1 Summarizing

Reasons for summarizing

Summarizing is condensing, or shortening, a reading selection without changing its
overall meaning.
Reasons for summarizing might include:
demonstrating your understanding of a reading
establishing the ideas you will discuss or analyze in an essay
introducing the reading selection you will discuss in an essay
informing a reader (for example, when summarizing a source that the reader has
not read)
for yourself, in order to make notes about a book you have read while doing
research for a paper it also helps you find out if you have really understood the book
and know what the main point is.
How to summarize: guidelines, steps
To create or write a good summary, you should read the article or text a number of
times to develop a clear understanding of the author's ideas and intentions, of the
meaning and details and of the force with which the ideas are expressed.
When summarizing, you should firstly:
1. Read the passage you are going to summarize at least twice so that you fully
comprehend what the author is saying.
2. Write notes in point form using keywords; this will make it easier to express the
ideas in your own words.
3. Check list against original. If all important ideas were mentioned, then write the
summary directly from your notes without re-reading the passage.
4. While you are summarizing, you must remember to change sentence structure and
vocabulary, in order to avoid plagiarism. Also, your summary does not have to be
in the same order as the original passage unless arrangement is necessary for
comprehension.
5. Finally, revise and edit to ensure accuracy and correctness.
6. And at the end, count the number of words and write it.
Defining a summary vs a paraphrase
Paraphrasing and summarizing are both indispensable writing tools. They are both
techniques of incorporating other writers works or ideas into your writing using your
own words. So what is the difference then?
Paraphrasing is re-writing another writers words or ideas in your own words without
altering the meaning. The paraphrase is about the same length as the original since
the purpose is to rephrase without leaving out anything, and not to shorten.
Summarizing, on the other hand, is putting down the main ideas of someone elses
work in your own words. A summary is always shorter than the original since the idea
is to include only the main points of the original work and to leave out the irrelevant. A
summary is usually about one-third the size of the original.

Conciseness and reduction: ways of reducing clauses: name, give

examples
The most common methods used when writing a summary are conciseness and
reduction of words.
The goal of concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does
not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Sometimes,
it becomes a problem when summarizing, as writers often fill sentences with weak or
unnecessary words that can be deleted or replaced.
Often, writers use several small and ambiguous words to express a concept. As a
general rule, more specific words lead to more concise writing. Because of the variety

of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, most things have a closely corresponding description.
Brainstorming or searching a thesaurus can help to replace several vague words with
more powerful and specific words. Check every word to make sure that it is providing
something important and unique to a sentence. If words are dead weight, they can be
deleted or replaced.
Also, you should try to combine sentences, if possible, as some information does not
require a full sentence, and can easily be inserted into another sentence without
losing any of its value.
Reduction is the second way of summarizing a text, and usually means eliminating
unnecessary words. It should eliminate words that explain the obvious or provide
excessive detail, as well as repetitive wording. Words that don't build on the content
of sentences or paragraphs are rarely necessary.
Using these ways of reduction, youll obtain a strong and well-defined summary that in
a few words will express the most important ideas of a text.
Nominalizations: define, give examples
Nominalization is an integral feature of academic writing. As a consequence of using
nominalization, your writing will be more abstract and more formal.
Nominalization is a noun phrase generated from another word class, usually a verb. In
other words, the process of nominalization turns verbs into nouns.
As a relevant example, I can give the following sentences:
- The intention of the jury is to reach a decision. -> The jury intends to reach a
decision.
- Our presentation was about a new regulation. -> We presented a new
regulation.
But sometimes, ugly things might happen when we nominalize. Often, you will need to
use another verb to make the sentence work, leading to longer sentences. Content
will sound livelier when you avoid nominalizations of verbs. For example:
- The hope of the student is to earn good grades (nomin.) -> The student hopes
to earn good grades (concise sentence).
- The detective conducted an investigation of the crime. -> The detective
investigated the crime.
Note taking: reasons, ways, guidelines
Note taking is an indispensable part of writing a documented essay or research paper.
Your notes record information from the sources that you will use in writing your paper.
Therefore, it is necessary to critically evaluate the text and to make reasonable
choices about what will and will not be useful to include in the paper.
To take effective notes, you must do the following:
1. Understand the information. Reading a source, making decisions about what is
useful for your essay, and writing the notes in a notebook will encourage you to
think more deeply about what you are reading as well as how it relates to the
subject of your research.
2. Select the information: The information to be used in a paper must be gathered
from a variety of sources, which also, most likely, contain much information not
necessarily relevant to your topic. Therefore, when you take notes, you must
sort out the material you need from other information surrounding it in the text.
3. Record the information: To efficiently use the information in your sources, you
must record it in such a way that it can be easily sorted, reorganized, and
incorporated into your paper.
There exist various methods of note taking and each chooses the best that suits him.
For example:
- You can underline the words or phrases you consider are important to
understand the topic

You also can choose the mapping method, which is the graphic representation of
a concept.
Or
you
may
choose
the
outlining
method.
This method of note
taking organizes information into main topics, sub-topics. Sometimes bullets or
numbers are used to make a distinction between them.

1. Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing techniques: name, give examples
When you write a paraphrase, you restate others ideas in your own words. In other
words, you write the meaning of the authors ideas. You use some of the authors key
terms, but you use many of your own words and sentence structures.
To begin paraphrasing a text, you can restate the information by putting the author's
name in the sentence. For example: According to This helps to develop your own
range of words that can be used in academic writing.
Other techniques might include: the use of synonyms, the change of numbers and
percentages to other forms, the change of words from one part of speech to another,
the change of sentence structure, using different linking words. These methods can
improve the flow of your paraphrase and make it different from the original source.
If you can, include your own opinion about the source while paraphrasing. This shows
that you understand the idea, can evaluate its usefulness, and can apply it in the
assignment.
Never use one single strategy alone when paraphrasing. Rather, you must combine
strategies to paraphrase material properly and avoid plagiarism.
Reasons for paraphrasing
When you are producing a piece of writing at university, you will often want to talk
about what someone else has written about the topic. Paraphrasing is a way of doing
this.
Paraphrasing means expressing in your own words the ideas, arguments, words or
other material you have found published elsewhere.
There are many reasons for paraphrasing in your own work, but essentially these
techniques allow you to show your understanding of current knowledge about the
topic you are studying, and respond to that knowledge in your work.
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because it is better than quoting information from an
undistinguished passage and it helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full
meaning of the original.
2. Communication
Communication types: advantages, disadvantages
Communication may be as necessary for human beings to function as water or air. But
the various ways of communication all have their positive and negative aspects.
Verbal communication is a common way individuals transfer their message to other
individuals and businesses. Verbal communication methods may include meetings, inperson interviews, telephones and video conferencing. Verbal communication may be
the best communication method because it allows people to assess the verbal or
nonverbal inferences by individuals giving a message. It may also create a more
comfortable environment for receivers to ask questions and get feedback from
individuals giving the message. However, the increasing use of global business
operations has created challenges for verbal communication. These challenges may
include language barriers, cultural or social barriers, and time differences when giving
messages.
Written communication is another type and includes internal business memos, formal
letters, bulletin boards or posters. Individuals may choose to use written

communication if they need to reach multiple individuals at different locations with a

similar message. Written communication also creates a paper trail for important
messages. Individuals may be required to acknowledge receipt of the message or
respond within a limited time frame. Organizations often use written communication
to ensure they have documentation when correcting an issue or dealing with
important legal situations.
Nowadays, business technology has opened up new types of business
communications. New communication methods include email, web conferencing,
social networking, company websites, online chat and text messages. Electronic
communication allows companies to send mass messages to several individuals
quickly and at a low business cost. Electronic communication methods are often used
to reach outside business stakeholders or the general public. Organizations may
create several different electronic communication channels to reach different target
markets or demographic groups with their message.
Communication means: typical uses
Business communication is an integral part of running and managing an organization.
Owners, managers and employees must be able to effectively express their thoughts
and ideas to other individuals working in the company. Fortunately, several types of
communication methods are available for individuals working in the business
environment.
Verbal communication is a common way individuals transfer their message to other
individuals and businesses. Verbal communication methods may include meetings, inperson interviews, telephones and video conferencing. Verbal communication may be
the best communication method because it allows people to assess the verbal or
nonverbal inferences by individuals giving a message. It may also create a more
comfortable environment for receivers to ask questions and get feedback from
individuals giving the message.
Written communication is another type and includes internal business memos, formal
letters, bulletin boards or posters. Individuals may choose to use written
communication if they need to reach multiple individuals at different locations with a
similar message. Organizations often use written communication to ensure they have
documentation when correcting an issue or dealing with important legal situations.
Nowadays, business technology has opened up new types of business
communications. New communication methods include email, web conferencing,
social networking, company websites, online chat and text messages. Electronic
communication allows companies to send mass messages to several individuals
quickly and at a low business cost. Electronic communication methods are often used
to reach outside business stakeholders or the general public. Organizations may
create several different electronic communication channels to reach different target
markets or demographic groups with their message.
Memos: define, structure, content, purpose
A memo is a compact written message designed to help someone remember
something. Unlike letters, business memos are an internal form of communication and
it is standard practice to save them. Memos have a double purpose: they bring
attention to problems and solve problems. They accomplish their goals by informing
the reader about new information like policy changes, price increases, or by
persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, or change a
current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most
effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of
the reader. They should be limited to a single topic so that the reader will "get the
message" quickly and, if necessary, take an action.

Memos are often only a few short paragraphs, but they can be much longer,
depending on their purpose.
The first part of a meme is the Subject Line, which summarizes the main idea and
often begins with the words: "This memo is about."
The introductory paragraph quickly orients the reader to what the memo is about. It
should include the purpose for writing and relevant background information.
The next part, the body, expresses the information and supporting details relevant to
the memo's purpose.
And finally, the last paragraph should end politely, stating any expected outcome,
action, or other information appropriate to your purpose.
3. Meetings
Types of meetings: their purpose
Meetings are a primary process for organizational life. In fact, for many people,
attending meetings is what they do during most of the time they spend in an
organization. So, it is essential that time spent in meetings be productive if we are to
achieve effective individual and organizational performance. It is therefore important
to think in terms of different kinds of meetings with different kinds of participants and
different purposes. Different types of meetings call for different arrangements, time
schedules, participants, expectations, and so forth. Some different types of meetings
that organization leaders put together include these:
Quick business meetings are held just to check-in, coordinate, share information,
prepare for next steps, and anticipate customer or employee needs or just to
answer questions for each other.
The second type of meetings is Stand-up meetings. They take no more than 10
minutes to plan the day, make announcements, set expectations, assure
understanding or identify upcoming difficulties.
Management Team meetings are organized to solve problems, make decisions or
set a new policy.
Also, inside a company may be held Coordinating meetings, which tend to assure all
know whats happening, when and who is responsible, or Board meetings in order
to report results, set policies and directions.
And not the least are the Team building meetings, which are called to communicate
together, resolve conflicts, share impressions and feelings, strengthen
relationships, develop or deepen interpersonal trust.
Meeting procedures: the role of the chairperson
Of prime importance for the success of any meeting is the attitude and leadership of
the chairperson. In a meeting, the chairperson is the leader and, as such, has to
perform the same function as the leader of any working group.
Before any meeting, the chairperson should ask and resolve several questions, such
as:
What is the purpose of the meeting?
How should the meeting be planned?
Who should attend the meeting?
What preparation is required for the meeting?
If appropriate preparations have been made, then the scene is set for an effective
meeting. Agendas will have been produced and circulated; so that participants will
arrive knowing what is to be discussed.
In a formal meeting, the chairperson will outline the purpose of the meeting and
remind members why they are there. When discussion is underway, it is the
chairperson's responsibility to ensure that it continues to flow smoothly by involving
all members present and by not permitting one or two people to dominate the
meeting. Summarizing by the chairperson during meetings can:

- Indicate progress, or lack of.

- Conclude one point and lead into the next.
- Highlight important points.
- Clarify any misunderstanding.
At the end of a meeting, the chairperson should remind members what they have
achieved and thank them for their contributions. Finally, the time and date of the next
meeting should be arranged.
For meetings to be effective, participation is required from all those present. The key
skills of interpersonal communication and listening are important.
In conclusion, I can say that, to ensure the success of a meeting, good preparation is
essential and the role of the chairperson is paramount. If the mentioned conditions
are met, then all participants should leave the meeting feeling a sense of
accomplishment, not as if their time has been wasted.
Writing minutes
Minutes are the official record of an organization. Writing good meeting minutes can
save time and money. Succinct minutes that capture the purpose of the meeting and
its agreed outcomes are a record that can be referred back to and be used for follow
up purposes later. Good minutes are concise and to the point, but at the same time,
they do not leave out critical information
Writing minutes can take time, and may seem like an unimportant task compared with
getting on with real work, but in fact not taking meeting minutes can be costly in
terms of both time and resources. If you dont take minutes, you will find that your
colleagues have different recollections from the meeting than you. They also may
have different ideas about what was agreed. If there are no minutes, then important
tasks will be forgotten or not achieved by the due date.
When you are writing meeting minutes you need to include different kinds of
information. You should include the reason for the meeting, what it was about and
where and when it was held. It is important to include a list of the attendees both
their first and last names. If you are not sure, you need to ask to make sure that you
get the names right, otherwise your meeting minutes may be a source of irritation for
attendees. If someone did not attend but it was important that they did, this should be
included. For example, sometimes decisions cannot be made without a particular
person being present.
There are three other main items that should be included in your minutes:
- What was achieved during the meeting.
- Decisions that were made at the meeting. Your minutes will serve as a written
record that these decisions were made.
- Any actions that were agreed. In this case you should include the action itself,
who it was assigned to, and the date it should be completed by.
Finally, if a follow-up meeting was agreed on, this should be mentioned.
4. Negotiations
Negotiation tips
The secret of a perfect negotiation consists of several tips. The first is to be prepared.
This means you have to know exactly what you want and to be ready to articulate
your position. In other words, you have to break down your concerns into three
categories: nice to have, like to have and must have. Also you have to anticipate
some counter proposals and compromises. Furthermore, try to be aware of
unexpected situations.
The next tip is to be inquisitive. This means you dont have to be shy about asking
questions, as skillful questions can transform a negotiation from an adversarial
conflict into a partnership. And also, by asking questions, youll get your client to
reveal more.

The third tip is to be prepared for disagreement. When you disagree, you have to look
for the common ground or set the point aside until later. Try also to avoid significant
early concessions, as they might affect the outcome.
And the last tip is to finalize all agreements. To ensure that everyone is clear,
summarize the agreement verbally or in a letter of agreement.
A typical negotiation
In simplest terms, negotiation is a discussion between two or more disputants who are
trying to work out a solution to their problem. This interpersonal or inter-group process
can occur at a personal level, as well as at an international level. Negotiations
typically take place because the parties wish to create something new that neither
could do on his own, or to resolve a problem between them. They prefer to search for
agreement rather than fight openly, give in, or break off contact.
When parties negotiate, they usually expect give and take. While they have
interlocking goals that they cannot accomplish independently, they usually do not
want or need exactly the same thing. This interdependence can be either win-lose or
win-win in nature, and the type of negotiation that is appropriate will vary accordingly.
The disputants will either attempt to force the other side to comply with their
demands, to modify the opposing position and move toward compromise, or to invent
a solution that meets the objectives of all sides.
The effective negotiator attempts to understand how people will adjust and readjust
their positions during negotiations, based on what the other party does and is
expected to do. As negotiations evolve, each side proposes changes to the other
party's position and makes changes to its own. Parties typically will not want to
concede too much if they do not sense that those with whom they are negotiating are
willing to compromise. And finally, the parties must work toward a solution that takes
into account each person's requirements and hopefully optimizes the outcomes for
both.
Negotiations across cultures
Negotiations are rarely easy, mainly because they tend to consist of two sides trying
to beat the other. However, if you ever find yourself working internationally or crossculturally, negotiating can be even harder. Why? Because of cultural differences.
Everything from language barriers to body language can have an impact on your
negotiations. Thats why its important to enter such negotiations with a certain
amount of knowledge and preparation beforehand.
Of course, the most obvious problem with negotiating between cultures is the
language barrier. In many cases, you wont be able to directly understand the person
across from you and they wont be able to understand you. So you will have to
communicate through interpreters. In cases when a common language is spoken,
usually English, this doesnt necessarily mean you wont have problems, as people
speak different types of English, with differences in vocabulary.
Another problem may be the punctuality. Time is money is a famous American
phrase which sums up the level of priority time receives in US culture. As a result,
punctuality is important. Similarly in German, punctuality is near enough a religion.
But imagine what happens when a culture such as this works with one that sees time
less important such as the Arabs or Spanish? One party sees the other as
unprofessional whereas in reality they are just being normal. And all this happens due
to a different approach to time.
Sometimes, even the eye contact can create big problems in negotiations. In the US,
UK, and much of Europe, eye contact is a sign of strength and confidence. In places
like South America, its a sign of trustworthiness. In Japan, however, prolonged eye
contact can be deemed impolite. In the Arab world its uncomfortable and you would
especially take care if working across genders.

In conclusion, I can state that the great diversity of the worlds cultures makes it
impossible for any negotiator, no matter how skilled and experienced he is, to
understand fully all the cultures that may be encountered. And as I already
mentioned, it is very important to be aware of certain cultural differences before
entering a cross-cultural negotiation.
5. Reports
Assessment reports
There are various types of reports. One of them is the assessment report, which
presents and evaluates the positive or negative features of a person, place, or plan.
These reports also include your opinion and recommendations.
An assessment report should consist of:
- An introduction in which you state the purpose and content of your report.
- A main body in which you present positive and negative aspects in detail, under
suitable subheadings, which show the topic of each paragraph.
- A final paragraph, in which you summarize the information presented in the
main body and state your opinion and recommendations.
In an assessment report, a specific language should be used. Therefore:
- To begin report -> The purpose/aim of this report in to evaluate or this report
outlines the advantages and disadvantages of
- To end report -> In conclusion or On the whole, it would seem that
- To recommend something -> It would be advisable to or I strongly recommend
that
Informative reports
An informative report is a formal piece of writing, usually to ones superiors,
colleagues or members of a committee. It presents information concerning the
progress which has been made on a project, a meeting that has taken place or
decisions which have been made concerning future action. An informative report
should consist of:
- An introduction in which you state the purpose and content of your report
- A main body in which you present various aspects of the subject under suitable
subheadings
- A final paragraph in which you summarize all points mentioned before.
In an assessment report, a specific language should be used. Therefore:
- To begin report -> The purpose/aim of this report in to outline the decision of the
committee or As requested, this is a report concerning the subject of
- To end report -> In conclusion or On the whole, it would seem that
Proposal reports
A proposal report is a formal, informative piece of writing which outlines plans or
suggestions for a future course of action, and is submitted for approval by a bank
manager or relevant authority.
A good proposal report should consist of:
- An introduction in which you state the purpose and content of your report
- A main body in which each aspect should be presented under separate subheadings
- A conclusion, in which you summarize all points mentioned above and, if necessary,
express your own opinion.
In an assessment report, a specific language should be used. Therefore:
- To begin report -> The purpose/aim of this report in to outline the future plans
or This report contains the information concerning
- To end report -> In conclusion, our intention is to