Mine Machinery

POWER SHOVEL
A power shovel (stripping shovel or electric mining shovel) is a bucket-equipped machine,
usually electrically powered, used for digging and loading earth or fragmented rock and for
mineral extraction. Power shovels are used principally for excavation and removal of overburden
in open-cut mining operations, though it may include loading of minerals, such as coal.
Mode of Operation.
The shovel operates using several main motions:
 hoist - pulling the bucket up through the bank (i.e. the bank of material being dug)
 crowd - moving the dipper handle out or in to control the depth of cut and when
positioning to dump
 swing - rotating the shovel between digging and dumping
 propel - moving the shovel unit to different locations or dig positions
A shovel's work cycle, or digging cycle, consists of four phases:
 digging
 swinging
 dumping
 returning
The digging phase consists of crowding the dipper into the bank, hoisting the dipper to fill it,
then retracting the full dipper from the bank. The swinging phase occurs once the dipper is clear
of the bank both vertically and horizontally. The operator controls the dipper through a planned
swing path and dump height until it is suitably positioned over the haul unit (e.g. truck).
Dumping involves opening the dipper door to dump the load, while maintaining the correct
dump height. Returning is when the dipper swings back to the bank, and involves lowering the
dipper into the tuck position to close the dipper door.

1
 Mine Machinery

MINING SHOVELS.
The picture below shows a mining shovel.

General description.
They are crawler mounted (twin crawlers as shown above). The large bearing area of the crawler
tracks insures proper movement and stability in soft terrain. The crawlers afford excellent
stability and resistance to the shock loads involved in digging in heavy excavations.
The use of crawlers is strongly suggested when the working floor is uneven and sharp rock
fragments occur, and to accommodate the size and weight involved in unit such as mining
shovels.

APPLICATION AND USE.

Mining shovels are utilised in many different types of operations, but are commonly used in
copper, iron ore, coal stripping and uranium. Stripping and mining which move large tonnages
on a daily basis rely on mining shovels as their prime movers coupled with haulage trucks. A
generally accepted rule is that three to five dipper loads will fill the truck. This limits the truck
idle time under the shovel to a minimum. The cost per hour for a large truck is generally close to
2
 Mine Machinery

that of a large shovel and there are more trucks than shovels in any equipment fleet. The large
haulage truck of today must be kept productive, time under the shovel and waiting time are the
largest units of non-productive time in the cycle.
Therefore the must a balance between truck and shovel sizing and also sufficient shovel units in
the pit to be able to blend various grades of ore encountered and to keep sufficient benches
opened to assure ore for the concentrator operations.
In recent years the trend is towards large shovels in the 13 to 26.8m 3 range and also to utilise
shovel-truck fleets to prebench ahead of large stripping draglines as deposits of coal become
deeper. In many multiseam operations, draglines cannot be easily utilised and shovel-truck
combinations become the major equipment application.
Due to increasing cost of oil and diesel fuel, the trend to full electric shovels continues. Full-
diesel shovels and diesel-electric versions are declining and are virtually unused except in small
in small operations where power line construction is uneconomically and where mine life is
comparatively short.

MACHINE FEATURES (MECHANICAL).

The main mechanical parts of a shovel are:
 Crawler side frames which are bolted or mounted to the lower frame or carbody.
 The revolving frame upon which are mounted the hoist and the swing machinery and
major electric drive components.
 The boom, which generally has the crowed machinery attached.
 The dipper handle and dipper.
 A gantry and suspension ropes to hold the boom in position.
 A covering or house over the machinery.
The mining shovel is a rugged heavy duty machine designed to take the abuse imposed on it
from continual digging forces and shock applied to it by the motor torques which drive the
dipper into and upward through the digging face.

3
 Mine Machinery

Dipper.
The picture below shows a shovel dipper.

Depending on the following factors:

 Material weight
 Fragmentation
 Toughness
 Abrasion

The dipper can be heavy duty, medium duty or light duty. Generally the heavier dippers are
constructed of cast manganese alloy, with the lighter dippers of fabricated wear resistant alloys.
Heavy duty taconite dippers weigh approximately 2 373kg/m3 while coal loading dippers weigh
about 1 186.6kg/m3. Manufacturers tend to supply medium weight dippers of 1 780kg/m 3 or less
4
 Mine Machinery

for medium to hard digging. Dippers are sized to provide the maximum load for each
application. Factors that are considered in ordered to minimise dipper maintenance and power
consumption are:
 Truck size
 Bank height
 Material fragmentation
 Abrasiveness

Boom.
Shovels are generally built with standard length booms and handles for loading haulage units on
the same level as the shovel. However, medium and long range booms with smaller dippers can
be utilised for stripping machines and for loading machines above the shovel.

ELECTRICAL
The machine performs four types of motions, which are:
 Propel
 Hoist
 Swing
 Crowed.
Each motion is driven by a heavy duty high torque low speed motor or motors which are
required for high production at minimum cost.

Propelling machinery.
It includes motors and is mounted on the carbody. The final gear reduction boxes are connected
to the crawler side frames to provide propelling of the machine. The propel motion drive the
machine forward or backward at approximately 1.6 Km/hr. Large shaft or motor brakes hold the
machine in position when digging.
Swing machinery.
The swing motion is driven with two or four independent sets of gear reduction, the motors are
connected together electrically to provide high swing torque for fast acceleration and
5
 Mine Machinery

deceleration. Since the mining shovel is generally loading trucks or railcars, and only swings 90˚,
fast response is important for good cycle time.
Hoist machinery.
The hoist machinery is powered by adjustable voltage motors (dc), adjustable frequency motors
(ac), or eddy current slip coupling. The eddy current unit consumes more power than the
adjustable voltage motor. The final hoist gear reduction connects the motors to the hoist drum.
Wire ropes attached the drum are reeved over the boom point sheeves and connect to the dipper
bail or dipper. The hoist gear ratio is selected to provide optimum dipper force and speed for the
most digging conditions.

Crowed machinery.
The crowed motion is to position the dipper into the bank, allowing a narrow deep slice to be
made. The shovel operator can control the crowed so the hoist motion does not stall and yet fills
the dipper. The crowed or dipper handle can be driven by means of a rack and pinion or by wire
ropes.

Electric motors.
Larger solid state rectifiers have converted the electric mining shovel in sizes above 11.5m 3 from
Ward-leonard motor generator set machines to static power conversion electrics. The current
shovel is supplied a-c incoming power at different voltages depending upon location, and this
power is converted to d-c for motor motion by static controlled thyristors or rectifiers. The
motion control motors can be either dc or ac. For variable frequency a-c motion motors, because
incoming mining power is a-c, the power must be converted to d-c and back to a-c to provide the
ability to vary frequencies. This additional rectification causes a certain power loss and adds to
the complexity of the system. Some certain motor advantages are claimed however, such as lack
of brushes and commutator wear in a-c motor system. The diagram below shows construction on
electric motor.

6
 Mine Machinery

Power supply.
Power is critical to good shovel operation and shovel manufacturers prefer voltage fluctuation to
be limited to +or – 10% of the nominal voltage. Trailing power cable to the shovel is three
conductor SHD type with ground conductor.

Productivity and cost.

Fill factors of dippers range from 40 to 50% for heavy blasted rock and are up to 120% for loose
lighter weight alluvial materials. Generally, 85% fill factor is normal for overburden materials
that are well blasted.
Mining shovels have cycle times that vary from 22 35 sec, depending on the following factors:
 swing angle
 material weight
 rill preparation time(factor of fragmentation)
 Operator skill.

The longest percentage of the time is spent swinging, about 60% of the cycle. The average time
for swing both ways in a typical 90° swing is 18 to 20 sec. hoisting or digging time will vary
greatly with material being loaded, but 6 to 8 sec is normal. Dumping is approximately 2 sec.

7
 Mine Machinery

The theoretical ability of a shovel to produce can never be utilised in actual practice but mine
operators can keep productivity high by reducing maintenance time on shift and improve truck
scheduling to the shovel. For maximum shovel-truck efficiency or productivity, it is necessary to
match the haulage trucks to the shovel and the haul distance and haul grade.
Actual cost figures for electric mining shovel depend on many factors such as:
 The accounting system used.
 Lobour rates.
 Mine conditions etc.

Some general rules used to estimate cost are:

 Power cost will run from 0.15 to 0.25 kwh per bank m3 moved.
 Maintenance lobour, supplies, lube oil, parts etc will run 10 to 15% of the installed cost
of the machine per year depending on the following factors:
 Digging conditions
 Quality of maintenance
 Operating hours per year.

Machine selection.
Shovel buying requires a huge capital investment and the selection of such equipment attracts top
management attention and often price and personal preference becomes the selection criteria.
Considerations for correct shovel selection from a technical point of view will be:
 Weight in certain locations.
 horse power for the following motions:

 Swing torque-ability to accelerate and decelerate from a still position is important.

Swing is the largest component of cycle time.
 Hoist effort is important, so as not to stall in the bank, as stalling the motor increases
cycle time, and contributes to motor burn out.
 Crowd effort is the least important in terms of cycle time, however crowd effort and
speed must be matched to the hoist effort for easy of operation and maximum
8
 Mine Machinery

production. A general rule used is that crowed effort should be one half of hoist
effort at stall.
 Infrastructure-when the mining company must supply housing, town services etc, each
additional worker together with his dependents and service people contributes to cost per
tonne of product. In this case, the largest machine may be the best.
 Bench height- the shovel teeth should be able to scale the crest of the bench. Safety laws
may govern.
 Tonnage required-shovel size should be largest available to produce the tonnage within
the constraints of blending, number of ore and waste required, and ore grades available.
 Maintenance facilities-proper crane capacity, shop overhaul facilities, and warehouse
stock levels may dictate size needed.
 Truck size-the needed production by the truck fleet along with ore deposit will dictate
shovel sizing.
 Dipper size-each shovel size is capable of many dipper sizes, depending on dipper and
material weight.

Advantages of selecting the largest size shovel possible.

1) Lower operating cost per tonne of material.
2) Fewer shovels operating per shift.
3) Usually lower capital expenditure.
4) Fewer operating faces, which results in fewer haul roads to maintain and fewer people to
supervise.

Disadvantages.
1) Less opportunity for blending or grade control.
2) Larger rocks getting into primary crusher, resulting in production stoppages.

9
 Mine Machinery

Shovel attributes.
 Can give high production.
 Can handle all types of material, including large blocky rocks.
 Are limited to fairly rigid operating conditions.
 Require support equipment for waste disposal except in some strip mining.
 Have limited mobility.

Shovel truck stripping.

This combination is commonly selected for the following reasons:
 The overburden is rocky which breaks into large angular pieces.
 There is limited access room.
 Hauls involve short, steep grades.
 Extreme flexibility is required.
 Haulage is of medium length.

Stripping shovel.
They are equipped with long range front ends and large capacity dippers, mounted on an eight
crawler undercarriage. The eight crawlers widen the base so as to provide stability to the
machine. Two crawler units are mounted at each of the four corners of the base of the machine.
The dipper is loaded by moving it from near the shovel base up through the bank of material and
side cast the overburden.

10
 Mine Machinery

DRAGLINE EXCAVATOR
Dragline excavation systems are heavy equipment used in civil engineering and surface mining.
In civil engineering the smaller types are used for road and port construction. The larger types
are used in strip mining operations to move overburden above coal, and for tar-sand mining.
Draglines are amongst the largest mobile equipment ever built on land, and weigh in the vicinity
of 2000 metric tonnes, though specimens weighing up to 13,000 metric tonnes have also been
constructed.
A dragline bucket system consists of a large bucket which is suspended from a boom (a large
truss-like structure) with wire ropes. The bucket is maneuvered by means of a number of ropes
and chains. The hoist rope, powered by large diesel or electric-motors, supports the bucket and
hoist-coupler assembly from the boom. The dragrope is used to draw the bucket assembly
horizontally. By skillful maneuver of the hoist and the dragropes the bucket is controlled for
various operations. A schematic of a large dragline bucket system is shown below.

History
The dragline was invented in 1904 by John W Page, of Page Schnable Contracting for use
digging the Chicago Canal. In 1912 it became the Page Engineering Company, and a walking
mechanism was developed a few years later, providing draglines with mobility. Page also
invented the arched dragline bucket, a design still commonly used today by draglines from many
other manufacturers, and in the 1960s pioneered an archless bucket design.
In 1910 Bucyrus International entered the dragline market with the purchase of manufacturing
rights for the Heyworth-Newman dragline excavator. Their "Class 14" dragline was introduced
in 1911 as the first crawler mounted dragline. In 1912 Bucyrus helped pioneer the use of
electricity as a power source for large stripping shovels and draglines used in mining.
In 1914 Harnischfeger Corporation, (established as P&H Mining in 1884 by Alonzo Pawling and
Henry Harnischfeger), introduced the world's first gasoline engine-powered dragline. An Italian
company, Fiorentin, produced dragline excavators from 1919 licensed by Bucyrus.
In 1939 the Marion Steam Shovel Dredge Company (established in 1880) built its first walking
dragline. The company changed its name to the Marion Power Shovel Company in 1946 and was

11
 Mine Machinery

acquired by Bucyrus in 1997. In 1988 Page was acquired by the Harnischfeger Corp., makers of
the P&H line of shovels, draglines, and cranes.
Mode of Operation

In a typical cycle of excavation, the bucket is positioned above the material to be excavated. The
bucket is then lowered and the dragrope is then drawn so that the bucket is dragged along the
surface of the material. The bucket is then lifted by using the hoist rope. A swing operation is
then performed to move the bucket to the place where the material is to be dumped. The
dragrope is then released causing the bucket to tilt and empty. This is called a dump operation.
The bucket can also be 'thrown' by winding up to the jib and then releasing a clutch on the drag
cable. This would then swing the bucket like a pendulum. Once the bucket had passed the
vertical, the hoist cable would be released thus throwing the bucket. On smaller draglines, a
skilled operator could make the bucket land about one-half the length of the jib further away than
if it had just been dropped. On larger draglines, only a few extra metres may be reached.
Draglines have different cutting sequences. The first is the side cast method using offset benches;
this involves throwing the overburden sideways onto blasted material to make a bench. The
second is a key pass. This pass cuts a key at the toe of the new highwall and also shifts the bench
further towards the low-wall. This may also require a chop pass if the wall is blocky. A chop
pass involves the bucket being dropped down onto an angled highwall to scale the surface. The
next sequence is the slowest operation, the blocks pass. However, this pass moves most of the
material. It involves using the key to access to bottom of the material to lift it up to spoil or to an

12
 Mine Machinery

elevated bench level. The final cut if required is a pull back, pulling material back further to the
low-wall side.

Draglines in mining

A large dragline system used in the open cut mining industry costs approximately US$50-100
million. A typical bucket has a volume ranging from 30 to 60 cubic metres, though extremely
large buckets have ranged up to 168 cubic metres. The length of the boom ranges from 45 to 100
metres. In a single cycle it can move up to 450 metric tonnes of material.
Most mining draglines are not diesel-powered like most other mining equipment. Their power
consumption is so great that they have a direct connection to the high-voltage grid at voltages of
between 6.6 to 22 kV. A typical dragline, with a 55 cubic metre bucket, can use up to 6
megawatts during normal digging operations. Because of this, many (possibly apocryphal)
stories have been told about the blackout-causing effects of mining draglines. For instance, there
is a long-lived story that, back in the 1970s, if all seven draglines at Peak Downs Mine (a very
large BHP coal mine in central Queensland, Australia) turned simultaneously, they would

13
 Mine Machinery

blackout all of North Queensland. However even now, if they have been shutdown they are
always restarted one at a time due to the immense power requirements of startup.
In all but the smallest of draglines, movement is accomplished by "walking" using feet or
pontoons, as caterpillar tracks place too much pressure on the ground, and have great difficulty
under the immense weight of the dragline. Maximum speed is only at most a few metres per
minute since the feet must be repositioned for each step. If travelling medium distances, (about
30-100 km), a special dragline carrier can be brought in to transport the dragline. Above this
distance, disassembly is generally required. But mining draglines due to their reach can work a
large area from one position and do not need to constantly move along the face like smaller
machines.

Limitations
The primary limitations of draglines are their boom height and boom length, which limits where
the dragline can dump the waste material. Another primary limitation is their dig depth, which is
limited by the length of rope the dragline can utilize. Inherent with their construction, a dragline
is most efficient excavating material below the level of their base. While a dragline can dig
above itself, it does so inefficiently and is not suitable to load piled up material (as a rope shovel
can).
Despite their limitations, and their extremely high capital cost, draglines remain popular with
many mines, due to their reliability, and extremely low waste removal cost.

Crawler mounted draglines.

 Can be used for both mining and stripping operations.
 They can be diesel or electric powered.
 They can work effectively in tight areas and can traverse rough terrain making them
desirable excavators for many mining jobs.
 Generally limited to bucket capacities of 19m3.
 Generally utilized in operations that require more mobility (propel speed).

14
 Mine Machinery

Walking draglines.
It differs from crawler mounted, only by its working base and the means by which it propels. The
walking dragline is slower, hence less mobile, but is more maneuverable and, because the weight
is distributed to a tub, it has a lower ground bearing pressure. Because of the capital associated
with the large size of walking draglines, they are generally used in long life (10 to 40 years)
operations.
Walking draglines encompass an extensive range of bucket capacities from approximately 7 to
168 m3. Boom lengths of walking draglines vary from approximately 37 to 128m long.

Machine features (Mechanical).

The mechanical feature of a walking dragline can be divided into seven basic components:
 The tub or base.
 Rotating frame.
 Swing machinery.
 Hoist machinery.
 Drag machinery.
 Propel machinery.
 The bucket, its ropes and rigging and the front-end components.

Tub.
The tub is a rigid circular base that provides complete support for the dragline at all times except
the propel mode. The weight of the upper components of the dragline transferred to the tub by
the roller circle, an independent ring of interconnected rollers that acts as a large bearing for
slewing of rotating frame.
The centre journal transfers the lateral forces (drag forces) to the tub. The rotational forces
(during swing) are transferred by main rotating gear segments. These gear segments are bolted to
the tub and form a ring gear.

15
 Mine Machinery

Rotating frame.
The rotating frame or machinery deck is the main platform of the dragline through which the
active forces of swinging, digging and propelling are distributed. The rotating frame rest on the
roller circle and rotates about the center journal during the swing motion. All machinery and
superstructure components are mounted to the rotating frame.

Swing machinery.
The swing machinery consists of a number of individual swing units mounted to the rotating
frame. Each of these swing units is comprised of a vertically mounted d-c motor which, through
a series of gear reductions, drives a main swing shaft. The main swing shafts, to which the swing
pinions, are attached, extend vertically through the rotating frame and mate with the main
rotating gear segments which are mounted to the tub and thereby slewing the rotating frame.

Hoist and drag machinery.

The hoist and drag machinery consists primarily of motors, gear reductions and wire rope drums.
These can be found in two basic arrangements, the independent or the synchronous hoist and
drag system. The independent is utilized in all sizes of walking draglines while the synchronous
arrangement is utilized only in draglines with less than 15m3 of rated bucket capacities.
The independent hoist and drag system is comprised of two sets of separate and independent d-c
motors and gear reductions, each of which drives a rope drum. The gear ratios and the motor
horse powers will generally be the same for the hoist and drag.
A synchronous hoist and drag system differs from the independent system because its hoist and
drag gear reductions are driven by the same motor. The gear reduction units are interconnected
and therefore rotate together. The rope drums are clutched to the reduction units, so that the
drums can be disengaged either individually or coincidentally, if necessary. An undriven drum,
when disengaged from the drive, may be held stationary with an independent brake. These
clutching and braking actions are independent of each other and are controlled by the operator.
The ropes are normally directed around their respective drums so that when one drum reevs in its
rope, the drum is paying out its rope or vice versa.

16
 Mine Machinery

Propel Machinery.
The propel machinery is commonly found in two configurations: independent and
interconnected. On the interconnected dragline, there are two propel units. Each unit is
comprised of one or two d-c motors, a gear reduction, a walking eccentric and a shoe. The propel
units are mounted on the sides of the rotating frame. As the shoes are driven through the lower
part of the propel motion, they contact the ground and begin to take the weight of the machine.
The propel units are placed on the rotating frame to the rear of the center of gravity, so as the
shoes accept the load, the dragline is tipped a few degrees forward and the rear of the tub id lifted
off the ground. As the propel motion continues, the propel units slide the machine 1.8 2.4m to
the rear and set it down. The front edge of the tub remains in contact with the ground and will
carry about 20% of the weight of the machine. The shoes will carry the remaining 80%. The final
movement in the propel cycle lifts the shoes clear of the ground into the carry position at the top
of the eccentric.
In some older or smaller models, the propel units are interconnected, with a propel shaft driven
from a single point. Often the propel drive in this kind of system is taken from the drag motors
through a jaw clutch.

Bucket ropes and rigging.

The purpose of the ropes and rigging are to manipulate the bucket. The raising and lowering is a
function of the hoist rope. The forward and the rearward movements are controlled by the drag
rope tension. Lateral control is maintained by the swing motion.
Bucket rigging consist of the following components:
 Hoist chain.
 Drag chain.
 Dump rope.
 Dump block.
 Spreader bar.

17
 Mine Machinery

The picture below shows a dragline bucket and its rigging.

Front-End componets.
These consist basically of the boom and its support structures. Some smaller draglines may
have live booms that can be altered to any angle by the operator. However, since the boom
angle has such a pronounced effect on the load carrying capability of the boom and the
rotational inertia of the machine, the angle is usually fixed between 27° and 40° by design.
Boom support structures depend on the manufacturer and the size of the machine. The
Gantry (or A-frame) is typically found on smaller model machines. When the boom exceeds
60 to 90m range, it becomes necessary to alter the front end geometry of the machine. In
order to provide sufficient angle between the main support ropes and the boom to meet
design load requirements for acceptable boom loading, the machine may be equipped with a
mast-gantry or a tri-structure.

Machine Features- Electrical.

The drive motors on the, swing, drag, hoist and propel are normally d-c motors due to the
requirement for variable speeds and for high torque at low speeds. A-c systems have recently
been introduced for use in smaller excavators.

18
 Mine Machinery

Dragline Selection.
An important concept to keep in mind when sizing or selecting a dragline is to select the
dragline for the mine plan and not the mine plan for the dragline. The two major parameters
used to select the right dragline are, fundamentally, dump radius allowable load together with
some general factors considered for machine selection.

Dump Radius.
This is the horizontal distance from the machine’s center of rotation to the hoist rope when
the bucket is in a vertically suspended position. Part of this dump radius is consumed by
stand-off (So). This is the distance from the center of rotation the crest of the old highwall
when the machine is in a digging position. The remaining dump radius is considered the
effective dump radius (Re).
The stand-off distance will vary depending on machine size, operator preference and
overburden conditions.

Allowable Suspended load.

This is the maximum weight of the bucket, rigging and material for which the dragline is
designed to provide optimum performance.

Dragline attributes.
 Have the ability to dig well below and above grade.
 Can function under less rigid operating conditions from shovels.
 May or may not require supporting waste haulage equipment.
 Are normally used for handling unconsolidated and softer material, but larger units
can handle blasted rock.
 Are only 75 to 80% efficient in production as a shovel of the same size due to less
precise motions.
 They provide a much larger reach than shovels, for both material excavation and
dumping.

19
 Mine Machinery

Production calculations.
The production rate for a shovel and a dragline is calculated in the same way since the
parameters used in the calculations are the same for the two machines. Before getting into the
actual calculations we have to define some terms:
Fill Factor:
This is percentage or portion of the bucket that actually fills with material during loading.
Swell Factor:
This is a measure in percent of the volume increase experienced by material when loosened from
its in-place position.
Availability:
This is the proportion of time that the machine is able to be used for its intended purpose.
Availability = Total Hours - Downtime Hours X 100%
Total Hours

Utilisation:
This is the proportion of the time that the machine is available that it is used for its intended
purpose.
Utilisation = Total Hours - Downtime Hours - Standby Hours X 100%
Total Hours - Downtime Hours

Reliability:
This is a measure of how often a machine does not fulfil its intended purpose. Usually measured
by Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF).
Reliability = Total Hours - Downtime Hours - Standby Hours X 100%
Number of Failures.
Clearly reliability and availability are related, but not necessary directly - it is possible to have a
piece of equipment that breaks down frequently, but for shot periods, which as a result has a
reasonable level of reliability. Similarly, it is possible to have a piece of equipment that is highly

20
 Mine Machinery

reliable, but has a low level of availability because it is out of service for maintenance for long
periods of time.

Factors Impacting on reliability.

As define previously, reliability is the frequency with which the equipment does not fulfil its
desired purpose. Anything, therefore, which causes an interruption to the normal operation of the
equipment, can be defined as a failure. While it is common to consider reliability as being
primarily a Maintenance concern, in fact, there are generally as many Production issues that
cause interruptions to normal operations. The factors that could interrupt normal operations
include:
 Geology - Variability in digging conditions can lead to the need for shovels or trucks to
stop, even momentarily. Similarly, ore grade that is different from what is expected also
can cause the need for an interruption to production.
 The Mine Plan - The mine plan generally calls for the equipment to be moved
periodically as different areas are to be mined.
 Accident damage - Production issue, it causes interruption if the equipment must be
taken out of service for inspection or repair.
 Equipment failure - Maintenance issue.
 Routine Maintenance - Routine servicing, component replacement, overhauls e.t.c.
 Weather - Rain, fog etc.
 Downstream process - Failure of a component or equipment along the downstream
process.
 Shift changes and crib breaks.
 Spillage and House keeping - The need to stop to clean up spillage in the vicinity of a
shovel or in the dump area.
 The blast - Often there is need to stop equipment during a blast.
 Ineffective blasting - it causes problems with diggability in certain areas.
 Refuelling and lubrication.

21
 Mine Machinery

Improving Reliability.
The first step is to measure the number of times the equipment stopped, together with the reasons
for those stoppages. It is a truism that “what cannot be measured cannot be managed.”
The second step is to perform Pareto analysis on data collected in the first step - that is, identify
the few reasons that account for the majority of the stoppages. Focus your attention on these
stoppages, because a small improvement in reliability in these areas will have the greatest impact
on overall equipment performance.
The third step is to analyse these high frequency stoppages, and indentify the opportunities for
improvement. The stoppages can be classified as either planned or unplanned stoppages, that is
the stoppage is generally known about in advance, or it is not. For planned stoppages, the
strategy should be to combine the stoppages, and reduce their duration- for example, conduct
blast during crib breaks, or refuel at shift change. For unplanned stoppages, the aim should be to
eliminate them or reduce their frequency, or to convert the stoppages into planned stoppages that
can be combined with other planed stoppages.

Now the production rate of a shovel dragline is calculated using the following formular:
Production rate = (60 * C * Ff * Fs *A* U) / Tc/t
Where: Production rate (m3/hr)
C = Bucket or Dipper capacity (m3).
Ff = Fill Factor.
Fs = Material Swell Factor.
A = Availability.
U = Utilisation.
Tc/t = Total cycle Time (minute.)

Ownership and Operating cost of excavating units.

This is one of the factors to consider when selecting a dragline.

22
 Mine Machinery

Ownership (indirect) Cost.

 Interest
 Taxes.
 Insurance
 Depreciation
Interest, insurance and taxes are charge throughout the depreciation schedule and are paid on the
average annual investment, which is calculated as follows:
Average Annual Investment = ((N + 1) /2N)*Total investment.
Where N = numbers of years in depreciation schedule (Economic Life of the machine).
Depreciation is calculated using the straight line method as follows:
Deprecation = Total investment/N.

Operating (direct) Cost.

 Repair and maintenance supplies.
 Repair and maintenance labour.
 Operating labour.
 Power or fuel.
Maintenance and repair cost are usually low when equipment is new but they gradually rise until
the economic life is reached.
Large stripping shovels, draglines and mining shovel are usually used beyond their economic
life. All stripping shovels are electrically powered whilst most of mining and walking draglines
are electric.

Ownership and Operating Cost calculation format:

Ownership.
1. Purchase Price US $---------
2. Freight $---------
3. Erection $---------
4. Total Price $---------
5. Depreciation Life 20 years
23
 Mine Machinery

6. Depreciation cost per year=line4/line5 $---------

7. Average Investment per year $---------
8. Interest, taxes and insurance per year ITI%*Line7 $---------
9. Total Ownership Cost = Line6 + Line8 $---------
Operating Cost.
1. Maintenance and supply cost per year $--------
2. Electric power cost per year $--------
3. Labour cost $--------
4. Total operating cost per year $--------
Total ownership and operating cost per year $--------

24
 Mine Machinery

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR
Key advantages over a front end loader or a mining shovel are:
Front end loader.
Lower hydraulic excavator operating cost due to:
1. Elimination of tyre maintenance cost.
2. Less horsepower consumed to load material; therefore, fuel cost per m 3 of material
moved is lower.
3. More rugged structural and drive train components may be used since the front tire and
axle loading are not the predominant machine design components.
4. Greater digging forces (crowd and break out) may be applied to the material bank.

Mining shovels.
1. Greater mobility (if diesel driven), higher travel speed and more important, weight and
improved steerability are available with the hydraulic excavator.
2. A digging envelope permitting selectivity in penetrating the bank.
3. Higher cutting forces.
4.
Machine description.
1. Hydraulic pumps: all manufacturers use variable displacement piston types.
2. Hydraulic motors: Again, piston type motors are used.
3. Operator controllers: Joysticks are used for normal operation function.
4. Swing Bearing: Universally used.
5. Power: Diesel engines or a-c electric motor driven.
6. Low ground bearing pressure: Ranging from 68.9 to 172.4 kPa, depending on size and
manufacturer.
7. Dual path hydrostatic propel drive.
8. Fast field assembly: Ranging from 50 to 250 man-hours, depending on size.
9. Dozer type crawler components through the 15m3 class.
10. Use of planetary reduction gearing.

25
 Mine Machinery

Below is a picture of a hydraulic shovel.

Application.
The key unique feature of a hydraulic excavator compared to front end loaders, mining shovels
or draglines are:
1. Higher penetrating forces per bucket capacity that may be applied the bank and that affect
bucket fillability.
2. Ability to penetrate at any elevation above the pit floor permitting top down selective
loading.
3. Flat pass capability which is particularly effective in thin seam material loading.
4. High mobility when compared to electrically powered mining shovel.
Bucket Factor: the hydraulic shovel bucket can be pivoted at any point within the operating
envelope to permit driving the bucket teeth into the material face, allowing removal and loading
from the top of the material face downward. This feature, not available on mining shovels, assists

26
 Mine Machinery

in preventing any material overhang that may occur in poorly blasted material. This ability also
allows the operator to segregate and load different material in the face.

Truck Sizing.
The majority of hydraulic shovels are equipped with the clam type bucket. The clam action
bucket allows the machine operator to control the dump speed. Reduced material dumping speed,
particularly on the first load, will reduce the shock load on the haul truck bed, chassis,
suspension and tyres. This allows the hydraulic shovel to operate with smaller capacity trucks
than practical with mining shovels. The dumping target or bed size becomes more of a criterion
than maximum bucket load per pass.

Productivity Estimates.
The factors that affect the productivity of a hydraulic shovel or backhoe are the same as those
that are used in calculating production for front end loaders, mining shovels and draglines.

27
 Mine Machinery

BUCKET-WHEEL EXCAVATOR

Bucket-wheel excavators (BWEs) are heavy duty equipment used in surface mining and civil
engineering. The primary function of BWEs is to act as a continuous digging machine in large-
scale open pit mining operations. What sets BWEs apart from other large-scale mining
equipment, such as bucket chain excavators, is their use of a large wheel consisting of a
continuous pattern of buckets used to scoop material as the wheel turns. They are among the
largest vehicles ever constructed, and the biggest bucket-wheel excavator ever built, Bagger 293,
is the largest terrestrial (land) vehicle in human history according to the Guinness Book of
World. Below is a picture of a bucket wheel excavator.

28
 Mine Machinery

History
Bucket-wheel excavators have been used in mining for the past century, with some of the first
being manufactured in the 1920s. They are used in conjunction with many other pieces of mining
machinery (conveyor belts, spreaders, crushing stations,heap-leach systems, etc.) to move and
mine massive amounts of overburden (waste). While the overall concepts that go into a BWE
have not changed much, their size has grown drastically. BWEs built since the 1990s, such as the
Bagger 293, have reached sizes as large as 96 meters (314.9 feet) tall, 225 meters (738.2 feet)
long, and as heavy as 14,200 tons (31.3 million lb). The bucket-wheel itself can be over 70 feet
in diameter with as many as 20 buckets, each of which can hold over 15 cubic meters of material.
BWEs have also advanced with respect to the extreme conditions they are now capable of
operating in. Many BWEs have been designed to operate in climates with temperatures as low as
-45°C (-49°F). Developers are now moving their focus toward automation and the use of
electrical power.
Structure
A bucket wheel excavator (BWE) consists of a superstructure to which several more components
are fixed.
The bucket wheel from which the machines get their name is a large, round wheel with a
configuration of scoops which is fixed to a boom and is capable of rotating. Material picked up
by the cutting wheel is transferred back along the boom. In early cell-type bucket wheels, the
material was transferred through a chute leading from each bucket, while newer cell-less and
semi-cell designs use a stationary chute through which all of the buckets discharge.
A discharge boom receives material through the superstructure from the cutting boom and carries
it away from the machine, frequently to an external conveyer system.
A counterweight boom balances the cutting boom and is cantilevered either on the lower part of
the superstructure (in the case of compact BWEs) or the upper part (in the case of mid-size C-
frame BWEs). In the larger BWEs, all three booms are supported by cables running across
towers at the top of the superstructure.
Beneath the superstructure lay the movement systems for the excavator. On older models these
would be rails for the machine to travel along, but newer BWEs are frequently equipped with
crawlers, which grant them increased flexibility of motion.

29
 Mine Machinery

To allow it to complete its duties, the superstructure of a BWE is capable of rotating about a
vertical axis (slewing). The cutting boom can be tilted up and down (hoisting). The speeds of
these operations are on the orders of 30 m/min and 5 m/min, respectively. Slewing is driven by
large gears, while hoisting generally makes use of a cable system.

Size
The scale of BWEs varies drastically and is dependent on the intended application. Compact
BWEs designed by Thyssen Krupp may have boom lengths as small as 6m, weigh 50 tons, and
move 100 fm3/hr of earth. Their larger models reach boom lengths of 80m, weigh 13,000 tons,
and move 12,500 fm3/hr. The largest BWE ever constructed is TAKRAF's Bagger 293, which
weighs 14,200 tons and is capable of moving 240,000 m3 of overburden every day. Excavations
of 380,000 m3 have been recorded. The BWEs used in the United States tend to be smaller than
those constructed in Germany.
Bucket Chain Excavators
Bucket chain excavators (BCEs) are similar in structure and function to BWEs. However, instead
of the buckets being placed in a ring, they are strung out in a manner reminiscent of a trencher.
They remove material from below their plane of movement, which is useful if the pit floor is
unstable or underwater. TAKRAF's BCEs travel on rails rather than crawlers.
Operation
BWEs are used for continuous overburden removal in surface mining applications. They use
their cutting wheels to strip away a section of earth (the working block) dictated by the size of
the excavator. Through hoisting, the working block can include area both above and below the
level of the machine (the bench level). By slewing, the excavator can reach through a horizontal
range.
The overburden is then delivered to the discharge boom, which transfers the cut earth to another
machine for transfer to a spreader. This may be a fixed belt conveyer system or a mobile
conveyer with crawlers similar to those found on the BWE. Mobile conveyers permanently
attached to the excavator takes the burden of directing the material off of the operator. The
overburden can also be transferred directly to cross-pit spreader, which reaches across the pit and
scatters overburden at the dumping ground.

30
 Mine Machinery

Automation
Automation of the BWEs requires integrating many sensors and electrical components such as
GPS, data acquisition systems, and online monitoring capabilities. The goal of these systems is
to take away some of the work from the operators in order to achieve higher mining speeds.
Project managers and operators are now able to track crucial data regarding the BWEs and other
machinery in the mining operations via the Internet. Sensors can detect how much material is
being scooped onto the conveyor belt, and the automation system can then vary the speed on the
conveyor belts in order to feed a continuous amount of material. Further development of these
types of automation may make it possible to, someday, operate these enormous machines with
fewer operators or maybe none at all.

Applications
Bucket wheel excavators and bucket chain excavators take jobs that were previously
accomplished by rope shovels and draglines. They have been replaced in most applications by
hydraulic excavators, but still remain in use for very large-scale operations, where they can be
used for the transfer of loose materials or the excavation of soft to semi-hard overburden. They
are used for soft materials and medium hard material after some light blasting. This material
includes:
 Shale.
 Pottery clays.
 Oil sands.
 Sandstone.
 Phosphates.
 Lignites.
 Coal.
It can also handle frozen material (countries like Canada, Russia experience negative
temperatures.) and in these conditions drilling and blasting may or may not be successful.
For winter climates the machine needs to be winterized. Winterizing includes heated gearboxes
and lubricants, antifreeze to prevent crawlers from freezing to the ground, empty belt idling and
calcium chloride solutions to prevent material building up on belts.
31
 Mine Machinery

Lignite Mining
The primary application of BWEs is the in lignite (brown coal) mining, where they are used for
soft rock overburden removal in the absence of blasting. They are useful in this capacity for their
ability to continuously deliver large volumes of materials to processors, which is especially
important given the continuous demand for lignite.
Because of the great demand for lignite, lignite mining has also been one of the areas of greatest
development for BWEs. The additions of automated systems and greater maneuverability, as
well as components designed for the specific application, have increased the reliability and
efficiency with which BWEs deliver materials.

Materials Handling
Bucket wheel technology is used extensively in bulk materials handling. Bucket wheel
reclaimers are used to pick up material that has been positioned by a stacker for transport to a
processing plant. Stacker/reclaimers, which combine tasks to reduce the number of required
machines, also use bucket wheels to carry out their tasks.
In shipyards, bucket wheels are used for the continuous loading and unloading of ships, where
they pick up material from the yard for transfer to the delivery system. Bucket chains can be used
to unload material from a ship's hold. TAKRAF's continuous ship unloader is capable of
removing to 95% of the material from a ship's hold, owing to a flexibly-configured digging
attachment.

Heap Leaching
An extension of their other uses, BWEs are used in heap leaching processes. Heap leaching
entails of constructing stacks of crushed ore, through which a solvent is passed to extract
valuable materials. The construction and removal of the heaps are an obvious application of
stacking and reclaiming technology.

BWEs Advantages.
1. Wider benches and more stable pit slopes.
2. More room for mobile equipment to manoeuvre.

32
 Mine Machinery

3. Improved shovel efficiency in under lying hard rock when soft overburden is removed by
BWE.
4. Wide benches expose more reserves.
5. Rehabilitation of spoiled overburden easier and cheaper.
6. Close control in selective mining.
7. Ability to deliver material above and below working level.
8. Ability to handle high and / or deep cuts.

BWEs Disadvantages.
1. Inability to dig hard material which fragments poorly.
2. Inefficient in ground with either mixed boulders or buried vegetation.
3. Performs poorly in hard dense interbeds alternating soft ground.
4. Relatively high initial machine cost for small operations.
5. Special purpose machine and thus relatively inflexible.

Machine Selection. (BWE)

Basic considerations are:
1. Type of material to be handled- Material characteristics influence wheel type and speed,
horsepower, BWE profile and the belt handling system.
2. Engineered mining plan- Mining layout reflects bench height, slope faces ect.
3. Required average BWE output- There must be high production rates requirements to
justify high capital cost requirements for the machine.
4. Life of operation- The operation must have a long intended life since these machines may
last for 20 or more years.

33
 Mine Machinery

FRONT-END-LOADERS
Heavy equipment front loaders
A loader (also known as: bucket loader, front loader, front end loader, payloader, scoop
loader, shovel, skip loader, and/or wheel loader) is a type of tractor, usually wheeled,
sometimes on tracks, that has a front mounted square wide bucket connected to the end of two
booms (arms) to scoop up loose material from the ground, such as dirt, sand or gravel, and move
it from one place to another without pushing the material across the ground. A loader is
commonly used to move a stockpiled material from ground level and deposit it into an awaiting
dump truck or into an open trench excavation.
The loader assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Often the bucket
can be replaced with other devices or tools--for example, many can mount forks to lift heavy
pallets or shipping containers, and a hydraulically-opening "clamshell" bucket allows a loader to
act as a light dozer or scraper.
Large loaders, such as the Kawasaki 95ZV-2, John Deere 844K, Caterpillar 950H, Volvo
L120E, Case 921E, or Hitachi ZW310 usually have only a front bucket and are called Front
Loaders, whereas small loader tractors are often also equipped with a small backhoes and are
called backhoe loaders or loader backhoes or JCBs, after the company that first invented them.
The largest loader in the world is LeTourneau L-2350. Currently these large loaders are in
production in the Longview, Texas facility. The L-2350 uses a diesel electric propulsion system
similar to that used in a locomotive. Each rubber tired wheel is driven by its own independent
electric motor.
Loaders are used mainly for uploading materials into trucks, laying pipe, clearing rubble, and
digging. A loader is not the most efficient machine for digging as it cannot dig very deep below
the level of its wheels, like a backhoe can. Their deep bucket can usually store about 3-6 cubic
meters (exact number varies with the model) of earth. The front loader's bucket capacity is much
bigger than a bucket capacity of a backhoe loader. Loaders are not classified as earthmoving
machinery, as their primary purpose is other than earthmoving.
Unlike most bulldozers most loaders are wheeled and not tracked, although track loaders are
common. They are successful where sharp edged materials in construction debris would damage

34
 Mine Machinery

rubber wheels, or where the ground is soft and muddy. Wheels provide better mobility and speed
and do not damage paved roads as much as tracks, but provide less traction.
In construction areas loaders are also used to transport building materials - such as bricks, pipe,
metal bars, and digging tools - over short distances.
High-tip buckets are suitable for light materials such as chip, peat and light gravel and when the
bucket is emptied from a height.
Unlike backhoes or standard tractors fitted with a front bucket, many large loaders do not use
automotive steering mechanisms. Instead, they steer by a hydraulically actuated pivot point set
exactly between the front and rear axels. This is referred to as "articulated steering" and allows
the front axle to be solid, allowing it to carry greater weight. Articulated steering provides better
maneuverability for a given wheelbase. Since the front wheels and attachment rotate on the same
axis, the operator is able to "steer" his load in an arc after positioning the machine, which can be
useful. The tradeoff is that when the machine is "twisted" to one side and a heavy load is lifted
high, it has a greater risk of turning over to the "wide" side.Front loaders gained popularity
during the last two decades, especially in urban engineering projects and small earthmoving
works.
They are basically two type the track type loader and the wheel loader.
Track type loader- it is essentially an excavating tool and used and is used in situations with:
 High digging requirements.
 Extremely soft footing.
 Very rough terrain requiring a high degree of stability.

35
 Mine Machinery

Below is a picture of a track type loader.

Wheel loader- It’s a high speed loading tool and is used for pure loading and where a high
degree of versatility and mobility is required. They are commonly used as load and carry units
where the loader excavates, transports and dumps or spreads material. Typical load and carry
applications are:
1. Load at face and carry to hopper, crusher, stockpile, dump etc.
2. Strip, carry and stockpile topsoil.
3. Load from stockpile or surge piles and carry to hopper.
4. Load, carry and spread material for construction and maintenance of roads, dikes settling
ponds etc.
The wheel loader has excellent mobility and is widely used for small or intermittent load and
carry applications. Large wheel loaders are also used as primary haulage equipment for short
transport distances of up to 183m with level to gentle slopes.

36
 Mine Machinery

Below is a picture of a wheel loader.

Design and Specifications.

Wheel front end loaders used in mining applications are designed with a center-articulated deign
and a rear mounted diesel engine. Power is transmitted to all four wheels by either mechanical
drive train electric wheel motors.
Wheel loaders can be equipped with bias ply or radial tyres. When used in load applications, tires
must have adequate tonne-kilometre per hour rating as well as adequate load carrying capacity.
Tire loads must be reduced for the higher velocities and longer transport distances often
encountered in load and carry applications.
Manufacturer Specifications.
 Rated payload.
 Struck volumetric capacity.
 Engine kilowatt (horsepower).
 Operating weight.
 Weight distribution.
 Carry position.
 Bucket width.

37
 Mine Machinery

 Clearance circle.
 Overall dimensions.
Wheel loaders with mechanical drives commonly have two or four forward and reverse gears.
Reverse velocities are important in load and carry applications since the loader may travel the
same distance in reverse as in forward.

38
 Mine Machinery

WHEEL TRACTOR-SCRAPER
A wheel tractor-scraper is a piece of heavy equipment used for earthmoving. The rear part has
a vertically moveable hopper (also known as the bowl) with a sharp horizontal front edge. The
hopper can be hydraulically lowered and raised. When the hopper is lowered, the front edge cuts
into the soil or clay like a cheese slicer and fills the hopper. When the hopper is full (8 to 34 m³)
heaped, depending on type) it is raised, and closed with a vertical blade (known as the apron).
The scraper can transport its load to the fill area where the blade is lowered, the back panel of the
hopper, or the ejector, is hydraulically pushed forward and the load tumbles out. Then the empty
scraper returns to the cut site and repeats the cycle.
Scrapers can be very efficient on short hauls where the cut and fill areas are close together and
have sufficient length to fill the hopper. The heavier scraper types have two engines ('tandem
powered'), one driving the front wheels, one driving the rear wheels, with engines up to 400 kW
(550 horsepower).Two scrapers can work together in a push-pull fashion but this requires a long
cut area. Below is a picture of a wheel tractor scraper.

Compared to trucks:
39
 Mine Machinery

 Scrapers typically load themselves or load with the help from a push tractor in less than
a minute. Rigid frame or articulated trucks normally take longer to load.
 Tucks require the use a separate loading tool, scrapers offer overall positive economics
because they don’t require a loading tool.
 They also can travel at high speeds, but they must carry the weight of the loading
mechanism throughout the cycle.
 At the dump area, tractor scrapers spread their load quickly, without stopping and
normally without the aid of support equipment.
 Scrapers can also compact material at the dump site.
 Scrapers can be single engine or tandem powered. Single engine scrapers are usually
limited to 15% grades, while tandem powered can work effectively on 25% grades and
can climb 35% grade.
Scrapers work effectively in most soils as well as laminated rock. They can also move blasted
rock or ripped rock that breaks into smaller pieces.
For scrapers to have advantage of the ability to spread material at the dump site, the site must
allow a reasonable run.

Scraper attributes.
1. Have excellent mobility.
2. Are limited to fairly soft and easily broken material for good production, although they
can handle blasted material up 600mm.
3. Usually require pushers to assist in loading.
4. Usually are operated without the need of supporting equipment where the distance to the
dump area does not exceed 1.5km.
5. Require good roads to minimize tyre cost.
6. Are fast but are economically limited to an operating radius of approximately 1.5km.

40
 Mine Machinery

DOZERS
A bulldozer is a crawler (caterpillar tracked tractor), equipped with a substantial metal plate
(known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, etc., during mining or
construction work and typically equipped at the rear with a claw-like device (known as a ripper)
to loosen densely-compacted materials. The term "bulldozer" is often used to mean any heavy
equipment (sometimes a loader and sometimes an excavator, but precisely, the term refers only
to a tractor (usually tracked) fitted with a dozer blade. That is the meaning used here.
Description
Most often, bulldozers are large and powerful tracked heavy equipment. The tracks give them
excellent ground hold and mobility through very rough terrain. Wide tracks help distribute the
bulldozer's weight over a large area (decreasing pressure), thus preventing it from sinking in
sandy or muddy ground. Extra wide tracks are known as 'swamp tracks'. Bulldozers have
excellent ground hold and a torque divider designed to convert the engine's power into improved
dragging ability. The Caterpillar D9, for example, can easily tow tanks that weigh more than 70
tons. Because of these attributes, bulldozers are used to clear areas of obstacles, shrubbery, burnt
vehicles, and remains of structures.
Sometimes a bulldozer is used to push another piece of earthmoving equipment known as a
"scraper". The towed Fresno Scraper, invented in 1883 by James Porteous, was the first design to
enable this to be done economically, removing the soil from the cut and depositing it elsewhere
on shallow ground (fill). Many dozer blades have a reinforced center section with this purpose in
mind, and are called "bull blades."

Types and applicability.

Dozers are two basic types:
 Track or crawler tractor.
 Rubber tyred or wheel tractor.
Crawler dozers are the ones equipped with a ripper shank for loosening unconsolidated soil or
fragmenting rock. Dozers are normally powered by an onboard diesel engine with crawler and
wheel dozers having fly power up to 522kW (700hp) and 611kW (820hp), respective
In surface mines dozers are used for many applications including:
41
 Mine Machinery

 Land clearing.
 Construction and maintenance of access and haulage roads.
 Benching and preparation of loading area.
 Clean up around excavating and/ or loading equipment.
 Relocate electric cable skids.
 Maintain waste dump by spreading material, pushing material over dump slope, and
grading dump area and slopes.
 Push material to hopper for loading.
 Push overburden short distances as a primary method for stripping overburden.
 Push spoil to contour spoil piles for reclamation.
 Push load tractor scrappers.
 Assist disabled vehicles.
 Relocate pumps, pipes, conveyors etc.
 Rip unconsolidated soil and rock.
 Construction, maintenance and cleanup of stockpiles.
Both crawler and wheel dozers are used for all these applications, except ripping which is
accomplished by crawler dozers only. Dozers are versatile and are essential at almost all surface
mines.

42
 Mine Machinery

Crawler Dozers.

Above is picture of a crawler dozer with a single shank.

Crawler dozers are usually used for more difficulty operating and ground conditions because of:
 High drawbar pull or pushing force provided by the power train.
 High coefficient of traction in loose earth soil and rock.
 Low ground bearing pressure.
 Excellent stability.
Drive trains for crawler dozers use high speed diesel engines with power transmitted to tracks
through mechanical drives. The dozer undercarriage consist of track frames, drive sprockets,
front idlers, rollers, track adjustor, chain links and pins, and track shoes. The dozer blade is
controlled by lift, tilt and angling hydraulic cylinders. The dozer ripper is also controlled by
hydraulic cylinders.
43
 Mine Machinery

Crawler dozers may be equipped with a power and velocity sensing system which allows the
operator to maximize effective dozer work. This system functions by measuring dozer true
ground velocity and pushing force. The operator then can vary the blade cutting depth or loading,
which alters the velocity and pushing force so that the dozer operates at full power and the most
efficient portion of the dozer performance curve. Dozer performance curve is graph of drawbar
pull against dozer velocity. Drawbar pull is the horizontal force at the drawbar or the force the
drive train produce at the track-ground contact.

Wheel Dozers.
Wheel dozers are advantageous where conditions are more consistent such as dozing uniform
material with a high coefficient of traction. With favourable ground conditions, wheel dozers
generally provide high pushing force when operating above speeds of 3.2 to 4.8km/h than
crawler dozers of the same class. Wheel dozers also are highly mobile, and can be moved
quickly from one location or application to another.
Wheel dozers used in mining application usually have a center articulation design. The engine is
at the rear providing even weight distribution between front and rear axles. The operator’s
compartment usually is above the pivot point.
Drive trains for or rubber tyred dozers use high speed diesel engines with power transmitted to
all four wheels by mechanical or electric drives. For mechanical drives, power is transmitted to
all four wheels by a torque converter, and transmission, drive shaft and necessary to front axle
and drive shaft to rear axle, front and rear differentials, and final planetary drives.
Electric wheel drive dozers use a diesel engine to drive an a-c generator that provides electric
current to a solid state electric power convertor. The convertor provides d-c current to each
electric wheel motor which then drives the final planetary gearing. Because each wheel has its
own wheel motor, wheel spin or slippage can be controlled by reducing power as the wheel loses
traction.
Wheel dozers are equipped with service, emergency and parking brakes. Wheel dozers may be
operated with bias ply or radial tyres. Dozers use the same tyres as wheel front end loaders. The
tire and rim association (T&RA) code identifications for loader and dozer tyres are:

44
 Mine Machinery

 L-2 Traction.
 L-3 Rock.
 L-4 Rock deep tread.
 L-5 Rock extra deep tread.
 L-4S Smooth deep tread.
 L-5S Smooth extra deep tread.
 L-5/L-5S Half track extra deep tread.
Tread design affects traction and flotation in various materials.
Traction- is the friction between a tyre and the ground surface.
Flotation- is the ability of a tire float or stay on top of the ground surface.
L-4 and L-5 tires are most common dozer tires with L-5 tires commonly used for
production dozing. Dozer tires may be filled with liquid or finely powered mineral ballast
to increase machine operating weight. A calcium chloride solution with 75% filling is
commonly used for liquid ballast.

Important Wheel dozer specifications:

 Blade capacity
 Engine kilowatt (horsepower.)
 Machine operating weight and distribution.
 Tire ground contact area.
 Turning circle
 General dimensions.

45
 Mine Machinery

Below is a picture of a wheel dozer.

The bulldozer's primary tools are the blade and the ripper.
Blades.
The blade is massive structure mounted on the front of the dozer for pushing and controlled by
several hydraulic cylinders. The blade may be straight to push material in front of the dozer or
angled to cast material to either side. The blade is attached to the tractor by a push frame which
transmits pushing force from the tractor to the blade. The push frame has two push arms which
are attached to each end of the blade.
Straight “S” Blade.
This is the most versatile blade used for almost all dozer applications. Because the blade has a
high cutting edge force per unit of blade width, the S blade has good penetration and can handle

46
 Mine Machinery

heavy and tough to excavate materials. The small blade width makes dozers with the S blade
easy to maneuver. When equipped with a push plate, the S blade is used to push load scrappers.
Below is a picture of the straight blade.

Universal or U blade.
The U blade has large wings that increase blade capacity. The U blade is excellent for pushing
big loads over long distances such as in:
 reclamation.
 Stockpile work.
 Charging hoppers.
 Trapping rock for front end loaders.
The blade is also excellent for spreading fill and finish grading. The U blade has relatively poor
penetration and is best for lighter and relatively easy to excavate or push material. Large capacity
U blades are available for pushing light noncohesive materials such as stock piled coal.

47
 Mine Machinery

The picture below shows a universal blade.

Angling or A blade.
It is essentially a straight blade of lower height, more moldbord curvature and less capacity than
the straight blade. The A blade can be angled right or left for:
 Side-casting.
 Backfilling.
 Windrowing.
 Benching
 Ditching
This blade also can be positioned straight, but usually has less cutting edge force per unit of
blade width than a straight blade. Thus, in the straight position the A blade operates most
effectively in light and easy to excavate or push material.

48
 Mine Machinery

The picture below shows an angling blade.

Cushion or C blade.
This is a smaller blade used principally for push loading scrapers. This blade has rubber cushions
to absorb impact when contacting the scraper push block. The narrow blade width increases
dozer maneuverability in congested scraper cuts and reduces the possibility of cutting scraper
tyres. The C blade can be used for scraper cut maintenance and ground dozing applications.

Dozing.
When dozers are used for continuous production dozing to push large volumes of material over
short distances, production depends on blade loading and dozer cycle time.

49
 Mine Machinery

Blade loading.
Actual blade loading may deviate substantially from blade design capacity because of:
 Blade design.
 Drive train performance.
 Operating weight.
 Traction.
 Material characteristics.
 Terrain operating procedure.
 Operating technique.
Three functions performed by the dozer blade are:
 To excavate material using the cutting edge.
 Transport material.
 Spread material.
It is usually desirable to operate the dozer a velocity that maximizes power delivered at the track-
ground contact by balancing the cutting depth and the blade loading. Cutting depth and material
characteristics determine the pushing force required with resistance increasing with increased
cutting depth.
Since the load slides or rolls along the ground during transport the following affects the pushing
force required:
 Friction (internal, blade to material, and material to ground.)
 Material density.
 Blade loading.
When pushing material down hill, blade loading usually can be increased because gravity is
assisting the dozer. Conversely, pushing material uphill decreases blade loading.
Because of material spillage off the sides of the blade as the dozer transport material, the
operator must replace this spilled material to maintain full blade loading. Actual blade loading
can be determined in the field by:
1. Counting number of dozer passes, surveying the cut to determine volume of material
excavated, and then calculating average blade loading per pass.

50
 Mine Machinery

2. Weighing actual blade load, determining material loose bulk density, and calculating
blade loading.
3. Measuring actual blade load dimensions and calculating blade load.

Dozer Cycle Time.

Dozer cycle time is the time required for the dozer to complete a full pass including:
 cut.
 Transport.
 Spread
 Return
 Fixed
 Maneuvering
 Delay times.

Dozer Production.
It is calculated using the following formula:
Pd = (60 * Ld * Fs * A * U) / Tc/t.
Where: Pd = Dozer production. (m3/hr)
Ld = Blade loading (m3)
Fs = Material swell factor.
A = Availability.
U = Utilisation.
Tc/t = Dozer cycle time (minutes).

Ripper.
There are three types:
 Radial.
 Parallelogram.
 Adjustable parallelogram.
51
 Mine Machinery

All three ripper types are raised and lowered by hydraulic cylinders.

Radial ripper.
The beam pivots to raise and lower the ripper shank(s). thus, the shank(s) moves in an arc with
the shank(s) sloping more forward as the shank(s0 is lowered.

Parallelogram Ripper.
Has upper and lower hinge arms that keeps the shank(s) at the same angle to the ground as the
shank(s) is lowered.

Adjustable parallelogram ripper.

Hydraulic cylinders serve as the upper hinge arms. Thus, the shank(s) angle to the ground can be
varied to the optimum angle for penetration, either before or during ripping.
The three types may have a single or multishank arrangement. A single shank, with the digging
force applied at a sing point, centers the load forces and reduces strain on the tractor and ripper.
Multishanks with two or more shanks can generate considerable off-center forces when one
shank impacts on hard spot or catches or pushes a slab ahead of the shank. For multishank
rippers with three shanks, the ripper usually can be operated with all three shanks, the two side
shanks, or the center shank only.
The shank can be straight or curved. Straight shanks are usually used for blocky formations
while curved shanks are used for bedded or laminated deposits where an uplifting action causes
further fragmentation. Each shank is equipped with a detachable point or tip, which can be of
various designs with shorter tips providing greater resistance to breakage. A single center shank
with a short tip is usually used for heavy ripping where penetration is difficulty and shock is
severe. Long tips are used for unconsolidated abrasive materials that are easy to rip. Multishank
(two or more shanks) can be used for easily ripped materials.

52
 Mine Machinery

The ripper can be equipped by a push block so that the ripper can be pushed by a second dozer
for very heavy ripping. The second or pushing dozer can add down pressure to the ripper. The
picture below shows an adjustable parallelogram ripper.

Ripper production.
It can be determined in the field by using one of the two principal methods:
1. Determine average cycle time, measure average rip distance, rip spacing and depth of
penetration; calculate volume of material ripped; and then calculate production rate.
2. Record time spent ripping, remove and weigh ripped material or survey the area after
removal of ripped material; and then calculate production rate.
Ripper production is calculated using the following formula:
Pr = (60 * L * w * p * A * U) / Tc/t
Where: Pr = Production rate (m3/hr).
L = Rip distance (m).
w = Rip spacing (distance between ripper passes) (m).
p = Depth of penetration (m)
A = Availability.
U = Utilisation.
Tc/t = Dozer cycle time (minutes)

53
 Mine Machinery

BELT CONVEYORS

Selection.
The following factors are considered during selection:
1. Rate at which material must be handled i.e throughput required (t/hr). The present and
future requirements of the belt system and the interrelation of the other process
machinery in the flow will also enable to establish a peak rate for handling material
which will result in optimum economy and performance
2. Delays- also to be considered are reduced operating days due to bad weather, equipment
downtime, routine maintenance and other factors affecting plant operation.
3. Density- The conveyor is a volumetric transporting medium, so the density of the
material being handled governs the tonnage rating.
4. Size-Consist- this affects belt width, belt speed and the slope at which material can be
loaded and conveyed. Coarser jugged material without fines should be handled at
moderate speeds to reduce belt wear at conveyor transfer points. Fine material without
lumps, particularly in clay presents stickiness problems, especially when the moisture
content is relatively high, affecting the cleaning of the return belt, the selection of the
return idlers and the slope of the transfer chute.
54
 Mine Machinery

5. Degradation and Dusting – Friable materials should be handled at reduced speeds if

degradation is a factor. Fine dry materials will tend to dust on high speed conveyors.
Airborne dust at conveyor transfer will increase at high speeds. Low-head chute transfers,
keeping the distances between belts and chute to a minimum, reduce dusting in these
situations.

Advantages of belt conveyor haulage.

1. It can handle a variety of materials- Material can range from very fine dusty chemicals
to large, lumpy ore, stone and coal.
2. Adaptability to path of travel- They can follow the shortest route possible between the
loading and unloading points. Path of travel can be quite flexible, being able to negotiate
horizontal and vertical curves. Can follow terrain at grades of 30 to 45%, compared to 6
to 8% for truck haulage.
3. Reliability and availability.
4. Environmentally friendly – They neither pollute the air nor deafen the ears.
5. Highly safe.
6. Low labour cost- Most functions of the conveyor system can be monitored from a
central control panel or controlled by a computer, allowing a minimum number of
operating personnel to inspect the equipment and report conditions that may require
attention by the maintenance department.
7. Low power cost.
8. Low maintenance cost- they don’t require extensive support systems, such as those
commonly associated with trucks. They usually require only scheduled inspection and
lubrication. Any repairs or replacements can be anticipated and unscheduled downtime
avoided.

Belt Conveyor Idlers.

There are two basic types of idlers:
 Carrying Idlers- which support the loaded run of the conveyor belt.
 Return Idlers- Support the empty return run of the conveyor belt.

55
 Mine Machinery

Carrying Idlers. (Troughers)

Used for troughed belts. It consists of three rolls. Two outer rolls are inclined upward, the center
roll is horizontal. The side rolls can be inclined at 20°, 35° or 45° with 35° commonly used.
Troughing idlers are made as either inline or offset center roll design. The offset center roll
design is commonly used in underground mining where height clearance is minimal. The
pictures blow shows these two types of carrying idlers.

Inline center roll design.

Offset center roll design.

56
 Mine Machinery

Return Idlers
They are usually horizontal rolls, positioned between brackets which normally are attached the
underside of the support structure on which the carrying idlers are mounted.

Impact troughing Idlers.

Also known as “Cushion Idlers”, are used at loading points where impact resulting from lump
size, material density and height of material free fall could seriously damage the belt, if the belt
were rigidly supported. They are made from heavy rubber covers vulcanized to steel rolls or
individual narrow discs pressed onto a steel tube. The later is the most common type of
construction. Below is a picture of an impact troughing idler.

57
 Mine Machinery

LOCOMOTIVES
Rail roadcars can be found in different types and these include:
 Box cars.
 Hopper cars.
 Tank cars etc

Common prime movers for locomotives include:

 Diesel.
 Diesel-Electric.
 Electric.
 Battery.

Compared to diesel electric an electric locomotive:

 Has more horsepower per ton weight ratio and greater adhesion.
 Is limited to those tracks with a power supply or a catenary.
 Cost considerably more but it has a much longer life.
 Has higher availability about 95% while that of diesel-electric averages about 85%
because of serving and engine repairs.
 Has no fuel storage and handling.
 Has clean and non-polluting operation.

Basic Design and Equipment data

Pulling force or Tractive Effort – this is the force required to overcome resistance to train
movement. It is provided by the locomotive and it’s a function of its horsepower.
Net Tractive Effort or Drawbar Pull – This is the difference between the available tractive
effort and the various resistances to train movement.
Mathematically expressed it will be:
Drawbar Pull = Available Tractive Effort – Locomotive Resistance.

58
 Mine Machinery

Locomotive resistance
It is comprised of:
 Grade Resistance.
 Curve Resistance.
 Rolling Resistance.

Grade Resistance – this is resistance encountered by a train moving up a slope due to the weight
of the train and the grade.
Grade is expressed as a %. Grade resistance is calculated as follows:
Grade Resistance = 20N per tonne on 1% of grade.

Curve Resistance – this is resistance due to curves along the tracks, it is caused by the slipping
of the wheels on the rails in the axial direction, the friction between the flange of the wheels and
the edge of the rails, and the different lengths of the inner and the outer arcs of the rails.
Curve Resistance is calculated as follows:
Curve Resistance = 0.8N per tonne on 1° of curve.

Rolling Resistance – this is resistance offered by locomotive and the trailing loads and depends
on factors like:
 Condition of track.
 Kind of bearings on the cars.
 Speed of the train.

It is usually expressed as specific resistance i.e resistance that must be overcomed to move one
tonne of load.

Adhesion or Coefficient of Friction – this is the attachement between the wheels of the
locomotive and the rail. It is expressed as a %:
% Adhesion = {Available Tractive Force(N) / Total weight on drivers (N)} * 100

59
 Mine Machinery

CRUSHERS
They are used for size reduction in order:
 Facilitate the transportation of ore from the mine to the mill.
 Initiate the size reduction process required to concentrate the ore.

They are three types which are normally used:

 Jaw crusher.
 Cone crusher.
 Gyratory crusher.

Gyratory and cone crushers are normally employed as primary crushers, while cone crushers
serve as secondary or tertiary crushers.
Primary crushers normally operate in open circuit while cone crushers operate in either open or
closed circuit. In a closed circuit the coarser portion of the product is separated and recirculated
through the crusher.
In some primary crusher installations, fine sized material is scalped or screened from the feed
before it enters the crusher and reunites with the crushed product after by-passing the crusher
(short circuit.)

Jaw Crusher.
 It consists of two plates which open and shut like animal jaws.
 The jaws are set at acute angles to each other, and one jaw is pivoted such that it swings
relative to the other fixed jaw.
 Material fed into the jaws is alternately nipped and released to fall further into the
crushing chamber, until it falls through the discharge aperture.
 Jaw crushers are rated according to their receiving areas i.e the width of the plates and the
gape, which is the distance between the jaws at the feeding opening. For example 1 830 *
1 220mm, this implies a width of 1 830mm and a gape of 1 220mm.

60
 Mine Machinery

 The discharge size of the material from the crusher is controlled by the set, which is the
maximum opening of the jaws at the discharge end.
Construction.

 They are heavy-duty machine and hence robustly constructed.

 The main frame is often made from cast iron or steel, connected with tie bolts.
 Often made in sections for easy of transportation underground.
 Jaws are fitted with replaceable manganese steel liners, which are bolted in sections
onto the jaws so that they can be removed easily and reversed periodically to equalize
wear.
 Check plates are fitted to the sides of the crushing chamber to protect the main frame
from wear.
 Some jaw crushers are equipped with automatic-trip-out devices to protect the crusher
from damage by uncrushable objects such as metal objects entering the crusher.

61
 Mine Machinery

Gyratory Crusher.

Below is a plan view of a gyratory crusher.

62
 Mine Machinery

 Principally used in surface-crushing plants, although a few currently operate

underground.
 It consist of a long spindle, carrying a hard steel conical grinding element, the head,
seated in an eccentric sleeve.
 The spindle is suspended from a “spider” and as it rotates it sweeps out a conical path
within the fixed crushing chamber, or shell, due to the gyratory action of the eccentric.

Comparison of Primary crushers.

In deciding whether a gyratory or a jaw crusher should be used, the main factor to consider is the
maximum size of ore which must be handled by the crusher and the capacity required.
 Gyratory crushers are generally used where high capacity is required.
 Jaw crushers are normally used where the crusher gape is more important than capacity.
(if a large gape is needed but not capacity.)
 The jaw crusher has got a simple structure which is easy to maintain than a gyratory
crusher.
 The capital and maintenance cost of a jaw crusher are slightly less than those of a
gyratory.
 A gyratory crusher occupies less volume and has got less weight compared to a jaw
crusher of same capacity.

Secondary Crushers.
They are much lighter than the heavy-duty, rugged primary machines, since they take primary
crushed ore as feed and also most harmful objects such as metal, wood etc have already been
removed.

63
 Mine Machinery

Cone crusher.

It is a modified gyratory crusher. The difference being that the shorter spindle of the crusher is
not suspended, as in the gyratory, but is supported in a curved, universal bearing below the
gyratory head or cone.

Other types of secondary crushers include:

 Gyradisc crusher.
 Roll crusher.
 Impact crusher.

64
 Mine Machinery

MAINTENANCE
It is done to prevent the company’s investment through the care and upkeep of machinery and
equipment.
It also serves to make the maximum possible equipment availability to production departments
so as to ensure optimum return on investment.

Primary functions of the Maintenance Team.

 Maintenance of existing machinery and equipment. This involves making necessary
repairs to the machinery involved in the production process with speed and economy.
 Lubrication and inspection.
 Alterations to existing equipment and facilities.
 Installation of new equipment and facilities.

Secondary functions.
 Plant protection- this involves protecting the plant against fire etc.
 Safety – the maintenance department must make the plant a safe environment in which to
work in. it must provide mechanical safeguards and maintain equipment in safe operating
conditions.

Maintenance Techniques.
The rational behind any maintenance method is to provide the maximum of quality product at
lowest unit cost.
Breakdown Maintenance
It involves fixing the machine or unit after it has broken down. Examples of equipment that can
be maintained through this program include:
a) Smaller motors.
 They are less costly to replace than any programme of inspection and cleaning.
 They are extremely reliable and at full efficiency up to the point of failure.
65
 Mine Machinery

 They infrequently affect major portions of the operation, so cost of downtime due
to unscheduled outage is not a significant factor.
 Replacement of such motors is a relatively simple task and rarely time
consuming.

b) Refractory linings and materials.

c) Slurry pumping operations – in such cases the practice would be to install a duplicate
standby unit and run the prime pump until it failed due to worn-out impeller or liners,
then change out the unit while the standby pump maintained service.

Preventive Maintenance.
It involves periodic inspections to prevent breakdowns before they occur and this includes
repetitive servicing, upkeep and overhaul.
Some other synonyms for preventive maintenance are:
 Planned.
 Scheduled.
 Controlled.
 Productive maintenance.
Preventive maintenance would be applied to equipment or processes where:
 The cost of downtime is great.
 The cost of replacement of the unit itself is high.
 The efficient of the unit or quality of the product is adversely affected.
 The time required to replace the unit is lengthy.
For example a 4000hp motor for ventilating underground workings must receive periodic checks
for vibration, heat build up, abnormal currents, insulation breakdown etc
In this case the cost of inspection, serving and cleaning is small in comparison to replacement or
repair.
Outage time for periodic checking is less than replacement.

66
 Mine Machinery

Predictive Maintenance.
This is a modern refinement or extension of preventive maintenance. It involves the testing and
measuring on a periodic basis the decline of component life and predict the point of failure rather
than arbitrarily setting a changeout period as in most preventive maintenance programs.
Example includes vibration analysis to discern the condition of bearings and gears in a large
drive unit.

Advantages of Predictive Maintenance.

1. Increased reliability and availability.
2. Fewer large scale repairs.
3. Lower repair cost, lower total cost.
4. Better quality product because of properly adjusted equipment.
5. Conservation of asset, increased life expectancy.
6. Less standby equipment needed.
7. Identification of high cost items.
8. Greater safety for workers.

Preventive Engineering.
It involves investigating and analyzing the root causes of the breakdowns rather than just trying
to correct or repair the breakdown.
There must be specific amount of manpower set aside to analyze incidents of breakdown and
determine where the real effort is needed and then through redesign, substitution, changes and
other similar means reduce the frequency of failure and cost of repair.
This can be achieved successfully through record keeping of equipment breakdown histories.

67
 Mine Machinery

COMPRESSORS
Compressors can be rotodynamic or positive displacement machines. The function of a
compressor is to take a definite quantity of fluid (usually gas and most often air) and deliver it at
a required pressure.

Rotodynamic Machinery.
A rotodynamic machinery is one in which a fluid flows freely through an impeller or motor; the
transfer of energy between the fluid and rotor is continuous and the change of angular
momentum of the fluid causes, or is the result of, a torque on the rotor.
When enegy is transferred from the fluid to the rotor the machine is called a turbine; when
energy is transferred to the fluid from the rotor the machine is called a fan, pump or compressor.

Axial Flow Compressor.

Construction.
It consists of a row of moving blades arranged around the circumference of a rotor and a row of
fixed blades arranged around the circumference of a stator.

68
 Mine Machinery

Mode of Operation.
 The air flows axially through the moving and fixed blades in turn.
 The work input to the rotor shaft is transferred by the rotor blades to the air, thus
accelerating it.
 The blades are arranged so that the space between the blades form diffuser passages, and
hence the velocity of the air relative to the blades is decreased as the air passes through
them and there is a rise in pressure.
 The air is then further diffused in the stator blades which are also arranged to form
diffuser passages.
 In the fixed stator blades the air is changed in direction so that it can pass to a second
row of moving rotor blades.

Centrifugal Compressors.
Construction.
It consists of an impeller with a series of radial curved vanes.

69
 Mine Machinery

Mode of Operation.
Air is drawn in through the impeller eye and whirled round at high speed by the vanes on the
impeller as the impeller rotates at high rotational speed.
The pressure of the air increases from the eye to the tip of the impeller. As the air leaves the
impeller tip it is passed through diffuser passages which convert most of the kinetic energy of the
air into an increase in enthalpy, and hence the pressure of the air is further increased.

Gas Laws.
For us to have better understanding of the next type of compressor, which is the reciprocating
compressor we must be familiar with gas laws.
Boyle’s Law –It states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at fixed temperature is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
P α 1/V which implies that PV = Constant.
This means that if a certain mass of gas has a volume V1 at pressure P1 and volume V2 at some
other pressure P2 then:
P1V1 = P2V2 = constant.

Charles’ Law – it states that the volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is directly
proportional to its temperature in kelvins (K).
V α T or V/T = Constant.
This means if acertain mass of a gas with volume V1 at same temperature T1 has its temperature
changed to T2 then its volume will change to V2.
Then: V1/T1 = V2/T2
Combining these two laws gives the ideal gas equation:
PV = mRT which implies P1V1/T1 =P2V2/T2
Where m = mass of the gas (kg) and R is the gas constant and equal to 287 for air.

70
 Mine Machinery

Laws of Compression.
Isothermal Compression (or Constant temperature) – It is compression in which the
temperature of the compressed fluid (air) remains constant.
When a fluid (air)is compressed the temperature of the fluid tends to rise, therefore air to
undergo an isothermal compression heat must be removed from the fluid (air) continuously
during the process.
It is represented by the equation of the form PV = Constant.

Adiabatic Compression –it is compression in which no heat is transferred to or from the fluid
during the process.
In an adiabatic compression process all the wok done on the fluid goes to increasing the internal
energy of the fluid.
For an adiabatic compression to take place, a perfect thermal insulation for the system must be
available.
An adiabatic compression is represented by the equation of the form:
PVγ = Constant.
Polytropic Compression – It is compression that follows or approximates a law of the form
PVn = Constant. Where n = constant and is known as the index of compression.
Both vapors and perfect gases obey this type of law closely in many non-flow processes.

Reciprocating Compressor.
A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive displacement compressor that
uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.
The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it
gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then
discharged.
Comparison with Rotory machines.

71
 Mine Machinery

 Rotory machines are suitable for low pressure ratio work. But for sustained high pressure
work, 500bars and above the reciprocating type is used.
 Both types may be single or multistage and have either air or water cooling.
 The reciprocating machine is pulsating in action which limits the rate at which fluid can
be delivered, but the rotory machine is continuous in action.
 The rotory machines are smaller in size for a given flow, lighter in weight and
mechanically simpler than their reciprocating counterparts.

Construction.
The mechanism involved is the basic piston, connecting rod, crank and cylinder arrangement.
The valves are designed to give automatic action, they are spring loaded and they operate by a
small difference in pressure across them, the light spring pressure gives the closing action.
Mode of Operation.
Pressure volume diagram for a reciprocating compressor.
 Line d-a represents the induction stroke. Volume increases from zero at d to that required
to fill the cylinder at a.
 Line a-b-c represents the compression and the delivery stroke. During the return stroke
pressure in the cylinder rises and closes the inlet valve. The pressure continues to rise as
shown by line a-b until the pressure is reached until the pressure is reached at which the
delivery valve opens. This pressure depends on the valve and the pressure in the receiver.
 Line b-c represents delivery.
 At the end of this stroke the cycle is repeated. The value of the delivery temperature
depends upon the law of compression between a and b.
 In practice it is imposible to expel all the gas from the cylinder at the end of the
compression, the volume remaining in the cylinder after the forward stroke of the piston
is called clearance volume.
 Volume displaced by the piston is called swept volume.

Compressor Efficiency.

72
 Mine Machinery

 The function of a compressor is to take a definite quantity of fluid (usually a gas and
most often air) and deliver it at a required pressure.
 The most efficient machine is one which will accomplish this with the minimum input of
mechanical energy.
 The work done on the gas is given by the area of the indicator diagram, and the work
done will be minimum when the area is minimum.
 The height of the diagram is fixed with the required pressure and the length of the line
d-a is fixed by the cylinder volume. The only process which can influence the area of the
diagram is the line a-b.
The position of the line a-b depends on the value of the index n.
Isothermal compression is the most desirable process between a and b, giving the
minimum work to be done on the gas.

Work done on the gas during compression. (Indicated Work)

For Isothermal compression:
Isothermal work = mRTln(P2/P1).

For Polytropic compression:

Indicated work = n/(n-1)mR(T2-T1).
The delivery temperature T2 = T1(P2/P1)(n-1)/n

Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal work/power

Indicated work/power.

Power = work done

Time Taken.

Multistage Compression.

73
 Mine Machinery

The ideal isothermal compression can only be obtained if cooling is continuous. This is difficulty
to obtain during normal compression but with multistage compression the gas can be cooled as it
is being transferred from one cylinder to the next, by passing it trough an intercooler.
If intercooling is complete, the gas will enter the second stage at the same temperature at which it
enters the first stage.

74