Academic Writing
Academic Writing
Academic Writing
CONTENTS
It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long
sentences and complicated vocabulary.
Each subject discipline will have certain writing conventions, vocabulary and types of
discourse that you will become familiar with over the course of your degree. However, there
are some general characteristics of academic writing that are relevant across all disciplines.
Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an understanding of the
subject.
Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together related points and
material.
Once you have a plan for your writing, you can use this plan to create the structure of your
writing. Structured writing has a beginning, middle and an end, and uses focussed
paragraphs to develop the argument.
Some academic writing, such as lab or business reports, will have a fairly rigid structure,
with headings and content for each section. For more details see our Report writing pages.
In other formats, writing usually follows the same overall structure: introduction, main body
and conclusion.
The introduction outlines the main direction the writing will take, and gives any necessary
background information and context.
In the main body each point is presented, explored and developed. These points must be
set out in a logical order, to make it easier for the reader to follow and understand.
The conclusion brings together the main points, and will highlight the key message or
argument you want the reader to take away. It may also identify any gaps or weaknesses in
the arguments or ideas presented, and recommend further research or investigation where
appropriate.
Select appropriate evidence that you will use to support each main point. Think carefully
about which evidence to use, you must evaluate that information as not everything you find
will be of high quality.
See our searching for information page for advice on how to find high quality, academic
information.
Grouping your points may help you create a logical order. These groups will broadly fit into
an overall pattern, such as for and against, thematic, chronological or by different schools of
thought or approach.
You can then put these groups into a sequence that the reader can follow and use to make
sense of the topic or argument. It may be helpful to talk through your argument with
someone.
It may be helpful to arrange ideas initially in the form of a mind-map, which allows you to
develop key points with supporting information branching off.
MindView software (available on most university computers) allows you to create an essay
structure where you can add in pictures, files and attachments – perfect for organising
evidence to support your point.
Use paragraphs to build and structure your argument, and separate each of your points into
a different paragraph.
Make your point clear in the first or second sentence of the paragraph to help the reader to
follow the line of reasoning.
The rest of the paragraph should explain the point in greater detail, and provide relevant
evidence and examples where necessary or useful. Your interpretation of this evidence will
help to substantiate your thinking and can lend weight to your argument.
At the end of the paragraph you should show how the point you have made is significant to
the overall argument or link to the next paragraph.
See constructing focused paragraphs for an example.
Using signaling words will help the reader to understand the structure of your work and
where you might be taking your argument.
The Manchester Academic Phrasebank at has more examples of signaling words to use in
your work.
Words like these help make the structure of your writing more effective and can clarify the
flow and logic of your argument.
In this example the use of the word however at the beginning of the second sentence
indicates that a contrasting point of view is about to be made. It also suggests that the
writer may have more sympathy with the second opinion.
“Firstly, the concepts and person centered care will be defined.... Next,
communication will be discussed... Finally, the relationship between loss and
communication will be examined.” [Taken from a Healthcare essay]
In this example the writer has used signaling words to demonstrate the sequence of their
argument by using Firstly, next, finally making the structure of the essay very clear.
The use of the word moreover tells the reader that the next sentence will provide further
evidence or information to support the statement made in the first sentence. It also
suggests that the writer strongly agrees with the first statement.
Most writing will require several drafts and revisions in order to improve the clarity and
structure. It is rare that a writer will make the very best decisions in the first draft. See our
editing and proofreading pages for more details.
Grammarly or Paper Rater are useful tools that will spot mistakes in your writing and offer
suggestions to correct them. Paper Rater is particularly useful for identifying trends in your
writing style, for example using the same words frequently, or having overly long or short
sentences.
paraphrasing
summarising
synthesising
quoting.
You are likely to use a combination of these throughout your writing, depending on the
purpose that you are trying to achieve.
The main characteristics of the different methods you can use to incorporate others' work
into your own writing are shown in our comparison table (PDF).
Be aware that your writing should not just be a patchwork of other people's ideas made up
of quotes, paraphrases and summaries of other people's work.
You need to show how the information you found has helped you to develop your own
arguments, ideas and opinions. See Critical thinking pages for advice about writing critically.
Organising your evidence can be an overwhelming task – especially when you need to
manage many different sources. As well as EndNote, you may find online tools such
as Citavi and Zotero particularly helpful to save data sources, highlight key quotes, and cite
them in your work.
Paraphrasing is using your own words to express someone else’s ideas. When paraphrasing,
make sure that you:
describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own
argument, or the point that you are trying to make
using too many of the original author's words, this includes using the same structure
not distinguishing between the author's point and your own viewpoint
providing too much detail.
For further advice and examples of paraphrasing, see this tutorial from RMIT university.
identify the relevant points of the idea or argument, depending on your purpose
write a shortened version, in your own words, to show your understanding
include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.
Common pitfalls include:
describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own
argument or point you are trying to make
providing too much detail such as examples, anecdotes, unnecessary background
information rather than being selective and applying the information to the question you
are trying to answer.
For further advice and examples of summarizing, see this tutorial from RMIT university.
Synthesizing involves combining different information and ideas to develop your own
argument. When synthesizing others’ work, make sure that you:
Group sources into relevant categories, for example, authors with similar viewpoints or
research that reveals the same results
Write about these in your own words. Do not discuss each author separately; you must
identify the overall points you want to make
Include references to all the original authors.
Common pitfalls include:
Quoting is where you copy an author's text word for word, place quotation marks around
the words and add a citation at the end of the quote. When quoting others’ work, make sure
that you:
copy the quote exactly from the original, as the author has written it, taking care to
include quotation marks
show where you have made any changes to the text (see citing quotations using
Harvard and citing quotations using Numeric for more guidance on this)
include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.
Common pitfalls include:
Using too many quotes throughout your work
Incorporating a quote without explaining the significance to your own argument or point
you are trying to make.
Academic writing is concise, clear, formal and active. It does not need to be complex or use
long sentences and obscure vocabulary.
Be concise
Avoid using colloquialisms or slang terms such as 'sort of' or 'basically'. Instead you could
use 'somewhat' or 'fundamentally'.
Write words out in full rather than shortening them. For example, instead of writing “don't”
or “isn't” you would be expected to write “do not” or “is not”
The use of clichés is not appropriate in academic writing. These are phrases such as “at the
end of the day” or “in the nick of time.” Instead of this you might write finally or at the
critical moment.
The active voice places the subject of the sentence in charge of the action.
For example: “The research assistant designed the survey.” Here the research assistant (the
subject) designed (the verb) the survey (the object).
It is usually more direct and easier to read than the passive voice.
However, sometimes you may want to emphasise what is happening rather than who is
doing it. To do this you can use the passive voice.
The passive voice places the subject at the end, or may leave it out completely.
For example: “The survey was designed by the research assistant.” Here the survey (the
object) was designed (the verb) by the research assistant (the subject).
The passive voice is more formal than the active voice. It is often used in academic writing
as it is seen as more impersonal and therefore more objective. However, it is not always
easy to read and it may add unnecessary words.
Adapted from Writing with Style by Stott and Avery, 2001, p.54.
In your academic work, you should not present something as a fact that might not be. In
academic writing, you can use language that we often refer to as hedges or boosters to
show how confident you are about an argument or claim you are discussing.
Hedges
When writing, be careful of using words such as "definitely" or "proves". Ask yourself
whether your statement is a fact or whether there may be some doubt either now or in the
future.
Some useful hedging words and phrases to use in your work are:
“This suggests...”
“It is possible that...”
“A possible explanation...”
“Usually...”
“Sometimes...”
“Somewhat...”
Read the following two sentences:
1. “Research proves that drinking a large volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar leads to
the development of type II diabetes.”
2. “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar may
contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
In sentence 1, the statement is presented as proven fact: that a high volume of sugary fizzy
drinks will definitely lead to type II diabetes. This leaves no room for doubt or criticism or
the fact that some people may drink large volumes of fizzy drinks and never develop type II
diabetes.
In sentence 2, the writer has used 'hedging language' – 'suggests' and 'may contribute' – to
show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and type II diabetes, this may not be
true for every person and may be proven to be incorrect in the future.
Boosters
You might want to express a measure of certainty or conviction in your writing and this is
when 'booster' language can help.
Some useful booster words and phrases to use in your work are:
1. “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar may
contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
2. “Research indicates a clear link between the high consumption of a large volume of fizzy
drinks containing sugar and the development of type II diabetes.”
In sentence 1, the writer has used the hedging language 'suggested' and 'may contribute',
to show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and type II diabetes this may not
be true for every person and may be proven to be incorrect in the future.
In sentence 2, the writer still uses language to allow for doubt and argument but it is clear
that this writer is more convinced by the research.
The Manchester Academic Phrasebank provides many more examples that you can use in
your written work.
It is important to use the correct tense and voice in your written work. You will probably
need to use different tenses throughout depending upon the context.
Academic arguments are not usually presented in the first person (using I), but use more
objective language, logic and reasoning to persuade (rather than emotional or personal
perspectives).
This may not apply, however, if you are asked to write a reflective report based on your
own thoughts and experiences.
If you are writing about an experiment you carried out or a method you used then use the
past tense. For example: "Our experiment showed wide variations in results where the
variable was altered even slightly."
If you are writing about established knowledge then use the present tense. For example:
"Diabetes is a condition where the amount of glucose in the blood is too high because the
body cannot use it properly." (Diabetes UK, 2015)
When you are reporting on the findings or research of others then you should use the
present tense. For example, you might write: "Smith's research from 2012 finds that
regular exercise may contribute to good cardiovascular health."
When you are writing about your conclusions or what you have found then use the present
tense. For example: "In this case there is not a large difference between the two diameter
values (from Feret's diameter and calculated equation), which again is probably due to the
fact that the average circularity ratio is on the high end of the scale, 0.88, and therefore
infers near circular pores."
If you are writing about figures that you have presented in a table or chart then use the
present tense. For example: "These figures show that the number of birds visiting the hide
increase every year in May..."
The most important voice to get across in your writing is your own; it is how you can show
the reader (usually your tutor) what you are thinking, what your views are and how you
have engaged critically with the topic being discussed. You can do this by building an
effective and persuasive argument for your reader.
Make an argument
Your argument is how you express your viewpoint and answer the question you have been
set, using evidence.
Your argument can help you plan the structure of your work and guide you to find the
evidence you need to support it.
Make sure that your argument runs throughout your writing and that everything you include
is relevant to it. Try to sum up your argument in a few words before you start writing and
keep checking that it remains the focus as you research and write your work.
Guide your reader through your argument in a logical way. Think about what questions your
reader might have. If you can answer these questions through your argument, it will seem
more convincing.
Present both sides of the debate, along with your thoughts, linking together the different
elements.
You can then work towards a conclusion by weighing the evidence and showing how certain
ideas are accepted and others are rejected. Your conclusion should make clear where you
stand.
Develop your argument by considering the evidence and drawing your own conclusion.
If you are considering a range of opinions, try to group them together under different
headings.
Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the different sets of evidence and present these
clearly and in a critical way. This will help to show you understand what you have read.
Take the evidence into account in developing your own argument and make clear what your
viewpoint is. Perhaps your argument has strengths and weaknesses as well – it is fine to
acknowledge these.
Here are some ways you can establish your voice in your writing:
1. Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start of paragraphs followed by
evidence, findings, arguments from your sources.
Example:
“To date there is no well-established tool to measure divided attention in children. Current
methods used to assess divided attention usually involve a variation of the CPT with an
additional task included e.g. counting or listening to auditory stimuli (Salthouse, 2003).”
1. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources.
Example:
1. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between those sources and your main
assertion.
Example:
“Netzer's argument challenges the term 'renaissance', as it displays repeatedly the use of
classical imagery during the medieval period, therefore illustrating that canonising a
chronological period can be disadvantageous as characteristics of the term.”
“Smith's (2009) findings show a clear...A serious weakness with this argument is...The
research suggests...”
1. Include “so what” summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at the end of paragraphs.
Example:
“This shows that it is detrimental to strictly categorise chronological periods with artistic
genres, as many art historians suggest different movements were taking place in separate
geographical locations at the same time.”
Using different verbs in your writing will show your understanding of the sources, for
example:
“Stevenson (2015) explains that...”
“Stevenson (2015) argues...”
“Stevenson (2015) describes how...”
You can also use verbs to show your agreement or disagreement with other author's
arguments. For example: