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Lesson
Towards Modernity
19
Learning Objectives

To acquaint oneself with

„„Socio-Religious reforms initiated by Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj and Arya
Samaj
„„Ramakrishna Mission and the teachings of Swami Vivekananda
„„Theosophical Society, Satya Shodhak Samaj, Sri Narayana Guru Dharma
Paripalana Yogam.
„„Islamic Reform Movements and Reform Movements in Tamilnadu
„„Contributions of Christian Missionaries

Introduction 19.1 Emergence of Reform

 
By the first quarter of the nineteenth Movements
century, India had produced a small The British characterized Indian society in the
English-educated intelligentsia, closely nineteenth century as being caught in a vicious
associated with British administration or circle of superstitions and obscurantism. In
British trade. The ideas and the work of their view idolatry and polytheism reinforced
the Christian missionaries had already orthodoxy impelling the people to follow
begun to have its impact. Bengal was them blindly. The social conditions were
the first province to be affected by the equally depressing. And the condition of
British influence and so it was here that women was deplorable. The practice of sati
several ideas of reform originated. British came in for particular condemnation. The
administration, English education, and division of society according to birth resulting
European literature brought to India a in the caste system was also criticized. Most
new wave of thoughts that challenged importantly, the British argued that without
traditional knowledge. Rationalism as their intervention there was no possibility
the basis for ethical thinking, the idea of deliverance from these evils for Indians.
of human progress and evolution, the Needless to say, this was a self-serving
concept of natural rights associated argument, articulated by missionaries and
with the Enlightenment, were the new Utilitarians to justify British rule.
ideas which led to what has been termed
as Indian Renaissance. The spread of Utilitarians: believers in the doctrine of
printing technology played a crucial role greatest happiness of the greatest number
in the diffusion of ideas.

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India was a much bigger, more philosophy. These reform movements can
complex and diverse country in the early be broadly classified into two categories:
nineteenth century. Conditions varied vastly 1. Reformist Movements
across it. The social and cultural evils had

been fought by Indian reformers through 2. Revivalist Movements

the ages. But the advent of the British with Both the movements depended in varying
their Enlightenment ideas undoubtedly degrees on an appeal to the lost purity
posed a new challenge. This chapter looks at of religion. The primary difference
how social reform movements emerged in between them lay in the degree to which
various parts of the country. they relied on tradition or on reason and
conscience. The social reform movements
The development of the Western
formed an integral part of the religious
culture and ideology forced the traditional
reforms primarily because all the efforts
institutions to revitalize themselves.
towards social ills like caste- and gender–
During the second half of the nineteenth
based inequality derived legitimacy
century, the expression of protest and
from religion. Initially, the social reform
desire for change were articulated
movement had a narrow social base –
through various reform movements.
they were limited to the upper and middle
These movements aimed at reforming and
strata of the society that tried to adjust
democratizing the social institutions and
their modernized views to the existing
religious outlook of the Indian people.
social reality. From then on, the social
The emergence of new economic forces,
reform movements began to percolate to
spread of education, growth of nationalist
the lower strata of society to reconstruct
sentiment, influence of modern Western
the social fabric. Heated debates among
thoughts, ideas and culture, and awareness
the intellectuals expressed in the form
of the changes taking place in Europe
of public arguments, tracts and journals
strengthened the resolve to reform.
played a big role in taking new ideas to
What gave these reform movements large sections of the people, as well as to
an ideological unity were rationalism, reformulate older ideas in a new form.
religious universalism and humanism.
At the start, organizations such as the
This perspective enabled them to adopt
Social Conference, Servants of India and the
a rational approach to tradition and
Christian missionaries were instrumental
evaluate the contemporary socio-religious
in giving an impetus to the social reform
practices from the standpoint of social
movements along with many enlightened
utility. For example, Raja Rammohun Roy
individuals about whom we dwell on in the
repudiated the infallibility of the Vedas
following pages. In later years, especially
and during the Aligarh Movement, Syed
by the twentieth century, the national
Ahmed Khan emphasized that religious
movement provided the leadership and
tenets were not immutable. As Keshab
organization for social reform.
Chandra Sen said, ‘Our position is not
that truths are to be in all religions, but
that all established religions of the World Brahmo Samaj (1828)
are true.’ Raja Rammohun Roy, was a man of versatile
These movements enveloping the genius. He established the Brahmo Samaj
entire cultural stream of Indian society in August, 1828. The Brahmo Samaj was
brought about significant practices in committed to “the worship and adoration
the realms of language, religion, art and of the eternal, unsearchable, immutable

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Being who is the Author and Preserver there was a steady decline but for the new
of the Universe”. His long term agenda lease life given to it by Devendranath
was to purify Hinduism and to preach Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore).
monotheism for which he drew authority After him the organization was taken
from the Vedas. He emphasized human forward by Keshab Chandra Sen from
dignity, opposed idolatry and social evils 1857. The strength of the organization is
such as sati. A retired servant of the East known from the number of branches it
India Company, he was conversant in many had in 1865, 54 Samajas (fifty in Bengal,
languages including Persian and Sanskrit. two in North West Province, one each
His ideas and activities were aimed at the in Punjab and Madras). In course of
political uplift of society through social time, the Brahmo Samaj broke into two
reform. He was a determined crusader namely Devendranath Tagore’s, ‘Brahmo
against the inhuman practice of Sati. Samaj of India’ and Keshub Chandra Sen’s
His tract written in 1818, A Conference ‘Sadharan Brahmo Samaj’.
Between an Advocate for and an Opponent In Tamilnadu, Kasi Viswanatha
of the Practice of Burning Widows, cited Mudaliar was an adherent of the Samaj
sacred texts to prove that no religion and he wrote a play titled Brahmo Samaja
sanctioned the burning alive of widows. Natakam to expound the ideas of the
His efforts fructified and the Company Samaj. He also wrote a tract in support
through an enactment of law (1829) of widow remarriage. In 1864, a Tamil
declared the practice of sati a crime. journal titled Tathuva Bodhini was started
The overall contribution of Brahmo for the cause of the Brahmo Samaja.
Samaj can be summed up as follows The Brahmo Samaj met with great
1. It
denounced polytheism, idol opposition from orthodox elements in
worship, and the faith in divine Bengal society such as the Hindu Dharma
avatars (incarnations) Sabha. However, there were also reformers
2. It condemned the caste system,

such as Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, who
dogmas and superstitions. advocated the same ideas but drew on
3. It wanted the abolition of child

Hindu scriptures as authority.
marriage, purdah system and the Even though the Brahmo Samaj
practice of sati did not win many adherents, it had a big
4. It supported widow remarriage
impact on the intellectuals. In the early
stages, many young men seized of the
radical ideas avidly propagated them.
Tagore’s family was a Brahmo family and
its influence can be seen in his writings
and ideas.

The Prarthana Samaj (1867)

An off-shoot of the Brahmo Samaj, the
Prarthana Samaj, was founded in 1867 in
Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang (1823–
Raja Rammohun Roy
98). The Prarthana Samaj as an organization
Inspired by the ideals of the French never had any great influence but its
Revolution, Rammohun Roy left for members, like M. G. Ranade (1852-1901),
Europe and died in Bristol. After his death R. G. Bhandarkar, and K.T. Telang, were
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among the great leaders of nineteenth- years he wandered around India. In 1863
century Maharashtra and they became the he became a wandering preacher, and five
founders of the social reform movement in years later he added the establishment of
later years. schools to his activities. In 1872 he met the
Prarthana Samaj was similar to Brahmos in Calcutta. In 1875 he founded
Brahmo Samaj, but it was consciously the Arya Samaj and published his major
linked with the bhakti tradition of the work the Satyarth Prakash. In his view,
Maharashtrian saints. The Prarathana contemporary Hinduism had become
Samaj continued its work mainly through degenerate. Therefore he rejected puranas,
educational work directed at women and polytheism, idolatry, the role of Brahmin
workers at the lower level. It concentrated priests, pilgrimages, many rituals and the
on social reforms like inter-dining, inter- prohibition on widow marriage. As a good
marriage, remarriage of widows, and Sanskrit scholar, he made a call to“Back to
uplift of women and depressed classes. the Vedas”. He wanted to shape society on
the basis of the Vedas. He disregarded the
The National Social Conference puranas. Like the other social reformers,
organized at the initiative of M.G. Ranade he encouraged female education and
met each year immediately after the Indian remarriage of widows.
National Congress (1885) annual sessions.
Justice Ranade was an erudite scholar Swami Dayananda’s sphere of
with a keen intellect and under his able influence was largely in the Punjab region
guidance the Prarthana Samaj became the where the trading community of Khatris
active centre of a new social reformation in experienced great mobility in colonial
western India. He was one of the founders times. However, in the Punjab region,
of the Widow Marriage Association and was there was much communal conflict among
an ardent promoter of the famous Deccan Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. Dayananda’s
Education Society. Its object was to impart Shuddi (purification) movement i.e.,
such education to the young as would fit conversion of non-Hindus to Hindus was
them for the unselfish service of the country. controversial and provoked controversies
When Ranade died in 1901, his leadership especially with the Ahmadiya movement.
was taken over by Chandavarkar. Arya Samaj is considered to be
a revivalist movement. Dayananda’s
Arya Samaj (1875) influence continued into the twentieth
century through the establishment of
Dayananad Anglo Vedic (DAV) schools
and colleges.

Ramakrishna Mission (1897)

As we saw above, the early reform
movements in Bengal were radical,
questioning and criticising tradition very
strongly. In response to this emerged the
Dayananda Saraswati
Ramakrishna Mission as an important
The founder of the Arya Samaj was religious movement. Ramakrishna
Dayananda Saraswati (1824–83). Paramahamsa (1836–1886), a poor priest
Dayananda, a Gujarati, left home in his in a temple at Dakshineswar near Kolkata,
youth to become an ascetic. For seventeen had no formal education but led an
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intense spiritual life. He had a deep faith country, many of whom also joined the
in the inherent truth of all religions and national movement. He attended in 1893
tested its belief by performing religious the famous, ‘Parliament of Religions’ at
service in accordance with the practices Chicago, and made a deep impact on those
of different religions. According to him congregated there. The Mission opened
‘all the religious views are but different schools, dispensaries and orphanages and
ways to lead to the same goal.’ In a helped people during their time of distress
backlash, the later generation of Western caused by calamities.
educated intellectuals were drawn to
Ramakrishna’s broad view, mysticism and Theosophical Society (1886)
spiritual fervour. He expounded his views
in short stories and admirable parables Even as Indian intellectuals felt challenged
which were compiled by an admirer as by western Enlightenment and rationalistic
Ramakrishna Kathamrita (The Gospel of movements, there was a strain of thinking
Sri Ramakrishna). in the West which looked to the East for
spiritual salvation. From this idea emerged
the Theosophical Society, founded by
Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S.
Olcott in the United States of America
in 1875. They came to India in 1879 and
established their headquarters at Adyar in
1886. Under the leadership of Annie Besant,
who came to India in 1893, the Theosophical
Ramakrishna Swami Vivekananda Society gathered strength and won many
Paramahamsa

adherents. The Theosophical Society

The most famous among his started associations across south India.
disciples was a young graduate of the Though involved in many controversies,
Calcutta University named Narendranath the Society played an important role in the
Dutta, afterwards famously called Swami revival of Buddhism in India. Iyotheethoss
Vivekananda(1863–1902). Emphasising Pandithar, the radical Dalit thinker, was
practical work over philosophizing he introduced to modern Buddhism through
established the modern institution of his interaction with Colonel Olcott who
the Ramakrishna Mission. He carried took him to Sri Lanka. There he met many
Ramakrishna’s message all over India Buddhist monks including the renowned
and the world. His learning, eloquence, revivalist Anagarika Dharmapala and
spiritual fervour and personality gathered Acharya Sumangala.
round him a band of followers across the
19.2 Satya Shodhak Samaj
 

Swami Vivekananda was a personification (1873)

of youth and boldness and referred to as the
Morning Star of the Modern India. In the
words of Valentine Chirol, ‘the first Hindu
whose personality won demonstrative
recognition abroad for India’s ancient
civilization and for her newborn claim to
nationhood.’

Jyotiba Phule Savitri Phule

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While the movements discussed above Phule also tried to translate his
were largely focussed on upper castes there ideas into actual struggles. He urged the
were some exceptional movements which British Government to impart compulsory
mobilized lower castes and articulated their primary education to the masses through
perspective. The most important among teachers drawn from the cultivating classes.
them was Jyotiba Phule, who belonged to the He started a school for girls in Poona in
Mali (gardener) community. Born in 1827, 1851 and one for depressed classes with the
he received initial education in a mission assistance of his wife Savitri. He also started
school but had to discontinue it in 1833. schools for the "untouchables" and founded
Jyotiba Phule waged a life-long struggle a home for widow’s children.
against upper caste tyranny. In his quest for In his work we find the beginnings
the truth, Phule read the Vedas, the Manu of the later day non-Brahman movement
Samhita, the Puranas, and the thought of of Maharashtra.
Buddha, Mahavira and the medieval Bhakti
saints extensively. He also acquainted himself
Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922)
with Western thought, and Christian and
Islamic religions. Phule judged the whole
culture and tradition through the spirit of
rationality and equality. While the principle
of equality called for a total rejection of
caste system, authoritarian family structure
and subordination of women, the principle
of rationality demanded the removal of
superstitions and ritualism.
Phule held radical views on social,
religious, political and economic issues. He Pandita Ramabai
considered the caste system as an antithesis Pandita Ramabai was foremost among
of the principle of human equality. He sought the Indian leaders who worked for the
to raise the morale of the non-Brahmins and emancipation of women. She came from a
united them to revolt against the centuries learned family and was a great scholar of
old inequality and social degradation. Sanskrit and addressed many learned groups
Towards this end Phule founded the Satya in different parts of the country. She was
Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking Truth) in given the title of “Pandita” and “Saraswati”
1875. His most important book is Gulamgiri for her deep knowledge of Sanskrit. After
(Slavery). the death of her parents she and her brother
Phule looked upon education of the travelled to different parts of the country.
masses as a liberating and revolutionary They went to Calcutta in 1878. Two years
factor. later her brother also died. A little later in
Since women and deprived and 1880 she married a Bengali belonging to a
downtrodden were the worst sufferers in family of lower social status. Thus, even at
the society, Phule argued that women’s that time she was bold enough to marry
liberation was linked with the liberation of a man of a different caste and different
other classes in society. Equality between language. After the death of her husband
classes as also between men and women two years later she returned to Poona and
was stressed by Phule. During marriages started the Arya Mahila Samaj with the help
he asked the bridegroom to promise the of leaders like Ranade and Bhandarkar. 300
right of education to his bride. women were educated in the Samaj in 1882.
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Ramabai started the Sharada Sadan streets of Vaikom made a deep impact on
(shelter for homeless) for the destitute subsequent temple entry movements.
widows with the help of Ranade and
Bhandarkar. But soon she was accused of
converting Hindu women to Christianity 19.3 Islamic Reform
 

and hence had to shift her activities to Movements

Khedgoan near Poona. She established a The Revolt of 1857 and its brutal suppression
Mukti Sadan (freedom house) there. Soon by the British had an adverse impact on
there were 2000 children and women in the Muslims of South Asia. While they
the house. Vocational training was given were viewed with suspicion by the British
make them self-reliant. for the 1857 insurgency, the Muslims
themselves withdrew into a shell and did
Sri Narayana Guru not use the opportunities opened up by
This movement emerged in Kerala and colonial modernity. Consequently, they
was born out of conflict between the lagged behind in education and attendant
depressed classes and the upper castes. It employment opportunities. In this context,
was started by Sri Narayana Guru (1854- a few decades later some reform movements
1928) spearheading a social movement emerged among the Muslims.
of the Ezhavas of Kerala, a community of
toddy tappers. The Ezhavas were the single Aligarh Movement (1875)
largest group in Kerala constituting 26% of
population. A great scholar in Malayalam,
Tamil and Sanskrit, Sri Narayana Guru
established the Sri Narayana Guru Dharma
Paripalana (SNDP) Yogam in 1902. The
SNDP Yogam took up several issues such
as (i) right of admission to public schools.
(ii) recruitment to government services.
(iii) access to roads and entry to temples; and
(iv) political representation. The movement
as a whole brought transformative Syed Ahmad Khan
structural changes such as upward social
mobility, shift in traditional distribution Aligarh Movement was started by Syed
of power and a federation of ‘backward Ahmad Khan in 1875. He wanted to
classes’ into a large conglomeration. As a reconcile Western scientific education
response to the prohibition on Ezhavas into with the teachings of the Quran. The
temples, Sri Narayana Guru established new Aligarh movement aimed at spreading (i)
temples, and empowered the community to Modern education among Indian Muslims
modernize itself. Great personalities such without weakening their allegiance to
as the poet Kumaran Asan Dr. Palpu and Islam, and (ii) Social reforms among
Sahodaran Ayyappan emerged from the Muslims relating to purdah, polygamy,
movement, and made a lasting impact in and divorce.
the democratization of Kerala Society. Even Syed’s progressive social ideas were
though the Guru himself was not directly propagated through his magazine Tahdhib-
involved in the movement, the Vaikom ul-Akhluq (Improvement of Manners and
Satyagraha, organized to protest against the Morals). Syed Ahmad Khan’s educational
ban on the entry of Ezhavas on the temple programme emphasized from the outset
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the advantages of the use of English as primary work was to defend Islam against
the medium of instruction. In 1864 he the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the
founded a Scientific Society of Aligarh Christian missionaries. In social morals the
for the introduction of Western sciences Ahmadiya movement was conservative,
through translations into Urdu of works on adhering to polygamy, veiling of women,
physical sciences. The same year he founded and the classical rules of divorce.
a modern school at Ghazipur. In 1868
he promoted the formation of education The Deoband Movement (1866)
committees in several districts, to initiate
The Deoband movement was organised by
modern education among the Muslims.
the orthodox section among the Muslim
During his visit to Europe in ulemas as a revivalist movement with the
1869–70 he developed the plans of his twin objective of propagating the pure
life-work, a major educational institution teachings of the Quran and Hadis among
for Indian Muslims. In order to promote Muslims. The movement was established
English education among the Muslims, in Deoband in Saranpur district (by
he founded in 1875 a modern school at Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1833-1877)
Aligarh, which soon developed into the and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828–1905)
Muhammdan Anglo–Oriental College to train religious leaders for the Muslim
(1877). This college was to become the community. In contrast to the Aligarh
Muslim University after his death. It Movement, which aimed at the welfare of
became the nursery of Muslim political Muslims through Western education and
and intellectual leaders. support of the British Government, the aim
In 1886 Syed Ahmad Khan founded of the Deoband Movement was religious
the Muhammedan Anglo Oriental regeneration of the Muslim community. The
Educational Conference as a general instruction imparted at Deoband adhered
forum for spreading liberal ideas among to classical Islamic tradition.
the Indian Muslims. He rejected blind The seminary at Deoband was
adherence to religious law and asked for a founded in 1867 by theologians of the
reinterpretation of the Quran in the light School of Wali-Allah. Muhammad Qasim
of reason to suit the new trends of the Nanotavi took a prominent part in counter-
time. He attempted to liberalize Indian polemics against the Christian missionaries
Islam and made it amenable to new ideas and the Arya Samajists. The principal
and new interpretations. In this mission objectives of the seminary at Deoband
he had to face the brunt of vehement were to re-establish contact between the
attacks of orthodox theologians. theologians and the educated Muslim
middle classes, and to revive the study of
Ahmadiya Movement (1889) Muslim religious and scholastic sciences. As
a religious university Deoband soon became
The Ahmadiya movement founded by an honoured institution, not only in Muslim
Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835–1908) in India but also in the world of Islam at large.
1889 established a different trend. While
emphasizing the return to the original
Nadwat al-‘ulama
principles enunciated in the Quran,
Ghulam Ahmed became controversial A school less conservative than Deoband
when he claimed to be a Messiah, which and more responsive to the demands
was considered heretical by mainstream of the modern age was the Nadwat al-
Islam. But he won many converts. His ‘ulama,’ founded in 1894 at Lucknow by the
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historian Shibli Nu‘mani and other scholars. 19.5 Sikh Reform

 

The school aimed to offer an enlightened Movement

interpretation of religion in order to fight
the trends of agnosticism and atheism which The Sikh community could not remain
had followed the advent of modern Western untouched by the rising tide of rationalist
education. and progressive ideas of the nineteenth
century. The Singh Sabha Movement was
Farangi Mahal formed in 1873, with a two-fold objective (i)
to make available modern western education
The third famous traditional school is
to the Silkhs (ii) to counter the proselytizing
the much older one at Farangi Mahal in
activities of Christian missionaries as well
Lucknow. Farangi Mahal accepted Sufism
as Hindu revivalists. A network of Khalsa
as a valid experience and a valid field of
Schools was established throughout Punjab.
study. Another traditionalist movement
The Akali movement was an offshoot of
was the ahl-i-hadith or of the followers of
the Singh Sabha Movement. The Akali
the dicta of the Prophet.
movement aimed at liberating the Sikh
Gurudwara from the corrupt control of the
19.4 Parsi Reform
 

Udasi Mahants (priests). The Government

Movements passed the Sikh Gurudwara Act in 1922
Zoroastrians, persecuted in their Persian (amended in 1925), which gave control
homeland, migrated in large numbers to to Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak
the west coast of India in the tenth century. Committee (SGPC) as the main body.
As a trading community they flourished
over the centuries. A close-knit community 19.6 Reform Movements in
 

it too was not left untouched by the reform Tamilnadu

movements of the nineteenth century.
As we saw earlier, the reform movements
The Rahnumai Madayasnan Sabha
of the north India had its own impact
(Religious Reform Association) was
on Tamilnadu. Brahmo Samaj and Arya
founded in 1851 by a group of English
Samaj had their branches. Keshab Chandra
educated Parsis for the “regeneration of
Sen visited Madras and lectured here.
the social conditions of the Parsis and the
But Tamilnadu also saw its own reform
restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its
movements.
pristine purity”. The movement had Naoroji
Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.  R.  Cama Vaikunda Swamigal (1809-1851)
and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders. The message
of reform was spread by the newspaper
Rast-Goftar (Truth Teller). Parsi religious
rituals and practices were reformed and
the Parsi creed redefined. In the social
sphere, attempts were made to uplift the
status of Parsi women through education,
removal of the purdah, raising the age of
marriage and the like. Gradually, the Parsis
emerged as the most westernised section of
the Indian society. They played a key role
in the nationalist movement and in the
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The Sri Vaikunda Swamigal’s cult, which  Tangals, caste-based restrictions were
survives to this day, was organized in broken down.  The Vaikunda Swamy cult
the 1830s. Born in a poor family (1809) posed a serious challenge to the spread
at Sastankoil Vilai (now known as of Christianity in south Travancore even
Swamithoppu), a village then in south after his death in 1851.
Travancore (the present day Kanyakumari
district), Muthukutti, spent his childhood Vallalar Ramalinga Swamigal
in the village pial school, learning religious (1823–1874)
and moral texts. He also learnt the Bible and
became well-versed in Christian theology.
At the age of twenty two, Muthukutti, cured
of a skin disease, after a holy bath in the
sea during his visit to the Murugan temple
at Tiruchendur (Thoothukudi district),
claimed that Lord Vishnu had given him
a rebirth as his son. On his return from
Tiruchendur, assuming the new name of Sri
Vaikundar, he practised austerities for two
years. Soon his fame spread far and wide.
Ramalinga Adigal
In his preaching Vaikundar
attacked the traditional caste-ridden Ramalinga Swamigal was born in a modest
Travancore society and its ruler for family near Chidambaram and spent his
collecting excessive taxes from the lower early life in Madras. He never had formal
caste people. He was arrested and jailed by schooling, but exhibited great scholarship.
the Raja of Travancore for his “seditious Inspired by the Saiva Thevaram and
speeches”. When he was released from jail Thiruvasagam hymns, he began to compose
(1838) he became more popular among moving poems on his own. In his time, Saiva
the people. His followers called him Aiya religion was in the grip of Saiva monasteries
(father) and his cult came to be known such as those at Thiruvaduthurai,
as Aiya Vazhi (path of the father). His Dharumapuram and Thiruppanandal.
teachings were compiled as a text called Ramalinga Swamigal’s poems expressed
Akila Thirattu which is recited religiously radical ideas and condemned bigotry and
to this day. irrationality. He underwent certain mystical
experiences which he expressed in his poems.
Vaikunda Swamy instructed his This was resented by the orthodox elements
followers to give up worship of pudams. in Saiva religion. He established the Sathya
He also exhorted them not to offer animal Dharma Salai at Vadalur where he began to
sacrifices to their deities.  He advocated feed poor people, especially in the context of
vegetarianism. the 1860s famine and pestilence, irrespective
As a symbol of protest,  Vaikunda of caste and creed. He founded the Sathya
Swamy urged his followers to wear a turban, Gnana Sabhai to organize his followers. This
a right which was permitted only to upper brought him into conflict with established
castes in those days. As a part of his effort Saivite orders, and matters came to a head
to practice equality, Vaikunda Swamy when his followers published his poems
regularly organized inter-dining through under the title of Thiruvarutpa (Songs of
his Samathuva Sangam, among different Grace) in 1867. Orthodox Saivites under
castes.  In his feeding centres called  Nilal the Sri Lankan reformer Arumuga Navalar

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criticized this as blasphemous and launched Kolar Gold Fields. In this movement, M.
a tract war. But ultimately, Ramalinga Singavelu and Prof P. Lakshmi Narasu also
Swamigal’s contribution was recognized and played an important role. Pandithar ran a
his writings inspired universal ideas, and weekly journal called Oru Paisa Tamilan
undermined sectarianism in Saiva religion. (later Tamilan) from 1908 until his death.

Buddhist Revivalism and

19.7 Christian Missionaries
Iyotheethoss Pandithar
 

(1845-1914) The official religious policy of the East

India Company was one of neutrality
towards the native religions. Their reason
for continuing this policy was the belief
that the earlier Portuguese rule had come
to an end because of their attempts to
forcibly convert people to Christianity.
As a result of this concern, the Company
government prohibited the entry of
missionaries into the territories under
their control.
Iyotheethoss Pandithar
In 1793 two English missionaries,
As we saw in an earlier lesson, Buddhism William Carey and John Thomas, both
had been practically wiped out in the Baptists, set out to India with the intention
Tamil country by the beginning of the of starting a mission. In view of the ban
second millennium. Towards the end of on missionary activity they settled down
the nineteenth century, there was a revival in the Danish Colony of Serampore, north
of Buddhism. The publication of the of Calcutta. Carey, along with two other
complete edition of Jeevaka Chintamani missionaries, Joshua Marshman and
(1887) and Manimekalai (1898) were William Ward established the Serampore
landmarks in the recovery of heterodox Mission in 1799. 
traditions. The Serampore missionaries were
But the most important figure the first evangelical Baptist missionaries
was Iyotheethoss Pandithar (1845– in India. They were followed later by other
1914). A native doctor by profession, missionary groups belonging to different
he was an erudite scholar. He also came Protestant denominations. Before the
under the influence of Colonel Olcott arrival of the Serampore missionaries,
of the Theosophical Society. In the several centuries earlier, there were
1890s he began a movement among the Christian missions in the Portuguese
Adi Dravidars arguing that they were territory of Goa, and also on the Malabar
the original Buddhists who had been Coast and the Coromandel Coast. The
consigned to ‘untouchability’ due to their work of the earlier missionaries was limited
opposition to Vedic Brahminism. He re- both geographically and in terms of the
read classical Tamil and other texts to number of conversions to Christianity.
make his case. He also encouraged the Thus major attempts at proselytization
conversion to Buddhism. He found the began during the nineteenth century.
greatest following in north Tamilnadu The missionaries organised
and among the working classes of the schools for the socially and economically

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deprived and pleaded for their economic Christian missionaries. It must be noted that
improvement through employment in the the Christian Missionaries took the intiative
state service. They also fought for their of establishing Hospitals and Dispensaries.
‘civil rights’ that included access to public
roads, and permission for the women of
these groups to wear upper garments. 19.8  Significance of the


The missionaries gave shelter to Reform Movements

orphaned children and other destitute The orthodox sections of the society could
widows in their missions and provided not accept the scientific and ideological
education for them in their boarding onslaught of the socio-religious reformers.
schools. Particularly after the famines As a result of this, the reformers were
which were quite common during subjected to abuse, persecution, issuing
the nineteenth century, about which of fatwas and even assassination attempts
we discussed in the previous lesson, by the reactionaries. However, in
the missionaries organized relief. spite of opposition, these movements
Providing shelter and succour gave contributed towards liberation of the
these an opportunity to convert people individual from the conformity born out
to Christianity. In Tirunelveli district of fear. The translation of religious texts
many villages took to Christianity into vernacular languages, emphasis
during famines, especially in the last on an individual’s right to interpret the
quarter of nineteenth century. The same scriptures, and simplification of rituals
phenomenon was witnessed in Andhra made worship a more personal experience.
where Malas and Madigas embraced The movements emphasised the human
Christianity in a big way. intellect’s capacity to reason and think. By
The Company government did little weeding out corrupt elements in religious
to provide modern education for the native practices, the reformers enabled their
population. For a long time, the provision followers to counter the official taunt that
of elementary school facilities to the native their religions and society were decadent
population, especially in the interiors for and inferior. It gave the rising middle
the disprivileged and the poor people, was classes the much needed cultural roots to
a responsibility willingly accepted by the cling to.

SUMMARY
„„The role played by Rammohun Roy, and Keshab Chandra Sen in Brahmo Samaj are
discussed
„„The contribution of Atmaram Pandurang, M.G. Ranade through Prarthana Samaj is
examined
„„Arya Samaj established by Dayananda Saraswati, and the Ramakrishna Mission founded
by Swami Vivekananda are dealt with.
„„Aligarh, Ahmadiya, and Deoband movements for reforming Islamic community are
explained
„„Parsi, Sikh reform movements as well as the work of Theosophical society are described.
„„The social reform movements represented by Jyotiba Phule, Pandita Ramabai and
Narayana Guru and by Ramalinga Adigal, Vaikunda Swamy and Iyotheethoss Pandithar
in Tamilnadu are highlighted
„„Services rendered by Christian missionaries are analysed.

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EXERCISE
I. Choose the correct answer

1. ____________ was the first province, where several ideas of reforms originated.

a) Punjab b) Bengal c) Bombay d) Madras

2. “The Father of Indian Renaissance” was ____________.

a) Swami Vivekananda b) Dayananda Saraswathi

c) Raja Rammohan Roy d) Atmaram Pandurang
3. The National Social Conference was organized at the initiative of ____________.

a) M. G. Ranade b) Devendranath Tagore

c) Keshab Chandra Sen d) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
4. “Back to the Vedas” was the motto of ____________.

a) Raja Rammohan Roy b) Dayananda Saraswathi

c) Vivekananda d) Ramakrishina Paramahamsa
5. ____________ expounded his views in short stories and admirable parables.

a) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa b) Devendranath Tagore

c) Vivekananda d) Jyotiba Phule
6. The Weekly Journal "Oru Paisa" Tamilan was run by ____________.

a) Swami Vivekananda b) Dayananda Saraswathi

c) Vaikunda Swamigal d) Iyotheethoss Pandithar
7. The Theosophical Society was founded in ____________.

a) India b) United States of America c) France d) England

8. ------------------- was the adherent of Brahmo Samaj in Tamilnadu.

a) Ramalinga Adigal b) Kasi Viswanatha Mudaliar

c) Iyotheethoss Pandithar d) Pandita Ramabai
9. Syed Ahmad Khan founded a ____________ for the introduction of Western Sciences.

a) Satya Shodak Samaj b) Singh Sabha Movement

c) Scientific Society d) Theosophical Society
10. The aim of the ____________ was the religious regeneration of the Muslim community.

a) Deoband Movement b) Ahmadiya Movement

c) Aligarh Movement d) Wahhabi Movement

II A. Find out the correct statement

 

(i) Dr. Atmaram Pandurang founded the Shuddi Movement.

 (ii) Samathuva Sangam was founded by Vaikunda Swamigal.
(iii) The founder of Ramakrishna Mission was Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
(iv) The Ahmadiyas have common mosque for prayer.
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B.
Assertion (A): Syed Ahmad Khan founded a modern school at Aligarh, which developed
into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College.
Reason (R): He wanted to promote English education among the Muslims.
(a) A is correct ; R is the correct explanation of A
(b) A is wrong ; R is correct
(c) Both A and R are wrong
(d) A is correct; R is not the correct explanation of A

III Match the following

1. English Missionaries - Morning Star

2. Parsi Newspaper - William Carvey and John Thomas
3. Deoband movement - Rast-Goftar
4. Vivekananda - Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi

a) 3, 2, 1, 4 b) 1, 2, 3, 4 c) 4, 1, 2, 3 d) 2, 1, 4, 3

IV Give your answers briefly

1. What are the contributions of Raja Rammohun Roy to social reform?

2. What role did Jyotiba Phule play for social justice ?

3. Why was the Shuddi Movement considered a revivalist movement ?

4. Describe the contribution of SNDP Yogam.

5. What do you know about Ramalinga Adigal?

V Write a short note on the following

1. M.G Ranade

2. Swami Vivekananda

3. Ahmadiya Movement

4. Singh Sabha Movement

5. Vaikunda Swamigal.

VI Answer in detail

1. Discuss the role played by Christian missionaries in India.

2. Highlight the Social Reform Movement in Tamilnadu.

VII Activities

1. Collect information on the current activities of the Theosophical Society at Adyar.

2. Prepare an account of the essence of Swami Vivekananda’s Chicago lecture.

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VIII Assignments

1. Make a visit to the institutions established by the Ramakrishna Mission and write a report

on its services
2. Prepare an album by collecting pictures of various social reformers and identify the

institutions they founded.

GLOSSARY

vicious circle continuing unpleasant situation த�ொடர் சிக்கல்

erudite scholarly புலமைமிக்க
decry denounce openly க ண ன குரல் எழுப்பு
்ட க்

iconoclast a critic of image worship உருவ வழிப ட ா ்டை எதி ர்ப்பவர்

skepticism disbelief ஐயம்; அவநம்பிக ்கை

agnosticism one who is indifferent to religion or க டவுள் பற்றி அக்க ற ைய ற்ற வர்
existence of god
polemics a strong verbal or written attack on எதி ர்வாத ம்
someone or something
fatwa a ruling by a recognized authority இஸ ்லா மிய சட த்தின்
்ட

according to Islamic law அடி ப்படை யில ன தீர்ப்பு

ா

REFERENCES
1. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, Stanford University Press, 1990

2. D.P. Chattopadhyaya, History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol.

III, Pearson Longman, 2008.

3. A.L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, OUP, 1975.

4. C.B. Firth, Church History in India, 1960.

5. Meghnad Desai, The Rediscovery of India, Allen Lane (Penguin), 2009.

6. Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar,  Women and Social Reform in Modern India:  A Reader,

Indiana University Press, 2008.

TIME LINE (AD/CE)

Serampore Mission 1799

Birth of Vaikunda Swamigal 1809
Birth of Ramalinga Swamigal 1823
Brahmo Samaj 1828
Birth of Iyotheethoss Pandithar 1845
Prarthana Samaj 1867
Arya Samaj 1875
Aligarh Movement 1875
Ramakrishna Mission 1897
Sikh Gurudwara Act 1922

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