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INDIAN HISTORY - 1857 TO 1947

DEPENDENCE-1857

dependence the Governor General was Lord Canning. He had assumed the charge of his office in 1856. he Nawab of Awadh. He was sent on exile to Calcutta and his state was annexed by the British in April 1856. fantry and nearly two-third of the whole Bengal Army was composed of the people from Awadh. devised the distribution of chapatti scheme during his travels in the North-West Provinces to prepare the mind of the people for was a silent indication of association with a cause. roposed that the successors of Bahadur Shah II (Zafar) would have to vacate the Red Fort of Delhi and move to suburban town

unjab, Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, and other small states had been annexed. ed the pension allowed to Peshwas son Nana Sahib and expelled him from his ancestral palace at Poona and exiled him to e. ned the English system of education to glorify the Christian faith and to bring into contempt the religious beliefs of the young

olished sati. nt promulgated the General Enlistment Act which required the new recruits to serve wherever ordered. ritated on their forced participation in the wars against Burma and Afghanistan because they feared that they will lose their sea and leave subcontinent. pean troops to the wars in China and Persia had reduced the proportion between the British troops and the Sepoys to 1 and 3. lable British troops were stationed in the recently subjugated Punjab. An insignificant number was stationed in Bengal, Bihar,

ropean troops gave an opportunity to the disaffected Sepoys. amed Enfield, was introduced in the army in January 1857. Its cartridges were smeared with grease and had to be bitten at one

hat this grease was made of fats of cows and pigs. rch 1857 there were several plots and mutinies in Calcutta and the cantonments of Behrampur and Barackpur. and again on 10th March, the Sepoys of Calcutta and Behrampur tried to seize Fort William. a company of Sepoys was court-martialed for refusing to use the cartridges. Each member of the company was sentenced to 10 onment. w Sepoys of three regiments in different places rose into rebellion. They opened the gates of the prison-house, killed their arched towards Delhi. ned them and now their number rose to 5000. ession of Delhi and proclaimed the aged Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor of Hindustan on May 11.

d and a constitution known as Dasturul Amal was also prepared. of Bahadur Shah, was chosen as commander-in-chief. akr, Mirza Mendhu, and Mirza Khizr Sultan were appointed commanders. Awadh, Rohailkhand and Bijanor expressed loyalty with the Emperor. ly reached Delhi with 14000 troops. ala and Jhind came to assist the British troops. Delhi for 4 months. ucceeded in making breaches in the walls and entering the city on Sept. 20. elter in the tomb of Humayun. suade the Emperor to continue fight from the Doab or Deccan. The Emperor did not agree with him so he left Awadh and from

Emperor and shot dead his two sons and one grandson. mperor for treason and sent him to be exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862. madullah Shah led the fight and drove the British out of Lucknow after killing Sir Henry Lawrence on July 15. ng son, Birjis Qadr, was raised to the masnad and his mother Hazrat Mahal, became the regent. e British troops under Sir Colin Campbell entered Lucknow. bravely but then on 16th March left for Bundi with Birjis Qadr. From there she escaped to Nepal. kept fighting for 3 more days but then retreated. He set up a small principality for himself in the suburbs of Shahjahanpur with madi. d by the British troops and was shot dead in June 1858. d in Bithur, led the revolt in the Cawnpore area. He was helped by Azimullah Khan and Tantia Topi, a Maratha leader. awnpore on 10th June, 1857 and Nana Sahib took possession of the city. He allowed safe passage to the British troops for

Sahib opened fire at the British troops when they had boarded the boats. Most of them were killed. Allahabad and defeated Nana Sahibs forces on his way to Cawnpore. b ordered a general massacre of the English prisoners, 5 men and 206 women and children kept in building called Bibigarh. entered Cawnpore. Nana Sahib left for Awadh and Tantia Topi went to Gwalior. Tantia continued his resistance but was 859 through the treachery of a Hindu Chief, Man Singh. ahib fled to Nepal. Jhansi, Lakshmi Rai, led a force of 20,000 in Bundelkhand and massacred every European that fell into her hands. after receiving a wound in a fight. Bahadur Khan, a grandson of Hafiz Rehmat Khan led the fight against the British. On his orders foreign rule was eliminated n, Shahjahanpur and Muzaffarnagar. han gave a lead to the Sepoys in Moradabad and Bijanor where the resistance was organized by Mahmud Khan. he fight in Saharanpur and Muzaffarnagar. now in March 1858 the British sent a major portion of their troops to Rohailkhand which was recovered after a protracted

oys rose on June 1857 and were led by Maulvi Liaqat Ali. The city came under their control but the Sikh garrison defended the eil with a force restored British authority in Allahabad. 859 the British had regained complete supremacy over the subcontinent. ent concluded by the governor general Lord Canning with Amir Dost Muhammad in 1856, the Afghans did not seize the venge for the British campaign of 1939. elhi was separated from North-Western Provinces and was joined to the Punjab.

AR OF INDEPENDENCE

ence caused elimination of the rule of East India Company in India and the British Government assumed direct responsibility of its empire in the subcontinent. ted by the Queens proclamation and the government of India Act 1858. ued on 1st November 1858, the Queen Victoria announced the transfer of the empire of the Company to the Crown. e the first Viceroy. or India was appointed in British Cabinet to take the place of the President of the Board of Control (of East India Company). He a Council of 15 members. uncil were to be appointed by the Crown and 7 in the first instance by the Court of Directors and later by the Council itself. blem for the government after the war was that of finances. The war had increased the public debt by about 42 million. hat followed augmented the annual expenditure by about 10 million. a distinguished economist and parliamentary financer, James Wilson, was sent from England as finance member of the

d after a brief tenure of 9 months but during this period he reorganized the financial system, outlined necessary economies, x and introduced the practice of annual budgets and statements of accounts. on by his successor, Samuel Laing, who introduced a uniform tariff of 10 per cent, a convertible paper currency, and a higher

initiated by Wilson and continued by Laing had brought about equilibrium in finances by 1862. had been 238000 local and 45000 European troops in the Companys army in the presidencies of Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. portion of local soldiery was reduced. By 1863 the British Indian army consisted of 140,000 Indians and 65,000 Europeans. ent Act was passed to protect the rights of zamindars. This Act applied to Bengal proper as well as the whole of north-west, e Punjab. operty rights on all cultivators who could prove possession for ore than 12 years and forbade the raising of rents except in wn provisions. de was drawn up in 1837 but was enforced in 1860. gh Court Act authorized the abolition of the Supreme and Sadr Adalat Courts representing the jurisdiction of the Crown and the uthorized creation of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.

OUNCIL ACT OF 1861

ordinary member in the Governor-Generals Executive Council in addition to the Commander-in-Chief who sat as an r.

nor General was empowered to make rules for the transaction of business. This helped Lord Canning to introduce the portfolio member of the council in charge of a specific department.

ed of minor matters himself and important ones in consultation with the Governor-General.

efly concerned with issues in dispute between departments or those of general administrative importance.

e number of additional members to the Governor-Generals Legislative Council (created since 1853) from 12 to 18. At least half e to be non-officials.

Legislative Council were strictly limited to legislation. It was expressly forbidden to transact any other business and was very ol of the Viceroy. Its members were not allowed to ask questions or move resolutions, not they could exercise any control over

wed inclusion of non-official members in the Provincial Legislative councils.

ed office in 1862. He was succeeded by Lord Elgin.

e hill station of Dharamsala in November 1863 after remaining in office only for 20 months.

ENCE ( 1864-1869)

umed office as Viceroy and Governor-General in Jan. 1864.

ial attention to the policy of constructing works of public utility like railways, irrigation and roads.

nd Awadh Tenancy Acts of 1968 giving them the same rights as were given to other areas by Bengal Rent Act 1859.

ne claimed lives of one to two million people.

famine in Bundelkhand and Rajputana played havoc.

he policy of not trying to subjugate the tribes living near Frontier.

nistan Dost Muhammad died in 1863. During the war of succession that followed his demise Lawrence adopted a policy of strict hen Sher Ali emerged as the victor in 1868, Lawrence promptly recognized him Amir.

f Lawrence there was a huge financial deficit.

869 1872)
January 1869.

Minister, Disraeli, appointed Lord Mayo as the new Viceroy and Governor-General of the Subcontinent.

ment Mr. Mayo was the Chief Secretary to the Prime Minister for Ireland.

ghan policy of Lawrence.

n Sher Ali visited subcontinent in March 1969. He was formally recognized at the Ambala darbar.

p of Strachey brothers, brought equilibrium in the finances by raising income tax from 1 to 2.5 and then 3 percent and by and enforcing economies. first census of the subcontinent.

ment of agriculture and commerce and introduced the system of provincial finance.

o death by a Pathan convict in Feb. 1872 during his visit to the Andaman Islands.

BROOK (1872-1876)

ok took office in 1872.

famine, the subcontinent was prosperous during his tenure partly because of financial reforms of Lord Mayo and partly because as trade with the opening of the Suez Canal.

s successfully averted the famine which threatened Bengal and Bihar in 1893-74.

d the Gaikwad of Baroda for misgovernment and for an attempt to poison the British Resident.

ative party came to power in Britain with Disraeli as PM and Salisbury as Secretary of State for India.

f moderation was now replaced by the Conservative policy of aggression.

influence as the court of Kabul, Salisbury suggested, in 1875, that the Amir of Afghanistan should be asked to accept a British .

entire council disapproved of the suggestion which was repeated by Salisbury as an instruction with the result that Northbrook

N ( 1876-1880)

rge in 1876.

famine in India in 1876-78 which affected most of Southern India, Madras, Bombay, Hyderabad, Mysore and parts of Central and cost more than 5 million human lives in British Territory alone.

amine commission under the chairmanship of Sir Richard Strachey.

tions of this commission the Famine Code of 1883 was formulated.

ed Vernacular Press Act which greatly curbed the freedom of the Vernacular Press and caused much resentment to the educated the customs on coarse kinds of cotton cloth to benefit the textile manufacturers of Lancashire.

ed the Statutory Civil Service of nominated Indians thus fulfilling the promise of the Charter Act of 1833 and that of Royal 8.

as regarded as inferior to the Covenanted Civil Service it failed to attract higher classes and was abolished eight years later.

N WAR

the occupation of Quetta by a treaty with the Khan of Kalat in 1876 which gave the British access top the Bolan Pass, one of ys to Afghanistan.

angement with the Maharaja of Kashmir Lytton established a British Agency in Gilgit.

used to the posting of a British officer in Afghanistan.

Lytton dispatched a mission to Kabul under Neville Chamberlain. This mission was repulsed by Afghans at Ali Masjid, a lonely of Khyber Pass.

hanistan in November 1878.

ccesses but soon it proved to be a failure.

n became new Afghan Amir in 1880.

880 when there was a new Liberal government in Britain.

new Viceroy for India.

MUSLIM NATIONALISM

n (1817-1898) wrote a treatise in 1858 namely Risalah Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind (The Causes of the Indian Revolt). the publication of a series of pamphlets, The Loyal Mohammedans of India. mentary on Bible know as Tabyin-ul-kalam, which developed into a scholarly work on comparative religion. a documented pamphlet, Risalah Ahkam-i-Taam-i-Ahl-i-kitab. hool in Ghazipur in 1863 that included English as a regular subject in its curriculum. Translation Society in Ghazipur which later moved to Aligarh and named as scientific society. is society was to get standard English books translated into Urdu so as to make it possible for the Muslims to get acquainted pments of Western thought. ed a meeting of eminent residents of Aligarh and made a move for the establishment of an association representing all parts of ovinces to bring to the notice of the Government the feelings of the people with regard to the laws and regulations enforced by

tion. ccepted and the British Indian Association, Aligarh was formed with Raja Jaikishandas as president and Sir Syed as secretary. indu-Muslim organization that envisaged the development of a common outlook towards Indian problems and towards the e with their rulers. a year. Its only noteworthy contribution was to submit a scheme for the establishment of a vernacular university in the North-

ent Hindus of Banaras started a movement for the replacement of Urdu by Hindi written in the Deva Nagiri script as the court Sir Syed to realize that Hindus and Muslims could not live together. t to England and stayed there for a year and a half. up a committee called the Committee Striving after the Educational Progress of the Muslims. osed to establish a college at Aligarh to be known as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College. Sir Syed was nominated ing committee. .O school was opened. upgraded to college level. roy Lytton laid the foundation stone of the M.A.O College. on which Syed Ahmed Khan began in Northern India was started in Bengal by Nawab Abdul Latif who was born in 1828 in

descent to Hazrat Khalid bin Walid. cated at Calcutta Madrassa. After his education he became professor of Arabic in the same institution. nted Deputy Magistrate by the Govt. of Bengal. For sometime he acted as the Presidency Magistrate in Calcutta. mber of the newly created Bengal Legislative Council and was the first Muslim to sit in a legislative council. ded the Muhammadan Literary Society of Calcutta. a fellow of the Calcutta University. araswati started a movement called Arya Samaj. This gave birth to a violent Hindu reaction to foreign influences. He also began nt for conversion of non-Hindus, particularly Muslims of Hindu origin to Hinduism. ormed a Cow Protection Society to rouse Hindu feelings against Christians and Muslims for slaughtering cows and oxen. anization known as the Indian Association came into being in Calcutta in 1876. n was established by a few educated Bengali Hindus led by Babu Surendranath Benerjea. It was forerunner of the Indian

n did not attract much attention outside Bengal except when it agitated the Govt. decision in 1877 to reduce the maximum age vil Service Competitive examination from 21 to 19. n Indian Association. Ali (1849 1928) established the Central National Muhammadan Association in Calcutta. It was the first Muslim political represent the Muslims of the subcontinent as a whole. ar Press Act was repealed. ational Congress was founded on the initiative of A. O. Hume, a retired member of the Civil Service. med Khan founded the Muhammadan Educational Conference. Bombay Muslim Badruddin Tyebji presided the 3rd session of the Indian National Congress. tired from public life in 1887. the foundation of the Indian Patriotic Association erjee started a literary movement in Bengal and identified nationalism with the Hindu religion. nalism was started by B.G. Tilak. cil Act was passed. It enlarged the legislative councils and extended their functions. In the Imperial Council the number of was fixed between 10 and 16, of whom not more than six were to be officials. Madras and Bombay the additional members were to be not less than 8 and not more than 20. The number of members of nd North-Western Provinces was to be raised to 20 and 15 respectively.

members to discuss the budget and offer suggestions for its improvement. The introduction of interpellation allowed the ions to the executive about its administrative acts. oom for an elective element in the councils.

n-ul-Mulk became secretary of the Aligarh college. Governor of the North-Western Provinces Sir Anthony issued a resolution declaring that Hindi written in the Nagiri script tus with Urdu as the language of the law courts in the provinces and in future only such persons would be appointed, except in a to government jobs who knew Urdu as well as Hindi. ligarh leaders established in Lucknow an Urdu Defense Association with Mohsin-ul-Mulk as president and Barrister Hamid Ali

ned that the government will discontinue the financial of Aligarh College if Mohsin-ul-Mulk continued as president of Urdu ping in view the importance of the college Mohsin-ul-Mulk gave up president ship of this society. lim meeting held in Lucknow in October 1901 decided to found a genuine All-India Muslim political association. ked to establish district associations in different parts of the country which should later coalesce into a central organization. lk established district associations in some parts of the United Provinces. But at eh beginning of the next year he want on

stopped, the formation of the proposed organization remained deferred till the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in

TITION OF BENGAL

rated from Bengal in 1874 and was placed under a Chief Commissioner. 5 the unwieldy province of Bengal was partitioned. and Chittagong Divisions (excluding the Darjeeling district) and the District of Malda having been separated from it were d a new province under the name of Eastern Bengal and Assam were formed. Muslims formed an overwhelming majority and saw a better chance of their progress. The Hindus on the other hand regarded this their economic and political interests and started a vehement agitation against it. of Bengal was quite an old one. us against the partition soon took the form of a communal movement. l Mother) was adopted by the anti-partition Hindus as their national song. This song was taken from Bankim Chandra anda Math (The Abbey of Bliss). This novel had for its theme the Sanyasi rebellion against Muslim rule in Bengal in the 1770s n anti-Muslim song. ce to compel the Government to revoke the partition, the anti-partition elements started the swadeshi movement which aimed at nufacturers and using home made goods. Congress fully identified itself with the anti-partition movement.

A DEPUTATION

d Curzon as Viceroy. Soon after he assumed office, a Liberal ministry came to power in Britain with John Morley, a radical, a

into to restore Bengal to its original boundaries. However due to administrative reason it was difficult for the British to undo

e Congress in another way, it was inclined to consider the question of giving a more representative character to the legislative

this direction came in July, 1906 when Morley announced in the House of Commons that the Governor-General was about to mittee of his Executive Council to consider the extension of representative element in his Legislative Council and that he ee to frame recommendations in the near future.

n satisfied with the working of the Councils Act of 1892 as it had given them practically no representation on the Councils.

uncement several Muslim newspapers and leaders began emphasizing the necessity of Muslims making an organized effort to s their own views regarding constitution of the reformed councils.

Mohsin-ul-Mulk, the Muslims decided to place their point of view before the through a representative deputation.

a deputation consisting of 35 prominent Muslims from all parts of the Sub-continent met the Viceroy, Minto in Simla.

the Aga Khan, it pointed out that the Muslims were inadequately represented on the councils, and that their representatives who ominated did not enjoy approval and confidence of the community. It demanded that the Muslim representatives on all councilsImperial- should be elected by separate Muslim electorates, and that the representation accorded to the Muslims should heir numbers as well as the value of their contribution to the defense of the empire.

A MUSLIM LEAGUE

when Muslim leaders met in Lucknow to decide the composition of the Simla deputation it was also decided that an All-India nization should be established at the next annual meeting of the Muhammadan Educational Conference. discussed at Simla in October, 1906 by the members of the Simla Deputation who decided that the nature and the aims and d organization should be finally determined at a representative meeting at Dacca to be held after the conclusion of the annual madan Educational Conference in the last week of December, 1906. ggested the name All-India Muslim Confederacy in the middle of December, 1906. gates to the Educational Conference and of other prominent Muslims was held at Dacca on December 30, 1906 presided by k. d by Nawab Salimullah Khan, seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan and supported by a number of leading Muslims including and Zafar Ali Khan, was unanimously passed and All-India Muslim League was formed. tee consisting of leading Muslims representing all provinces was appointed with Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Viqar-ul-Mulk as joint constitution for the Muslim League and place it before a representative meeting of Muslims to be convened at a suitable time

the League, held in Karachi in December 1907, some new members were added to the committee and it was here that the task ution of the League was completed. given a final approval at a special session of the Muslim League in Aligarh in the middle of March, 1908. This session also president and Sayyid Hasan Bilgrami as secretary of the League. Muslim League was also established in London with Syed Ameer Ali as president and Syed Ibn Hasan as Secretary. he British Government was considering to increase the local representation in legislative councils but the Secretary of State was e Muslim electorates. t its second annual session held at Amritsar in December, 1908 passed emphatic resolutions demanding that Muslim seats in the

led only by Muslim electorates. putation headed by Syed Ameer Ali met the Secretary of State and told him that the proposed mixed electoral colleges would ntal to Muslim interests.

O REFORMS

alized in the form of the Indian Councils Act of 1909. It represented a notable improvement on the Councils Act of 1892. or the first time the principle of election side by side with that of nomination. embers the councils was also increased. ers of the imperial Legislative Council were increased from 16 to a maximum of 60, those of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay to a same number was assigned to the United Provinces and Eastern Bengal and Assam. The Punjab was to have 30 members. was retained in the Imperial Legislative Council but small non-official majorities were given to the Provinces with a of non-elected members. nominated two Indians to the India Council. After the passage of this Act an Indian member was also appointed to the Viceroys

on in the new councils was considerably enlarged. ed to discuss budget item by item. They could also ask questions and move resolutions on matters of public interest. ever, empower the councils to control the government. e had the option not to answer questions and they could also be disallowed by the President. passed by the councils could be ignored by the government as they had no binding force. ure of the Minto-Morley Reforms was the introduction of separate electorates for the Muslims. Some seats were reserved in ng that of the Punjab to be filled exclusively by Muslim voters.

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Modern Indian History starts with the story that Vasco da Gama, when he docked that boat full of exhausted Portuguese traders in Cochin, ends with Gandhi's martyrdom.

n Indian History

History

r India

ar when Aurangzeb died, to 1857, the year of the Indian Uprising, saw the gradual increase of the Europeans had been filtering into India for a long time before they actually decided to set up shop here. zeal, Vasco da Gama was the first known European to reach India in 1498, even before the Mughals

y with the jackpot, the real pioneers to reach India were the Portuguese.

ma docked his ship in Calicut, he announced that he came in search of "Christians and spices" and the

re Christians, who were descendants of those who had settled in India way back in the 4th century AD.

ortuguese eventually settled down to a very prosperous trade in spices with India. The Muslim rulers in

r really warmed up to the idea of a foreign power continuing trade on the seas under their imperial noses.

ctly very honest traders too, since they thought that no word that was given to an infidel need be kept. So

or foreigner in colloquial, came to be a hissing and a byword among locals. In fact in Goa, where the

vels ran high and even the building of Hindu temples was banned. was the second Portugese viceroy in India, encouraged mixed marriages with the sole object of creating

se Catholics, and who would be bound by race and culture to the Portuguese. They were known as Lusoin 1580AD.

ply as Goans. One of main reasons why Portugal was never able to go anywhere further than Goa was

East for the first time in 1595. However, they did not come to India initially, and established themselves

e trade in Jakarta. India came into the picture for them purely as a route to Europe, as part of a great

loped which went through Ceylon and Cape Town.

tories dotting all over (in Cochin, Nagapatam and even up in Agra) they did not attempt to gain military

in in cash.

XII had granted letters of monopoly to French traders in 1611, it wasnt until December 1667 that a

t up in India. This was at Surat (in Gujrat) with Francis Caron as its Director-General. Soon, in 1669,

p in Masulipatnam, thanks to a grant by the king of Golconda which exempted the French from paying

, Caron's place was taken by Francis Martin, who is regarded as the real founder of the French.

ia Company

dia Company on the last day of 1600 and entered the East Indies hand in hand with the Dutch. Their foes

and Catholic Spain and this brought them closer. However, familiarity breeds contempt, and soon the

were not willing to share their space in Spice Islands (East Indies) with them.

the British to finally run away and find refuge in India. It was this success of the Dutch to hang on, with

he Spice Islands that finally made the British to settle on India as the second-best; because spices in

e south where the local rulers and other Europeans already had a monopoly.

n their very first step, so to speak, with the Portuguese. However, here the British luck turned; perhaps hard pressed for resources. Finally what won the east was that old trump card of the British, their naval

s said earlier, the Portuguese were not winning any popularity contests in India, and then with Spain

angir received Sir Thomas Roe, the first ambassador of the British to Indian aristocracy. Roes diplomacy

ful that by a treaty in 1618 the East India Company became their unspoken, unsaid, naval aide. By 1674

art of the dowry of Charles II's Portuguese queen Catherine, and from here they never looked back. 1708

n Era found them quite comfortably placed in India, commercially that is.

ime

e Mughals was shockingly swift (See Medieval Indian History). A confused state of affairs reigned the house in order for the natives who seemed to be their own worst enemies.

sh finally took control. It is hardly surprising that the more insular Brits thought it was their divine right

day at the Mughal court whose grandiose and power had fallen into disarray and disgrace. Nautch girls, g or anyone better.

nately so did the gold from the coffers of the treasury. Clearly it was that twilight zone; when dynasties

hough disastrous, invasions. The first of these was led by the famous Persian king Nadir Shah in 1739. At

busy fighting the Marathas and one of their best generals, Nizam-ul-Mulk was in war against them.

arrived near Delhi and succeeded in changing his mind about sacking Delhi by offering him a booty of Rs court politics had the upper hand; one of Nizam's rival generals convinced Nadir he was settling for too

Delhi were to be seen to be believed. So Nadir marched over to Delhi in time to have a khutba read in his

s time a rumour started doing the rounds that Nadir was dead, which was not only celebrated by the

e got bold enough to actually attack a few Iranian soldiers.

, 1739 an order went forth from Nadir Shah, and yet another one of those terrible massacres that Delhi

ace. The areas of Chandini Chowk, the fruit market, the Dariba bazaar and the buildings around Jama

ch and every inhabitant of the area was killed as an example. The people of Delhi will still point at the

the old city and tell you about the massacre which happened here as if it were only yesterday. The royal

ents seized. When Nadir Shah left Delhi after 57 days of staying here, he also took along the fabulous

with him. and along with it also the final vestiges of the Mughal pride.

With Ahmad Shah Abdali

elhi was led by the Afghans, with Ahmad Shah Abdali, an ex-general of the same Nadir Shah, as their

as seven invasions into India between 1748-1767.

eceived by Nadir Shah, the Mughals seemed to have just given up. Abdali was all over the place

o on, but it seemed like the Delhi court couldn't care less. It was left to the powers-that-be, the Marathas,

promptly reduced the Marathas to the powers-that-had-been in the third and final battle of Panipat on

y the British found India completely at a loose end when they came here most of the rising powers had armies before they could amount to anything.

e Nadir Shah vintage was repeated. After pillaging Delhi the Afghans marched on to overrun most of

lowing the ransacking of the cities of Mathura, Brindaban and Gokul, for `seven days the waters of the

lour.

my forced Adbali to withdraw; but not before he had made the Delhi court cough up around 120,000,000

had that kind of money speaks for the unbelievable riches which the Mughals once commanded). Also he

hore, Sirhind and Multan. This was unfortunately not the last time that Abdali invaded India.

, the Marathas, to face the next Abdali challenge. Seeing the ruins of a powerful kingdom and the

had in its womb in Delhi, Abdali thundered in again. On January 13, 1761, he took on the Maratha

romptly reducing them to the powers-that-had-been in the third and final battle of Panipat. This was the

north, for they stayed away for the next 10 years.

once again by a hunger not for power but for gold. His sixth invasion had the Sikhs (who had by then

famous Maharaja Ranjit Singh) up in arms. The determined Sikh power had put up a stiff challenge not

n reason why the Marathas were never able to be very successful up north. When Abdali invaded India

anaged to inflict defeat on him and the Sikhs took Lahore and Central Punjab. However the areas from

i.

war and battle; an India badly in need, and indeed glad, of someone who could take charge. She had gone

story. It was a great leap too from the cultured, sophisticated and erudite civilisation under the Mughals

itious dark ages of the late 18th and 19th century. The status of women in society fell like never before:

ain to the bride's family took place; oppression reared its nasty head in the form of a rigid caste system

ti, the Rajput ritual of a widow being cremated with her dead husband, and so on which were never a part

w.

best faces for the phirangis.

he British rise to power was slow, but remarkably steady. Slow because the path was far from smooth;

al with. The commercial rivalry that cropped up with such a vengeance amongst the British and the

g political situation in Europe, and even then as long as the French carried on business in a small way in

mselves. 1720 and 1740, when the French company's trade with India increased by about ten-fold to come up to

company was generating at that time. Now the stakes were just too much for each to ignore the other

at this Indian trade amounted for more than ten percent of Mother England's revenue.

of Austrian Succession (1740-48) had broken out in Europe, following Fredrick the Great of Prussia's

ench and British found themselves in opposing camps in this war. Later, during the Seven Years War too

eads with each other, supporting rival camps. These two wars of Europe, by Europe and for Europe in the

of power as India knew it.

h and English Arose

d English finally came to blows in the first Carnatic War (1746-48) in the Deccan. There were two more of

to seal the fate of the French company as far as India was concerned. The first Carnatic War was merely

uccession as said earlier. The fight was over Madras and though the French captured it, it was given back

aty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748.

while was that the British and the French had got their fleets upto the Indian mainland, an important used to gain a support base within the country.

ower was now shifting fast in the favor of the Europeans. and Dupleix, the French governor of the time,

ernor

esourceful character, with great diplomatic skills, and his understanding of local politics was formidable,

rament which made him extremely difficult to work with. The perfect opportunity came in 1748 when the

l Nadu) died and the question of who would succeed him arose.

intrigue that he succeeded in enthroning a Nizam of his choice, Chanda Sahib. The new Nizam was

andson Muzzafar Jung and backed up by French troops under the able command of De Bussy.

as by surrounding it with French territory. The plan would have developed pretty neatly but for Robert a mere 210 men upset all of Dupleix's subtle strategies. Chanda Sahib was killed and a British nominee

s family to become a clerk, who turned out to be a brilliant strategist.

o years later Dupleix was recalled to France.

heu, who sued for peace with the British. By the new treaty both the French and the British agreed not to

rs and went back to their old positions. But though the British got a town the French agreed to give up

. Godeheu was denounced for having "signed the ruin of the country and the dishonor of the nation," but

h emerged much stronger after the second Carnatic War.

Anglo-French war for supremacy was brought on by the Seven Years War in the shape of the third

er, despite some heroics by French generals like De Bussy and Lally, the British were able to decisively

ost practically everything they had in India. With the close of the third Carnatic War, the French were

erned. Thanks to their superior sea-power, greater resources and steadier support from Europe, the

e dream of dominion de l'empire de la France in India forever.

h rise to power in India became sort of predictable. Except for one small hiccup in 1857 during the Indian

and will always go on about whether 1857 was actually the first Indian War of Independence or simply a

conclude. It was far too limited in its scope and aims to be dignified as the first Indian War of

at restricted that one can dismiss it as just a mutiny.

port the fact that the Uprising had been planned for months before the actual outbreak. What the

he fact that they failed to spread the word beyond Central India and Delhi, was that the Uprising did not

t before the appointed date; if D-day had gone according to schedule the Uprising would have broken out places in May 1857 and there was little, if any, co-ordination about the whole thing. So, the British were

nd then it would have been very difficult for the British to control it. However, as things were, trouble

rogress

ultural revolution had been in progress in Indian society. As a result of this Sati was banned, new religions

d, education for women was encouraged and a whole new breed of intellectuals mostly from Bengal

s well-read and also well-travelled; of course, this meant that a new age of political awareness was rising

at had immediately preceded. As a result the British, or rather an administrator called A O Hume,

neral of India Lord Dufferin that it might be profitable to have roughly a sort of His Majesty's opposition convinced of what good the idea would do, he okayed it and so in December 1885 the Indian National

n India who would advice the government.

amed Indian National Congress) met in Bombay. Seventy-two delegates came from different parts of

adabhai Naoroji, an eminent lawyer and political leader.

s
surely have given the British government much cause to regret that they had ever thought it up at all.

ment's chagrin, the Indian National Congress took its job seriously. In its early phase, which is called the

905), the Congress was thoroughly loyal to the British.

spects except where it mattered the most, in colour. They were a class of elite erudite men who were into

ssions; the much more popular `peoples leaders were to follow. Dadabhai Naoroji, the most prominent

Let us speak out like men and proclaim that we are loyal to the backbone; that we understand the

ferred upon us." road was hardly aware they were alive. and nor, if their attitude is anything to go by, was the British

overnment Leads To Dissatisfactions

ngress as those members who were unsatisfied with the scheme of affairs under the Moderates, including

Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, parted company with them. This hardly helped their cause because for the

or all contents and purposes, went into hibernation. nationalists came into the scene, especially after the controversial partition of Bengal into west and east

popular and obnoxiously highhanded Lord Curzon. The decision evoked sharp reactions from all over India

gainst it.

hich the partition came into effect, was observed as a day of mourning and fasting throughout Bengal.

s Nobel-laureate and writer, spoke out against it through a passionate poem. This was the time when the

unched; that is, Indians burnt foreign clothes, cigarettes, soap and anything made across the seas in

an made articles instead. Many factories manufacturing indigenous clothes, textiles and whatever else

f earnest young leaders of Bengal took up the task of educating people. On August 15, 1906, a national

ced under the educationist Aurobindo Ghose.

vily on the demonstrations, choosing to break up meetings, insult leaders and beat up peaceful Lajpat Rai and Sardar Ajit Singh were deported from the Punjab. In 1908, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was

ars imprisonment. Aurobindo Ghose was arrested, prosecuted and though acquitted, chose to retire to

tion of Bengal (although the partition was reverted in 1911) saw the coming of age of Indian nationalism.

fore and the country was bristling with nationalistic fervor. However, the idea of independence from the

at nationalists were considering.

arted

nmeshed in the World War I, India's national movement though intermittent continued to throw up

Home Rule Movement. In December 1915, Tilak, who was one of the first nationalist leaders with a

g of the grassroots of India, voiced the thought of Home Rule (instead of `swadeshi, that being a word 1916, the Home Rule League was set up with its headquarters in Poona (Pune). Tilak went on a

was for the first time that someone had mentioned the word Home Rule as being the goal for the Indian

pealing to everybody to unite under the banner of Home Rule League. Anne Besant of the Theosophical

n this task.

vernment fell back to that old reliable stricter laws. Laws were formulated to prevent agitations, to

m entering India, propaganda came under government control, and so on.

e movement was that for the first time the independence of India came to be clearly the goal of the

public at large was first an audience and then terrorist nationalists who bombed parliaments and blew up

rther scared the middle class away from the movement. and history will tell you no movement for

s without the involvement of the bourgeoisie. So, while the idea of freedom was gaining ground, the

involved.

ould later say, Gandhi came.

he man dressed in a dhoti, kurta and pugri with a lathi in hand (initially) and mingled with elegantly

s. He was not a rabble-rouser; he would have been loath to do a Demosthenes. Nor was he anyone's idea

hort, thin, shrivelled man, with what Sarojini Naidu called `Mickey Mouse ears and a twinkle in his eyes.

enemies, not of bombs or murders. of non-violence, ahimsa. That was his only weapon; and, as the

xpense, boy did it work!

andhi came back to India from South Africa at the age of 49, he had already built a tremendous reputation

Almost immediately upon docking in Bombay, he was offered to lead the national Movement.

pting to travel and know the country thoroughly first. The first causes he chose to associate with were

lmost seem that the nationalist leaders of the time did not know what to think of this almost too-mild,

averick.

moves were being made by a worried British government. One of the results of this was the Rowlatt Act

ong other things this act gave the courts the right to try political cases without a jury and provincial

ntre, the power of internment without trial. Gandhi, in his typical style, said that the Rowlatt Act raised

and hence should be met by a moral response in shape of a hartal, or a traditional Indian way of protest

or a day.

wallah Bagh

On April 12, 1919, General Dyer, who had taken over the troops in Punjab the day before, prohibited all

urse a public meeting was announced to be held the very next day, April 13, in Jallianwallah Bagh (a park

single narrow entrance) at 4.30pm. We all know what happened that day.

-charged words in books and in poignant scenes in movies. That day 6000 to 10,000 people, including

dead in that park as an example of what happened to people who disobeyed the orders of the British Raj. had. He added that he would fired more if he had so seen fit. Bagh tragedy shocked the country. It also woke up the moderates.

ed later, General Dyer coldly observed that he had fired only 1600 rounds of ammunition on the crowd;

hat it brought Gandhi out in the open.

o-operation Movement
Mahatma Gandhi, the Indian National Congress launched the first of his innovative movements of

ovement. It involved surrender of all titles, honorary offices and nominated posts in local bodies.

ment functions and darbars. Parents were requested to withdraw their children from government schools

he army was boycotted. Indians were to stand for elections to any government body or legislature.

e observed strictly. Co-operation amazed every political leader in India, who started realising that Gandhi was not so meek

lar imagination and suddenly, in one sweep, the National Movement was taken to every man on the

nds to support Gandhi and his movement. The government machinery did not actually break down, but

the movement was showing signs of real success, an incident occurred in Chauri Chaura, in which a mob

en and one officer. Similar tragic events had happened earlier on November 17, 1921, in Bombay and on

ndhi, who was the last of the ethical political leaders, immediately withdrew his movement. and got

h 13, 1922. However, the Mahatma did get his way, the Rowlatt Act was repealed.

most everywhere for disassociating himself from the Non Co-operation Movement; for certainly the

sses. This was not the first difference of opinion that was to happen in the Congress about Gandhi's

ns were to crop up, though everyone invariably gave in to the Mahatma. Gandhi was already the invisible

to review the status of Indian affairs by the British government, under Sir John Simon. So far, so good. include even a single Indian, a situation which convinced the Congress that action was called for.

als like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose were insisting on total independence being the goal

oy Lord Irwin had got the Labour government in London to agree to a declaration that dominion status

d a round table conference was called to consider the next step. After coming out one of his famous

the offer. But the mood in the country was totally contrary to this. So rather than let the radical element

ntrol the situation by leading a non-violent movement himself.

e Independence - Purna Swaraj

929, Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled the Tricolor on the banks of the river Ravi in Punjab and the Congress

e, purna swaraj. January 26, 1930, was declared as Independence Day. From February 14 to 16, 1930,

e met at Gandhi's famous ashram in Sabarmati and vested Mahatma Gandhi with launching his Civil

me and place of his choice."

ation was announced. The entire nation was in ferment. Everyone was waiting in eager suspense about

t; none more than the British government, though not so eagerly, one presumes.

d with 78 colleagues of the Sabarmati Ashram, Mahatma Gandhi embarked on a 60-mile march to the sea

efy the Salt tax, paid indirectly by every peasant. The first instinct of the government was to let him walk

re him. However, the Gandhi magic worked. Soon protests, hartals, processions were taking place all over

ay 5, 1930, and his place was taken by Abbas Tyabji as the leader of the movement. When Tyabji was

ous nightingale of India, replaced him. All over India, the mood was ablaze, the atmosphere tense and

Louis Fischer wrote about the Civil Disobedience: "The British beat the Indians with batons and rifle butts.

complained nor retreated. That made England powerless and India invincible."

rence

erence was held in London from November 12, 1930 to January 19, 1931, it turned into a failure for not a

he British now appealed to the Congress to work with them. Lord Irwin also declared that Mahatma

of the Congress Working Committee would be freed soon to consider the matter "freely and fearlessly."

meet Irwin and the result was the Irwin-Gandhi pact under which the Civil Disobedience Movement was

Table Conference with Congress participation was agreed upon. This peace did not last long. Gandhi

e conference in London in 1931 as the sole representative of the Congress. He demanded control foreign

as complete deadlock over the matter of minorities, thanks to Muhammad Ali Jinnah, His Highness the

edkar. Gandhi returned to India on December 28, 1931 empty handed.

nce Movement was completely withdrawn.

e Congress decided that India should co-operate with Britain on the understanding that complete attitude did not exactly ease the minds of the Congress members as to the intentions of the government.

a after that. The British, however, stuck to the policy of `no change during war and whatever you want

n split between Jinnah's Muslim League and the Congress' aims and demands. Early in 1940 Jinah

the league.

Gandhi declared, "We do not seek independence out of Britain's ruin." The British reply to this was an

assembly as well as Dominion status would be discussed `after the war. The offer was spurned. The

t to unlock till 1947.

e innovative, now rallied the country and Congress behind him with his Quit India movement. The threat

dience movement which could have coincided with the Japanese advances from the far-east towards India.

rebellion." August 8, 1942 in Bombay. Gandhi declared: "I want freedom immediately, this very night, before dawn,

from me that I am not going to strike a bargain with the Viceroy for ministers and the like Here is the

you Do or die. We shall either free India or die in the attempt."

Ahead

clear that independence of India was only a matter of time now.

ndia, was hardly seven years old then. The British did not live long in the beautiful New Delhi they age-old prophecy about those who build Delhi dont live in it for long.

ed in Delhi amid a buzz of political activity. The British, following their World War II concerns, wanted to

dia. Also, the Indians wanted to get back what was rightfully theirs. However, there were too many

he Indians went too far back together for the British to just pack up and leave. They had a responsibility.

ough a favorite with the Indians because of his youthful good looks, was the wrong man for the job. He

to England that he seemed to just go along with the first proposal that found favor with both the Congress

aking into account what the people really wanted.

of the worst mass movements of people in recent history after that of the Jews in the World War II,

orn from one nation on August 15, 1947 Pakistan and India. did not join the celebration that followed. He was in Bihar working in riot torn areas, praying for peace.

ape that it came, meant failure. With this in mind, Gandhi withdrew from active politics.

alists that he had sided with the Muslims in giving away Pakistan too easily dogged Gandhi since the day

ed. On January 30, 1948, a Hindu fundamentalist called Nathu Ram Godse shot and killed the man who

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