THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

CENTURIES OF DISCOVERY  He investigated the physical properties of

cathode rays (electrons)
Greek Atom  He concluded that electrons were integral
 Atomos means indivisible parts of all atoms
 Four Substances: earth, water, air, & fire
 Four Essences: wet, dry, hot, & cold Ernest Rutherford (1911)
 Nuclear model
Substances/Elements  He disproved Thomson’s model
 112 identified  He described the atom as containing a
 92 naturally occurring small, dense, positively charged center
 20 artificially produced surrounded by a negative cloud of
electrons
An atom is the smallest particle that has all the  He called the center of the atom the
properties of an element! nucleus

Subatomic Particles Bohr Atom (1913)

 Particles smaller than atom  Miniature solar system
 He improved Rutherford’s description of
Dalton Atom the atom
 Hook-and-eye affair  The electrons revolved about the nucleus
in prescribed orbits or energy levels
John Dalton (1808)
 He showed that elements could be Quantum-chromodynamics (QCD)
classified according to integral values of  More accurately described the details of
atomic mass atomic structure

Dmitri Mendeleev FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

 First periodic table of elements
Particle Accelerator
Alkali Metals  Atom smasher
 Group 1 elements  It is used in mapping the structure of
 All soft metals that combine readily with atomic nucleus
oxygen & react violently with water
Nucleons
Halogens  Protons (+) & neutrons (O)
 Group VII elements  It is composed of quarks & gluons
 Easily vaporized & combine with metals (subatomic particles)
to form water-soluble salts
The fundamental particles of an atom are the
Noble Gas electron, proton & the neutron!
 Group VIII elements
 Highly resistant to reaction with other
elements

Thomson Atom Electron

 Plum pudding  Location: orbital shells
 Plum: negative electric charges (electrons)  Relative: 1
 Pudding: a shapeless mass of positive  Mass in kg: 9.1 x 10-31
electrification  Mass in amu: 0.000549
 Number: 0
J.J. Thomson (1890)  Charge: -1
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

 Symbol: -

Proton Electron Arrangement

 Location: nucleus  The number of electrons in the outermost
 Relative: 1836 shell of an atom = group in the periodic
 Mass in kg: 1.673 x 10-27 table & determines the valence of an atom
 Mass in amu: 1.00728  The number of outermost electron shell of
 Number: 1 an atom = period in the periodic table
 Charge: 1
 Symbol: + Maximum Electrons Per Shell
 Formula: 2n2
Neutron
 Location: nucleus Principal Quantum Number
 Relative: 1838  The shell number (n)
 Mass in kg: 1.675 x 10-27
No outer shell can contain more than eight
 Mass in amu: 1.00867 electrons!
 Number: 1
 Charge: 0 Orderly Scheme of Atomic Progression
 Symbol: O  Interrupted in fourth period
Atomic Mass Unit Transitional elements
 The mass of a neutral atom of an element  Atoms associated with the phenomenon
 Symbol: amu mentioned above
 1 amu: ½ the mass of a carbon-12 atom
Centripetal Force
Atomic Mass Number  Center-seeking force
 Number of protons plus number of  The force that keeps an electron in orbit
neutrons in the nucleus
 Symbol: A Centrifugal Force
 Formula: protons + neutrons  Flying-out-from-the-center force
 The force that causes an electron to travel
ATOMIC STRUCTURE straight and leave the atom
The atom is essentially empty space!

Neutral Atom
 Same number of electrons & protons Electron Binding Energy
 The strength of attachment of an electron
to the nucleus
Number of Protons  Symbol: Eb
 Determine the chemical behavior of an
atom Tungsten (W-74) & Molybdenum (Mo-42)
 Determine the chemical element  The primary constituents of x-ray tube
target
Isotopes
 Same number of protons, but different Barium (Ba-56) & Iodine (I-53)
number of neutrons  Radiographic & fluoroscopic contrast
agents
In their normal state, atoms are electrically
neutral; the electric charge on the atom is zero! Carbon (C-6)
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

 The important component of human tissue Iron Fe 26 56 4

Copper Cu 29 63 2
Ionization Potential Molybdenu
Mo 42 98 7
 The amount of energy (34 keV) necessary m
to ionize tissue atoms Ruthenium Ru 44 102 7
Rhodium Rh 45 103 5
ATOMIC NOMENCLATURE Silver Ag 47 107 2
Tin Sn 50 120 10
Chemical Symbols Iodine I 53 127 1
 The alphabetic abbreviations of an element Barium Ba 56 138 7
Tungsten W 74 184 5
Number & Arrangement of Electrons Rhenium Re 75 186 2
 It determines the chemical properties of an Gold Au 79 197 1
element Lead Pb 80 208 4
Uranium U 92 238 3
Atomic number
 Number of Protons CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS
 Symbol: Z NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
Atomic
Atomic Neutron
Atomic Mass Number Arrangement Mass
Number Number
 Number protons plus number of neutrons Number
 Symbol: A Isotope same different different
Isobar different same different
The atomic number & the precise mass of an Isotone different different same
atom are not equal! Isomer same same same

Carbon-12 Atom Technetium-99m (Tc-43)

 Its A & Z are equal  It decays to technetium-99
 Rationale: it is the arbitrary standard for  Energy Emitted:140 keV gamma rays
atomic measure

Elemental Mass COMBINATIONS OF ATOMS

 It is determined by the relative abundance
of isotopes & their respective atomic Molecules
masses  The group of atoms of various elements
Protocol for Representing Elements in a Molecule  The smallest unit of a compound
 Upper Left: atomic mass (A)
 Lower Left: atomic number (Z) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Upper Right: valence state (+/-)  Common table salt
 Lower Right: number of atoms/molecules
Chemical Compound
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME ELEMENTS  Any quantity of one type of molecule
IMPORTANT TO RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE
Naturally CHON (C-6, H-1, O-8, N-7)
Chemical  Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
Element Z A Occurring
Symbol  90% of the human body
Isotopes
Beryllium Be 4 9 1
Carbon C 6 12 3 Water
Oxygen O 8 16 3  80% of the human body
Aluminum Al 13 27 1
Calcium Ca 20 40 6 Covalent Bond
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

 The chemical union between atoms formed  It occurs only in heavy radioisotopes
by sharing one or more pairs of electrons  It is much more violent process
 Example: H2O  It is consists of 2 protons & 2 neutrons
 Atomic Mass Number: 4
Ionic Bond  Results:
 The bonding that occurs because of an o Nucleus loses 2 units of positive
electrostatic force between ions charge & 4 units of mass
 Example: NaCl o Chemically different atom & an
atom lighter than 4 amu
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
 Baking soda Radioactive Half-life
 The time required for a quantity of
The smallest particle of an element is an atom; radioactivity to be reduced to one-half its
the smallest particle of a compound is a original value
molecule!  Symbol: T1/2
 I-131: T1/2 = 8 days
RADIOACTIVITY  C-14: T1/2 = 5730 days
Radioactivity
 The emission of particles & energy in
order to become stable Radioactive Decay Law
 It described the rate of radioactive decay &
Radioactive Decay/Radioactive Disintegration the quantity of material present at any
 The process by which the nucleus given time
spontaneously emits particles & energy &  Formula: Activity Remaining = Original
transforms itself into another atom to reach Activity (0.5)n
stability
 n: number of half lives
 It occurs when the nucleus contains too
few or too many neutrons TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
Radioisotopes
 Radioactive atoms that have the same Five Physical Characteristics
number of protons  Mass, Energy, Velocity, Charge & Origin
Uranium (U-92) & Carbon-14 Particulate Radiation
 Two primary source of naturally occurring  It has finite range in matter
radioisotopes
 Examples: alpha & beta Particles
Beta Emission
Alpha Particle
 It occurs in all radioisotopes
 Equivalent to a helium nucleus
 It occurs more frequently than alpha
 It contains 2 protons & 2 neutrons
emission
 Symbol: α
 Results:
 Mass: 4 amu
o Loss of small quantity of mass &
 Charge: +2
one unit of negative electric charge
o To increase the Z by one while A  Origin: nucleus of heavy radioactive
nuclei
remains the same
o Changing of an atom from one type  Energy: 4-7 MeV
of element to another  Range: 1-10 cm (air); <0.1 mm (soft
tissue)
 Neutron undergoes conversion to a proton
 Ionization Rate: 40,000 atoms/cm
Alpha Emission
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Beta Particle  Origin: nucleus/radioactive nuclei

 Light particles  Energy: 0-5 MeV
 Symbol: β- or β+  Range: 0-100 m (air); 0-30 cm (soft tissue)
 Mass: 0 amu  Ionization Rate: 100 ip/cm (equal to beta
 Charge: -1 or +1 particles)
 Origin: nucleus of radioactive nuclei
 Energy: 0-7 MeV Nonionizing Radiation
 Range: 10-100 cm (air); 1-2 cm (soft  A type of radiation used in UTZ & MRI
tissue)
 Ionization Rate: several hundred of
atoms/cm

Negative Beta Particles

 The same with electrons, they only differ
in origin

Positive Beta Particles

 The same mass with electrons
 Positrons
 Antimatter

Electromagnetic Radiation
 Examples: x-rays & gamma rays
 They only differ in origin
 It is often called photons
 It has unlimited range in matter

Photons
 No mass & no charge
 Travel at the speed of light (c)
 c: 3 x 108 m/s or 1.86 x 105 mi/s

X-rays and gamma rays are the only forms of

ionizing electromagnetic radiation of radiologic
interest!

X-rays
 Symbol: X
 Mass: 0
 Charge: 0
 Origin: electron cloud
 Energy: 0-25 MeV
 Range: 0-100 m (air); 0-30 cm (soft tissue)
 Ionization Rate: 100 ip/cm (equal to beta
particles)

Gamma Rays
 Symbol: γ
 Mass: 0
 Charge: 0
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO