Chapter 3 - Failure Mechanics 1

9/18/2018
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

University of Technology Department of Engineering Mechanics
Tran Kim Bang

Department of Engineering Mechanics (DEM),
Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology,
Email: [email protected]
Failure Mechanics 1 1

Chapter 3
3.1. Elasto-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)
3.2. Fatigue
3.3. Creep
3.4. Stress corrosion cracking
3.5. Hydraulic fracturing
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3.1. Elasto-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

3.1.1. Crack tip damaged zone
• Due to finite strength of materials, there is always a small damaged
zone around the crack tip.
• For metals, this damaged zone is referred to as the crack tip plastic
zone.
• If the size of the plastic zone is small enough that it can be
contained within the K-dominant region, we may use K and G as the
LEFM parameters. This condition is also referred to as the small-
scale-yielding condition (SSY).
• On the other hand, if this zone is larger than the K-dominant region,
then our linear elastic assumptions are not correct, i.e., LEFM is not
applicable and nonlinear models must be used.

Fig. 3.1. From left a) Linear Elastic, b) Elastic-Plastic, c) Fully Plastic, d) Overall Plasticity
• The first one represents the small-scale-yielding condition (SSY).

• The second one shows the situation when the crack tip plastic zone is large
enough to cause some nonlinearity in the overall response of the component.
o If this nonlinearity is not very significant, it can be handled with a non-
linear elastic model, for which we will introduce a non-linear-elastic energy
release rate called J, usually known as the J-Integral.
o There is a limit to the validity of J with regard to the size of the plastic
zone compared to the J-dominant region.
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Fig. 3.2. From left a) Linear Elastic, b) Elastic-Plastic, c) Fully Plastic, d) Overall Plasticity
• For situations where the crack tip plasticity is so wide-spread that even
plastic ligaments may form within the component, we will show that the
appropriate parameter would be the crack-tip opening displacement
(CTOD).
• Finally, when the loading causes overall plastic deformation, even in
presence of cracks, the failure mode would be plastic collapse not fracture.

3.1.2. J-Integral
The J contour integral is extensively used in fracture mechanics as an
energy-based criterion for determining the onset of crack growth. However,
it can also be used as a stress based criterion. The original form of the J-
Integral for a line contour surrounding the crack tip can be written as
 u 
J    wdy  Ti i  ds

x 
w=∫σijdεij is the strain energy density

with σij and εij as stress and strain
tensors.
Ti=σijnj are the components of the
traction vector which acts on the
contour.
ui are the displacement components, Fig. 3.3. An arbitrary contour around
and ds is a length increment along the crack tip
the contour Г.
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J- Integral is a non-linear energy release rate defined by
d
J  , Π =U−V
dA
in which П is the total potential energy, U is the strain energy, and V is the
external work.
J-integral is zero over a closed path and it

remains independent of the path considered for
its evaluation around the crack tip.
Referring to Fig. 3.4, we may define the J-

Integral as an area Integral:
 w   ui  
J   x  x   ij x   dA
A*  j   
Fig. 3.4. J-Integral as an area Integral

We conclude that the J-Integral is zero

for a closed path. Now, if we consider a
closed path like the one shown in Fig.
3.5, we may write
J  J1  J 2  J 3  J 4  0
As the crack surfaces are traction free and
perpendicular to the y axis, we may write:
Ti  dy  0  J 3  J 4  0  J1   J 2
which shows that J is path-independent.
Fig. 3.5. A closed path around the
crack tip
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J can be considered as a stress intensity parameter

For an elastic-plastic material, the Ramberg-Osgood equation can be written as
n
   
   
0  0  0 
in which σ0 and ε0 are the yield stress and yield strain respectively, and n is the
strain hardening coefficient.
For a linear elastic material n = 1. The following relations, known as HRR
singularities (due to Hutchinson, Rice, and Rosengren) show that J can in fact
represent the strength of the stress and strain distributions around the
crack tip.
1 n
 EJ  n 1  0  EJ  n 1
 ij   0  2   ij (n, ) ,  ij    ij (n, )
  0 I n r  E   02 I n r 
in which, In is an integration constant that depends on n, and  ij (n,θ) and ij (n,θ)
are geometric expressions.

3.2. Fatigue
• Fatigue crack initiation usually
occurs at free surfaces, because
of the higher stresses and the
higher probability of the existence
of defects at these locations
(existence of corroded or eroded
areas, scratches, etc.).
• Even at highly-polished defect-
free surfaces, fatigue cracks can
initiate through repeated
microplastic deformations which
result in the formation of the so
called “intrusions” and
“extrusions” on the surface.
• The former can act as local Fig. 3.6. Schematics of fatigue crack initiation
stress concentration sites which
may eventually lead to the
formation of microcracks (see
Fig. 3.6).
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Fatigue crack propagation occurs through repeated crack tip blunting and
sharpening effects which are in turn caused by microplastic deformation
mechanisms operating at the crack tip (see Fig.3.7).
Fig. 3.7. Schematics of fatigue crack propagation.

• In this case, the fracture

initiated at the 1 o’clock
position and propagated
toward the 7 o’clock
position.
• The final, fast fracture
region is the small band,
denoted with small red
arrows, which are
oriented from about 9
o’clock to 4:30 o’clock.
Fig. 3.6. Two way bending

fatigue in a bolt
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Sometimes, the fracture surface even at a visual level, can give us useful
information. A close-up view of a fractured hexagonal shaft is shown in this
photograph
In Fig. 3.7, the fatigue
fracture surface exhibits, in
classic “beach marks”,
“thumbnail marks”, “stop
marks” and are clearly
present in the darker portion
of the fracture surface (see
small white arrows).
Fig. 3.7. Overall view of fatigue failure on

hexagonal shaped jackhammer tool

From Fig. 3.8, it can

be seen that newer
cyclic fatigue crack
evidence (in the areas
denoted “new fracture
surface”) is an area
where fatigue crack
growth occurred long
after the darker
fatigue crack surface
shown in Fig. 3.7 was
created.
Fig. 3.8. More recent cracks emanating

from older, longstanding fatigue
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• The upper half of the

fracture surface is where
"fast fracture" (final
separation) occurred. This
final “fast fracture” region is
shown in Fig. 3.9.
• Thus, just visually the
fracture surface tells us
that an “old fatigue
fracture” surface is
present, newer fatigue
fracture is present (created
at a distinctly different time
and environment) and the
fast fracture region created
at the time of final
failure/separation. Fig. 3.9. Final fast fracture region of
fatigue crack was created at the final
instant of failure and separation

Fig. 3.10. An overview of the Fig. 3.11. A close up view of the

fractured input shaft fractured input shaft
Fig. 3.13. A low angle view of Fig. 3.12. A closer view of the
the fractured input shaft fractured input shaft
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Fig. 3.14. A closer slightly

different low angle view of the
fracture initiation site
Fig. 3.15. A close-up view of fracture surface.

Two fatigue zones are observed propagating
over 33% of the fracture surface prior to final
torsional overload

• A macroscopic examination of fatigue

failures reveals several distinct fracture
surface markings.
• In general, the fracture surface is flat with
no sign of significant plastic deformation,
except for the portion related to the final
rupture.
• For fatigue failures which occur over a
long period of time, the fracture surface
may contain characteristic markings Fig. 3.16. fracture appearance of different
which are called “beach markings” or “clam stages of fatigue failure
shell markings”. These markings, which are
recognizable even by naked eye (see Fig.
3.16), reflect the occurrence of different
periods of crack growth.
• There are extremely fine markings called
“striations”, which represent the crack
growth due to individual loading cycles and
can only be seen at very high
magnifications using electron microscopes Fig. 3.17. Typical striations which
(see Fig. 3.17). form during the growth period.
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Fatigue problems in engineering design are treated by three different

approaches as briefly described in sequel.
3.2.1. Classical Fatigue Approach
• The classical approach to fatigue, also referred to as Stress Controlled
Fatigue or High Cycle Fatigue (HCF), through S/N or Wöhler diagrams,
constitutes the basis of the SAFE LIFE philosophy in design against fatigue.
• In order to determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue
loads, specimens with polished surfaces are subjected to repeated or varying
loads of specified magnitude while the stress reversals are counted up to the
destruction point, see Fig. 3.18.
Fig. 3.18. Rotating-Bending fatigue testing machine


The number of the stress cycles to failure can be approximated by the

WOHLER or S-N DIAGRAM, a typical example of which is given in Fig. 3.19.
Fig. 3.19. A typical S-N diagram
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In HCF terminology, the following notions can be defined:

The Range of the stress cycle which will cause failure in (N) repetitions can
be defined as ΔS = Smax −Smin
S max  S min
Sa = the alternating stress, which is 1/2 the Range of Stress: S a 
2
N = the Fatigue Life
Su = the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the material
SN = the Fatigue Strength to N Cycles
Sf = the Fatigue or Endurance Limit of the material, corresponding to the

median fatigue strength as the fatigue life becomes very large.
Smin
Load Ratio, R 
Smax
Smax  S min
Mean or Static Stress, S mean 
2

• The original Wohler diagram defines the fatigue failure surface when the
Smean is zero and no fatigue strength reducing factors are involved.
• It is usually constructed on either an arithmetic-logarithmic or a logarithmic-
logarithmic scale.
• Attempts have been made to express the shape of the S-N diagram in
mathematical form, one simple form of these equations is
log S N   A log N  B
103  N  106
1  S 
A  log  0,9 u 
3  Sf
 
  0,9Su 2 
B  log  
 S f 
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Real components differ markedly from the laboratory specimens usually used
for generating the S-N Diagrams. Hence, the fatigue strength S-N curve, shown
in Fig. 5 for zero mean stress, should be adjusted for the effects of various
modifying factors
 N  M f  SN
where Mf is the product of several fatigue strength modifying factors and may
be defined as:
M f  msur  msize  mrel  mload  mtemp  mconc  mmisc
These factors are attributed to the followings
msurf = surface finish
msize = size
mrel = reliability
mload = load
mtemp = temperature
mconc = stress concentration
mmisc = miscellaneous effects

3.2.2. Low Cycle Fatigue Approach

Based on the LCF LOCAL STRAIN PHILOSOPHY, fatigue cracks initiate as a
result of repeated plastic strain cycling at the locations of maximum
strain concentration. It is also assumed that the most highly strained region
can be represented by a filament of material whose mechanical response is
similar to that of a smooth specimen. The basic assumptions of the LCF
approach can be summarized as:
a) The fatigue crack initiation of a notched member can be considered to
occur by the rupture of a filament of the material located nearest the surface
in the vicinity of the stress raiser.
b) Under appropriate control, a smooth
specimen can be used to reproduce the stress-
strain history of the filament (see Fig. 3.20).
c) For identical stress-strain histories of the

filament and smooth specimen, the fatigue life
of the smooth specimen can be taken as the
fatigue life of the filament.
Fig. 3.20. Schematic representation
of crack initiation according to LCF
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In LCF, the terminology crack initiation is used in the sense of the number of
fatigue cycles required to either fail the smooth specimen or the filament.
The necessary requirements for a LCF life assessment program can be
summarized as below
a. A mechanics analysis for the determination of the stress-strain behavior
at the critical location (notch).
b. A knowledge of the cyclic stress-
strain properties of the material to
determine the response of the material
at the notch to remotely applied
stresses.
c. A knowledge of the low cycle fatigue
properties of the material for use in an
appropriate cumulative damage
assessment procedure (see Fig. 3.21).
d. A cumulative fatigue damage rule
to accurately predict the LCF life for an
Fig. 3.21. Schematic representation of
arbitrary loading sequence
cyclic strain-life curves

e. A method of combining 1-4 such that the LCF initiation life of a notched
member subjected to any arbitrary loading sequence can be calculated on a
reversal by reversal basis using computer simulation methods.
Fig. 3.22. Schematic representation of LCF life assessment activities
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3.2.3. Fracture Mechanics Approach

• If a crack exists in the component before it goes into service (for example due
to weld fabrication) the initiation stage is by-passed and the fatigue failure
process consists of the incremental crack growth and the final fracture stages.
• Crack propagation normally occurs at right angles to the principal tensile
stress direction.
• In practice, however, most fatigue failures are in the low stress region
(much less than the yield stress) where the LEFM is likely to be valid. Hence,
the LEFM principles can be applied to predict incremental fatigue crack
growth.
• In fact, extensive fatigue tests on a wide variety of materials show that the
stress intensity factor is a much more effective parameter in describing
fatigue propagation than the stress amplitude.

The key point of theses tests is that

the rate of crack propagation,
measured in terms of incremental
crack growth per cycle of loading,
depends primarily on the range of
crack tip stress intensity, as follows
da
 f (K )
dN
The most widely used expression,
proposed by Paris
Fig. 3.23. The standard methods for
da fatigue crack growth tests can be found
 C (K )m
dN under ASTM E647. The most commonly
used specimen in fatigue crack
in which C and m are material propagation studies is the C(T) or
properties obtained from experiment. compact tension specimen
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Three regions of different behavior can normally

be identified on such data presentations:
1. The threshold region, is attributed to very
low levels of ΔKs, where the crack does
not propagate. The ‘threshold’ region is
strongly influenced by the mean stress.
2. The stable propagation region where the

crack grows incrementally according to the
Paris law.
3. The final unstable region, where the

crack propagates more rapidly, often in a
less uniformly incremental manner. In the
unstable region, various mechanisms are
responsible for the increased growth rate.
Fig. 3.24. Typical crack-growth-rate
versus stress-intensity-range diagram

The useful aspect of fatigue crack growth laws is that they can be used to
calculate the number of cycles required to propagate a crack from a
given initial size to some final size which is critical for failure. Thus if the
initial size is ai and the final size af we may write
da m 1  a1fm /2  ai1m / 2 
 C (K )  N 
dN C  m (  ) m  m /2 1 m / 2
• In the above equations, the geometric factor β is assumed to be

constant, since the inclusion of a function of a/W within the integral sign
will usually lead to a formulation which cannot be integrated analytically.
• In practice, it is more straightforward and very often sufficiently accurate to
solve the fatigue life equation by splitting the crack growth history into a
series of crack increments.
• An average value within each step may then be used to calculate β and
hence an average K is considered during the step.
• The average propagation rate within the step can then be calculated from
the Paris Law.
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3.3. Creep
• In many applications, such as gas turbines and steamboilers, the operating
temperature is limited by the creep characteristics of materials.
• Creep fractures in most commercial alloysare intergranular. There are two forms of
intergranular separation, depending on the load and temperature:
o At high loads and low temperatures in the creep range the fractures tend to
originate at grain boundary junctions (triple points), rather than on the boundaries.
o At lower loads and higher temperatures (the typical creep situation) fracture
results more from the formation of voids along grain boundaries, especially those
boundaries perpendicular to the loading direction. This process is called
cavitation.
Fig. 3.25. Schematic of the two main forms of creep fracture initiation

The initiation of both types

of creep fracture is
illustrated schematically in
figure 3.26. The fracture
surface of a high loadlow
temperature creep fracture
consists of intergranular
facets without microvoid
coalescence.
Fig. 3.26. Creep fracture in Inconel W (a nickel-

base alloy) showing fistinctive patterns of void
coalescence on grain boundary facets.
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On the other hand, the fracture surface of a low loadhigher temperature fracture
will often exhibit voids on the grain boundary facets. These voids can be
observed from ammetallographic section, or even by optical microscopy of a
replica from a polished surface.
Surface replicas are widely

used to assess creep
damage in large structures
suchas steam pipes in
power generating plants.
The grain boundary voids
can coalesce in very
distinctive patterns, see fig.
3.27.
Fig. 3.27. Creep fracture in Inconel W (a nickel-

base alloy) showing fistinctive patterns of void
coalescence on grain boundary facets.

• Nucleation of creep voids most probably occurs by a combination of grain

boundary sliding, in which the grain boundary behaves like a slip plane, and
stress-assisted diffusion and agglomeration of lattice vacancies.
• At triple points grain boundary sliding results in geometric incompatibilities (and
hence stress concentrations) which can be accommodated by vacancy diffusion
to nucleate voids.
• On the grain boundaries the voids are nucleated by vacancy diffusion, especially
to matrixparticle interfaces, and grain boundary sliding can assist this process.
• There is less certainty as to the controlling mechanism of void growth and
coalescence to fracture, which is a very complicated process.
• A fairly recent attempt to resolve the inconsistencies in earlier creep fracture
models is due to Edward and Ashby. They proposed that void growth on
cavitated grainboundaries occurs by vacancy diffusion at a rate controlled not by
the stress but by deformation of uncavitated material surrounding the voids.
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Figure 3.27 shows a typical

creep curve which usually
includes:
• Initial elastic strain, which
occurs immediately upon
application of load.
• Primary creep, where the
strain rate gradually
decreases due to strain
hardening.
• Secondary or steady state
creep, where the balance
between strain hardening and
softening processes result in a
constant creep rate
• Tertiary creep, which includes
material separation at micro Fig. 3.28. Typical creep curve
level and leads to final rupture.

• As shown in ig.3.29, the above mentioned

processes can operate locally at the tip of a
pre-existing crack and lead to further crack
growth.
• For short-term applications at high
temperatures, one may use the pertinent
time-independent mechanical properties
such as yield or tensile strength to define
the design regime.
• For the long term exposure to loadings at
high temperatures, the design regime
should be adjusted according to the
creep curves.
• The time-dependent constitutive
equations can be constructed using a Fig. 3.29. Creep zones
variety of the combinations of the two ahead of crack tip
basic mechanical elements, i.e., the
spring and the dashpot elements, which
represent linear-elastic and viscous
behaviors respectively
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• The structural components that are subjected to uniform loading and uniform
temperature distribution during service are vulnerable to widespread bulk
damage due to creep.
• Components that are subjected to stress and temperature gradients it is likely
that creep cracks initiate at critical locations and propagate to cause failure.
• Depending on the material and on the extent of creep deformation at the crack
tip, various parameters have been successfully used to correlate the rates of
creep crack growth.
• In general, three regimes of creep crack growth can be distinguished for
materials exhibiting power-law creep behavior, depending on the size of the
crack-tip creep zone relative to the specimen dimensions.
Fig. 3.30. From left: Small-Scale-Creep, Transitional Creep, and Steady-State-Creep conditions.

The two major parameters used for correlating creep crack growth data are the
stress intensity factor K and the integral C*. The time-dependent energy
Integral, C*, is similar to the J-Integral, but is written in terms of strain rates
instead of strain:
 u 
   ij n j i ds 
C*    wdy

x 
kl

in which w  ij d  ij
0
• The applicability of K is limited to situations where the size of the crack-tip

creep zone is small relative to the crack length and other geometric
parameters of the component.
• This is the so-called Small Scale condition (SSC), as opposed to the Steady
State condition (SS) in which the crack propagation is accompanied by
extensive creep deformation ahead of the crack tip.
• In Steady State condition, the path independent integral C* is usually used.
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The transition time for SSC condition to turn

to SS condition can be estimated by
1  2  n K 2 (t1 )(1  2 )
t1 
n 1 C * (t1 ) E
in which β is dependent on the waveform
of loading and is defined by
K (t )  K1t 
• where K(t) is the applied stress

intensity parameter as a function of
time and K1 is a constant, ν is the
Poisson’s ratio, E is the elastic
modulus, n is the Norton Law exponent,
and C* is the creep integral.
• If the cycle time tC is less than t1 then K
is the correct crack tip parameter for
correlating creep crack growth.
Fig. 3.31. C* integral vs crack grow rate

3.4. Stress corrosion cracking

The term stress corrosion cracking covers a very wide range of material
environment interactions, and it is not possible to give more than a brief overview
of some proposed fracture mechanisms here.
Fig. 3.32. Inter granular stress Fig. 3.33. Stress corrosion cracking
corrosion cracking of an occurred on insulated vessel
Inconel heat exchanger tube
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Fig. 3.34. Stress corrosion cracking Fig. 3.35. Stress corrosion cracking
occurred on pipe occurred on insulated vessel

• Stress corrosion fractures can

be transgranular or
intergranular. Sometimes they
are a mixture, though one
mode usually predominates.
• Macroscopically transgranular
stress corrosion cracks are
often faceted.
• On a microscale the fracture
surface may show a feather-
shaped appearance as in
figure 3.36 or can strongly
resemble mechanical
cleavage as in aqueous stress
corrosion of titanium and
magnesium alloys.
Fig. 3.36. Feather-shaped crack surface on a
transgranular stress corrosion crack in
austenitic stainless steel
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A classification of stress corrosion cracking models proposed for some structural

materials is given in fig. 3.37. The fact that different models have been suggested to
explain each type of failure is an indication of the complexity of stress corrosion cracking.
Fig. 3.37. Classification of some types of stress

corrosion and models suggested to explain them

The film rupture model is also sometimes called the slip dissolution model. The
model is illustrated in figure 3.38. Emergent slip bands at a surface or crack tip
break a passive film and the crack propagates owing to local dissolution of metal.
Fig. 3.38. The film rupture model of stress corrosion cracking
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The stress-assisted intergranular corrosion model is sometimes called the

brittle film mechanism. It is shown in Fig. 3.39. The model requires the environment
to produce a mechanically weak surface film that grows preferentially along grain
boundaries and eventually cracks under stress. The crack is arrested by plastic
deformation of the metal, which then reacts with the environment to reform the film,
and so on.
Fig. 3.39. The stress-assisted intergranular corrosion model

The tunnel model was proposed specifically for transgranular cracking of

austenitic stainless steels in order to explain the typical feather-shaped
appearance shown in Fig. 3.40. It involves the formation of arrays of corrosion
tunnels at slip steps as depicted in Fig. 3.40. As the tunnels grow the ligaments of
metal between them become more highly stressed and eventually fail by ductile
rupture. The process is then repeated.
Fig. 3.40. The tunnel model of stress corrosion cracking
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• The adsorption model is a general one proposing thatan environmental

species can interact with strained crystal lattice bonds at the crack tip to cause
a reduction in bond strength and hence brittle crack extension.
There are many objections to the applicability of this model for stress
corrosion.
• It has enjoyed some popularity for explaining embrittlement by gaseous
hydrogen and liquid metals, but even these possibilities now appear to be
unlikely, as will become evident from the remainder of this section.
• The hydrogen absorption + decohesion theory of stress corrosion cracking
involves stress-assisted hydrogen diffusion to a location ahead of the crack tip.
• The increased hydrogen concentration at this location then results in cracking
that links up with the main crack. This model, or a modification of it, may be
valid for a number of material environment combinations.

3.5. Hydraulic fracturing

The hydraulic fracturing process has been employed to enhance the production
of oil and gas from underground reservoirs for more than forty years. In the
process, the frac-fluid is pumped at a high pressure into a selected section of
wellbore. This fluid pressure creates a fracture extending into the rock medium
which contains oil or gas. Since the fracturing operation is conducted at a
great depth, the minimum compressive in-situ stress is in the horizontal
direction, the hydraulically induced fracture is a vertical fracture.
The dimension and propagation characteristics
of a hydraulic fracture are important
information in the design of fracturing operations.
Knowing the properties of reservoir rock, frac-
fluid and the magnitude and direction of in-situ
stress, one seeks an accurate prediction of
the dimension (opening width, length, and
height) of the hydraulically induced fracture
Fig. 3.41. Hydraulic fracturing

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Consider an uncased vertical wellbore (or an open hole) under the action of horizontal
in-situ stresses σmin and σmax as shown in Fig. 3.42.
Assume that the rock is an elastic
medium and has a tensile failure stress
σT. The breakdown pressure pb for
introducing a fracture at the surface of the
hole can be calculated by applying the
elasticity theory [1] to give
pb  3 min   max   T
Where
σmin = minimum in-situ stress
σmax = maximum in-situ stess
σT = tensile failure stress of the rock
Fig. 3.42. Horizontal section of a

vertical wellbore under the action of
in-situ stresses and hole pressure

Fig. 3.43. Simulalting Hydraulic Fracturing
25

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9/18/2018

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Tran Kim Bang

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

3.4. Stress corrosion cracking

3.5. Hydraulic fracturing

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

3.1. Elasto-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

• The first one represents the small-scale-yielding condition (SSY).

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

w=∫σijdεij is the strain energy density

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

J- Integral is a non-linear energy release rate defined by

J-integral is zero over a closed path and it

Referring to Fig. 3.4, we may define the J-

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

We conclude that the J-Integral is zero

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

J can be considered as a stress intensity parameter

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Fig. 3.7. Schematics of fatigue crack propagation.

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

• In this case, the fracture

Fig. 3.6. Two way bending

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Fig. 3.7. Overall view of fatigue failure on

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

From Fig. 3.8, it can

Fig. 3.8. More recent cracks emanating

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

• The upper half of the

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Fig. 3.10. An overview of the Fig. 3.11. A close up view of the

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Fig. 3.14. A closer slightly

Fig. 3.15. A close-up view of fracture surface.

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

• A macroscopic examination of fatigue

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Fatigue problems in engineering design are treated by three different

Fig. 3.18. Rotating-Bending fatigue testing machine

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

The number of the stress cycles to failure can be approximated by the

Fig. 3.19. A typical S-N diagram

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

In HCF terminology, the following notions can be defined:

Su = the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the material

SN = the Fatigue Strength to N Cycles

Sf = the Fatigue or Endurance Limit of the material, corresponding to the

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

3.2.2. Low Cycle Fatigue Approach

c) For identical stress-strain histories of the

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Faculty of Applied Science

Fig. 3.22. Schematic representation of LCF life assessment activities