: Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different

floors and roof of the building. It consists of a flight of steps and one or more intermediate landing

slabs between the floor levels.Stairs can be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the

purpose of connecting different floors of a building. It may also be defined as an arrangement of

treads, risers, stringers, newel post, hand rails, and baluster, so designed and constructed as to

provide an easy and quick access to the different floors.Stairs can be made of concrete, stone,

wood, steel or combination of any of these.

TERMINOLOGY USED IN STAIRS:

The common terms used in simple stairs are :

Going: It is the horizontal distance between faces of two successive risers.

Tread:It is the horizontal portion of the steps on which we put our steps to climb the staircase.

Rise: It is the vertical distance between two successive treads.

Riser.:It is the vertical portion of a step that supports the tread.

Handrail: It is the member placed on top of baluster to hold our hands while climbing the stairs.

Baluster:It is the member supporting the handrail. Balustrade. It is the system consisting of

balusters and the handrail.

Newel: It is the post usually provided at the beginning and end of the flights supporting the

handrail. It gives stability to the handrail and should be properly anchored.

Nosing:It is the projection of the tread beyond the face of the riser to provide as wide a space for

the tread as practicable. It is usually rounded off beyond the face of the riser to avoid a sharp edge.

It is also customary to provide nosing by sloping the riser.

Scotia: It is the moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of steps and, in some

cases, to strengthen the nosing.

Soffit: It is the underside of a staircase.

Flight: A flight of steps is the uninterrupted series of steps between landings. Headroom: It is the

minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and overhead ceiling or floor.

Pitch or slope: It is the angle of rise of the stair to the horizontal. It can be defined by the line

joining the nosings.

Stairwell or well: It is the space provided between the flights of a half turn or quarter turn staircase.

Strings or stringers: These are the sloping members provided in wooden staircases to support the

steps in the stairs.

Winders: These are the tapered treads provided at the turnings of the landing space to reduce the

number of steps required in the other straight portions of the stairs and thus economize the length

required for the staircase.

Requirement of a good staircase:

● Provide an access from one floor to another.

● Provide a safe means of travel between floors.

● Provide a degree of insulation where part of a separating element between compartments

in a building.

● Provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire.

● Provide a mean of conveying fittings and furniture between floor levels.

Types of staircases:

Straight flight stairs: This is a straight run with or without landing in between.
Quarter-turn stairs: In this arrangement, the turning at the landing is only 90 degrees. The

landing is known as quarter-space landing. Quarter-turn stairs can be of three types

(a) Open well quarter-turn stairs: These have two turns with three flights and go around a well.

(b) Newel quarter-turn stairs with winders: These have only one turn and two flights.

(c) Geometrical quarter-turn stairs

Half-turn stairs: In this system, the direction of climbing at the landing is reversed through 180°.

This type of landing is called half-space landing. There can be three types of such stairs:

(a) Doglegged (or newel) half-turn stairs with no well

(b) Open well half-turn stairs with a well

(c) Geometrical half-turn stairs

Note: Half-turn stairs can be built in many ways. It can be in the form of concrete slabs or they

can be slabs supported on a central beam or individual steps may cantilever from walls of the

staircase room. Thus we can have a very large number of types of staircases to choose from.

Other types: In addition to the above common types, there are many other special types of

staircases. Some of them are given below:

(a) Circular staircase

(b) Spiral staircase rising around a central core with separate horizontal steps.

(c) Cantilever (or jackknife) staircase which are usually doglegged staircases that fully cantilever

from the building without support .

(d) Helical (helicoidal) stairs with an open well at the centre which is a continuous slab staircase

without a central core.

Spiral stairs have separate steps describing a helix around a central column whereas a helical stair

has an open well. A helicoid is a warped surface generated by a line wrapped around a central

imaginary core. It will be like the curve of a screw. The slab is like an inclined plane. It can be

circular or elliptical (it has no central structure). Spiral stairs are generally provided at the back of

buildings as emergency exit and as access to working people to the various floors. Helical

staircases are very aesthetic, more difficult to design and are generally provided as an ornamental

feature in libraries, assembly halls and also in very luxury buildings.

REINFORCED CONCRETE (RC) STAIRS: Nowadays reinforced concrete is the preferred

material for stairs in residential as well as in office and other public buildings. For ornamentation,

the concrete structures are sometimes covered with wood. Steel staircases are common in factories

especially in chemical plants. We will study in a little more detail the simple doglegged reinforced

concrete stairs, which are used in most residential buildings.

● Layout Requirements of RC Stairs: The following are the general requirements to be

met when we plan the layout of a staircase.

● Width of stair: It depends on its use. The recommended values are a minimum of 90 cm

(3 ft) in residences and 1.5 to 2 m in public buildings. Length of

flight:Generally the number of steps in one flight (to the landing) should not exceed 12 to

16 and not be less than 3.

● Pitch of stair: The pitch or slope of the stair depends on the rise and tread adopted. They

should depend on the use of the building. Public buildings should have larger treads or

going and smaller rise than in dwelling houses.

The values usually recommended for tread and rise are as follows:
(a) In residences, we give a tread or going of 250 mm (9 to 10 inches) and a rise of 160 to

175 mm (6½ to 7 inch) approximately.

(b) Public buildings should have longer treads and smaller rise. Treads of 270 mm to 300

mm and rises of 100 to 150 mm are usually given.

(c) Rises and treads of all the steps should be the same. It is very important that we should

not change the dimensions of tread and rises from the start to the finish of the stairs. Sudden

changes in dimensions can lead to accidents.

The following empirical formula between going and rise is usually used:

(2R + G) > 550 mm but < 700 to 600 mm (approximately)

Head room: The clear distance between the tread and the soffit of a flight immediately

above or between the tread and floor above should not be less than 2.1 to 2.3 m (say 7 feet

4 inch) so that a person can use the stairs with a luggage on his head. This provision of

head room is very important.

Height of handrail: The height of the top of the handrail from the tread should be between

850 to 900 mm (about 3 ft) to make it easy for a person of average height to hold on to it

by hand.

Stairs to open terrace: Where the staircase leads to an open terrace, the level of the upper

landing slab should be 30 cm (1 ft) higher than top of roof slab so that there will be a clear

difference in height of about 15 cm after the weathering course is laid. (This need not be

so if another storey is envisaged in future.)

Staircase room dimension: The minimum clear width of staircase room in residential

buildings should be 2.1 m (7 ft) so that there will be a clear width of staircase of 90 cm
 with enough width for the ballustrade of 15 cm and a well of 15 cm (90 + 90 + 15 + 15 210

cm). In public buildings, the minimum width of staircase room should be 2.85 m (9'6").

Note: The height to the bottom of the upper floor of most residences is about 3.2 m. If we provide

19 steps, the rise will be about 170 mm (7 inches). In many cases, we may also provide a store,

washbasin or bathroom under the landing of the half space landing. This may require about 12 to

13 steps in the first flight of the stairs to reach a height to provide at least 2 m under the landing

slab.

Construction of Simple Concrete Stairs:

There are many ways in which the simple concrete staircase can be constructed. Two of them-

inclined slab construction and cantilever slab construction-are discussed further.

Inclined slab construction: These types of stairs can be built in two ways. Firstly the inclined

slab and steps can be built together with reinforced concrete. Steps are built with proper shuttering.

Alternatively, in cheaper construction, only the inclined slab is first built in concrete and the steps

are later constructed with brickwork This latter procedure considerably reduces shuttering costs

and is commonly used for residences.

Cantilever slabs: It was remarked that the stairs can be built in many ways. In residences, where

the traffic is light, the individual steps can be cantilevered from the surrounding walls of a staircase

room. Otherwise for very wide stairs, the individual steps can be centrally supported and

cantilevered from a central cast-in-situ spine beams specially built as part of the stairs. The latter

type of construction is very common in office buildings where a wide staircase is planned. When

they are cantilevered from walls as in residences, it will be desirable to have a concrete beam in

the wall connecting all the ends of the slabs of the stairs to improve stability with long term use.

Otherwise the fixing ends may get loose due to vibrations and long term use.
2.2 LIFTS:

According to the present building regulations, it is mandatory to provide ramps or lifts in all public

buildings for the convenience of the elderly and the invalids (physically challenged). The main

components of lifts are the following :

● The lift car moving on guide rails .

● . Machine room with winding machine with electric motor and other memory mechanisms.

● Suspension ropes (steel wire ropes with factor of safety 12 to 20

● Counterweight on pulleys to balance the car with 40 to 50% of maximum live load. This is

provided usually at the bạck of the car.

● Buffers for the car in the lift pit floor. Spring buffers are used for low velocity lifts and oil

buffers for speed in excess of 1.5 metre per second.

● Specially operating landing for entry and exit .

● The passenger capacity of a lift is usually rated assuming the weight of a person as 68 kg.
Structural Components of Lifts:

The civil work components necessary to accommodate a lift are usually made of RCC and are as

follows:

1. A lift well of suitable size, usually extending up to 1600 to 2600 mm, below the bottom landing.

2. Openings of height of 2 metres for entry of people at every floor level. The breadth of opening

will depend on the width of the lift well and number of passengers to be handled. (Hospital lifts,

for example, will be wide.) 3. An upper

machine room on top of the lift to suit the lift size chosen and according to the specification of the

supplier of the lift. IS 14665, Parts I to IV, can be used for their design.
2.3 RAMPS:

Ramps are provided where large numbers of persons or vehicles have to be moved from floor to

floor. It is also provided for the convenience of the old and the invalids in places wherever they

are necessary. Multi Storey car parks that are generally provided in the heart of the cities are

usually provided with ramps or lifts for taking cars to and from the upper floors. Ramp is a

uniformly sloping surface or inclined plane. However, they occupy much larger space than stairs

and lifts for construction. In India, many cinema halls and low rise hospitals are provided with

ramps instead of stairs. It is easier for sick people to climb a ramp than a series of steps.

2.4 ELEVATORS OR LIFTS:

Elevators are used in buildings having more than four storeys. They are used for providing vertical

transportation of passengers or freight. They can be either electric traction elevators or hydraulic

elevators. Electric traction elevators are used excl- usively in tall buildings. Hydraulic elevators

are generally used for low-rise freight service which rise up to about six storeys. Hydraulic

elevators may also be used for low-rise passenger service. The different components of an electric

traction elevator are the car or cab, hoist wire ropes, driving machine, control equipment, counter

weight, hoistway rails, penthouse, and pit. The car is a cage of light metal supported on a structural

frame, to the top of which the wire ropes are attached. The ropes raise and lower the car in the

shaft. They pass over a grooved motor-driven sheave and are fastened to the counter weights. The

paths of both the counterweights and the car are controlled by separate sets of T-shaped guide rails.

The control and operating machinery may be located in a penthouse above the shaft or in the

basement. Safety springs or buffers are placed in the pit, to bring the car or counterweight to a safe

stop. Elevators, serving more than three floors, should be provided with means for venting smoke

and hot gases from the hoistways to the outer air in case of fire. Vents may be located in the
enclosure just below the uppermost floor, with direct openings to the outside or with non-

combustible duct connections to the outside.

Vent area should be at least 3.5% of the hoistway cross sectional area.

A few important terms, generally, used in ELEVATOR description, are defined below:

1. Annunciator. This is an electrical device which indicates, usually by lights, the floors at which

an elevator landing signal has been registered.

2. Buffer. This is a device for stopping a desce- nding car or counterweight beyond its bottom

terminal by absorbing and dissipating the kinetic energy of the car or counterweight. The absorbing

medium may be oil, in which case the buffer may be called an oil buffer, or a spring, in which case

the buffer may be referred to as a spring buffer.

3. Bumper. This is a device other than a buffer stopping a descending car or counterweight beyond

its bottom terminal by absorbing the impact.

4. Car. This is the load carrying element of an elevator, including car platform, car frame, enclosure

and car door or gate.

5. Car-door Electric Contact. This is an electrical device for preventing normal operation of the

driving machine unless the car door or gate is closed.

6. Car Frame. This is the supporting frame to which the car platform guide shoes, car

safety,hoisting ropes or hoisting rope sheaves, or the plunger of a hydraulic elevator are attached

in a car by which an operator actuates the control.

7. Control. This is the system governing the starting, stopping, direction of motion, acceleration,

speed and retardation of the car.

8. Generator Field Control. This employs indivi dual generator for each elevator, with voltage

applied to the driving machine motor adjusted by varying the strength and direction of the

generator field.

9. Multi Voltage Control. This impresses successively on the armature of the driving machine

motor at various fixed voltages, such as those that might be obtained from multi-commutator

generators common to a group of elevators.

10. Rheostatic Control. This varies the resistanceor reactance of the armature or the field circuit of

the driving machine motor.

12. Single Speed Alternating Current Control.This governs a two-speed driving machine induc

13. Dispatching Device. This is a device which operates a signal in a car to indicate when the car

should leave a designated floor or to actuate the car's starting mechanism when the car is at a

designated floor.

14. Emergency Stop Switch. This is a car-located device that, when operated manually, causes the

car to be stopped by disconnecting electric power from the driving machine motor.

15. Hoistway. This is a shaft for travel of one or more elevators. It extends from the bottom of the

pit to the underside of the overhead machine room or the roof. A blind hoistway is the portion of

the shaft that passes floors or other loadings without providing a normal entrance.

16. Hoistway Access Switch. This is a switch placed at a landing to permit car operation with both

the hoistway door at the landing and the car door open.

17. Hoistway-door Electric Contact. This is an electrical device for preventing normal operation

of the driving machine unless the hoistway door is closed.

18. Hoistway-door Locking Device. This is a device for preventing the hoistway door or gate from

being opened from the landing side unless the car has stopped within the landing zone.
19. Levelling Device. This is a mechanism for moving a car that is within a short distance of a

landing towards the landing and stopping the car there. An maintaining two-way levelling device

will keep the car floor level with the landing during loading and unloading.

20. Machine. This is the power unit for raising and lowering an elevator car.

21. Non-stop Switch. This is a device for preventing a car from making registered sanding stops.

22. Operating Device. This is the car switch, push button level, or other manual device used to act

uate the control.

23. Operation. The method of actuating the control.

24. Car-Switch Operation. This starts and stops a car in response to a manually operated car switch

or continuous pressure buttons in a car.

25. Pre-register Operation. This is one in which signals to stop are registered in advance by buttons

in a car or loadings and then at the proper points as a car, travel are given to an operator in the car

who initiates the stop, which is completely automatic.

26. Signal Operation. This starts and stops a car automatically as landings are reached, in response

to actuation of buttons in cars or at landings, irre- spective of direction of car travel or sequence in

which buttons are actuated, but the car can be started only by a button or starting switch in the car.

27. Parking Device. This is a device for opening from the landing side the hoistway door at any

landing when the car is within the landing zone.

28. Pit. This is a portion of a hoistway below the lowest landing.

29. Position Indicator. This is a device for showing the location of a car in the hoistway.

30. Rope Equalizer. This is a device installed on a car or counterweight to equalize automatically

the tensions in the hoisting ropes.

31. Runby. This is the distance a car can travel beyond a terminal landing without striking a stop.
32. Safety. This is a mechanical device attached to the counterweight or to the car frame or an

auxiliary frame to stop or hold the counterweight or the car, whichever undergoes a free fall, or if

the hoisting ropes should slacken.

33. Safety Bulkhead. This is in a cylinder of a hydraulic elevator, a closure, at the bottom of the

cylinder but above the cylinder head, with an orifice for controlling fluid loss in case of cylinder-

head failure.

34. Signal Registering Device. This is a button or other device in a car or at a landing that causes

a stop signal to be registered in a car.

35. Signal Transfer Device. This is a manually operated switch for accomplishing the same

function as a signal transfer device.

36. Slack Rope Switch. This is a device that automatically disconnects electric power from the

driving machine when the hoisting ropes of a winding drum machine become slack.

37. Starter's Control Panel. This is an assembly of devices with which an elevator starter can

control the way in which one or more elevators function.

38. Terminal Speed-Limiting Device (Emergency). This is a device for automatically reducing the

speed of a car approaching a terminal landing, independently of the car operating device and the

normal terminal stopping device if the latter fails to slow the car as intended.

39. Terminal Stopping Device. This is a device for slowing or stopping a car automatically at or

near a terminal landing, independently or the car operating device. A final terminal stopping device

after a car passes a terminal landing, disconnects power from the driving apparatus, independently

of the operating device, normal terminal stopping device or emergency terminal speed limiting

device. A stop motion switch, or machine final terminal stopping device, is a final terminal

stopping device operated directly by the driving machine.

40. Transom. This comprises one or more panels that close the opening above the hoistway

entrance.

41. Travel (Rise). This is the vertical distance between top and bottom terminal landings.

42. Travelling Cable. This is a cable containing electrical conductors for providing electrical

connections between a car and a fixed outlet in a hoistway.

43. Truck Zone. This is a limited distance above a landing within which the truck zoning device

permits movement of a freight elevator car with its door or the hoistway door open.

44. Truck Zoning Device. This is a device that permits a car operator on move, within a specified

distance above a landing, a freight-elevator car with its door or the hoistway door open.

2.5 ESCALATORS:

These are powered stairs. They are used when it is necessary to move a large number of people

from floor to floor. These stairs have continuous operation without the need for operators. They

have large capacity with low power consumption. These escalators are in the form of an inclined

bridge spanning between floors. The components of an escalator consist of a steel trussed

framework, handrails and an endless belt with steps. At the upper ends of an escalator there is a

pair of motor-driven sprocket wheels and a worm-gear driving machine. At the lower end is a

matching pair of sprocket wheels. Two precision made roller chains travel over the sprockets

pulling the endless belt of steps around the steps which move on an accurately made set of tracks

attached to the trusses with each step supported on four resilient rollers. Escalators are reversible

in direction. They are generally operated at a speed of 30 or 40 m/min. Slope of the stairs is

standardized at 30°. For a given speed of travel, the width of step determines the capacity of the

powered stairs.
Escalators should be installed where traffic is heaviest and convenient for passengers. In the design

of a new building, adequate space should be allotted for powered stairs. Structural framing should

be made adequately to support them.

Escalators are generally installed in pairs. One of them is used for carrying up-going traffic and

the other for traffic moving down. The arrangement of escalators in each storey can be either

parallel or criss-cross. Criss-cross arrangement is more compact. It reduces walking distance

between stairs at various floors to a minimum. That is why a criss-cross arrangement is preferred

over parallel arrangement. The floor openings of an escalator not serving as required if exist must

be protected. The following protection methods are generally used in buildings pac completely

protected by a standard supervised sprinkler system.

Sprinkler-vent method. This is a combination of an automatic fire or smoke detection system,

automatic air-exhaust system and an automatic water curtain.

Spray-nozzle method. This is a combination of an automatic fire or smoke detection system and a

system of high velocity water-spray nozzles.

Rolling shutter method. In this an automatic, self-closing, rolling shutter is used to enclose

completely the top of each escalator.

Partial enclosure method. In these kiosks, with self-closing, fire-doors, provide an effective barrier

to the spread of smoke between floors.

3. DAMP-PROOFING (i.e., D.P.C.) TREATMENTS IN BUILDINGS

The use of damp-proofing courses (D.P.C.), for the treatment of buildings, against dampness, can

be grouped into the following categories:

1. Treatment of foundations' dampness from adjacent ground.

2. Treatment of foundations on bad (poor) soils.

 3. Treatment of basements.

4. Treatment of floors.

5. Treatment of walls.

6. Treatment of flat roofs, parapets and copings.

7. Treatment of pitched roofs.m

1. Treatment of Foundations' Dampness from Adjacent Ground. In case the moisture rises up

the walls through the foundations where water is percolating from the adjacent ground, this may

be treated by providing air drains as in Fig. 10.4 and damp-proof course or by D.P.C. alone. Sub-

soil drainage may also be provided to solve this problem. An air drain is a narrow dry space (20 to

30 cm width) which is provided on the outer face of the wall below the ground level. It is formed

by a thin outer wall resting on the base slab of foundation and carried little above the ground level

(usually by 15 cm) to prevent water entering the drain. Openings with gratings are provided at e

regular spacing for the passage of air. The top of the air e drain is covered either with R.C.C. slab

or stone slab and due provisions for examination and clearing this drain are made. Damp-proof

courses (D.P.C.) are also provided horizontally and vertically as shown in Fig. 10.4. An air drain

with wall ties may also be used.

2. Treatment of Foundations on Bad (Poor) Soils. Where the foundations of basements are not

properly drained (in dry or peat soil) and hence subjected to great hydrostatic pressure, then in

such cases the structure should be disconnected from the face of the ground excavation and a trench

made all around for width of about 30 cm taken down to a point as low as under side of the concrete

footings This becomes essential, because the more provision of continuous D.P.C. may not give

satisfactory results. The bed of the trench should be provided with a good slope at each end and

the trench filled with coke, gravel, or stone, graded with fines to fill the voids. Moreover, in such
cases the basement is relieved of hydrostatic pressure by suitably draining the sub-soil water. Sub-

soil water may be drained by providing open jointed land drain at the bottom of trench and also

drainage-pipes below the concrete base The open jointed pipes or drains are given a bed slope so

that the water is discharged in an outlet outside the building from where the collected water is

allowed to flow away in some natural drain. The gravel bed helps to accumulate the sub-soil water

seepage and percolate the same in the pipes. The details of horizontal and vertical D.P.C. (either

mastic asphalt or bituminous felt) under the floors and through the external walls,

3. Treatment of Basements. To ensure the dryness, the whole of the structure below ground level

should be provided with a continuous membrane of asphalt (t.e., D.P.C.) either mastic asphalt or

bituminous felt supported on the inside. This is achieved by spreading a layer of an impervious

material (i.e., D.P.C.) over the whole area of the floor and continuing the same (i.e., Horizontal

D.P.C.) through the external walls extending vertically up, forming a sort of water-proof tank .

The details of asphalt tanking or waterproof or D.P.C. tank and sequence of operations in providing

D.P.C. for basements in buildings, have been shown in Figs. 10.6 and 10.7 but the following points

require due consideration in asphalt tanking.

(i) D.P.C. basement buildings should be provided in the dry season when sub-soil water is at its

lowest level.

(ii) D.P.C. is provided on the outside of walls and under floors of basements and underground

structures, in such a way that the latter may provide support necessary to withstand such water

pressure as may be exerted on the outer faces of the structures.

(iii) Horizontal D.P.C. is laid continuous and extended vertically up through the walls. This vertical

D.P.C. should either be taken to the ground for a minimum distance of 15 cm or may end in a

horizontal D.P.C. if necessary.

(iv) An adequate dewatering arrangement for pumping out sub-soil water should be installed in

order to keep water level below the operating level or working level.

(v) Suitable shuttering should be provided to prevent the excavation from collapsing.

(vi) D.P.C. is laid over the entire base slab of concrete including the projection of 15 cm.

(vii) A protective flooring of brick flat on cement concrete (1: 3: 6) is laid to protect D.P.C. from

damage during the construction of the floor. The structural walls and floors are then constructed

to withstand the anticipated water pressure.

(viii) Sufficient care should be exercised to ensure a perfect bond between the D.P.C. on the base

slab and that on the outside of walls.

(ix) The gap between thin protective brick wall (half-brick) and structural wall should be grouted

so as to ensure that no air is trapped between the D.P.C. and the walls.

N.B. 1. In case of deep basements, the D.P.C. should be applied on the outside of walls (rather

than through the walls) in stages of convenient heights and the construction of the protective wall

as well as back filling the earth is completed progressively.

2. Types of damp-proofing treatments above and below the ground level have been recommended

as below:

A. D.P.C. above ground level shall be according to either (a) or (b), below:

(a)

● (i) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5kg/sq.m.

● (ii) Hessian base self-finished felt type 3, grade 2.

● (iii) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq.m.

(b)

● (i) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5kg/sq.m.

 ● (ii) Fibre base self-finished felt type 2, grade 3. (iii) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5

kg/sq.m.

B. D.P.C. for basements and structures below ground level: The multiple layer D.P.C. shall be

according to either (a) Two layers of felt (for light treatments), or (b) Three layers of felt (for

heavier treatments) as given below:

(a) (i) Primer.

(ii) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq.m.

(iii) Fibre base self-finished felt type 2, grade 3.

(iv) Hot blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq.m..

(v) Fibre base self-finished felt type 2, grade 3. (vi) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq.m.

(b) (i) Primer.

(ii) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq m.

(iii) Fibre base self-finished felt type 2, grade 3,

(iv) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq m.

(v) Fibre base self-finished felt type 2, grade 3,

(vi) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq m.

(vii) Fibre base self-finished felt type 2, grade 3,

(viii) Hot applied blown bitumen @ 1.5 kg/sq m.

4. Treatment of Floors. For dry locations, generally, a filling of 7.5 cm to 15 cm of dry coarse

sand under the floor masonry is specified. A hardcore filling of stones with smaller stones to fill

in voids is also quite suitable. The filling should be well rammed but not unduly consolidated. It

is observed that a thin layer of cinders and coal tar under a tiled floor acts as a good D.P.C. to

prevent the moisture as well as efflorescence.

In case, there is a possibility of moisture penetrating the floor, it will be necessary to lay a

waterproofing membrane of mastic asphalt or fibrous asphalt felt, before a concrete floor is laid.

It happens, because porous concrete attracts moisture from the wet soil and is also aided by

capillary action. Even a dense concrete with waterproofing compound is not found to be a perfect

barrier to moisture. Hence, generally, over a dry concrete bedding, a priming coat of hot liquid

asphalt is first given and then mastic asphalt is applied in two coats.

In case, there is a possibility of the floor being subjected to excessive uplift pressures due to soil

and water table characteristics, then concrete floor should be reinforced. The D.P.C. of mastic

asphalt or felt laid over the slab should be covered with a concrete wearing coat.

5. Treatment of Walls. In case of basements, the outer face of the wall is well grouted with a

water-proofed cement plaster. This forms the base for the asphalt layer (i.e., vertical D.P.C.) which

is continued from the basement floor and extended vertically up covering the whole area of the

external wall face. This vertical D.P.C. is further protected by a thin skin wall or protective wall.

The horizontal D.P.C. in external walls is generally provided at least 15 cm above the ground level.

It is further essential to provide a vertical D.P.C. between the floor level and the D.P.C. level on

the inside of external walls. In internal walls, the D.P.C. is provided in level with the upper surface

of the concrete floor. The continuity of D.P.C. between the internal and external walls is attained

by way of cement concrete blocks on bituminised bricks.

If the D.P.C. is to be provided in an existing wall, then a cut about 15 cm or more above the ground

is made at the corner of the wall: loose bricks on materials above the cut are removed; and a damp

proof membrane of bituminous felt is inserted inside the cut. This process of cutting the slots and

inserting the damp-proof membrane is continued, till the entire length of wall is completed. The

removed materials like bricks are relaid and the wall surface is plastered or pointed. D.P.C. details
in cavity walls have already been shown in Figs. 10.2 and 10.3. In this, a horizontal D.P.C. is laid

at least 15 cm above the ground. A layer of lead sheet, copper sheet or asphalt felt is brought down

from the inner wall to the head of the floor or window, to protect the openings. To protect the

window sills, D.P.C. of bituminous felt or lead sheet can be inserted between the inner wall

covering and the sill. Generally, a porous external treatment of plaster, having proportions (1

cement: 1 lime: 6 sand) to the walls is recommended to safeguard against dampness.

6. Treatment of Flat Roofs, Parapets and Copings. In case of flat roofs, the rain water enters

either through the defective parapet wall, or crac- ked roofing tiles or broken pointing, etc. The

water proofing treatment given to flat roofs in the various regions of the country (India) is of three

types, namely; (i) Lime concrete terracing, (ii) Lime concrete terracing with flat tiles, and (iii) Mud

phuska terracing with tiles.

Ist method of waterproofing, i.e., lime concrete terracing has been recommended for 'Hot and

Humid Regions' in India, viz., Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, etc. The process consists of laying the

lime concrete at an adequate slope; application of hot prime coat of bitumen over dried lime

concrete and finally laying sheet of bitumen over the primed surface.

the 2nd method of waterproofing, i.e., lime concrete terracing with flat tiles has also been

recommended for hot and humid regions mentioned above, where the roof is to be used for sleeping

or such other purposes. In such cases, the roof is strengthened by covering the lime concrete with

two courses of brick tiles laid in cement mortar to withstand the wear and tear effects due to traffic.

The process of lying consists of various operations (See Fig. 10.8): Laying the D.P.C. of hot

bitumen @ 1.70 kg/m² roof surfaces; spreading over the hot bitumen a layer of coarse sand @0.6

m³ of sand per 100 m² of roof surface; laying lime concrete proper slope in average thickness of

10 cm and, finally, laying two courses of flat tiles (each course having thickness from 13 to 20
mm) in cement mortar (1 cement: 3 sand). The joints of the top course of the tile are pointed with

cement mortar having mix proportions 1 : 3 and 5% of crude oil, based on the weight of cement.

Instead of flat tiles, pressed tiles or precast cement concrete tiles or 25 mm thick Shahabad stone

can also be used based on availability.

3rd method of waterproofing, i.e., Mud phuska terracing with tiles has been recommended for 'Hot

and Arid Regions' in India, e.g., Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan, U.P., etc. The process of laying consists

of various operations (See Fig. 10.9), viz., laying the D.P.C. of hot bitumen @1.70 kg/m² of roof

surface; spreading over the hot bitumen, a layer of coarse sand @ 0.6 m³ per 100 m² of roof surface;

laying a layer of mud phuska prepared from puddled clay or lime concrete if locally available;

covering the mud phuska layer with mud-gobar mortar (3 mud : 1 cow dung) and finally the flat

tiles are laid with cement mortar (1 cement: 3 sand) and the joints grouted.

N.B. 1. The following requirements in water proofing of roofs should be ensured:

(i) Shuttering should be either of steel or of strong wood with the joints made water-tight. R.C.C.

slabs should be made as dense as possible by the use of vibrators.

(ii) Top surface of R.C.C. slab should be finished with cement mortar (1:3) immediately after

laying the cement concrete.

(iii) Before laying terracing, the surface of the seals should be cleaned with a rag soaked in

kerosene oil and treated with two coats of hot bitumen.

(iv) Bitumen pads should be used between the slabs and junctions of slabs with walls.

(v) Finished surface of the roof should have a slope of 1 in 50 to ensure good drainage.

(vi) Junctions of roofs and parapets should be paid special attention.

2. Lime concrete specifications adopted for water proofing of Roofs: (7.5 cm to 12 cm thick,

average thickness= 10 cm).

(1) 2 lime: 2 surkhi: 7 brick ballast 25 mm gauge (Mumbai and Kolkata regions). 1 lime with 21/2

brick ballast 20 mm gauge

(ii)(Madras region). br

(iii) 25 mm gauge brick ballast with 50% lime ac mortar consisting of 1 lime: 2 surkhi (Delhi,U.P.,

Punjab and Rajasthan regions).

To check the penetration through the parapets and copings, they should be protected from the

weather by providing D.P.C. at various locations. such as: (i) A D.P.C. (asphalt layer) covering

the whole of the roof and then extending up the junction against the parapet wall at least upto 15

cm height; (ii) A D.P.C. for parapet wall at this height (i.e. above junction at least 15 cm) is laid

for

7. Treatment of Pitched Roofs. In case of pitched roofs or sloping roofs, the main causes, in

general, of water penetration are: (i) In sufficient lap of tiles or roofing sheets; (ii) Insufficient roof

slopes or flat pitches; and (iii) Inadequacy of rainwater gutters. First two causes are taken care of

by proper design and construction as per recommendations. For treating rainwater gutters, they

should be of sufficient capacity, water-tight and capable of accommodating variations due to

temperature changes without leakage. There should not be any over-flowing of the rain water or

leakage through the walls. The tiles should project beyond the edge of the gutter. Lead flashing

(D.P.C.) provided in the gutter should be extended up the surface of the parapet wall and should

be taken inside partly the body of the wall Like flat roofs, the parapet wall should itself be protected

by means of a coping of stone or well burnt bricks with a D.P.C. under neath.

TREATMENT OF DAMPNESS

Before applying any remedial measures to the dampness problems at any point in a building, the
real cause of dampness should be identified. It is essential, because a cause should be cured rather
than the effect.
Method for Laying Damp-proof Course in Existing Buildings.

● Generally the need for laying damp-proof course in existing buildings arises because of the

fact that they have been constructed without damp-proof course and the rise of moisture

through their walls, calls for remedial measures. The method usually adopted is to insert

the damp-proof course after underpinning the walls. This method is not only expensive but

also time-consuming. CBRI, Roorkee, has developed a quicker and more satisfactory

method which consists of cutting through a selected course in the brickwork and inserting

bitumen felt immediately after the cut is completed.

● To cut or saw through the brick walls, masonry saws have been developed in two sizes, the

smaller saw is 35 cm x 8 cm x 3 mm (thick) used for starting the cut initially and the bigger

one is 120 cm x 10 cm x 3 mm (thick) operated by two persons for regular cutting. The

saw is made of steel blade, with inserts of satellite (4 mm x 4 mm) in the slots made on one

of the edges of the blades are brazed with latter so as to remain fixed in position.

● The cut is started at a corner of the wall at the bed joint about 15 cm above the floor or the

ground whichever is higher. The sawing is done in lengths of 60 cm or so at a time and

fibre based bitumen felts conforming to Indian Standards cut in lengths of the slot cut and

width equal to the wall thickness + 5 mm projection on each side of the wall is inserted

immediately after the cut is completed. The successive pieces of felt overlap by 10 cm

thereby providing an effective barrier to the rising dampness. The little gap between the

opened cut joint and the felt is filled with 1:3 (cement : sand) mortar grout and finally

finished flush on both sides of the wall. This is simple in operation and carried out even

when buildings remain occupied and in use. Apart from saving time, it saves 40 percent in

cost as compared to underpinning method. Asbestos cement offer great resistance to

 cracking, swelling or disintegration when subjected to fire. 11. Plaster or Mortar. It is an

incombustible material and hence used for protecting the walls and ceilings of buildings

from fire-risks. Cement plaster is better than lime plaster as the latter is likely to be

calcined. The fire resistance of the plaster to fire hazards can be increased by using it in a

thicker layer or reinforcing the plaster with metal lathes. Gypsum plaster is also applied on

steel columns and other steel members to increase their fire-resistive qualities. The use of

cement mortar with surkhi or pozzolana is preferred from the viewpoint of fire-resistance

4. FIRE-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION

Every region develops its own standards for fire-resistance of buildings based on fire tests. In

India, National Building Code classifies the construction into four classes, namely, type 1, type 2,

type 3 and type 4 on the basis of fire-resistance offered by building components for 4-hours, 3-

hours, 2-hours, and 1-hour respectively. All the structural components of a building should be

constructed in such a way and of such materials that they withstand as an integral member of the

structure, for the period desired according to the type of construction, in the event of fire. To

achieve this objective, due considerations should be made in design and construction of the

following structural elements of a structure, and use of combustible material should be avoided as

far as possible in the construction.

1. Wall and columns;

2. Floor and roofs;

3. Wall openings; and

4. Building fire escape elements, e.g., stair, stair cases, corridors, entrances, etc.

The fire resistant or fire-proof construction of these above elements will now be discussed in the

following pages.
1. Walls and Columns. The load bearing walls or columns of masonry should be thicker in section

so that they can resist fire for a longer time and act as vertical barriers to the passage of heat and

fire.

If the construction is of solid bearing walls, bricks should be preferred to stones. If it happens to

be a framed structure then R.C.C. frames are preferred to those of steel frames. If the use of steel

only is to be made due to specific reasons then it should be protected by embedding it in concrete

or by covering it with some other fire-insulating material, such as burnt clay blocks or terra-cotta.

Walls of light-weight concrete are preferred to dense concrete as far as fire-resisting qualities are

concerned. Both load-bearing and non-load bearing walls should be plastered with fire-resistive

mortar to improve fire resistance. Normally, 20 cm thickness of common wall (i.e., wall separating

two buildings) is sufficient from a fire-resistance point of view but it should be raised above the

roof level by at least 90 cm. This is necessary to protect the adjacent building from fire-hazards.

The partition walls should similarly be of fire resistant materials such as, R.C.C. or reinforced

brickwork, or hollow concrete, or burnt clay tiles, or reinforced glass, or asbestos cement board,

or metals lath covered over with cement plaster. In case the wooden partitions are employed, they

should be covered with metal lath and plaster. Cavity wall construction also offers good resistance

against fire and has already been illustrated in Figs. 10.3 and 10.4. For columns and girders,

the desirable fire grading is of 4-hours whereas for beams it is of 3-hours. Therefore, as already

mentioned,

R.C.C. framed structures are preferred to steel structures for this purpose. As steel columns are

liable to twist or distort under intense fire and hence should be protected by way of insulating

materials like concrete, hollow clay tiles, bricks, metal lath followed by plaster, etc. In modern

buildings, the columns are made fire-proof with concrete and then encased in masonry. The
combination of terra-cotta and concrete is most suitable for fire-proofing of steel columns. The

sufficient cover to R.C.C. members like beams or columns, should be provided to enable them to

function satisfactorily, under fire for a maximum time. It has been recommended that a cover of at

least 50 mm. outside the main reinforcement of structural members, like columns, girders, trusses,

etc. of 38 mm for ordinary beam, long span slabs, arches, etc. and 25 mm for partition walls, short

span slabs, etc. should be provided. The fire-proofing treatments, which can possibly be given to

concrete and steel columns construction, are illustrated in Fig. 10.13.

2. Floors and Roofs. The floors and roofs should be made of fire-resisting materials as they act as

horizontal barriers to spread heat and fire in a vertical direction. For fire-resistant construction, the

floor such as concrete Jack Arch floors with steel joists embedded in concrete (See Fig. 10.14),

hollow tiled ribbed floor (See Fig. 10.15), R.C.C. floors, etc. should be used.

Flooring of material, like concrete, ceramic tiles and brick, is regarded to be most suitable from

the viewpoint of fire-resisting qualities. The use of terrazzo, marble and slate as floor surfaces is

also. quite satisfactory. In case usage of combustible materials, like wood, cast-iron, rubber,

linoleum, cork, carpet, etc. in flooring, becomes unavoidable due to financial or practical

considerations, then the following points should be given due consideration:

(i) In case of wooden joist floors, joists at a greater spacing should be used to limit the deflection

within allowable limits in the event of fire.

(ii) Fire stops or barriers in wooden floors should be provided at suitable intervals.

(iii) While using combustible materials, like cast iron, wrought iron, cork, carpet, etc They should

be protected by a covering of insulating material like ceramic tiles, plaster, terra-cotta, bricks, etc.

3. Wall Openings. From a fire-resistant construction point of view, firstly the openings in the

walls should be restricted to a minimum and secondly they should be protected by suitable
arrangements in case of fire. These openings serve as means of escape in fire if properly protected,

otherwise, they provide the passage for the spread of fire in the horizontal direction. Doors and

windows should be made of steel. These days wire glass panels are preferred for windows, whereas

steel rolling shutters are becoming popular for doorways and window openings in garages,

godowns, shops, etc. due to their ability in preventing the spread of fire.

The following points should be given due consideration for protecting the openings:

(i) Solid timber doors having a minimum thickness of 4 cm should be used where some degree of

fire resistance is desired.

(ii) All those openings which are used for communication, should have double fire-proof doors

and other openings may have single fire-proof doors. (Fire-proof doors are considered to be of

superior type when made of steel plate with a minimum thickness of 6 mm and of inferior type

when made of composite material, i.e., 4 cm thick timber panel sandwiched by iron sheets of 3

mm on either side.

(iii) Any window exposed to the roof of the structure should be protected by fire-proof shutters.

(iv) If any structure has a separation less than 6 metres from the adjoining structure, then all doors,

windows or exposed sides should be made of fire-proof construction.

(v) All escape doors should be such as to provide free circulation to the persons in passages,

lobbies, corridors, stairs, entrances, etc. and be made of fire-proof materials.

(vi) Windows, if carried down the floor, should have suitable barrier, like projecting slab beyond

the outer face of the building.

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