Module 2– Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle
Module 2

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

2.1. Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points.
2.2. Describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis.

THE BIG IDEA

Your cells are too microscopic that it cannot be seen by our naked eye.
Therefore, we find it hard to appreciate how many cells we lose whenever we do our
everyday routine. Worry not, as these lost cells would be replaced eventually. As an
example, every day we lose some of our skin cells, but due to a certain biological
process, it gets replaced in due time. How does a single cell give rise to a multicellular
organism? What processes occur during the three stages of interphase?

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DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

You have learned that living organisms follow a hierarchy of organization. How does
a single cell give rise to a multicellular organism? In order to attain a functional organism,
cells need to be reproduced at a fast rate and our body does produce millions of cells per
second. This is manifested during cell division. Why do cells divide? In order to be considered
as a functional whole, the organism’s cells must be able to undergo growth, development,
repair, and reproduction. Cell division follows one of the postulates of the cell theory which
is, “Cells come from pre-existing cells.” How do chromosomes behave during the meiotic and
mitotic phase? Eukaryotes practice cell division, while prokaryotes do binary fission as a way
of cell reproduction. How does the process of binary fission in prokaryotes differ from cell
division in eukaryotes? What causes uncontrolled cell growth and why does it often cause
cancer?
Cell Cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that
produces two new daughter cells. The cell has two major phases: interphase and mitotic
phase (cell division).
Before discussing the steps a cell must
undertake to proliferate, a deeper understanding
of the structure and function of the cell’s genetic
information is necessary. A cell’s DNA, known as
the deoxyribonucleic acid, is packaged as a
double-stranded molecule. A complete set of
DNA in an organism is known as the genome. In
prokaryotes, the genome is composed of a single
double-stranded DNA molecule in a form of a loop Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: Similarities
or circle. Since they have no nucleus, the region in and Differences
the cell containing the genetic material is called
a nucleoid. Some prokaryotes also have smaller loops of DNA called plasmids that are not
essential for their normal growth. Bacteria can exchange these plasmids with other bacteria,
sometimes receiving new genes that the recipient can add to their chromosomal DNA.
Antibiotic resistance is one trait that often spreads through a bacterial colony through plasmid
exchange.
Just before a eukaryotic cell divides, several
thread-like structures gradually become visible inside
the nucleus. They are easily seen because they stain

Chromosome

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intensely with particular stains. They are known

as chromosomes because chromo means “colored” and somes means “bodies”.
The isolation and microscopic observation of chromosomes form the basis of
cytogenetics and is the primary method by which clinicians detects chromosomal
abnormalities in human. A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes, which
includes their length, banding pattern and centromere position.
There are matching pairs of chromosomes known as homologous pairs. Each pair is
given a number. In the original zygote, one of each pair came from the mother and the other
one from the father. The pair of chromosomes can be distinguished because each pair has a
distinctive banding pattern when stained.

Two chromosomes are displayed on one side. These are the sex chromosomes
(Chromosome #23), which determine the sex of the organism. Females have two X
chromosomes while males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. The Y
chromosome has one portion missing and is, therefore, smaller than the X chromosome.
Haploid and Diploid Cells
When animals other than humans are examined, we find that cells usually contain two
sets of chromosomes. Such cells are described as diploid which is represented as 2n where n
is equivalent to the number of chromosomes in one set of chromosomes. For humans, 2n is
equivalent to 46.

Comparison of Chromosome Number in Various Organisms

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Not all cells are diploid. We’ll learn that gametes or sex cells such as sperm and egg
contain only one set of chromosomes and they are known to be haploid cells. A haploid cell
is represented as n. In humans, a 2n body cell has 46 chromosomes and a gamete has 23.
In a given species, chromosomes can be identified by their number, size, centromere
position, and banding pattern. In human cells, there are 46 chromosomes in each cell as
with that of the roundworm, they only have 4 chromosomes in each cell.
Structure of Chromosomes

• Chromatids – These are two

identical structures due to DNA
replication during the interphase.
Each chromatid has one DNA
molecule coiled in it.
• Centromere – It holds chromatids
together and may be located
anywhere along the length of the
chromosome.
• P arm – It is the short arm of the chromosome pointing upwards.
• Q arm – It is the long arm pointing downward.
• Telomere – It is considered to be the tips of the chromosome.
Phases of Cell Cycle

• G1 (Growth Phase 1) - The cell grows

fast along with the execution of is
routine metabolic processes such as
synthesis of proteins and organelles
needed for cell division. The cell is
active at the biochemical level. The
cell is accumulating the building
blocks of chromosomal DNA and the
associated proteins as well as
accumulating sufficient energy
reserves to complete the task of
replicating each chromosome in
the nucleus. Cell Cycle
• S phase (Synthesis of DNA) – The
cell’s DNA is being copied through the process of DNA replication.
• G2 phase (Growth Phase 2) – The cell makes final preparation before its division. There may
be additional cell growth during G2. The final preparation for the mitotic phase must be
completed before the cell can enter the first stage of mitosis.
• M Phase – In this phase, the cell will undergo prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase of cell division. The type of M-phase or cell division will vary on the type of
cell involved.

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In addition to the above-mentioned basic phases, G0 (resting phase) is the state in

which the cell leaves the cell cycle. It may be temporary or permanent. An example is a neuron
that has lost its ability to divide as it has achieved the highest possible differentiation rate.
Eukaryotic Cell Division
There are two types of cell division in higher living organisms such as vertebrates.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Takes place in somatic or body cells Takes place in germinal or sex cells

Only one cell division (PMAT) Two cell divisions (PMAT 1 and 2)

Produces two daughter cells that are Produces four cells that are genetically
genetically identical different
Diploid cells as products Haploid cells as products
Synapses are absent on the chromatids of homologous chromosomes

Relevant mechanism for tissue repair and Necessary for the production of
replacement of dead or damaged cells gametes

MITOSIS
Prophase. If the requirements for M checkpoint are met, cell division will start with
prophase. Here, the nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate and the chromatin condenses
into chromosomes. Aside from this, mitotic spindles start to develop which is vital for
chromosomal migration.
Metaphase. During metaphase, chromosomes move randomly until they attach to the
spindle and align at the equatorial/metaphase plate, The centrioles align on opposite
poles and the polar fibers extend to the middle or center of the cell.
Anaphase. During the anaphase, the centromere splits and two chromatids of each
chromosome migrate toward opposite poles. The rest of the spindle fibers, not connected
to chromatids, lengthen and elongate the cell. Both poles will contain a complete set of
chromosome at the end of anaphase.
Telophase. At telophase, the chromosomes reach the opposite poles. The nuclear
membrane reappears and the nucleolus and chromosomes start to uncoil along with the
degradation of spindle fiber. Afterward, cytoplasmic division begins wherein there would
be a cleavage furrow resulting to a new cell.
Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis
Karyokinesis is the process by which nucleus divides before cytokinesis.

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Cytokinesis is the actual division of the cytoplasm that marks the production of two
identical daughter cells.

Stages of Mitosis
MEIOSIS
Meiosis I
Prophase I. During this stage, the nucleolus and nuclear membrane start to
disintegrate. Chromosomes are already distinct, with sister chromatids fused
together by a centromere. Synapsis also occurs which is the pairing of
homologous chromosomes that came from paternal and maternal genetic
material. Tetrad is the term for the four sister chromatids from the pair of
chromosomes that are visible during prophase. Crossing over, which is the
exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes to produce
genetic variation occurs in this stage.
Metaphase I. During metaphase I, the tetrads line up at the equatorial plane of
the cell along with an increase in the number of the spindle fibers. The spindle
fibers facilitate the movement as it attaches into the kinetochore.
Anaphase I. During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes migrate toward
each pole. Half of the total chromosome number will move to one pole and
another half to the other pole.
Telophase I. In this stage, the daughter cells completely divide with an equal
amount of chromosomes along with the reappearance of the nuclei. The
chromosomes grow less visible.
Interkinesis. This stage pertains to the short pause before entry into meiosis II.
This is not similar to interphase since there is no DNA replication during this
stage.

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Meiosis II
Prophase II. In the same manner
as prophase I, the nuclear
envelope disintegrates again,
while the chromosome shortens
and becomes thicker. As the
spindle fiber arranges and
elongates, the centrioles move
toward opposite poles.
Metaphase II. In this stage, the
spindle fibers from opposite
poles bind to two kinetochores of
every centromere. The
chromosomes migrate to a new
equatorial plate.
Stages of Meiosis 1 & 2
Anaphase II. In this stage,
centromeres separate,
permitting microtubules to attach to the kinetochore for chromatid migration
toward opposite poles. Upon movement toward opposite poles, the sister
chromatids are now called sister chromosomes.
Telophase II. At this stage, the chromosomes start to uncoil and lengthen, along
with the disappearance of spindle fibers and the reformation of the nuclear
envelope and cleavage furrow. This produces two haploid cells. The total number
of daughter cells produced is four (all haploid).
Prokaryotic Cell Division
BINARY FISSION
In prokaryotes, the mode of reproduction is mostly via binary fission, which takes
place as soon as the cell achieves having duplicated circular chromosomes, the required cell
size, among others. The cell elongates and separates into two cells. The partition between
cells is known as the septum. The daughter cells pinch off after the cell membrane and cell
wall go towards the opposing direction. As soon as the cell divides into two daughter cells,
the cell grows again, and the cycle repeats.

Stages:
1. DNA Replication
2. Chromosome Segregation
3. Cytokinesis

Binary Fission

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Cell Cycle Checkpoint is an essential regulatory requirement before the cell cycle
continues. Each checkpoint plays a crucial/critical role to ensure normal cell physiology.

• G1 or Cell Growth Checkpoint where the

checking occurs towards the end of the G1
phase, in which it makes surveillance if the cell
is large enough and has made the required What do you think will
happen if certain details
protein for the synthesis phase.
are missed in respective
• G2/DNA Synthesis Checkpoint in which the checkpoints?
checking occurs during the S phase, in which
the cell’s DNA is being checked for correct
replication down to the last nucleotide. If so,
the cell proceeds to mitosis.
• Mitosis Checkpoint is the final checkpoint before division. The checking occurs during
mitosis to make sure that the cell has already completed the mitotic processes. If the
requirement is fulfilled, the cell divides and the cell cycle repeat.

Cell Cycle and Its Checkpoint

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LEARNING RESOURCES

Books

Rea, M.A., et. al., (2018) General Biology 1, First Ed. Sta. Mesa Heights, Quezon City. Rex Book
Store, Inc.

Hoefnagels, M. (2016). General Biology (Books 1 & 2). United States of America. McGrawHill
Education.

Ramos, A.C.M. (2017). Exploring Life through Sciences: General Biology 1. Quezon Ave.,
Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House Inc.

Dela Pena, et. al., (2016). General Biology. Pasay City, Philippines. JFS Publishing Services.

Images

Cell Cycle and the Checkpoints (Image). (2020). Biology LibreTexts.

https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Biology_for_Non-
Majors_I_(Lumen)/07%3A_Cell_Division/7.05%3A_Cell_Cycle_Checkpoints
Karyotype (Image). (2020). Lumen Learning.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/bio1/chapter/reading-karyotypes/

Comparison of Chromosome Number in Various Organisms (Image). (2020). BioNinja.

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/32-chromosomes/chromosome-
number.html

Chromosome Structure (Image). (2020). Microbe Notes.

https://microbenotes.com/chromosome-structure-types-and-functions/

Stages of Mitosis (Image). (2020). Biology Dictionary. https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-

level/topic-1-cell-biology/16-cell-division/mitosis.html

Stages of Meiosis 1 and 2 (Image). (2020). Biology Dictionary.

https://biologydictionary.net/meiosis/

Binary Fission (Image). (2020). Byju’s, The Learning App. https://byjus.com/biology/binary-

fission/

Normal Cell Division (Image). (2020). Pursuit. https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/putting-

cancer-cells-to-sleep

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells (Image). (2019). Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/prokaryotic-

vs-eukaryotic-cells-similarities-differences-13717689.html

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Cell Cycle (Image). (2018). University of Leicester.

https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/vgec/highereducation/topics/cellcycle-mitosis-meiosis

Mitosis Through the Microscope: Advances in Seeing Inside Live Dividing Cells (Image). (2003).
ScienceMag. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/300/5616/91/tab-figures-data

Chromosome (Image). (2013). The Verge.

https://www.theverge.com/2013/9/25/4770712/true-shape-of-chromosomes-isnt-an-
x13717689.html

ABOUT MODULE

Module Creator/Curator: Ms. Larisa Mae C. Agtay

Template and Layout Designer: Mr. Florence Somoria

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