PhD Programme in Linguistics

Phonetics &Phonology Lecture Slides Week 2,

Sept.12th 2022

 Recent Phonological
Theory has been much

taken up with the question of

:
 How far phonological
rules can be explained in
synchronic
(typically ,articulatory )ter
ms,
 And how far other
constraints (e.g., of a
 syntactic, morphological or
historical kind)require
explanations involving
more abstract notions .
 Earlier models of ‘
abstract’ phonology,
which presented solutions
involving underlying
forms
 that are not realized in
the phonetic surface ,
are thus opposed to models
which are more
 ‘concrete’ in character.
 Several alternatives to
traditional generative
phonology have been
proposed:
 For example , Natural
Phonology, stresses the
importance of natural
processes : >>>>>
o What are these Natural
Processes ?:
 A set of Universal ,
obligatory , inviolable
rules which govern the
phonology of a language
 They are said to be
‘natural’ because they are
phonetically plausible , in
terms of the properties of
the Vocal Tract , as
evidenced by their
tendency to appear
similarly in a wide range of
languages.
 Natural phonological
processes are held to be
innate , and represent the
Constraints which a child
has to follow when
learning his language ::
 These constraints disallow the
production of all BUT the simplest
pronunciation patterns in the first
stages of development ;
 They later have to be modified
or suppressed , as the child
learns to produce more advanced
forms
 In this approach , a distinction
is drawn with ‘acquired’ rules,
which are learned and language –
specific
 Natural Generative
Phonology (NGP) requires
 that phonological rules
and representations bear a
direct relation to surface
linguistic forms
 It differs from natural
phonology in certain
respects:
 (in particular , it allows
less abstractness in its
underlying representation).
 Its aim is to formulate

the strongest
 possible(universal)constrai

nts on phonological rules,

all of which make

generlisations about the

surface forms of the

language.

 Atomic phonology aims

to specify the most

 limiting conditions on the

application of

phonological rules :

>>>>>>

 These restrictions are

then taken to constitute
the ‘atomic rules’ for
phonological
processes(such as
Devoicing ), and variations
 are predicted through the
use of universal principles.
 It is not limited to
phonetic explanations ,
 And adopts a
methodology which
appeals to
typological investigations for
determining the
constraints on rules.

 The oddly(but
logically)named Upside-
down Phonology
 reverses direction of rule
application found in traditional
generative phonology:
 Instead of deriving
surface structures from a
more abstract underlying
form,
 The rules interpret
surface forms which are
listed in the lexicon,
 thus permitting the
morphology to relate
words which are
phonetically dissimilar(e.g.
sane / sanity)
 Metrical Phonology is a
label which has been given to
an approach which
emphasises the relationship
between segments , Syllables
and prosodic processes , such
as Rhythm and stress:
 Rules assign relative
Prominence to the
(binary)sister nodes of a tree
diagram ,such that one node
is strong and the other weak ,
 to produce a metrical tree
representing the underlying
metrical structure of a
word;>>>>

 Metrical Strength is ,
typically, formally represented
through the use of metrical
‘grids’.
 Several operations are
introduced which produce a
Derived metrical structure ,
 which is seen as the INPUT to
the segmental phonological
component of a grammar .
 Autosegmental phonology is
an approach within the
generative tradition in which
phonological features are
assigned to units larger than
the segment->>>
 As in Firthian Prosodic
Phonology
 Phonological scaling is an
abstract account of
phonology ;
 which aims to determine
automatically , on the basis
of a universal strength scale ,
 the behaviour of segments
or segment classes in all
possible structural positions .
 Phonotactics a term used
in phonology to refer to the
specific arrangements( or
 ‘tactic behaviour’) of sounds
or Phonemes which occur in
a language .
 In English , for example ,
consonant sequences such
as{fs}and{spm} do not occur
initially in a word, and there
are many restrictions on the
possible Consonant +Vowel
combinations which may
occur, e.g. /ŋ/ occurs only
after some short vowels / I ,
ae, ʌ,D/.
 These sequential
constraints’ can be stated in
terms of ‘Phonotactic Rules’
.
 We will be back to the subject
later , and at that time you
would have more information
about GG. We will talk about
phonology in more detail.
 Now back to phonetics :
 You have to know that in
phonetics :
 Categories are generally
defined using terms which
have their own origins in
other subjects , such as
anatomy , physiology and
acoustics.
  Consonant sounds , for
example , are described
with reference to the
anatomical place of
articulation as in Dental ,
Palatal , etc.
 OR
To their physical structure ( the
frequency and amplitude )
characteristics of the sound
waves.
Because these methods of
analysis are equally valid for all
human speech sounds ,
regardless of the language or
the speaker :
the subject is often referred to
as General Phonetics

 This term also reflects the

aim of the phoneticians to
discover universal principles
governing the nature and use
of speech sounds.
 Experimental Phonetics:
is another term
which reflects the
general nature of
this pure scientific
 work.

 Accordingly ,
 work in Phonetics can be
classified into two broad
types :
1. General Studies of the
articulation, acoustics or
perception of speech ; and
2. Studies of the phonetic
properties of specific
languages > in this sense it is
evident that :>>>
  A further dimension will
be required : Why?
 in order to study how
sounds are used within
the pronunciation system of a
language .
 This ‘ functional’ approach
to phonetics is
usually carried on under
the heading of
Phonology.

 Because of the nature of

phonetic enquiry there
 rises a difficulty ?
 Is Phonetics an
autonomous subject ? Or is it
to
be seen as a branch of
Linguistics ? DC:230.

 It is a linguistic science

anyway :

See Ladefoged, 1982 and

Catford 1977.
  It is a scientific analysis

by which a statement of

the sound system of a

language is made at the

very outset.

So, it is a step in linguistic

investigation
 The scope of phonetics:

 Background:
 The Greek and Latin

grammarians had a very little

interest in observing speech

sounds,

 So that vague

descriptive(Simpson : 46 )

terms survived to be used by

Jacob Grimm (1785 – 1863 ) :

 The famous German
Grammarian who had a law
after his name, Grimm’s Law.
 He says : the consonant
changes > in the first sound
shift and second sound shift
 Which were responsible
for separating Germanic
languages from other Indo-
European languages,
 And High German from
Low German.
 A big progress was made
at the end of the 18th
century and 19th century by
those who drew attention :
 To the Sanskritic scholars 2
thousand years before.
 There were some
Sanskritic phoneticians of a
sophistication surpassing
anything achieved in the
Western tradition
 In the 19th century
contributions were made by
researchers in various fields :
 Physiologists ;
 Investigators of sound
changes ;
 Physicists ;
 neurologists
 Language pathologists ;
and
 Psychologists
• Among the pioneers of this
period were :
• Henry Sweet (1845- 1912 );
and
• Eduard Sievers ( 1850- 1932)
• In 1886 an association of
teachers of languages was
founded ; later became to be
known the International
Phonetic Association (IPA) :Its
moving spirit was
• Jesperson and later
• Daniel Jones (1881-1967)
 THUS: Phonetics was the
first area of Linguistics to
attract >>>>
  General attention and
indeed popularity , with
emphasis on its use in
language teaching .
 Phonetics seeks to provide
a descriptive terminology for
the sounds of spoken
languages.
 Traditionally : this has
been done in classificatory
way: i.e., by classifying them
in terms of their physiological
production:
The realm of Articulatory
Phonetics
BUT
The Scope of Phonetics is larger
than this : There are other
concerns

 We use instrumental
techniques for investigating the
production of speech and the
acoustic qualities of its sounds
(Instrumental Phonetics).
 We also attempt the
artificial production of
speech(speech synthesis) .
 We also explore aesthetic
qualities of spoken language
(voice quality)
 The relation between
spoken and written language.
 And the extent to which
speech reveals characteristics
of its speaker

 A phonetician must be
able to use and assess the
principles and procedures of
phonetics :
 How speech is basically
encoded in the brain as ideas
 Then how it is produced
 How it is transmitted in
the air in speech operations
to the listener :
 There must be a listener
 How it is perceived and
decoded by the listener :
 There must be a message
to be decoded (deciphered ;
interpreted by the listener
 Encoding by the speaker
 Decoding by the listener

 Then comes the role of the

phonologist who takes an
account of the functions of
speech sounds.
 He has to cater for how
these sounds are structured
 And patterned
 Given a system, and
  How they are distributed in
the language
 So we have the function of
these speech sounds>
 The system of their function:
 The function of speech is the
expression of thoughts by the
process of articulating sounds;
transmitting them ; and
Decoding and interpreting them.

• Speech is made of sounds

and a speech sound is one of
the smallest elements or
units of speech.
 This leads Me to the next
point of discussion:
 which is the Speech Chain
( See Gimpson , p: 6 )
o I refer to a chain of events
involved in the speech
communication , i.e., speech
communication consists of a
chain of events linking the
speaker’s brain with the
learner’s brain :
o This is the Speech Chain >
o This has an important side
link >
o Speaker-Listener Situation
>
 Two listeners NOT One
Because the Speaker NOT
Only speaks but also listens
to his voice: >
 In listening he/she
continuously compares the
quality of the sounds he
produces with the sound
qualities he intended to
produce,
  And makes the
adjustments necessary to
match the results with his
intentions.

 Now : Any speech message

begins with the :
1. Formation of the message
in the form of a

concept or an idea in the

brain of the speaker :
 This is the linguistic stage or
level.

Sometimes it is called the

psychological level of

the speech chain

(psycholinguistic level ).

2. Now the message is

transmitted by the nervous

 system to the organs of

speech with neural and

muscular activity :

 So this is the second stage

which is said to be the

Articulatory or physiological

stage or level of the speech

chain
3.Now the organs of speech
create disturbances in the air
or any other medium through
which the speaker is speaking ,
i.e., we have the
generation( amplification ) and
transmission of a sound wave.
 This Stage(NO.3) involves
aerodynamics of speech
production: Air Flow & Air
Pressure > So this is the
acoustic or physical level of
speech chain .
 4. The last stage or level is
at the listener’s end >
 The process is reversed :
 A. Reception of sound
waves by the listener with
neural activity in the hearing
and perceptual mechanisms
(Physiological Level )
 B. The recognition by the
listener of the words and
sentences transmitted by the
speaker
( Psychological or Linguistic
Level )

The speech chain can

be diagrammed as
follows : See your
book.

• Speaker :
• Brain> Motor Nerves > V . Muscles
>Sound Waves
• Speaker :
• Sensory Nerves> Ear > Feedback
• Listener:
• Brain > Sensory Nerves >Ear

1. Psycholinguistic Level > 2.

Physiological Level >
 3.Acoustic Level > 4.
Physiological Level > 5.
Psycholinguistic Level

1. Commands from the brain;

muscles are ready to

effect air from the lung ; air

flow & pressure ;

sound waves are created.

2. Neurology ; Myodynamic ;
Aerodynamic
 The Speech Chain : The
Different forms in which a
speaker message exits in its
progress from the mind of the
speaker to the mind of the
listener.
 It must be stressed here that
the general circumstances (the
context) under which we listen
to speech profoundly affect the
kind of words we associate
with particular sound waves >
 In other words , the

relationship between a word

and a particular sound wave ,

 or between a word and a

particular muscle movement

or a pattern of nerve

impulses , is not unique :

 Depending on context , we
recognize a particular sound
wave as one word or
another :
 A good example of this is
reported by people who
speak several languages
fluently :
 They sometimes recognize
indistinctly heard phrases as
being spoken in one of their
 languages-BUT realise later
that the conversation was in
another one of their
languages>

 Also, knowledge of the

right context can even make
the difference between
understanding and not
understanding a particular
sound wave sequence>
 Listening , in some air
ports , to conversations
 between pilots and the
control tower:
 Some sentences are not
comprehensible to you
because of noise and
distortion , but they are
intelligible to the pilot simply
because he has more
knowledge of the context
than you ; because of his
experience with the context.
That is it. This is the end of Week 2 Session