JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING RESEARCH

VOL. 1, NO. 2, 2021

Coupling Independent Operation in Wireless

Power Transfer System without Ferrite Usage
Nattapong Hatchavanich1,*, Sumate Naetiladdanon2, Anawach Sangswang3, Mongkol Konghirun4
Department of Electrical Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
1
Email: [email protected]
2
Email: [email protected]
3
Email: [email protected]
4
Email: [email protected]
*
Corresponding author

Abstract: The power transfer efficiency and output power of drawbacks of ferrite inclusion are cost, weight, and brittle
a wireless power transfer (WPT) system are mainly affected by property, especially in EV applications. A misalignment
magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary coils. between the coils frequently occur in practice since most
This paper presents a constant-current series-series EVs are manually operated by driver. The coil misalignment
compensated WPT system. Based on the bifurcation criteria,
strongly decreases the coupling and leads to efficiency
kcri and Lcri, the splitting zero phase angle (ZPA) frequencies is
adopted as the operating frequency. The proposed system
reduction. An inclusion of the third coil has shown to
remains fully compensated even under coupling variations, and improve the misalignment tolerance up to 40% [9].
without ferrite. The current and voltage gains at the operating Relatively recently, a new coil type with better coupling
frequency can be estimated through the primary current and coefficient than the DD and circular flat configurations in
voltage. A phase-locked loop circuit is used to track the misalignment position has been proposed [10]. In the
corresponding ZPA frequency due to the coil positioning process of coil improvement, simplicity and cost are often
variations. Experimental results have shown that the 1-kW of traded off for better coupling.
output power with the satisfied efficiency of 96%. Normally, the SS compensation circuit is used with a
voltage source inverter (VSI). The SS compensation, under
Keywords: Bifurcation, Coupling Independent, WPT.
light load or poor magnetic coupling, has only one zero
phase angle (ZPA) operating point at the resonant
I. INTRODUCTION frequency. As either the load or the magnetic coupling
Wireless power transfer (WPT) systems have been widely increases, the splitting ZPA frequencies appear [11]. Once
used for transferring the power through air gap. The the bifurcation occurs, regardless of compensation type, the
magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary coils resonant frequency no longer offers the maximum output
can significantly alter the power transfer capability and power. A controller with frequency tracking control for ZVS
efficiency. A reactive power compensation is commonly operation as in [12] may be operated in non ZVS mode since
chosen to overcome the issue of poor magnetic coupling due the impedance characteristics have been changed and
to large leakage flux. Typical topologies are series-series damaged due to hard switching are unavoidable. Most WPT
(SS), series-parallel (SP), parallel-parallel (PP) and parallel- systems are designed to avoid the bifurcated region because
series (PS) [1]. Advantages and disadvantages of each a sudden change of impedance characteristics after the
topology have been reported [2] and [3]. For a parallel bifurcation boundary is undesirable. In [13], the quality
compensation, the primary side is modelled as an equivalent factor on the secondary circuit is adjusted to ensure a
current source, which requires an additional component to bifurcation-free operation. The critical coupling (kcri)
transfer energy from a voltage source [4] and [5]. On the introduced in [14] suggests that the coupling should be less
other hand, the primary side of the series resonant than kcri to avoid the bifurcation.
compensation is modelled as a voltage source. The series-
As the demand for better performance and efficiency
series (SS) topology is the commonly used among other
resonant compensation topologies, due to its simplicity and increases, recent efforts have been directed toward
high system efficiency. In addition, the operating frequency developing WPT systems with radio frequency (RF) range
is rather constant even under coupling variations [6]. The operation. In [15], the magnetically coupled resonator has
high-order compensation such as LCC-LCL can improve the shown a potential to wirelessly deliver power efficiently.
overall system efficiency and the current limit under The coupling kcri for output power regulation with near-
misalignment condition [7] constant efficiency corresponding to the greatest distance is
proposed. The frequency splitting occurs at kcri and the
The coupling coefficient is an important influence on the transfer efficiency can be maintained regardless of the
output power and the system efficiency. The coupling is
distance provided that the appropriate frequency is tracked.
highly dependent with the area through where the mutual
So far, the application is limited in low-power applications.
magnetic flux passes. A larger vertical distance or horizontal
In this paper, we extend the analysis to take advantage of the
misalignment requires larger coil dimension. Conventional
techniques in improving the magnetic coupling involve magnetically coupled resonator and apply to the inductively
ferrite core usage, installed beneath the coils [8]. The main coupled WPT system without ferrite. Moreover, the multi-

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VOL. 1, NO. 2, 2021

primary coils are applied to the primary side to improve the Secondary Side

misalignment tolerance. A part of the investigation is

devoted to rationalizing the commonly observed bifurcation. Compensation
Circuit
New ZPA operating frequencies in the bifurcated region of
the SS-WPT system are proposed with the aim for constant Primary Side Magnetic
Coupling
power and constant efficiency under coupling variation.
Necessary conditions for the proposed operation are I1
Compensation
investigated. With the proposed method, the current gains Circuit

remain constant throughout the coupling and load variations. Fig. 1. The structure of WPT system.
The inherent benefit includes a removal of voltage and
current sensors on the secondary circuit since the secondary
k12
voltage and current can be directly estimated through the C1 C2
primary voltage and current. With the proposed variable I1 I2
frequency controller, the output power and efficiency
remain constant under practical load and coupling +
variations. Vinv L1 L2 RL Vout
-

II. WPT SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS

A WPT system is typically designed to deliver power to Fig. 2. The equivalent circuit of SS compensation WPT system.
the load over a relatively large air gap. The structure of the
WPT system can be depicted in Fig. 1. The resonant circuit
A. Impedance Analysis
supplies high alternating current to produce sufficient
magnetic flux. A typical SS-WPT system is illustrated as the The input impedance (Zin) can exhibit inductive or
coupled inductor model, as shown in Fig. 2. The voltage capacitive behavior, depending on the switching frequency.
source inverter is supplied by the input voltage (Vin) to the Normally, the resonant inverter with a voltage source as the
resonant network. The primary capacitance (C1) is resonated input is operated in the inductive region for turn-on ZVS
with the primary coil inductance (L1). Likewise, the operation [16]. The primary resonant circuit is intentionally
secondary capacitance (C2) is resonated with the secondary tuned corresponding to the secondary poles in (2). The
coil inductance (L2). The primary and secondary circuits are impedance Zin can exhibit inductive or capacitive behavior,
magnetically linked by the mutual inductance (M). At the depending on the switching frequency. The impedance Zin is
resonant frequency, only the resistive load is reflected to the given by (3) and (4).
primary circuit. A power converter is often connected to the Setting (4) to zero, the ZPA frequencies are obtained
secondary circuit. The converter on the secondary circuit where the feasible solutions with positive frequency are
can supply both inductive and capacitive loads. Without loss given as ω0, ω1 and ω2. The natural frequency ω0 in (1) is
of generality, the load is modelled as an equivalent load one of the solutions that is not affected by the load and
resistance (RL), since the inductive or capacitive effect of the coupling variations. The other solutions, ω1 and ω2, are
load can essentially be reflected in the secondary circuit obtained as,
parameters. Both primary and secondary circuits are tuned
to operate at the natural frequency (ω0) which can be 2
expressed as, 2 4 é 2 ù
C22 ( RL )2 - - 2
(k12 - 1) + ê 2 - C22 ( RL ) 2 ú
w02 w04 êë w0 úû
w1 = (5)
w0 = 1/ L1C1 = 1/ L2C2 (1) 2 2
(k12 - 1)
w04
Thus, the primary capacitance is given as,
2
C1 = L2C2 / L1 (2) 2 4 é 2 ù
C22 ( RL ) 2 - + 2
(k12 - 1) + ê 2 - C22 ( RL ) 2 ú
w02 w04 êë w0 úû
w2 = (6)
2 2
( k
4 12
- 1)
w0

Re{Zin } =
(L L R C k w )
2 2
1 2 L 2
4
(3)
(1 + C (C R
2
2
2 L - 2 L2 )w 2 + (C2 L2 )2 w 4 )

Im{Zin } = -
(
L1 1 + C2 (C2 RL2 - 3L2 )w 2 + L2C2 (3L2C2 - L2C2 k 2 - C22 RL2 )w 4 + L32C23 (k 2 - 1)w 6 ) (4)
C2 L2w (
1 + C2 (C2 RL2 2
- 2 L2 )w + (C2 L2 ) w 2 4
)

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VOL. 1, NO. 2, 2021

Phase (Deg ree)

The bifurcation criteria in (7) and (8) ensure the existence
90 of ω1 and ω2. The kcri represents an equivalent position of
0
90
the secondary coil and the critical secondary coil inductance
(L2,cri) is the maximum inductance value that can be
kc
-90 0
ri
achieved the bifurcated condition.
w2 kc w2
w0 ri
w0
q w1 q w1
w w
k k
C. The Constant Current Gain under Coupling
Independent Operation
Fig. 3. The ZPA frequencies of SS compensation under coupling Referring to the input impedance in (3) and (4), the
variations current and gain are given by

It is noted that ω1 and ω2 can be both real and complex

depending on the system parameters. The complex roots of L1L2C22 k12
2 4
w
GI ( jw ) = (12)
ω1 and ω2 are only mathematically possible but not operable
in practice. Only the real roots can give insightful meaning
(
1 - 2C2 L2w 2 + C22w 2 ( RL )2 + L22w 2 )
of the operating frequency as the ZPA frequency. The ZPA
frequencies trajectories can be depicted in Fig. 3. The current and voltage gains as a function of ω0, ω1 and
The different ZPA frequencies result in different ω2 can be calculated as follows,
impedances. The impedance at each ZPA frequency can be
calculated by applying equations (1), (5) and (6) with (3). I2 k12 L1
The impedances at the ZPA frequencies can be expressed as = (13)
I1 w =w0
RL C2
follows,
k122 L1
Z in (w0 ) = (7)
C2 RL I2 I2 L1
= = (14)
I1 w =w1
I1 w =w2
L2
L1 RL
Zin (w1 ) = Zin (w2 ) = (8)
L2
The current gain in (11) is the gain at the frequency ω0.
The coupling coefficient k plays a key role in current gain.
The input impedance at ω0 in (7) is dependent on the Moreover, the input impedance in (7) is substantially
coupling and load. When the load resistance is decreased or reduced as the coupling coefficient k decreases. If the
the coupling is increased, the input impedance increases. On frequency ω0 is chosen as the operating point, the maximum
the other hand, the input impedance at ω1 and ω2 in (8) are coupling coefficient must be taken into account for the
readily independent with the coupling coefficient. targeted output power.
On the other hand, the existed frequencies ω1 and ω2
B. Bifurcation Criteria under bifurcation condition yield independent current and
As mentioned earlier, the usual reaction to the bifurcation voltage gains from k. The gain in (14) effectively depend on
phenomenon is to maintain the load resistance and coil the ratio between the primary and secondary inductances.
coupling to avoid the bifurcation condition. Starting from a Consequently, with the bifurcated operation, the WPT
low coupling coefficient, there exists only one ZPA system behaves similar to an ideal transformer. The output
frequency at ω0. As the coupling coefficient is increased, ω1 power of the proposed system is given as,
and ω2 become real and the system is bifurcated with two
additional ZPA frequencies. The relationships in (12) and L2Vin2
(13) yield the bifurcated condition through the discriminants
Pout (w2 ) = (15)
L1 RL
of (4). The bifurcation criteria coupling kcri expressed as,
The output power of the proposed WPT system is
2
R æ R ö independent from the coupling coefficient. With the
kcri > L 1- ç L ÷ (9) bifurcated operation, the current gain and output power
Z0 è 2Z 0 ø remain unchanged, whether the magnetic coupling is
Or changed.

RL4 C22
L2,cri < (10) D. Phase-Locked Loop Controller
(
4 C2 RL2 k12
2
) A phase-lock loop (PLL) controller is implemented to
track the phase difference between the input voltage (Vin)
where Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the secondary and current (I1). For simplicity, all frequencies in rad/s are
resonant tank, expressed as, changed to Hz, for the rest of the paper. The PI controller
adjusts the phase by regulating the frequency fs via the
voltage-controlled-oscillator (VCO) circuit. The PLL
L2
Z0 = (11) controller starts at high frequency (fs >> f2). Then, the
C2 frequency is reduced to find the ZPA frequency. During
bifurcation, the PLL controller adjusts the switching

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VOL. 1, NO. 2, 2021

frequency to slightly higher than f2 to ensure ZVS operation. polarities. The current gain is only related to the ratio
If the bifurcation condition is not met, the PLL controller between the primary and secondary inductances. Fig. 5(b)
tracks the frequency f0 instead. The block diagram of the shows a similar frequency response of Case II. At the
PLL controller, shown in Fig. 4. frequency f0, the current I2 is greater than I1 and the phase
angle of I2 is leading by 90°. Both currents become greater at
Dead time circuit
the frequencies f1 and f2. The currents I1 and I2 are 12.3 A
I1 ZCD
+ S1 , S4
and 16.2 A, respectively with the current gain of 1.3. At the
-
Low Pass Filter PI Controller VCO
S2 , S3
frequency f2, the phase difference between both currents is
Phase
Command
CD4046
360°.

Current I1 (RMS) Phase I1 (Degree) Current I2 (RMS) Phase I1 (Degree)

Fig. 4. The PLL Controller Case I

III. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In this work, two cases of common coil topologies are
studied. The system in Case I is designed for the maximum
vertical distance of 10 cm. In Case II, the maximum vertical f1 f0 f2
distance is at 20 cm. The coil dimensions for both cases are
given in Table 1. The constructed coils are experimentally
measured. The obtained parameters are shown in Table 2. (a)
Note that the maximum vertical distance of Cases I and II
are constrained by the corresponding kcri in which the Current I1 (RMS) Phase I1 (Degree) Current I2 (RMS) Phase I1 (Degree)

bifurcation occurs. Case II

TABLE I
COIL DIMENSIONS

Parameter Case II
DIMENSION CASE I
Inside diameter (mm) 120 340
Primary Outside diameter (mm) 280 530 f1 f0 f2
coil Number of turns (N) 17 19
Litz Wire 200* AWG31 200* AWG31
Inside diameter (mm) 120 180
Secondary Outside diameter (mm) 280 395 (b)
coil Number of turns (N) 17 19 Fig. 5. The frequency response of the current I1 and I2, (a) Case I, (b) Case
Litz Wire 200* AWG31 200* AWG31 II.

TABLE II
SYSTEM PARAMETERS IN TWO EXPERIMENTAL CASES

Parameter Case I Case II Parameter Case I Case II Secondary

L1 (µH) 68.6 209 f0 (kHz) 42 44.1 8 cm

L2 (µH) 68.6 125 f1 (kHz) 38.6 41 Primary
M (µH) 20.6 35.6 f2 (kHz) 49.5 49
k 0.3 0.22 Rcri (Ω) 7 10.9
C1 (nF) 209 60 kcri 0.27 0.144 Case I
C2 (nF) 209 104 GI 1 1.3
RL (Ω) 5 5 Gv 0.926 0.72
R1 (Ω) 0.2 0.3 R2 (Ω) 0.2 0.2 (a)

A. Frequency Response Simulation

Frequency responses of the constructed WPT systems are
Secondary
obtained using the LTSPICE simulation software [17]. In
15 cm
Case I, the frequency response of the bifurcated system is
shown in Fig. 5(a). Three ZPA frequencies are observed. At Primary

the resonant frequency f0, the current I2 is greater than I1.

The phase angle of I2 is 270° lagging or 90° leading Case II
compared with I1. When one current is at the maximum, the
other is zero. At this stage, no active power is being
transferred to the secondary circuit. At frequencies f1 and f2, (b)
the currents I1 and I2 are equal in magnitude. The phase
difference between I1 and I2 is 180° at the frequency f1, Fig. 6. Magnetic flux density in RMS value (a) Case I, (b) Case II
whereas both currents are in phase at f2. In other words, the
WPT system exhibits an ideal transformer behavior at the
operating frequencies f1 and f2, with different voltage

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VOL. 1, NO. 2, 2021

B. Finite Element Simulation

The important benefit of the proposed work is that ferrite
bar is no longer required since the voltage and current gains
are independent from the coupling k12. To illustrate the
coupling independence, a finite element analysis (FEA)
study for ferriteless primary and secondary coils is
performed using the COMSOL Multiphysics software
package [18]. The operating frequency is set to f2. The
magnetic flux density is measured along both primary and
secondary coils, as shown in Figs. 6(a) and 6(b), for Case I
and Case II, respectively. In Fig. 6(a), the maximum
magnetic flux density at the secondary coil is at 7.2 mT,
compared with 0.225 mT at the middle point between both
coils. This implies that the majority of the induced flux is
the linkage flux and the leakage flux is negligible.
Similarly, the magnetic flux density of Case II is
measured, as shown in Fig. 6(b). The maximum magnetic
(a)
flux density at the secondary coil is 10 mT, compared with
0.65 mT at the middle point between both coils. The linkage
flux is 15.4 times over the leakage flux at the middle point
between both coils.

C. Experimental Waveforms
Two WPT prototypes for cases I and II, are constructed
with vertical distances of 10 cm and 15 cm, respectively.
The operation under the unity current gain is demonstrated
through a symmetrical coil configuration in Case I. The
higher current gain of 1.3 is represented through the
asymmetrical configuration in Case II. Both systems can
deliver 1 kW to the load. The system parameters are given
in Table 3. The coupling coefficients for cases I and II are
measured at 0.3 and 0.22, respectively. Experimental
waveforms are shown in Fig. 7 with the relevant
measurement data listed in Table III. A 5-Ω resistance is
connected as the load. The PLL controller tracks the ZPA (b)
frequency f2, and the inverter operates under ZVS mode with
the phase angle of 8.8 degrees. The efficiencies of the Fig. 7. The experimental waveforms in two cases. (Top to bottom trace)
systems in Cases I and II are 96% and 93%, respectively. Vin vs I1, Vout vs I2, Pin, Pout. (a) Case I, and (b) Case II.

D. Abruptly Misalignment Testing

The asymmetrical configuration in Case II with the
vertical distance of 10 cm is chosen to illustrate the system
performance under a sudden movement of the secondary
coil. Initially, the secondary coil is located in the perfect
alignment position with the initial coupling k of 0.3. The
secondary coil is then suddenly moved laterally to the
horizontal position of 16 cm. The coupling k is reduced from
0.3 to 0.18, well within the bifurcated condition. The
switching frequency is reduced from 52.08 kHz to 48.08
kHz to preserve the same current values of I1 and I2, as
shown in Fig. 8. The current gain remains unchanged at 1.3. Fig. 8. The abruptly misalignment testing result
Since both currents are constant, the system output power
and efficiency are constant under the sudden movement of
the secondary coil. With the proposed operation, the loosely IV. CONCLUSION
coupling WPT system exhibits similar behavior as an iron- This paper proposes a new operation and control of a
core transformer. That is the current gain is independent loosely coupling WPT system based on the previously
from the coupling coefficient. This implies that the unused operating regions due to the bifurcation
secondary current can be estimated from the primary current phenomenon. The investigated mathematical model reveals
without a need for a current sensor on the secondary circuit, feasible operating points with inherent constant current and
even under misaligned condition. power throughout the operation. The bifurcation criteria are
adopted as the boundary condition. Since the current gain is
independent from the coupling and load variation, the WPT

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 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
RESEARCH VOL. 1, NO. 2, 2021
system behave similar to an iron-core transformer with the Power Transfer System for Electric Vehicle Applications," in IEEE
benefit of secondary current estimation without a current International Symposium on Circuits and System (ISCAS), Sapporo,
2019.
sensor on the secondary circuit. The proposed method is
[17] "LTSPICE," Analog Devices, 2019. [Online]. Available:
validated by the created prototype with 2 coil configurations https://www.analog.com/en/design-center/design-tools-and-
incorporated with the PLL controller. The FEA simulation calculators/ltspice-simulator.html. [Accessed 2019 August 22].
results confirm that the majority of the induced flux is the [18] "Comsol Multiphysics," Comsol, 2019. [Online]. Available:
linkage flux with relatively negligible leakage flux. The https://www.comsol.com/support. [Accessed 22 August 2019].
efficiency of the proposed system can reach 96% and 93 %
for Cases I and II, respectively.
.

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