The Constitution of India

Chapter IV A

Fundamental Duties
ARTICLE 51A
Fundamental Duties- It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-

(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,
the National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national
struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon
to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional
or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living
creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry
and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and
collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels
of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education
to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six
and fourteen years.
 The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from the educational year 2019-20.

Mathematics and Statistics

(Arts and Science)
Part - 2
STANDARD - XI

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 PREFACE

Dear Students,
Welcome to the eleventh standard!
You have successfully completed your secondary education and have entered the
higher secondary level. You will now need to learn certain mathematical concepts and acquire
some statistical skills to add more applicability to your work. Maharashtra State Bureau of
Textbook Production and Curriculum Research has modified and restructured the curriculum in
Mathematics in accordance with changing needs.
The curriculum of Mathematics is divided in two parts. Part 1 covers topics in Trignometry,
Algebra, Co-ordinate Geometry and Statistics. Part 2 covers Complex Numbers, Sets and
Relations, Calculus and Combinatorics. There is a special emphasis on applications. Activities
are added in chapters for creative thinking. Some material will be made available on E-balbharati
website (ebalbharati.in).It contains a list of specimen practical problems on each chapter. Students
should complete the practical exercises under the guidance of their teachers. Maintain a journal
and take teacher’s signature on every completed practical.
You are encouraged to use modern technology in your studies. Explore the Internet for
more recent information on topics in the curriculum. Get more examples and practice problems
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On the title page Q.R. code is given. It will help you to get more knowledge and clarity
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This textbook is prepared by Mathematics Subject Commitee and members of study
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The Bureau hopes that the textbook will be received well by all stakeholders in the right
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You are now ready to study. Best wishes for a happy learning experience.

Pune
Date : 20 June 2019 (Dr. Sunil Magar)
Indian Solar Date : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Director
Maharashtra State Bureau ofTextbook
Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.
 Mathematics and Statistics Std XI (Part II)
Arts and Science
Sr.
Area Topic Competency Statement
No

The students will be able to -

• understand set of complex numbers and
different ways of expressing complex
Complex Complex numbers.
1
Numbers Numbers • perform algebraic operations on complex
numbers.
• simplify algebraic expressions involving
complex numbers.

Sequences • Revise AP, learn GP and HP.

Sequences and
2 • Find the general term and the sum of the first n
Series and Series terms of these sequences.

• count the number of arrangements of given

Permutations
Permutations, objects satisfying specific conditions.
3 and
Combinations • count the number of possible selections of
combinations
objects with certain conditions.

Method of • understand the method of induction and apply

Method of Induction it to verify mathematical statements.
Induction and
4
Binomial • expand binomial expressions and find its
theorem Binomial general term.
Theorem • simplify the binomial expression for negative
index or fractional power.

• work with sets and operations on sets.

• construct sets from given conditions.
5 Sets
• solve problems on applications of set
Sets and theory.
Relations
• identify the types of relations.
Relations
• study equivalence relations.
 • work with function defined on different
domains.
6 Functions Functions
• identify different types of functions.
• carry out algebraic operations on functions.

• understand the concept of limit of a function.

7 Limits Limits
• determine the limits of functions if they exist.

• Define and study the continuity of a function

8 Continuity Continuity
at a point and in an interval.

• understand and study the differentiability of a

function.
9 Differentiation Differentiation
• understand and study differentiation of various
functions.
 INDEX

Sr. No. Chapter Page No.

1 Complex Numbers 1

2 Sequences and Series 23

3 Permutations and Combination 43

4 Methods of Induction and Binomial Theorem 69

5 Sets and Relations 87

6 Functions 106

7 Limits 133

8 Continuity 160

9 Differentiation 179

Answers 196

 1 COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.1 A Complex number :

Let's Study
1.1(a) Imaginary Number :
• A complex number (C.N.)
A number of the form bi, where b∈ R, b ≠ 0,
• Algebra of C.N.
i= −1 is called an imaginary number.
• Geometrical Representation of C.N.
2
• Polar & Exponential form of C.N. Ex : −25 = 5i, 2i, i, − 11i etc.
7
• De Moivre's Theorem. Note:
The number i satisfies following properties,
Let's Recall i) i×0=0
ii) If a∈R, then −a 2 =
2 2

• Algebra of real numbers.

iii) If a, b∈R, and ai = bi then a = b
• Solution of linear and quadratic equations
• Representation of a real number on the number 1.1 (b) Complex Number :
line Definition : A number of the form a+ib, where
• Representation of point in a plane a, b∈ R and i = −1 with i2 = −1 is called a
• Trigonometric ratios complex number and is usually denoted by z.

That is z = a+ib, a, b∈R and i = −1

Introduction:
Here 'a' is called the real part of z and is denoted
Consider, the equation x2 + 1 = 0. This
by Re(z) or R(z). 'b' is called imaginary part of z
equation has no solution in the set of real numbers
and is denoted by Im(z) or I(z)
because there is no real number whose square is
−1. We need to extend the set of real numbers to a The set of complex numbers is denoted by C
larger set, which would include solutions of such ∴ C = {a+ib / a, b∈ R, and i = −1 }
equations.
Ex :
We introduce a symbol i (greek letter iota)
z a+ib Re(z) Im(z)
such that i = −1 and i = −1. i is called as an
2
2+4i 2+4i 2 4
imaginary unit or an imaginary number. 5i 0+5i 0 5
Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler 3−4i 3−4i 3 −4
(1707-1783) was the first mathematician to 5+ −16 5+4i 5 4
introduce the symbol i with i = −1 and i2 = −1. 2+ 5 i 2+ 5 i 2 5
7+ 3 (7+ 3 )+0i (7+ 3 ) 0

1
Note : 1.2.2 Conjugate of a Complex Number:
1) A complex number whose real part is zero Definition : The conjugate of a complex
is called a purely imaginary number. Such a number z = a + ib is defined as a − ib and is
number is of the form z = 0 + ib = ib denoted by z
2) A complex number whose imaginary part is Ex : 1)
zero is a real number.
z z
z = a + 0i = a, is a real number.
3 + 4i 3 − 4i
3) A complex number whose both real and 7i −2 −7i −2
imaginary parts are zero is the zero complex 3 3
number. 0 = 0 + 0i 5i −5i
4) The set R of real numbers is a subset of the 2+ 3 2+ 3
set C of complex numbers.
7+ 5i 7− 5i
5) The real part and imaginary part cannot be
2) Properties of z
combined to form single term. e.g. 2 + 3i ≠ 5i
1) ( z ) = z
1.2 Algebra of Complex Numbers : 2) If z = z , then z is purely real.
1.2.1 Equality of two Complex Numbers : 3) If z = −z , then z is purely imaginary.

Definition : Two complex numbers z1 = a+ib Now we define the four fundamental
and z2 = c + id are said to be equal if their operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division of complex numbers.
corresponding real and imaginary parts are
equal. 1.2.3 Addition of complex numbers :
i.e. a + ib = c + id if and only if a = c and b = d Let z1 = a+ib and z2 = c+id

Ex. : i) If x + iy = 4 + 3i then x = 4 and y = 3 then z1+ z2 = (a+ib) + (c+id)

= (a+c) + (b+d) i
Ex. : ii) If 7a + i (3a − b) = 21 − 3i then find a
and b. In other words, Re(z1+ z2) = Re(z1) + Re(z2)
and Im(z1+ z2) = Im(z1) + Im(z2)
Solution : 7a + (3a − b) i = 21 − 3i
By equality of complex numbers Ex. 1) (2 + 3i) + (4 + 3i) = (2+4) + (3+3)i

7a = 21 ∴a=3 = 6 + 6i
and 3a − b = −3 ∴ 3(3) + 3 = b 2) (−2 + 5i) + (7 + 3i) + (6 − 4i)
∴ 12 = b = [(−2) +7+6] + [5 + 3 + (− 4)]i

Note : The order relation (inequality) of complex = 11 + 4i

number can not be defined. Hence, there does not Properties of addition : If z1, z2, z3 are complex
exist a smaller or greater complex number than numbers then
given complex number. We cannot say i < 4. i) z1+ z2 = z2+ z1 (commutative)

ii) z1 + (z2+ z3) = (z1+ z2) + z3 (associative)
2
 iii) z1 + 0 = 0 + z1 = z1 (identity) Properties of Subtraction :
iv) z + z = 2Re(z) (Verify) 1) z − z = 2 Im(z) (Verify)
v) (z1+ z2) = z1 + z2 1) (z1− z2) = z1 − z2

1.2.4 Scalar Multiplication :

1.2.6 Multiplication of complex numbers:
If z = a+ib is any complex number, then for
Let z1 = a+ib and z2 = c+id. We denote
every real number k, define kz = ka + i (kb)
multiplication of z1 and z2 as z1.z2 and is given by
Ex. 1) If z = 7 + 3i then
5z = 5(7 + 3i) = 35 + 15i z1.z2 = (a+ib)(c+id) = a(c+id)+ib(c+id)
2) z1 = 3 − 4i and z2 = 10 − 9i then = ac + adi + bci + i2bd
2z1 + 5z2 = 2(3 − 4i) + 5(10 − 9i) = ac + (ad+bc)i − bd (∵ i2 = −1)
= 6 − 8i + 50 − 45i z1.z2 = (ac−bd) + (ad+bc)i
= 56 − 53i
Note: 1) 0.z = 0(a + ib) = 0 + 0i = 0 Ex. 1) z1 = 2+3i, z2 = 3−2i
∴ z1.z2 = (2+3i)(3−2i) = 2(3−2i) + 3i(3−2i)
1.2.5 Subtraction of complex numbers : = 6 − 4i + 9i − 6i2
Let z1 = a+ib, z2 = c+id then define = 6 − 4i + 9i + 6 (∵ i2 = −1)
z1− z2 = z1+ (−1)z2 = (a+ib) + (−1)(c+id) =
12 + 5i
= (a+ib) + (−c − id) Ex. 2) z1 = 2−7i, z2 = 4−3i, z3 = 1+i then
= (a−c) + i (b−d) (2 z1) . (z2) . (z3) = 2(2−7i) . (4−3i) . (1+i)
Hence, Re(z1− z2) = Re(z1) − Re(z2) = (4−14i) . [4+4i−3i−3i2]
Im(z1− z2) = Im(z1) − Im(z2) = (4−14i) . [7+i]

Ex. 1) z1 = 4+3i, z2 = 2+i = 28 + 4i−98i−14i2

∴ z1− z2 = (4+3i) − (2+i)

= 42−94i

= (4−2) + (3−1) i
Properties of Multiplication :
= 2 + 2i
i) z1.z2 = z2.z1 (commutative)
2) z1 = 7+i, z2 = 4i, z3 = −3+2i
ii) (z1.z2).z3 = z1.(z2..z3) (associative)
then 2z1 − (5z2 + 2z3)
iii) (z1.1) = 1.z1 = z1 (identity)
= 2(7+i) − [5(4i) + 2(−3+2i)]
= 14 + 2i − [20i − 6 + 4i] iv) (z1.z2) = z1 . z2 (Verify)

= 14 + 2i − [− 6 + 24i] v) If z = a+ib, z.z = a2 + b2

= 14 + 2i + 6 − 24i
= 20 − 22i

3
1.2.7. Powers of i : We have −1 = i, i2 = −1, 1.2.8 Division of complex number :
i3 = −i, i4 = 1. Let us consider in, where n is a Let z1 = a+ib and z2 = c+id be any two
positive integer and n > 4. complex numbers such that z2 ≠ 0
We divide n by 4 and obtain the remainder 'r'. Now,
Let m be the quotient. z1 a+ib
z2 = c+id where z2 ≠ 0 i.e. c+id ≠ 0
Then, n = 4m + r, where 0 ≤ r < 4
∴ in = i4m + r = i4m. ir = (i4)m. ir = 1.ir = ir Multiply and divide by conjugate of z2.
z1 a+ib c−id
Similarly, ∴ = ×
z2 c+id c−id
1
i4m = 1 = 4m = i−4m (a + ib) (c − id)
i =
(c + id) (c − id)
i2 = −1, i3 = i × i2 = −i
(ac+bd)+(bc − ad)i
=
1 i i c 2 +d 2
i−1 = = 2 = = −i
i i −1 ac+bd bc ad
The above equations help us to find ik for any = i
c 2 +d 2 c 2 +d 2
integer k.
 ac+bd  bc ad
Where  2 2   R and 2 2 R
 c +d  c +d

Illustration : If z1 = 3+2i, & z2 = 1+i,

z1 3+2i
then z = 1+i
2

By multiplying numerator and denominator with

z2=1−i
z1 3+2i 1−i
z = 1+i × 1−i
Fig. 1.1 2

3−3i+2i−2i2
e.g. (i) i50 = (i4)12. i2 = i2 = −1 = 1+1
(ii) i318 = (i4)79. i2 = −1 5−i
= 2
(iii) i999 = (i4)249+3 = (i4)249 . i3 = −i z1 5 1
∴ z = 2 − i
Remark : In general, 2 2
i4n = 1, i4n+1 = i, Properties of Division :
i4n+2 = −1, i4n+3 = −i where n ∈ Z 1 1 i i
1) = i × = −1 = −i
i i
1 a−ib
2) = 2 2
a+ib a +b

4
 Ex. 4 : If x + 2i + 15i6y = 7x + i3 (y+4)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
find x + y, given that x, y ∈ R.

Ex. 1 : Write (1+2i) (1+3i) (2+i)−1 in the form Solution :

a+ib x + 2i + 15i6y = 7x + i3 (y+4)
∴ x + 2i − 15y = 7x − (y+4) i
Solution :
(1+2i)(1+3i) (∵ i6 = −1, i3 = −i)
(1+2i) (1+3i) (2+i)−1 =
2+i
∴ x − 15y + 2i = 7x − (y+4) i
1+3i+2i+6i 2 −5+5i 2−i
= = 2+i × Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
2+i 2−i
−10+5i+10i−5i2 −5+15i x − 15y = 7x and 2 = −(y+4)
= = 4+1 (∴ i2 = −1)
4−i2 ∴ −6x − 15y = 0 .... (i) y+6 = 0 ....(ii)
−5+15i ∴ y = −6, x = 15 [Solving (i) and (ii)]
= = −1 + 3i
5
∴ x + y = 15 − 6 = 9
1 2 3 5
Ex. 2 : (Activity) Express + i2 + 3 + i4
i i 3
in the form of (a + ib).  3 i
Ex. 5 : Show that  +  = i.
Solution : i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1  2 2
1 1 1 1 Solution :
= , i2 = , 3 = , i4 =
i i
3 3
 3 i   3 +i 
1 2 3 5 L.H.S. =  +  =  
∴
i
+ i2 + 3 + i4
i  2 2  2 

( 3) ( 3) i + 3
3 2
= 1( )+2( )+3( )+5( ) +3 3i 2 + (i )3
= +i =
( 2) 3
∴ a = , b=
3 3 + 9i − 3 3 − i
=
Ex. 3 : If a and b are real and 8
(i4+3i)a + (i−1)b + 5i3 = 0, find a and b. 8i
= 8
Solution : (i +3i)a + (i−1)b + 5i = 0+0i
4 3
= i
i.e. (1+3i)a + (i−1)b − 5i = 0+0i
= R.H.S.
∴ a + 3ai + bi − b − 5i = 0+0i
i.e. (a−b) + (3a+b−5)i = 0+0i
By equality of complex numbers, we get
a−b = 0 and 3a+b−5 = 0 EXERCISE 1.1
∴ a=b and 3a+b = 5
1) Simplify :
∴ 3a+a = 5
∴ 4a = 5 i) −16 + 3 −25 + −36 − −625
5
∴ a =
4 ii) 4 −4 + 5 −9 − 3 −16
5
∴ a = b =
4

5
2) Write the conjugates of the following 8) Show that 1 + i10 + i20 + i30 is a real number.
complex numbers
9) Find the value of
i) 3+i ii) 3− i iii) − 5 − 7i i) i49 + i68 + i89 + i110
iv) − −5 v) 5i vi) 5 − i
ii) i + i2 + i3 + i4
vii) 2 + 3i
viii) cosq + i sinq
i592 + i590 + i588 + i586+ i584
3) Find a and b if 10) Simplify :
i582 + i580 + i578 + i576+ i574
i) a + 2b + 2ai = 4 + 6i 11) Find the value of 1 + i2 + i4 + i6+ i8 + ...+i20
ii) (a-b) + (a+b)i = a + 5i
12) Show that 1 + i10 + i100 − i1000 = 0.
iii) (a+b) (2 + i) = b + 1 + (10 + 2a)i
iv) abi = 3a − b + 12i 13) Is (1 + i14 + i18 + i22) a real number? Justify
your answer.
1
v) = 3 − 2i
a + ib
14) Evaluate :  i 37  167 
vi) (a + ib) (1 + i) = 2 + i  i 
4
4) Express the following in the form of a+ib,  1
15) Prove that (1+i) × 1   = 16.
4

a, b∈R i = −1 . State the values of a and b.  i

i) (1+2i)(−2+i) ii) (1+i)(1−i)−1 i6+i7+i8+ i9
16) Find the value of
i(4+3i) (2+i) i2+i3

iii) (1−i) iv) (3−i) (1+2i)
1  3i −1 − 3i
17) If a = , b= then
2 2
1 i 
2
3+2i 3−2i
v)  

vi) + show that a2 = b and b2 = a.
 1 i  2−5i 2+5i
2  3 x y
vii) (1+i)−3 viii) 18) If x+iy = (a+ib)3, show that a + b = 4(a2−b2)
4  3
a+3i
19) If = 1−i, show that (5a−7b) = 0.
2+ib
ix) ( 5  2 4 )  (1  9 )  (2  3i )(2  3i )
a + ib
4i 8  3i 9  3 20) If x+iy = ,
x) (2+3i)(2−3i) xi) 11 c + id
3i  4i10  2
a2+b2
prove that (x2+y2)2 =
5) Show that (1  3i )3 is a real number. c2+d2
1+i
 2 21) If (a+ib) = , then prove that (a2+b2) = 1.
6) Find the value of  3   (i6−i7)(1+i11) 1−i
 i
7) Evaluate the following :
 7 i 3 7 i 3 
22) Show that    is real.
 7 i 3 7  i 3 
i) i35 ii) i888 iii) i93 iv) i116
1 23) If (x+iy)3 = y+vi the show that

v) i403 vi) 58 vii) i−888
i
y v
viii) i30 + i40 + i50 + i60    = 4(x −y )
2 2

 x y 

6
24) Find the value of x and y which satisfy the put b2 = m
following equations (x, y∈R) ∴ m2+6m−16 = 0
i) (x+2y) + (2x−3y) i + 4i = 5 ∴ (m+8)(m−2) = 0
x+1 y−1 ∴ m = −8 or m = 2
ii) + =i
1+i 1−i
i.e. b2 = −8 or b2 = 2
(x+iy) 2+i 9
iii) + = 13 (1+i) but b is a real number ∴ b2 ≠ −8
2+3i 2−3i
iv) If x(1+3i) + y(2−i) − 5 + i3 = 0, find x+y So, b2 = 2 ∴ b= ± 2

v) If x+2i+15i6y = 7x+i3 (y+4), find x+y For, b = 2 , a = 2 2

1.3 Square root of a complex number : ∴ 6 + 8i = 2 2 + 2i= 2 (2+ i)

Consider z = x+iy be any complex number For, b = − 2 , a = −2 2
Let x + iy = a+ib, a, b∈R ∴ 6 + 8i = −2 2 − 2 i = − 2 (2+ i)
On squaring both the sides, we get
∴ 6 + 8i = ± 2 (2+ i)
x+iy = (a+ib)2

x+iy = (a2−b2) + (2ab) i Ex. 2 : Find the square root of 3 − 4i

Equating real and imaginary parts, we get Solution :

x = (a2−b2) and y = 2ab Let 3 − 4i = a+ib a, b∈R

Solving these equations simultaneously, we can On squaring both the sides, we have
get the values of a and b. 3 − 4i = (a+ib)2

∴ 3 − 4i = (a2−b2) + (2ab) i
Solved Examples:
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
Ex.1 : Find the square root of 6+8i.
a2−b2 = 3 , 2ab = −4
Solution :
As (a2+b2)2 = (a2−b2)2 + (2ab)2
Let, 6 + 8i = a+ib (a, b∈R)
(a2+b2)2 = 32 + (−4)2 = 9 + 16 = 25
On squaring both the sides, we get
(a2+b2)2 = 52
6+8i = (a+ib) 2

∴ a2+b2 = 5

∴ 6+8i = (a2−b2) + (2ab) i Solving a2+b2 = 5 and a2−b2 = 3 we get
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have 2a2 = 8
6 = a2−b2 .... (1) a2 = 4
∴ a = ±2
8 = 2ab .... (2)
4 For a = 2;
∴ a = b
−4 −4
4
2
b= = = −1
∴ (1) becomes 6 =   − b2 2a 2(2)
b −4
16 For, a = −2, b = =1

i.e. 6 = 2 − b2 2(−2)
b
∴ 3 − 4i = 2 − i or −2 + i
∴ b4+6b2−16 = 0 i.e. (b2)2 + 6b2 − 16 = 0

7
1.4 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra : Ex. 2 : Solve x2−(2 3 + 3i) x + 6 3 i = 0
'A polynomial equation with real coefficients
Solution : Given equation is
has at least one root' in C.
or 'A polynomial equation with complex x2−(2 3 + 3i) x + 6 3 i = 0
coefficients and of degree n has n complex roots'. The method of finding the roots of
1.4.1 Solution of a Quadratic Equation in ax2 + bx + c = 0, is applicable even if a, b, c
complex number system : b  b 2  4ac
Let the given equation be ax2 + bx + c = 0 are complex numbers. where x =
2a
where a, b, c∈R and a ≠ 0
Here, a = 1, b = −(2 3 + 3i), c = 6 3 i
∴ The solution of this quadratic equation is
given by b2 − 4ac = [−(2 3 + 3i)]2 − 4 × 1 × 6 3 i

b  b 2  4ac = 12 − 9 + 12 3 i − 24 3 i
x =
2a = 3 − 12 3 i
Hence, the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
= 3 (1 − 4 3 i)
b  b 2  4ac −b − b 2 − 4ac
are and So, the given equation has complex roots. These
2a 2a
roots are given by
The expression (b2−4ac) = D is called the
discriminant. 2 
3  3i  3(1  4 3 i )
If D < 0 then the roots of the given quadratic x =
2
equation are complex.
Now, we shall find 1 − 4 3 i
Note : If p + iq is the root of equation ax2 + bx + c
= 0 where a, b, c∈R and a ≠ 0 then p − iq is also Let a + ib = 1 − 4 3 i
a solution of the given equation. Thus, complex
∴ a2 − b2 + 2iab = 1− 4 3 i
roots occur in conjugate pairs.
∴ a2 − b2 = 1 and 2ab = −4 3
Solved Examples :
Ex. 1 : Solve x2 + x + 1 = 0 a2 − b2 = 1 and ab = −2 3
Solution : Given equation is x2 + x + 1 = 0 Consider (a2 + b2)2 = (a2 − b2)2 + 4 a2b2
Comparing with ax2 + bx + c = 0 we get
= 1 + 4 (12) = 49
a = 1, b = 1, c = 1
∴ a2 + b2 = 7 ...(1)
These roots are given by
and also a2 − b2 = 1 ...(2)
b  b  4ac
2

x = Solving (1) and (2)

2a
2a2 = 8 ∴ a2 = 4
1  3
= ∴ a = ±2 and b = ± 3
2
1  3 i ∴ We have four choices
=
2 a = 2, b= 3 ... (3)
1  3 i −1 − 3 i
∴ Roots are and a = 2, b=− 3 ... (4)
2 2

8
 a = −2, b= 3 ... (5) Ex. 4 : If x = −5 + 2 −4 , find the value of
a = −2, b=− 3 ... (6) x4 + 9x3 + 35x2 − x + 64.

With this combination, the condition Solution : x = −5 + 2 −4 = −5 + 2(2i) = −5 + 4i

ab = −2 3 should also be satisfied. Let P(x) = x4 + 9x3 + 35x2 − x + 64
We can verify the values of a and b given by Form the quadratic expression q(x) with real
(4) and (5) satisfy the condition and that from (3)
coefficients and roots α = −5+4i and α = −5−4i.
and (6) do not satisfy the condition.
α α = (−5+4i)(−5−4i) = 25 + 16 = 41
Hence, a = 2, b=− 3
α + α = (−5+4i) + (−5−4i) = −10
and a = −2, b= 3
Therefore q(x) = x2 + 10x + 41
∴ 1 − 4 3 i = ± (2 − 3 i) Now q(α) = α2 + 10α + 41 = 0 ...(1)
∴ The roots are given by We divide the given polynomial

x =
(2 )
3 + 3i ± 3 2 − 3 i( ) p(x) by q(x).
x2−x+4
2
So, the roots are 2 3 and 3i. x2+10x+41 x4+ 9x3+35x2 −x+64
x4+10x3+41x2
Ex. 3 : Find the value of x3 − x2 + 2x + 10
− x3 + 6x2 − x
when x = 1 + 3 i. − x3 −10x2 − 41x
Solution : Since x = 1 + 3i 4x2 + 40x + 64
∴ x−1 = 3i 4x2 + 40x +164
squaring both sides, we get
− 100
(x−1)2 = ( 3 i)2
∴ p(x) = (x2 + 10x + 41) (x2 − x + 4) − 100

∴ x2 − 2x + 1 = 3i2
∴ p(α) = q(α) (α2 − α + 4) − 100

i.e. x2 −2x +1 = −3 ∴ p(α) = 0 − 100 = − 100 (By I)
∴ x2 − 2x = −4 ........ (I)

x3− x2 +2x + 10 = x3 − (x2 − 2x) + 10 (By I)

EXERCISE 1.2
= x3 − (−4) + 10 = x3 + 14

= (1 + 3 i) + 14
3
1) Find the square root of the following
complex numbers
= 1 + 3 3 i − 9 − 3 3 i + 14
i) −8−6i ii) 7+24i iii) 1+4 3 i
=6 iv) 3+2 10 i v) 2(1− 3 i)

9
2) Solve the following quadratic equations. is called the real axis. Similarly, y = Im(z) is
represented on the Y-axis, so the Y-axis is called
i) 8x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
the imaginary axis.
ii) 2x2 − 3 x + 1 = 0
iii) 3x2 − 7x + 5 = 0
iv) x2− 4x + 13 = 0
3) Solve the following quadratic equations.
i) x2 + 3ix + 10 = 0
ii) 2x2 + 3ix + 2 = 0
iii) x2 + 4ix − 4 = 0
iv) ix2− 4x − 4i = 0
4) Solve the following quadratic equations. Fig. 1.2
i) x2 − (2+i) x −(1−7i) = 0 e.g. (1) (1, 2) ≡ 1 + 2i (2) −4+3i ≡ (−4, 3)
ii) x − (3 2 +2i) x + 6 2 i = 0
2
(3) (0, 0) ≡ 0 + 0i (4) 5+0i ≡ (5, 0)
iii) x2 − (5−i) x + (18+i) = 0 (5) (0, −1) ≡ 0 − i (6) −2−2i ≡ (−2,−2)
iv) (2 + i)x2− (5−i) x +2 (1−i) = 0
A diagram which represents complex
5) Find the value of numbers by points in a plane with reference to
the real and imaginary axes is called Argand's
i) x3 − x2+x+46, if x = 2+3i. diagram on complex plane.
25
ii) 2x3 − 11x2+44x+27, if x = 3−4i .
1.5.1 Modulus of z :
5
iii) x3 + x2−x+22, if x = 1−2i . If z = a+ib is a complex number then the
modulus of z, denoted by | z | or r, is defined as
iv) x4 +9 x3+35x2−x+4, if x = −5+ −4 .
| z | = a 2 + b 2 . (From fig. 1.3), point P(a, b)
v) 2x4 + 5x3+7x2−x+41, if x = −2− 3 i. represents the complex number z = a+ib.

1.5 Argand Diagram or Complex Plane : ∴r=|z|= a 2 + b 2 = OP

A complex number z = x + iy, x, y∈R and Hence, modulus of z is the distance of
i = −1 is expressed as a point in the plane whose point P from the origin where the point P
co-ordinates are ordered pair (x, y). Jean Robert represents the complex number z in the plane.
Argand used the one to one correspondence e.g. For, z = 4 + 3i,
between a complex number and the points in a Modulus of z = | z | = 16 + 9 = 25 = 5
the plane.
1.5.2 Argument of z :
Let z = x + iy be a complex number.
Then the point P(x, y) represents the complex OP makes an angle q with positive direction
number z = x + iy (fig.1.2) i.e. x + iy ≡ (x, y), of X-axis. q is called the argument or amplitude
x = Re(z) is represented on the X-axis. So, X-axis of the complex number z = a+ib, denoted by
arg(z).
10
 b
∴ q = tan−1 =   = arg(z),
a
e.g. If z = 2+2i then
2
arg(z) = q = tan−1  
2
p
∴ tan−1(1) =
4

Note : If tan x = y then its inverse funtion is given

by x = tan−1 y or x = arc tan y
Fig. 1.3
eg:
p 1  1  p
b a 1) As tan = then tan−1 =  =
∴ sinq = r , cosq = r , r ≠ 0 6 3  3 6

∴ b = rsinq , a = rcosq   p
2) As tan    = − tan = −1 then
b  4 4
and tanq = a , if a ≠ 0

tan−1 (−1) = 
4

1.5.3 Argument of z in different quadrants/axes :

θ = arg z
b
z = a + ib Example Quadrant/Axis = tan−1   , from Example
a
(0 ≤ θ < 2π)
On positive real
a > 0, b = 0 z=3 θ=0 θ=0
(X) axis
b
θ = tan−1   ,
a > 0, b > 0 z=1+i In quadrant I a
p 1 p
θ = tan−1   =
(0 < θ < ) 1
  4
2
On Positive p p
a = 0, b < 0 z = 5i θ= θ=
imaginary (Y) axis 2 2

b  1 
θ = tan−1   + π θ = tan−1   +π
a < 0, b > 0 z=− 3 +i In quadrant II p a  3
( < θ < π)  5p
2 = +π= .
6 6
On negative real
a < 0, b = 0 z = −6 θ=π θ=π
(X) axis

11
 b  3
θ = tan−1   + π θ = tan−1  +π
a < 0, b < 0 In quadrant III
a  1 
z = −1 − 3i 3p  
π 4p
(π < θ < ) = +π= )
2 3 3
On negative 3p 3p
a = 0, b < 0 z = −2i θ= 2 θ=
imaginary (Y) axis 2

b  1 
θ = tan−1   + 2π θ = tan−1   p
a  1 
a > 0, b < 0 z=1−i In quadrant IV
3p 
( < θ < 2π) = + 2π = 4
2 4

v) | z 1 z 2 | = | z 1| | z 2|
SOLVED EXAMPLES
z |z |
vi) 1 = |z1| , z2 ≠ 0
Ex. 1 : If z = 1+3i, find the modulus and amplitude z2 2

of z. vii) | z1 + z2| ≤ | z1| + | z2|

Solution : z = 1+3i here a=1, b=3 and a, b > 0 viii) | z1 + z2|2 = | z1|2 + | z2|2 + 2Re (z1 z2 )
∴ | z | = 12 + 32 = 10
ix) | z1 − z2|2 = | z1|2 + | z2|2 − 2Re (z1 z2 )
b 3
amp z = tan−1   = tan−1   = tan−1 (3) x) | z1 + z2|2 + | z1− z2|2 = 2(| z1|2 + | z2|2)
a 1
xi) | az1 − bz2|2 + | bz1+ az2|2
Ex. 2 : Find the modulus, argument of the
complex number −7 + 24i. = (a2+b2) (| z1|2 + | z2|2) where a, b∈R
Solution : let z = −7+24i a = −7, b = 24 Properties of arguments :
∴|z|= (7) + (24) =
2 2
625 = 25 1) arg (z1. z2) = arg z1 + arg z2
Here, z1
2) arg = arg z1 − arg z2
b z2
arg z = tan−1   = tan−1  
24
a 3) arg z + arg z = 0, arg (z z ) = 0
 7 
1
4) arg z = − arg z = arg
As a < 0, b > 0, q lies in 2nd quadrant. z
5) If arg z = 0 then z is real
Properties of modulus of complex numbers :
1.5.4 Polar form of a complex number :
If z1, z2, z3 are complex numbers, then
Let the complex number z = a+ib be
i) | z | = 0 ⇔ z = 0 i.e. Re (z) = Im (z) = 0 represented by the point P(a, b) (see fig 1.4)
ii) | z | = | −z | = | z | = |− z | b
Let m∠XOP = q = tan−1   and l(OP) = r
iii) −| z | ≤ Re (z) ≤ | z |; −| z | ≤ Im (z) ≤ | z | a
= a 2 + b 2 >0, then P(r, q) are called the Polar
iv) z z = | z |2
Co-ordinates of P.

12
 We call the origin as pole. (figure 1.4)

−z z

−z z

Fig.1.4 Fig. 1.5

As a = rcosq, b = rsinq Thus, q together with r gives the position of
∴ z = a + ib becomes the point A in the Argand's diagram.
Hence, from the figure 1.5,
z = rcosq + irsinq
p 3p
∴ z = r(cosq + isinq) arg z = 45° = , arg (− z ) = 135° =
4 4
This is called polar form of complex number
z = a + ib 5p 7p
arg (−z) = 225° = , arg z = 315° =
4 4
1.5.5 Exponential form : Ex. 2 : Represent the following complex numbers
It is known and can be proved using special in the polar form and in the exponential form
series that eiq = cosq + isinq
i) 4+4 3 i ii) −2 iii) 3i iv) − 3 + i
∴ z = a + ib = r (cosq + isinq) = r eiq
Solution :
where r = | z | and q = arg z is called an
exponential form of complex number. i) Let, z = 4 + 4 3 i
a = 4, b = 4 3
Solved Example:
Ex. 1 : Represent the complex numbers r = 42 + (4 3 ) 2 = 16 + 48 = 64 = 8
z = 1+i, z = 1−i, − z = −1+i, −z = −1−i in As q lies in quadrant I
Argand's diagram and hence find their arguments
from the figure. b 4 3
q = tan−1   = tan−1  
Solution : a  4 
arg z is the angle made by the segment OA p
with the positive direction of the X-axis. (Fig.1.5) = tan−1( 3 ) = or 60°
3

13
∴ The polar form of z = 4 + 4 3 i is  1  π
= tan−1   +π= −6 +π

z = r (cosθ + i sinθ) − 3
5π
z = 8 (cos 60° + i sin 60°) =
6
π π ∴ The polar form of
= 8 (cos + i sin )
3 3 z = r (cosθ + i sinθ)
π 
i 
∴ The exponential form of z = 8 e
3 5π 5π
z = 2 (cos 6 + i sin )
6

ii) Let z = −2 ∴ The exponential form of

 5π 
i
∴ a = −2, b = 0 z = re = 2 e
iθ  6 


Hence, r = (−2) 2 + 02 = 4=2 3π i

Ex. 3 : Express z = .e 4
2.e in the a + ib form.
As point (−2, 0) lies on negative real axis 3π i
θ = πc or 180° Solution: z = .e 4
2.e = r eiθ

∴ The polar form of z = 2(cos180°+i sin180°) 3π
∴r= ,θ= 4
2.e
= 2 (cos π + isin π)
As the polar form of z is
∴ The exponential form of z = 2eiπ
z = r (cosθ + i sinθ)
iii) Let z = 3i 3π 3π
= 2.e(cos + i sin )
4 4
a=0, b=3
By using allied angles results in trigonometry, we
Hence, r = 02 + 32 = 3 get
As point (0, 3) lies on positive imaginary axis 3π  π π 1
πc cos = cos  π −  = − cos =−
4  4 4 2
θ = 2 or 90°
3π  π π 1
sin = sin  π −  = sin =
∴ The polar form of z = 3(cos90° + i sin90°) 4  4 4 2
π π
= 3 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )  −1  1  
∴ z = 2.e +i 
i π  2  2 
∴ The exponential form of z = 3e 2
= −1 + i
5π i π i
iv) Let, z = − 3 + i Ex. 4 : Express (i) 3.e 12 × 4.e 12
∴a=− 3, b=1
 π π 
2  cos + i sin 
r = (− 3 ) + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2
2 2
 12 12 
ii) in a + ib form
 5π 5π 
As (− 3 , 1) lies in quadrant II 2  cos + i sin 
 6 6 
b
q = tan−1   = π
a
14
 5π i π i
Solution: (i) 3.e 12 × 4.e 12 3) If z = 3 + 5i then represent the z , z , − z , − z in
Argand's diagram.
 5π π 
 + i
= (3 × 4) e 12 12 
4) Express the following complex numbers in
6π i π i polar form and exponential form.
= 12 e = 12 e
12 2 1
i) −1+ 3 i ii) −i iii) −1 iv) 1+i
 π π
= 12  cos + i sin  1+ 2i 1+ 7i
 2 2 v) vi)
1−3i (2−i)2
= 12 (0 + i) = 12i
5) Express the following numbers in the form
 π π  π x+iy
2  cos + i sin  i
 12 12  e
2.e 12
π π
(ii) = 5π i) 3 (cos 6 + isin 6 )
 5π 5π  i
2  cos + i sin  2e 6
 6 6  7π 7π
ii) 2.e(cos 4 + isin 4 )
 2   12π − 56π  i  2   − 34π  i
=  e = e   5π   5π 
 2   2  iii) 7  cos  −  + i sin  − 
  6   6 
 2    3π   3π  
 cos  −  + i sin  −  
-4π 5π i
=  π i i
 2   4   4  iv) e 3 v) e 3 vi) e 6

 2  1  1 
=    − +i−  6) Find the modulus and argument of the
 2  2  2  1+ 2i
complex number .
1 i 1−3i
= − −
2 2
7) Convert the complex number
i−1
EXERCISE 1.3 z= π π in the polar form.
cos 3 + isin 3

1) Find the modulus and amplitude for each of 8) For z = 2+3i verify the following :
the following complex numbers. i) ( z ) = z ii) z z = |z|2
i) 7 − 5i ii) i iii) −8 + 15i
3 + 2.e iii) (z+ z ) is real iv) z − z = 6i
iv) −3(1−i) v) −4−4i vi) 3 −i
9) z1 = 1 + i, z2 = 2 − 3i. Verify the following :
vii) 3 viii) 1 + i iv) 1 + i 3
i) z1+ z2 = z1 + z2
x) (1+2i)2 (1−i)
4 + 3i sin θ  ii) z1− z2 = z1 − z2
2) Find real values of q for which  
 1 − 2i sin θ 
is purely real. iii) z1 . z2 = z1 . z2

z1 z1
iv) z2 = z
2

15
1.6 De Moivres Theorem:  π  π
= cos  8 ×  + i sin  8 × 
If z1 = r1e iθ1
and z2 = r2e iθ2
 3  3
Then z1. z2 = (r1eiθ1) (r2eiθ2)  2π   2π 
= cos   − i sin  
= r1.r2 ei(θ1 + θ2)  3   3 
That is if two complex numbers are  8π 2π 
 − 2π = 
multiplied then their modulii get multiplied and  3 3 
arguments get added.  π  π
= cos  π −  + i sin  π − 
 3  3
z1 r1eiθ1  r1  i (θ1 −θ2 )
= =   .e π  π 
z2 r2 eiθ2  r2  = − cos   + i sin  
3 3
That is, if one complex numbers is divided
by the other, then their modulii get divided and 1 3
= − +i
arguments get substracted. 2 2
In 1730, De Moivre propsoed the  π π 
15

following theorem for finding the power of (ii)  cos − i sin 

 10 10 
a complex number z = r (cosθ + i sinθ), as
[r(cosθ + i sinθ)]n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)]  15π   15π 
= cos   − i sin  
for any n ∈ z.  10   10 

The proof of this theorem can be given using  3π   3π 

= cos   − i sin  
the Method of Induction (Chapter 4).  2   2 
 π  π
For example: = cos  π +  − i sin  π + 
 2  2
i) (cosθ + i sinθ)5 = (cos5θ + i sin5θ)
π  π
ii) (cosθ + i sinθ)−1 = cos(−θ) + i sin (−θ) = − cos − i  − sin 
2  2
2
2  2  = −0 − i (−1) = i
iii) (cosθ + i sinθ) 3 = cos  θ  + i sin  θ
3  3 
Solved Examples: (cos 5θ + i sin 5θ ) 2
(iii)
(cos 4θ − i sin 4θ )3
Ex. 1 Use De Moivres Theorom and simplify.
cos 10θ + i sin 10θ
8 =
 π π cos 12θ − i sin 12θ
i)  cos + i sin 
 3 3 cos 10θ + i sin 10θ
=
cos ( −12θ ) + i sin ( −12θ )
15
 π π 
ii)  cos − i sin 
 10 10  = cos [10θ − (−12θ)] + i sin [10θ − (−12θ)]
( cos 5θ + i sin 5θ )
2

iii) = cos 22θ + i sin 22θ

( cos 4θ − i sin 4θ )
3

Ex. 2 Express (1 + i)4 in a + ib form.

8
 π π Solution : Let z = 1 + i
Solution: (i)  cos + i sin 
 3 3
∴ x = 1, y = 1

16
 r = 11  2 , 1
= [(−1)2+2×(−1)×i 3 +(i 3 )2]
4
x
θ = tan−1 1
y = (1−2i 3 −3)
π 4
= tan−1 1 = 1
4 = (−2−2i 3 )
   4
∴ z = r(cosθ + isinθ) = 2 cos  i sin 
 4 4 −1−i 3
= 2
4 2
    1  i 3 
∴ z4 = (1 + i)4 = 2 cos  i sin 
 4 4 Similarly it can be verified that  
 2 
1  i 3
 4 4  =
= 2 cos  i sin 2
 4 4 
Thus cube roots of unity are 1,
= 2  cos   i sin  
2
1  i 3  1  i 3 
= 2  1  i(0)  , 
2

2  
2  1   2 = − 2 + 0i
2
= 1  i 3  1  i 3 
Let = w, then   = w2
2  2 
1.7 Cube roots of unity :
Hence, cube roots of unity are 1, w, w2
Number 1 is often called unity. Let x be the 2
cube root of unity i.e. 1  1  i 3   1  i 3 

where w =   and w2 =  
∴ x3 = 1  2   2 
∴ x3 −1 = 0 2p i 4p i

Also note that 1 = e2pi, w = e 3 , w2 = e 3
∴ (x −1)(x2 + x +1) = 0
∴ x −1 = 0 or x2 + x +1 = 0 Properties of 1, w, w2
i) w is complex cube root of 1.
1  (1) 2  4 11
∴ x = 1 or x = ∴ w3 = 1
2 1

1  3 ii) w3 −1 = 0
∴ x = 1 or x = i.e. (w −1) (w2 +w+1) = 0
2
∴ w =1 or w2 +w+1 = 0
1  i 3
∴ x = 1 or x = but w ≠1
2
∴ Cube roots of unity are ∴ w2 +w+1 = 0
1 1
1  i 3 −1 − i 3 iii) w2 = and w2 = w
1, , w
2 2
Among the three cube roots of unity, one is iv) w = 1 so w3n = 1
3

real and other two roots are complex conjugates v) w4 = w3 .w = w so w3n+1 = w

of each other. vi) w5 = w2 .w3 = w2.1 = w2 So w3n+2 = w2
2
 1  i 3  vii) w = w2
=  
 2  viii) w 2 = w

17
1.8 Set of points in complex plane Illustration:

If z = x + iy represents the variable point For z1 = 2 +3i , z2 = 1 +i and z = x + iy

P(x,y) and z1 = x1 + iy1, represents the fixed point
A (x1,y1) then (i) z−z1 represents the length of (i) z − z1 = ( x + iy ) − (2 + 3i ) = x + iy − 2 − 3i
AP
= ( x − 2) + i ( y − 3) = ( x − 2) + ( y − 3)
2 2

represents the distance between (x,y) and
(2,3).

(ii) If z − z1 = 5 , then
Fig. 1.6
( x + iy ) − (−1 + i ) = ( x + 1) + i ( y − 1) = 5

(2) z−z1= a represents the circle with centre
A(x1,y1) and radius a. ∴ ( x + 1) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 = 5

∴ ( x + 1) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 = 52
represents the circle with centre (−1,1) and
= P(z) radius 5.

(iii) If z − z1 = z − z2 then
A(z1)
( x + iy ) − (2 + 3i ) = ( x + iy ) − (−1 + i )
∴ ( x − 2) + i ( y − 3) = ( x + 1) + i ( y − 1)
∴ ( x − 2) 2 + ( y − 3) 2 = ( x + 1) 2 + ( y − 1) 2

Fig. 1.7 ∴ x2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 − 6 y + 9 = x2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 − 2 y + 1
x2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 − 6 y + 9 = x2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 − 2 y + 1
(3) z−z1=z−z2represents the perpendicular
bisector of the line joining the points A and ∴ −6 x + 4 y + 11 = 0 i.e. 6 x + 4 y − 11 = 0
B.
represents the perpendicular bisector of line
joining points (2,3) and (−1,1).

(z2) SOLVED EXAMPLES

A(z1) Ex. 1 : If w is a complex cube root of unity, then

prove that
(z) 1 1
i) + w2 = −1
w
ii) (1+ w2)3 = −1

iii) (1−w+w2)3 = −8
Fig. 1.8
Solution : Given, w is a complex cube root of
unity.
∴ w3 = 1 Also w2 +w+1 = 0

18
 ∴ w2 +1 = − w and w +1 = − w2
= [(1−w)(1−w2)]2
1 1 w+1 −w2
i) + w2 = = w2 = −1

= (1−w2−w+w3)2
w w2
ii) (1+ w2)3 = (−w)3 = −w3 = −1

= [1−(w2+w)+1]2

= [1−(−1)+1]2 = (1+1+1)2 = (3)2 = 9
iii) (1−w+w2)3 = (1+w2−w)3
= (−w−w)3 (∵ 1 +w2 = −w) Ex. 3 : If w is a complex cube root of unity such
that x=a+b, y=aw+bw2 and z=aw2+bw, a, b∈R
= (−2w)3 = −8 w3 = −8 × 1 = −8
prove that
Ex. 2 : If w is a complex cube root of unity, then i) x+y+z=0 ii) x3+y3+z3=3(a3+b3)
show that
Solution : Since w is a complex cube root of unity
i) (1−w+w2)5 + (1+w−w2)5 = 32
∴ w3 = 1 and w2 +w+1 = 0 but w ≠ 1 given
ii) (1−w)(1−w ) (1−w )(1−w ) = 9
2 4 5
∴ w2 +1 = −w, w+1 = − w2, w3 = w6 = 1
Solution :
i) x+y+z = a+b+aw+bw2+aw2+bw
i) Since w = 1
3

= a(1+w+w2)+b(1+w+w2)
and w ≠ 1 ∴ w +w+1 = 0
2

= a.0 + b.0
Also w2 +1 = − w, w2 +w = −1
= 0
and w +1 = − w2
Now, (1−w+w2)5 ii) x3 = a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3

= (−w−w)5 (∵ 1 +w2 = −w) y3 = a3w3+3a2bw4+3ab2w5+b3w6

= (−2w)5 z3 = a3w6+3a2bw5+3ab2w4+b3w3

= −32w5

adding the above three equations
x3+y3+z3 = a3(1+w3+w6)+3a2b(1+w+w2) +

(1+w−w2)5 = (−w2−w2)5
3ab2 (1+w2+w)+b3(1+w6+w3)

= (−2w2)5
= 3a3 +3a2b(0) +3ab2(0)+3b3
= −32w 10
= 3(a3 + b3)
∴ (1−w+w2)5 + (1+w−w2)5 = −32w5−32w10
Ex. 4 : Prove that
= −32w (1+w )
5 2
1+wn+w2n = 3, if n is multiple of 3
= −32w5×(−w) = 32w6 = 32(w3)2 1+wn+w2n = 0, if n is not multiple of 3, n∈N
= 32 × (1)2 = 32
Solution : for n, k∈N, if n is multiple of 3 then
n=3k and if n is not multiple of 3 then n=3k+1 or
ii) (1−w)(1−w2) (1−w4)(1−w5)
3k+2
= (1−w)(1−w2) (1−w3.w)(1−w3.w2) ∴ if n is multiple of 3
= (1−w)(1−w ) (1−w)(1−w )
2 2
i.e. n=3k
= (1−w)2(1−w2)2 then 1+wn+w2n = 1+w3k+w2×3k

19

= 1+(w3)k+(w3)2k 4) If α and β are the complex cube root of unity,
show that

= 1+(1)k+(1)2k
(a) α2+β2+αβ = 0

=1+1+1
(b) α4+β4+α−1β−1 = 0
=3
If n = 3k + r , r = 1,2. 5) If x = a+b, y = αa+βb and z = aβ+bα where
α and β are the complex cube-roots of unity,
As w is complex root of Unity. show that xyz = a3+b3
wr, r = 1,2 is also complex root of Unity. 6) Find the equation in cartesian coordinates of
∴1+w +w =0 r 2r the locus of z if
we have, 1+wn+w2n=0, if n is not a multiple of 3. (i) z = 10 (ii) z − 3 = 2
(iii) z − 5 + 6i = 5 (iv) z + 8 = z − 4
(v) z − 2 − 2i = z + 2 + 2i
EXERCISE 1.4
(vi) z + 3i = 1
z − 6i
1) Find the value of
i) w18 ii) w21 iii) w−30 iv) w−105 7) Use De Moivres theorem and simplify the
following
( cos 2θ + i sin 2θ )
7
2) If w is a complex cube root of unity, show
i)
that ( cos 4θ + i sin 4θ )
3

i) (2−w)(2−w2) =7
cos 5θ + i sin 5θ
ii) (1+w−w2)6 = 64 ii)
( cos 3θ − i sin 3θ )
2

iii) (1+w)3−(1+w2)3 = 0 4
 7π 7π 
iv) (2+w+w ) −(1−3w+w ) = 65
2 3 2 3
 cos + i sin 
13 13 
v) (3+3w+5w2)6 −(2+6w+2w2)3 = 0 iii)  6

 4π 4π 
a+bw+cw2  cos − i sin 
vi) = w2  13 13 
c+aw+bw2

vii) (a + b) + (aw + bw2) + (aw2 + bw) = 0 8) Express the following in the form a + ib,
a, b∈ R, using De Moivre's theorem.
viii) (a − b) (a − bw) (a − bw2) = a3 − b3
ix) (a + b)2 + (aw + bw2)2 + (aw2 + bw)2 = i) (1 − i)5 ii) (1 + i)6 iii) (1 − 3 i)4
6ab
iv) (−2 3 − 2i)5
3) If w is a complex cube root of unity, find the
value of Let's Remember
1
i) w+ ii) w2+w3+w4 iii) (1+w2)3
w ∙ A number a+ib, where a, b∈ R and i = −1 ,

iv) (1−w−w2)3 + (1−w+w2)3 is a complex number.

v) (1+w)(1+w2)(1+w4)(1+w8) ∙ Let z1 = a+ib and z2 = c+id. Then
z1 + z2 = (a+c) + (b+d)i

20
 z1 − z2 = (a−c) + (b−d)i 4) If w is a complex cube root of unity, then the
z1. z2 = (ac−bd) + (ad+bc)i value of w99+w100+w101 is :

z1  ac  bd   bc  ad  A) −1 B) 1 C) 0 D) 3
  i z z
z2  c 2  d 2   c 2  d 2  5) If z=r(cosq+isinq), then the value of+
z z
∙ For any non-zero complex number z = a+ib A) cos2q B) 2cos2q C) 2cosq D) 2sinq
1 a −b
= +i 2 2
z a2+b2 a +b 6) If w(≠1) is a cube root of unity and (1+w)7
∙ For any positive integer k, = A + Bw, then A and B are respectively the
i4k = 1, i4k+1 = i, i4k+2 = −1, i4k+3 = − i numbers
A) 0, 1 B) 1,1 C) 1, 0 D) −1,1
∙ The conjugate of z = a+ib is z , is given by z
= a−ib 7) The modulus and argument of (1+i 3 )8 are
respectively
∙ The polar form of the complex number
2π 8π
z = x+iy is r (cosq + i sinq) = r eiθ where A) 2 and 3 B) 256 and 3
r x 2 + y 2 is called modulus and
= 2π 4π
y C) 256 and 3 D) 64 and 3
cosq = x , sinq = (q is called argument
r r
 y 8) If arg(z) = q, then arg (z) =
of z) arg (z) = tan−1   .
x A) − q B) q C) π−q D) π+q
∙ w is complex cute root of unity then
1 + w + w2 = 0 , w3 = 1. 9) If −1+ 3 i =reiq , then q = ................. .
2π π π 2π
A) − 3 B) 3 C) − 3 D) 3
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 1
10) If z = x+iy and |z−zi| = 1 then
I) Select the correct answer from the given A) z lies on X-axis B) z lies on Y-axis
alternatives. D) z lies on a rectangle C) z lies on a circle
1) If n is an odd positive integer then the value of II) Answer the following.
1 + (i)2n + (i)4n + (i)6n is :
1) Simplify the following and express in the
A) −4i B) 0 C) 4i D) 4 form a+ib.
i) 3+ −64 ii) (2i3)2 iii) (2+3i)(1−4i)
i592+i590+i588+i586+i584
2) The value of is 582 580 578 576 574 is equal
i +i +i +i +i 5 4+3i
to : iv) 2 i(−4−3i) v) (1+3i)2(3+i) vi)
1−i
A) −2 B) 1 C) 0 D) −1
2 4 5  3i
vii) (1+ i ) (3+ i ) (5+i)−1 viii)
3) −3 −6 is equal to 5  3i
5+7i 5+7i
ix) 3i +2i7+i9
5
A) −3 2 B) 3 2 C) 3 2 i D)− 3 2 i x) +
i6+2i8+3i18 4+3i 4−3i

21
2) Solve the following equations for x, y∈R 8 8
 1+ i   1− i 
i) (4−5i)x + (2+3i)y = 10−7i 11) Show that   +  = 2.
 2  2
x+iy
ii) = 7−i 12) Convert the complex numbers in polar form
2+3i
and also in exponential form.
iii) (x+iy) (5+6i) = 2+3i
2 + 6 3i
iv) 2x+i9y (2+i) = xi7+10i16 i) z =
5 + 3i
3) Evaluate i) (1−i+i2)−15 ii) (i131+i49) ii) z = −6+ 2 i
4) Find the value of −3 3 3 i
iii) +
i) x3+2x2−3x+21, if x = 1+2i. 2 2
ii) x4+9x3+35x2−x+164, if x = −5+4i. a+ib
13) If x+iy = , prove that x2+y2 =1.
a−ib
5) Find the square roots of 3
 −1 + −3 
i) −16+30i ii) 15−8i iii) 2+2 3 i 14) Show that z =   is a rational
 2 
number.
iv) 18i v) 3−4i vi) 6+8i
1−2i 1+2i
15) Show that + is real.
6) Find the modulus and amplitude of each 3−4i 3+4i
complex number and express it in the polar i29+i39+i49  65 1 
form. 16) Simplify i) ii)  i + 145 
i30+i40+i50  i 
1 + 3i −1 − i
i) 8+15i ii) 6−i iii) iv) i238+i236+i234+i232+i230
2 2 iii)
i228+i226+i224+i222+i220
1 1
v) 2i vi) −3i vii) + i 3
2 2 1 3+4i
17) Simplify +
1−2i 1+i 2−4i
7) Represent 1+2i, 2−i, −3−2i, −2+3i by points
in Argand's diagram. 18) If α and β are complex cube roots of unity,
5 prove that (1−α)(1−β) (1−α2)(1−β2) = 9
8) Show that z = (1−i)(2−i)(3−i) is purely
imaginary number. 19) If w is a complex cube root of unity, prove
that (1−w+w2)6 +(1+w−w2)6 = 128
9) Find the real numbers x and y such that
y 5+6i 20) If w is the cube root of unity then find the
x
+ 3+2i = −1+8i value of
1+2i 18 18
 −1 + i 3   −1 − i 3 
1 i 10 1 i 10   +  
10) Show that ( + ) +( − ) =0  2   2 
2 2 2 2

v v v

22
 2 SEQUENCES AND SERIES

2.2 Arithmetic Progression- ( A.P.)

Let's Study
In a sequence if the difference between
any term and its preceding term (tn+1−tn) is
• A.P. and G.P. constant,then the sequence is called an Arithmetic
• Sum of n terms of a G.P. Progression ( A.P.)
• Sum of infinite terms of a G.P. Consider the following sequences
• H.P. and A.G.P. 1) 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
• A.M., G.M, H.M. 2) 4, 10, 16, 22, 28, …
3) 4, 16, 64, 256, …
Let's Recall 1 1 1
4) , , ,…
5 25 125
2.1 Sequence : 5) -3, 2, 7, 12, 17, …
A set of numbers where the numbers are The sequences 1), 2) and 5) are A. P. but the
arranged in a definite order,like the natural terms in sequences 3) and 4) are not in A. P. as
the difference between their consecutive terms is
numbers, is called a sequence.
not constant.
Examples : Natural numbers, Even integers
If t1, t2, t3....., tn are in A.P. then tn+1 − tn = d, is constant
between 10 and 100, Squares of integers.
for all n.
In general, a sequence is written as t1, t2, t3, Hence the sequence can also be written as
t4....,tn .... where t1 - first term, t4 - fourth term, ..., a, a+d, a+2d, .... . Its nth term is tn = a + (n-1)d,
tn - nth term. t1 = a and sum of n terms i.e.

Finite sequence – A sequence containing finite n

Sn = t1 + t2 + ..... + tn = [2a + (n-1)d].
number of terms is called a finite sequence. 2

It is written as {t1, t2, t3....., tn} for some positive If t1, t2, t3....., tn are in A.P. then
integer n. i) t1+ k, t2+ k, t3+ k, ..... tn + k are also in A.P.
ii) k t1, kt2, kt3, .... , ktn are also in A.P. (k ≠ 0)
Infinite sequence – A sequence is said to be
infinite if it is not a finite sequence.
Let's Learn
It is written as {t1, t2, t3.....} or {tn} n ≥ 1
2.3 Geometric progression :
Sequences that follow specific patterns are
called progressions. A sequence t1, t2, t3....., tn ..... is G.P. (Geometric
t n +1
In the previous class, we have studied progression) if the common ratio = r is
tn
Arithmetic Progression (A.P.). constant for all n.
23
Hence a G.P. can also be written as a, ar2, ar3, .... −3 9
Solution : Here t1 = 1 , t2= , t3= ,
where a is first term and r is common ratio. 2 4
-3
Examples : t2 −3
2
Consider = t = =
i) 2, 4, 8, 16, .... [here a = 2, r = 2] 1 1 2
1 t3
ii) 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , .... [a = 1, r = ] 
 9   2  −3
3 9 27 3 and t2     = 2
 4  3 
iii) 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, -1, .... [a = 1, r = −1]
Here the ratio of any two consecutive terms
2.3.1 The General term or the nth term of a G.P. is constant hence the given sequence is a G.P.
8
For G.P., t1 = a, t2 = ar, t3 = ar2, t4 = ar3, ...  3 
Now t9 = ar 9-1
=ar =1  
8

If a and r are the first term and common ratio  2 

of a G.P. respectively. Then its nth term is given
by tn= arn-1. (Verify) Ex. 2) Which term of the sequence

Ex. Find nth term of the following G.P. 3 , 3, 3 3 , .... is 243?

i) 3, -6, 12, -24, … Solution : Here a = 3 , r = 3, tn= 243

Here a = 3 , r = -2 and tn = a rn−1
Since tn= arn-1 = 3 (-2)n-1 ∴ a rn-1 = 243

1 1 3 .( 3 )n-1 = 243 = 35
ii) 5, 1, , ,…
5 25 n

1 ∴ ( 3 ) n = 3 2 = 35
Here a = 5 , r=5
n
n 1 n2 ∴ =5
1 1 2
Since tn = arn-1 = 5   =  .
5 5 ∴ n = 10
Properties of Geometric Progression. ∴ Tenth term of the G.P. is 243.

If t1, t2, t3, .....tn are in G.P. then Ex. 3) For a G.P. If a = 3 and t7 = 192 find r and t11.

1 1 1 Solution : Given a = , t7 = ar = 192

(i) , , , ..... 1 are also in G.P. 192
t1 t2 t3 tn ∴ ( r) = 192 , r = = 64
3
ii) (k = 0) k t1, kt2, kt3, .... ktn are also in G.P. ∴r = 2 ,
∴ r= 2 .
iii) t1n, t2n, t3n, ... are also in G.P.
also t11= a r = 3 (2) = .
SOLVED EXAMPLES 1
Ex 4) In a G.P. ,if the third term is and sixth
5
−3 9 −27 1
Ex. 1) Verify whether 1, , , , … is a term is , find its nth term .
2 4 4 625
G.P., if it is a G.P. Find its ninth term. 1 1
Solution : Here t3= , t6 =
5 625
24
 1 Let’s Note :
t3 = ar2 = …(1),
5 i) Three numbers in G.P. can be conveniently
1 a
t6 = ar5 = …(2) assumed as , a, ar
625 r
Divide equation (2) by equation (1), we get ii) Assume 4 numbers in a G.P. as
ar 5 (1 / 625) a a
= , , ar, ar3 (Here ratio is r2)
ar 2 (1 / 5) r3 r
iii) Assume 5 numbers in a G.P. as
1 1 a a
r3= = 3 , , a, ar, ar2
125 5 r2 r
1
∴r= 5 . Ex 6) Find three numbers in G.P. such that their
Substitute in equation (2), we get sum is 42 and their product is 1728.
2
1 Solution : Let the three numbers in G.P. be
1
a  = 5 a
5 , a, ar .
r
∴ a = 5.
n 1
As their product is 1728
1 a .a.ar = 1728
tn= arn-1 = 5   = 5 × (5)1-n = (5)2-n.
5 r
5n-2 ∴ a3 = 1728 = (12)3
Ex 5) If for a sequence {tn}, tn = n-3 show that
4
∴ a = 12.
the sequence is a G.P. Find its first term and the
common ratio. According to first condition, their sum is 42
5n-2 a
Solution: tn = 4n-3 ∴ r + a + ar = 42

5n-1 12
∴ tn+1 = 4n-2 ∴ r + 12 + 12r = 42
12
5n-1 ∴ r + 12r = 30
t +1 4n-2 5n-1 4n-3
Consider n = n−2 = 4n-2 × 5n-2 Multiply by r
tn 5
4n−3
∴12 + 12r2 = 30r
5n 1 n  2 5 ∴12r2 − 30r + 12 = 0
n  2  n  3 = 4 = constant, ∀ n ∈ N.
4
Dividing by 6, we get
5
The given sequence is a G.P. with r = . ∴ 2r2 - 5r + 2 = 0
4
16
and t1 = 5 . ∴ (2r-1) ( r-2 ) = 0
∴ 2r =1 or r = 2
1
∴r= 2 r=2

25
 1 Ex 8) If p, q, r, s are in G.P. then show that
If a= 12, r = 2 then the required numbers are
( q-r)2 + ( r-p ) 2 + (s-q)2 = (p-s)2
24, 12, 6.
q r s
If a = 12, r =2 then the required numbers are Solution : Since, p, q, r, s are in G.P. p = q = r
6, 12, 24.
∴ q2 = pr , r2 = qs , qr = ps
∴ 24, 12, 6 or 6, 12, 24 are the three required
consider L.H.S. = (q − r)2 + (r − p)2 + (s − q)2
numbers in G.P.
= q2-2qr + r2 + r2-2rp + p2 + s2-2sq + q2
Ex 7) Find four numbers in G. P. such that their
product is 64 and sum of the second and third = pr -2qr +qs + qs -2rp + p2 +s2 -2sq + pr
number is 6.
= -2qr +p2+s2 = -2ps +p2+s2 (⸪ qr = ps )
a a
Solution : Let the four numbers be 3 , , ar , ar3 = (p-s)2 = R.H.S.
r r
(common ratio is r2)
According to the first condition Ex 9) Shraddha deposited Rs. 8000 in a bank which
a a pays annual interest rate of 8%.She kept it with the
r3 × r × ar × ar = 64
3
bank for 10 years with compound interest. Find
the total amount she will receive after 10 years.
∴ a4 = 64
[given (1.08 )­­10 = 2.1575)]
∴ a = (26)1/4 = 23/2
Solution:
∴a= 2 2 . The Amount deposited in a bank is Rs 8000 with
a 8% compound interest.
Now using second condition + ar = 6
r
2 2 + 2 2r = 6. Each year , the ratio of the amount to the
108
r
principal to that year is constant =
Multiplying by r, 100

2 2 + 2 2 r2 = 6r Hence we get a G.P. of successive amounts.

Dividing by 2 We consider the amount at the end of each year
for Rs 100 , the amount is 108.
2+ 2 r2 = 3r amount 108
2 r2 – 3r + 2 =0, The ratio of principal = .
100
2 r 2 -2r –r+ 2 = 0, For P = 8000 ,
2 r (r - 2 ) - 1 (r − 2 ) = 0. the amount after 1 year is
(r - 2 ) ( 2 r - 1) = 0. 8  8 
8000 + 8000 ×
100
= 8000 1  
 100 
1
r= 2 or r = . 108
2 = 8000 ×
100
If a = 2 2 , r = 2 then 1, 2, 4, 8 are the four
108 108
required numbers in G.P. the amount after 2 years is 8000 × × 100
100
1 2
If a = 2 2 , r = then 8, 4, 2, 1 are the four 108
2 = 8000 ×
100
required numbers in G.P.

26
 108 108 7
the amount after 3 years is 8000 × × ii) If a= , r = 3 find t6.
100 100 243
108 iii ) If r = − 3 and t6 = 1701, find a.
× 100
2
iv) If a = , t6 = 162, find r .
3 3
108
= 8000 × .
100
3) Which term of the G.P. 5, 25, 125, 625, … is
Therefore after 10 years the amount is 510?
10
= 8000
108 4) For what values of x, the terms
100 4
, x , 4 are in G.P?
3 27

= 8000 (1.08)10
5n-3

= 8000 × 2.1575 = 17260. 5) If for a sequence, tn = 2n-3 , show that the
sequence is a G.P. Find its first term and the
Thus Shraddha will get Rs 17260 after 10 years.
common ratio.
The formula to find amount by compound interest 6) Find three numbers in G.P. such that their
is sum is 21 and sum of their squares is 189.
N
 R 
A= P  1 +  7) Find four numbers in G.P. such that sum of
 100 
the middle two numbers is 10/3 and their
N
A  R  product is 1.
∴ = 1 + 
P  100  8 ) Find five numbers in G. P. such that their
R 
N product is 1024 and fifth term is square of the

Note that, ( 1 +  is a G.P.] third term.
 100 
9) The fifth term of a G.P. is x , eighth term of
a G.P. is y and eleventh term of a G.P. is z
EXERCISE 2.1 verify whether y2 = x z .
10) If p,q,r,s are in G.P. show that p+q , q+r , r+s
1) Check whether the following sequences are are also in G.P.
G.P. If so, write tn.
11) The number of bacteria in a culture doubles
i) 2, 6, 18, 54, … every hour. If there were 50 bacteria
ii) 1, -5, 25, -125 … originally in the culture, how many bacteria
will be there at the end of 5th hour ?
iii) 1 , 1 , 1 , …
5,
5 5 5 25 5 12) A ball is dropped from a height 0f 80 ft.
th
iv) 3, 4, 5, 6, … 3
The ball is such that it rebounds   of the
4
v) 7, 14, 21, 28, …
height it has fallen. How high does the ball
rebound on 6th bounce? How high does the
2) For the G.P. ball rebound on nth bounce?
1
i) If r = , a = 9 find t7
3
27
13) The numbers 3, x and x + 6 are in G.P. Find 2) If r is positive and r > 1, it is convenient to
(i) x, (ii) 20th term (iii) nth term. a(rn–1)
write Sn = r – 1
14) Mosquitoes are growing at a rate of 10%
a year. If there were 200 mosquitoes in 3) If r = 1 then G.P. is a, a, a ...a (n times),
the begining. Write down the number of So, Sn = a. n
mosquitoes after (i) 3 years (ii) 10 years
4) Sn – Sn-1 = tn
(iii) n years.
15) The numbers x − 6, 2x and x2 are in G.P. Find
SOLVED EXAMPLES
(i) x (ii) 1st term (iii) nth term.

Ex 1) If a = 1, r = 2 find Sn for the G.P.

Let's Learn
Solution : a = 1 , r = 2
2.3.2 Sum of the first n terms of a G.P. (Sn)  r n 1   2n  1 
Sn = a   = 1 ×   = 2n – 1 .
Consider the G.P. t1, t2, t3, ..... tn .... . we write  r  1   2  1 
the sum of first n terms
Ex 2) For a G.P. 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.016, …,
n

t1+ t2+ t3 + ..... + tn as  tr = Sn find Sn.

r 1
0.04
Note : ∑ is the notation of summation, the sum is Solution : Here a = 0.02, r = 0.02 = 2
of all tr (1 < r < n)
n  r n 1   2n  1 
In ∑ the variable is r. Sn = a   = 0.02  
r=1  r 1   2 1 
Theorem : If a, ar, ar2, ...., arn-1 (r ≠ 1) is a G.P. then = 0.02 . (2n -1)
Sn = a + ar2 + .... + arn−1 = t1+ t2+ t3 + ..... + tn
n
a (1  r n ) Ex 3) For the following G.P. 3, -3, 3, -3, …,
=  tr  ...  r  1
r i (1  r ) find Sn.
Proof : Consider Sn = a + ar + ar2 + .... + arn-1 Solution :
Sn = a(1+r+r2+r3+ ... + rn-1) ... (1) Case (i)
Multiplying both sides by r we get If n is even , n = 2k
r Sn = a(r+r2+r3+ ... + rn) ... (2) S2k = (3-3) + (3-3) + (3-3) + ( 3-3) + ... 2k terms
Subtract (2) from (1) we get Sn – Sn r = a (1-rn) = (3+3+ ... k terms) + (-3, -3, -3, ... k terms)
∴ Sn (1-r) = a (1-rn) = 3k - 3k = 0
a(1– r ) n
∴ Sn = 1 – r , r ≠ 1.
Case (ii)
If n is odd , n = 2k +1
Let’s note :
1) If r is positive and r < 1, it is convenient to S2k+1 = (3 + 3 + 3 .... k terms)
a(1– rn) + (-3, -3, -3, ... k terms) + 3 = 3k - 3k + 3 = 3
write Sn = 1 – r

28
Ex 4) For a G.P. if a=6 , r =2 , find S10. Dividing (2) by (1) we get,
s6 r 6− 1 144
 r n −1  = = 16
Solution: Sn = a  , s3 r −1
3

 r −1 
(r3− 1)(r3+1)
(r3−1) = 9,
 210 − 1   1023 
S10 = 6   =6   = 6 (1023) = 6138 .
 2 −1   1  r3 +1 = 9,
r3 = 8 = 23,
Ex 5) How many terms of G.P. r=2
2 ,22,23,,24.,... are needed to give the sum 2046. Substitute r = 2 in (1) We get

Solution : Here a = 2 , r = 2 , let Sn = 2046.  23 − 1 

a  = 16,
 2 −1 
 r n −1   2n − 1 
∴ 2046 = a   = 2   = 2 (2n-1)  8 −1 
 r − 1   2 − 1  a
 = 16,
 2 −1 
1023 = 2n-1 , 2n = 1024 = 2 10 ∴ n = 10
a (7) = 16 ,
a = 16 / 7
Ex 6) If for a G.P. r=2 , S10 =1023 , find a .

 210 − 1  Ex 9) Find 5+55+555+5555+ ... upto n terms.

Solution : S 10 = a  
 2 −1  Solution:
Let Sn,
∴ 1023 = a (1023)
∴ a =1. = 5+55+555+5555+... upto n terms.
= 5 (1+11+111+... upto n terms)
Ex 7) For a G.P. a = 3 , r = 2 , Sn = 765 , find n .
5
 2n − 1  = (9+99+999+... upto n terms)
9
Solution :Sn= 765 = 3   = 3 (2n −1) ,
 2 − 1  5
= [(10-1) + (100-1) + (1000-1) + ... to n
9
∴ 255 = 2n – 1, brackets]
2n = 256 = 28, 5
n = 8. = [(10 + 100 + 1000 +... upto n terms)
9
− (1+1+1+ …..upto n terms)]
Ex 8) For a G.P. if S3= 16, S6=144, find the first
[(a = 10, r = 10) and (a = 1, r = 1)]
term and the common ratio of the G.P.
5   10 − 1  
n
Solution : Given
10 −n
9   10 − 1  
=
 r3 −1 
S3 = a   = 16 … (1)
 r −1 
5 10 n
 r 6 −1 
=
9  9
(10 − 1) − n 
S6 = a   = 144 ... (2)
 r −1 

29
Ex 10) Find the sum to n terms 0.3+0.33+0.333+ Ex 12) For a sequence , if Sn = 5(4n-1), find the
... n terms nth term, hence verify that it is a G.P., Also find r.
Solution : Solution :Sn = 5(4n-1), Sn-1= 5 (4n-1-1)
Sn = 0.3+0.33+0.333+ upto n terms We know that tn = Sn – Sn-1
= 3 [0.1+0.11+ 0.111+ ... n terms] = 5(4n −1) − 5 (4n-1−1)
Multiply and divide by 9 = 5 (4n) – 5 – 5(4n−1)+5
3
= 9 [0.9+0.99+ 0.999+ ... n terms] = 5(4n − 4n-1)
3
= 9 [(1-0.1)+(1-0.01)+(1-0.001)+ ... to n = 5 (4n-1) (4 – 1)
terms] = 5 (4n-1)(3)
3
= 9 [(1+1+1 ...... n terms) ∴ tn = 15 (4n-1)
- (0.1+0.01+ 0.001+ ...... n terms)] Then, tn+1 = 15 (4n)
[(a = 1, r = 1) and (a = 0.1, r = 0.1)] tn+1 15 (4n)
and t = 15 (4n-1)
3  (1 − 0.1n)  n
 n − 0. 1
= 9
 (1 − 0.1)  = 4n−n+1 = 4
3  1 n  = constant ∀ n ∈ N.
= 9  n − 9 (1 − 0.1 ) 
r = 4.
The sequence is a G.P. with tn=15(4n-1).
Ex 11) Find the nth term of the sequence
0.4 , 0.44, 0.444,… Ex 13) A teacher wanted to reward a student by
Solution : giving some chocolates. He gave the student two
choices. He could either have 60 chocolates at
Here t1=0.4 once or he could get 1 chocolate on the first day,
t2=0.44 = 0.4 + 0.04 2 on the second day, 4 on the third day and so
on for 6 days.Which option should the student
t3= 0.444 = 0.4+0.04+0.004 choose to get more chocolates? 
tn= 0.4 + 0.04 + 0.004 + 0.0004 + ... upto n terms Ans : We need to find sum  of chocolates in 6
here tn is the sum of first n terms of a G.P. days. 

with a = 0.4 and r = 0.1 According to second option teacher gives

1 chocolate on the first day , 2 on the second day,
 1 − 0.1n  0.4 4  on the third day, and so on.Hence it is a G. P .
tn= 0.4   = [1- 0.1)n]
 1 − 0.1  0.9 with a = 1, r = 2 .
4
= 9 [1- (0.1)n].  r n −1 
By using Sn = a  
 r −1 

30
  26 − 1  Mr. Pritesh will get Rs. 5,85,640 in the fifth year
S6 = 1  and his total earnings through salary in 10 years
 2 −1 
will be Rs 63,74,960.
= 64 -1 = 63        
Hence the student should choose the second way
EXERCISE 2.2
to get more chocolates. 

Ex 14) Mr. Pritesh got a job with an annual 1) For the following G.P.s , find Sn
salary package of Rs. 4,00,000 with 10% annual i) 3, 6, 12, 24, ...
q2
ii) p, q, , q2 , …
3
increment. Find his salary in the 5th year and also
p p
find his total earnings through salary in 10 years.
iii) 0.7, 0.07, 0.007, ....
[Given (1.1)4 = 1.4641, (1.1)10 = 2.59374]
iv) 5 , -5, 5 5 , -25…
Solution : In the year he will get a salary of
Rs. 4,00,000. 2) For a G.P.
2
He gets an increment of 10% so in the second year i) a = 2, r = − 3 , find S6
his salary will be
ii) If S5 = 1023 , r = 4, Find a
 110 
4, 00, 000 ×   = 4, 40, 000
 100  3) For a G.P.
In the third year his salary will be i) If a =2, r = 3, Sn = 242 find n.
2 ii) For a G.P. sum of first 3 terms is 125
 110  and so on ...
4, 00, 000 ×   and sum of next 3 terms is 27,
 100 
find the value of r .
hence it is a G.P. with a = 4,00,000 & r = 1.1.
So, his salary in the fifth year will be 4) For a G.P.
4 i) If t3 = 20 , t6= 160 , find S7
 110 
t5 = ar = 4, 00, 000 × 
4
 = 585640. ii) If t4 =16 , t9 =512 , find S10
 100 
His total income through salary in 10 years 5) Find the sum to n terms
 r −1 
10
i) 3 + 33 + 333 + 3333 + ...
will be S10 = a  
 r −1  ii) 8 +88 + 888 + 8888 + ...
[⸪ (1.1)10 = 2.59374] 6) Find the sum to n terms
 2.59374 − 1  i) 0.4 + 0.44 + 0.444 + ...
= 4,00,000 ×  
 0.1  ii) 0.7 + 0.77+ 0.777 + ...
 1.59374 
= 4,00,000   7) Find the sum to n terms of the sequence
 0.1 
= 4,00,000 [15.9374] = 63,74,960. i) 0.5, 0.05, 0.005, ...
ii) 0.2, 0.02, 0.002, ...

31
8) For a sequence, if Sn = 2 ( 3n-1) , find the 1 1 1 1
Example : 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + ...
nth term, hence show that the sequence is
a G.P. Solution :
1
9) If S,P,R are the sum , product and sum of the here a = 1, r = 2 , i.e. r < 1
reciprocals of n terms of a G. P. respectively,
∴ Sum to infinity is given by
n
S 
then verify that   = P2. a 1 1
R
1−r = =
1 1
=2
1    
10) If Sn ,S2n ,S3n are the sum of n,2n,3n terms of 2 2
a G.P. respectively , then verify that
Visual proof : This can be visualised taking a
Sn (S3n - S2n) = ( S2n - Sn ) 2.
rectangle of 2×1 containing smaller rectangles of
10 10
1 1
area 1, 2 , 4 , ... square units.
11) Find (i)  (3  2 )
r 1
r
(ii)  5 3
r 1
r

12) The value of a house appreciates 5% per year.

How much is the house worth after 6 years
if its current worth is Rs. 15 Lac. [Given :
(1.05)5 = 1.28, (1.05)6 = 1.34]

13) If one invests Rs. 10,000 in a bank at a rate of

interest 8% per annum, how long does it take Fig. 2.1
to double the money by compound interest?
These rectangles are seen to be completely in the
[(1.08)5 = 1.47]
big rectangle and slowly fills up the big rectangle
of area two square units.
2.4 Sum of infinite terms of G. P. 1 1
That is 1 + 2 + 4 + .... = 2.
Consider a G.P. of the positive terms. The sum of
a (rn − 1) a (1 − rn)
first n terms is = where r ≠1
(r − 1) (1 − r)
SOLVED EXAMPLES
If r > 1, r −1 is constant but rn approaches ∞
as n approaches ∞, so the infinite terms cannot be Ex. 1) Determine whether the sum of all the terms
summed up. in the series is finite. In case it is finite find it.

i) 1, 1 , 1 ,…
If r < 1, rn approaches 0, as n approaches ∞ and 3 32 33
a (1 − rn) a
the sum Sn =
(1 − r)
approaches
1−r ii) 3 , −9 27 , −81 …
5 25 125 625

a iii) 1, -3, 9, -27, 81, …
Here the infinite sum  tr is said to be
r 1 1- r

32
Solution: iii) 2. 5 = 2 + 0.5 + 0. 05+ 0.005 + 0.0005 + ...
1 1 1 After the first term,the terms are in G.P. with
i) Here a = , |r| = = <1
3 3 3
a = 0.5 , |r| = |0.1| < 1
∴ Sum to infinite terms is finite.
∴ Sum to infinite terms is finite and is
1 1
    1 a 0.5 0.5 5
a 3 3  = = = 9
S= = = 1−r 1− 0.1 0.9
1 − r 1  1  2 2
    5 23
3 3 2. 7 = 2 + 9 =
9
3 3 -3 3
ii) Here a = , r = - , |r| = = <1
5 5 5 5
∴ Sum to infinite terms is finite. EXERCISE 2.3

3 3
a     3 1) Determine whether the sum to infinity of the
= 5 =   = 8
5
S= following G.P.s exist, if exists find them
1−r 3 8
1  ( )  
5 5 i) 1, 1, 1, 1 ,…
2 4 8 16
iii) Here a=1 , r = -3 |r| = |−3| = 3 <1
ii) 2, 4 , 8 , 16 , …
∴ sum to infinity does not exist 3 9 27
−1 1
2.4.1 Expressing recurring decimals as rational iii) -3, 1, , ,…
3 9
numbers :
−2
iv) 1 , , 4 , −8 , 16 , …
We know that recurring decimal fraction can 5 5 5 5 5
be written as rational numbers e.g. 0.666 ... 0.6
v) 9, 8.1, 7.29, ...
2
= . This can also be checked using G.P.
3
2) Express the following recurring decimals as
Ex i) 0.66666… a rational number.
= 0.6 + 0.06 + 0.006 +… i) 0. 7
the terms are in G.P. with a=0.6, |r| = |0.1| < 1 ii) 2. 4
∴ Sum to infinite terms is finite and is
iii) 2.3 5
a 0.6 0.6 6 2
= 1−0.1 = = 9 = 3 iv) 51.0 2
1−r 0.9
2
ii) 0. 46 = 0.46+0.0046+0.000046 + … 3) If the common ratio of a G.P. is and sum
3
the terms are in G.P. with a = 0.46 , to infinity is 12. Find the first term.
|r| = |0.01| < 1.
4) If the first term of the G.P. is 16 and its sum
∴ Sum to infinite terms is finite and is
96
a 0.46 0.46 46 to infinity is find the common ratio.
= 1 − (0.01) = = 99 . 17
1−r 0.99

33
5) The sum of an infinite G.P. is 5 and the sum 1
For A.P. tn = a + (n-1 ) d = 2 + (n-1 )
of the squares of these terms is 15 find the 2
G.P. 1 1
∞ r
= 2 + 2 n − 2
∞
 1
6) Find (i) ∑ 4(0.5)
r =1
r
(ii) ∑  − 3  3 n
r =1 = 2 + 2
∞ r ∞

)  −  ∑ 0.4
1 n
(iii) ∑ ( −8 (iv) 3+n
 2 n=1
= 2 .
r =0

7) The mid points of the sides of a square of 2

Therefore in H.P. tn = 3+n
side 1 are joined to form a new square. This
procedure is repeated indefinitely. Find the
sum of (i) the areas of all the squares (ii) the
1 −1 −1
Ex. 2) Find the nth term of H.P. , 1, , ,...
5 3 7
perimeters of all the square.
Solution: Since 5, 1, -3, -7, … are in A.P.
8) A ball is dropped from a height of 10m. It
bounces to a height of 6m, then 3.6m and so with a= 5 and d = -4
on. Find the total distance travelled by the Hence tn= a + (n−1) d
ball.
= 5 + (n−1) (−4)
2.5 Harmonic Progression ( H. P. ) = 5 -4n +4 = 9-4n.
Definition : A sequence t1, t2, t3, t4 , …, tn, ...
1
(tn≠ 0, n ∈ N) is called a harmonic progression if For H.P. tn= 9−4n
1 1 1 1
t1 , t2 , t3 …, t , … are in A.P. 2.6 Types of Means:
n

e.g., i) 1 , 1 , 1 … are in H. P. as 2.6.1 Arithmetic mean (A. M.):

7 11 15
1
, 1 , 1 i.e. 7, 11, 15 … are in A.P. If x and y are two numbers, their A.M. is given by
1 1 1 x+y
7 11 15 A= 2 .
1 3 3
ii) , , … is H.P. as 4, 14 , 16 , ... are We observe that x, A , y form an A.P.
4 14 16 3 3
x+y
in A.P. i.e. A - x = y - A ∴ 2A = x + y ∴ A = 2

SOLVED EXAMPLES 2.6.2 Geometric mean (G. M.) :

If x and y are two numbers having same sign
Ex. 1) Find the nth term of the H.P. (positive or negative), their G.M. is given by
1 , 2 , 1 , 2… G = xy .

2 5 3 7
We observe that x, G, y form a G.P.
5 7
Solution : Here 2, , 3, … are in A.P. with G y
2 2 i.e. = ∴ G2 = x y
1 x G
1 2 1 2
a= 2 and d = 2 hence , , , , … are in
2 5 3 7 ∴ G= xy
H.P.

34
2.6.3 Harmonic mean (H.M.) : 1
( )
2
= x − y <0
If x and y are two numbers, their H.M. is given 2
2xy Since squares are always
by H = x+y . non-negative.
We observe that x, H, y form an HP . ∴A−G≥0 ∴A≥G (I)
1 1 1 A
i.e. , , is in A.P. ∴ ≥1 (II)
x H y G

1 1 Now since G2 = AH
1 x + y x+y 2xy
∴ = = 2xy ∴ H = x+y G A
H 2 = ≥1 (From II)
H G
Note 1) : These results can be extended to n G
∴ H ≥1∴G≥H (III)
numbers as follows
x1+ x2+ x3+... + xn From (I) and (III)
A= n A≥G≥H
G = x1.x2 .x3 ... xn
n

n
H= SOLVED EXAMPLES
1 1 1 1
+ + + .... +
x1 x2 x3 xn
Ex. 1 : Find A.M.,G.M.,H.M. of the numbers
4 and 16
2) If x = y then A = G = H
Solution : Here x = 4 and y = 16
Theorem : If A, G and H are A.M., G.M., H.M.
x+y 4+16 20
of two positive numbers x and y respectively, then = A 2 = 2 = 2 = 10
i) G2 = AH ii) A ≥ G ≥ H
G= xy = 4 ×16 = 64 = 8
Proof : Let A, G and H be A.M., G.M and H.M.
of two positive numbers x and y 2xy 2×4×16 128 32
H = x+y = 4+16 = 20 = 5
Then
x+y 2xy Ex. 2 : Insert 4 terms between 2 and 22 so that the
=
A 2 , G= xy , H = x+y new sequence is in AP.

x+y 2xy Solution: Let A1, A2, A3, A4 be the four terms
i) RHS = AH = x+y between 2 and 22 so that
2
= xy = G2 = L.H.S. 2, A1, A2, A3, A4, 22 are in AP with
x+y a = 2, t6 = 22, n = 6 .
ii) ConsiderA-G = 2 − xy
∴ 22 = 2 + (6-1)d = 2 + 5d
1
= (x+y -2 xy ) 20 = 5d, d = 4
2
1 2 2 A1 = a+d = 2+4 = 6,
= x + y -2 x y
2
A2 = a+2d = 2+8 = 10,

35
 A3 = a+3d = 2+3×4 = 2+12 = 14 t3= G2 = ar2 = 1(3)2 = 9
A4 = a+4d = 2 + 4×4 = 2+16 = 18. ∴ 3 and 9 are the two required numbers between
1 and 27.
∴ the 4 terms between 2 and 22 are 6, 10, 14, 18.
Ex: 5 The A.M. of two numbers exceeds their
2 1
Ex: 3 Insert two numbers between and so 18
9 12 G.M. by 2 and their H.M. by 5 . Find the
that the resulting sequence is a HP. Numbers.
1 Solution : Given A= G + 2
Solution : Let the required numbers be and
H1
1 ∴ G = A − 2 .... (I)
H2 18 18
Also A= H + 5 ∴H=A− ..... (II)
5
∴ 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 are in HP. We know that G 2 = A H
9 H1 H2 12
18
9 (A−2) 2= A (A − 5 ) .... from (I) and (II)
∴ , H1 , H2, 12 are in A.P.
2 18
9 9 A2− 4A + 22 = A2 – A
t1 = a = , t4 = 12 = a+3d ∴ 2 + 3d = 12 5
2 18
A – 4A = − 4
9 24−9 15 5
∴ 3d = 12 – = 2 = 2
2 −2A = − 4 × 5,
5
∴ d = 2 ∴ A = 10
9 5 14 Also G =A−2 = 10 − 2 = 8
t2 = H1 = a+d = + = 2 =7.
2 2
Now, let the two numbers be x and y.
9 5 19 x+y
t3 = H2= a+2d = +2× = 2
2 2 As A = 2 = 10, x+y = 20,
1 2 ∴ y = 20 - x ... (III)
and are to be
7 19
Now G = xy = 8
2 1
inserted between and
9 12 ∴ xy = 64 ... (IV)
∴ x(20 − x) = 64 ... from (III) and (IV)
Ex: 4 Insert two numbers between 1 and 27 so
that the resulting sequence is a G.P. 20x – x2 = 64
Solution: Let the required numbers be G1 and G2 x2-20x + 64 = 0
∴ 1, G1, G2, 27 are in G.P. (x-16) (x-4) = 0
∴ t1 =1 , t2 = G1 , t3 = G2 ,t4 = 27 x =16 or x = 4
∴ a = 1 , t4 = ar3 = 27 ∴ r3 = 27 If x = 16 then y = 4
∴ r3 = 27 = 33 ∴ r = 3 If x = 4 then y = 16.
t2 = G1 = ar = 1 × 3 = 3. The required numbers are 4 and 16.

36
 9) Find two numbers whose A.M. exceeds their
EXERCISE 2.4
1 25
GM by and their HM by 26
2
1) Verify whether the following sequences are
H.P.
Let's Learn
i) 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,…
3 5 7 9
2.7 ARITHMETICO-GEOMETRIC
1 1 1 1 PROGRESSION (A.G.P.) :
ii) , , , ,…
3 6 12 24
Definition : A sequence in which each term is
iii) 5, 10 , 10 , 10 , … the product of the corresponding terms of an A.P.
17 32 47 and G.P. is called and arithmetico - geometric
progression (AGP).
2) Find the nth term and hence find the 8 thterm
e.g. Consider the sequence
of the following HPs
(a) (a+d) (a+2d) (a+3d)
1 1 1 1
i) , , , ,… A.P. 2 5 8 11
2 5 8 11
G.P. 1 3 9 27
1 1 1 1
ii) , , , ,… (1) (r) (r2) (r3)
4 6 8 10
A.G.P. is a, (a+d)r, (a+2d) r2 , (a+3d) r3 , …
1 1 1 1
iii) , , , … i.e. 2×1, 5×3, 8×9, 11×27,...
5 10 15 20 ,
Here the first factors of the terms are in AP and the
3) Find A.M. of two positive numbers whose second factors are in G.P.
16
G.M. and H. M. are 4 and 5 respectively. Therefore the given sequence forms an A.G.P.

4) Find H.M. of two positive numbers A.M. and nth term of A.G.P.
15
G.M. are and 6 t1 = a×1, t2 = (a+d)r, t3 = (a+2d)r2, ....
2
∴ tn = [a + (n − 1)d] rn-1
5) Find GM of two positive numbers whose
A.M. and H.M. are 75 and 48 2.7.1 Sum of n terms of A.G.P.:
1 1 Let Sn = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r2 + ...
6) Insert two numbers between and so
4 3
that the resulting sequence is a HP. + [a + (n − 1)d]rn−1

∴ Sn = a + ar + dr + ar2 + 2dr2 + ....

7) Insert two numbers between 1 and −27 so
that the resulting sequence is a G.P. + arn−1 + (n−1)drn−1 ...(i)

8) If the A.M. of two numbers exceeds their ∴ rSn = ar + ar2 + dr2 + ar3 +2dr3 + ...
18
G.M. by 2 and their H.M. by , find the + arn + (n −1)drn ...(ii)
5
numbers. Subtracting (ii) from (i) we get

37
Sn − rSn = a + dr + dr2 + ... drn−1 − arn − (n −1)drn
EXERCISE 2.5
∴ Sn (1− r) = a + dr + dr + ....
2

+ drn−1 − [a + n(n−1)d]rn
1) Find Sn of the following arithmetico -
 1 r n 1
 geometric sequences
Sn (1−r) = a + dr   − [a + (n−1)d]r
n

 (1  r )  i) 2, 4x, 6x2, 8x3, 10x4, …

a dr(1−r n−1) [a+(n−1)d]rn
Sn = 1−r + (1−r)2 − ii) 1, 4x, 7x2, 10x3, 13x4, …
1− r
(r ≠1) iii) 1, 2×3, 3×9, 4×27, 5×81, …
Note that, sum to infinity of A.G.P. is iv)) 3, 12, 36, 96, 240, …
a dr
1−r + (1−r)2 2) Find the sum to infinity of the following
arithmetico - geometric sequence
SOLVED EXAMPLE
i) 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , …
4 16 64
Ex 1) Find tn and the sum of n terms of
ii) 3, 6 , 9 , 12 , 15 , …
1, 4, 12, 32, 80, 192, ... 5 25 125 625

Solution: Given sequence can be written as −4 7 −10

iii) 1, , , …
3 9 27
1×1, 2×2, 3×4, 4×8, 5×16, …
We observe that first factors in each term 1, 2, 3, Properties of Summation
4, 5, ... are in A.P. with a = 1,d = 1 n n

and the second factors in each term 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,

i)  ktr = k  tr , ... k ≠ 0
r 1 r 1

… are in G.P with r = 2 where k is a nonzero constant.

∴ tn= [a + (n − 1)d]rn−1 n n n
ii)  (ar + br) =  ar +  br
= [1 + (n − 1)]2n−1 = n.2n−1 r 1 r 1 r 1
n
We know that Sn of A.G.P. is given by
iii) ∑ 1= n
a (1−rn−1) [a+(n−1)d]rn 1
Sn = 1−r + dr (1−r)2 − 1− r ( r ≠1) n n

Substituting the values of a,d,r we get ,

iv) k = k
1
1  kn ,
1
... k ≠ 0

1 (1−2n−1) [1+(n−1)1]2n Result: 1) The Sum of the first n natural numbers

Sn = 1− 2 + 1 × 2 (1− 2)2 – 1− 2 n
n (n+1)
Sn =
1
+ 2 (1 − 2n-1) + n. 2n
= r = 2
−1 r 1

Sn = −1 + 2− 2n + n . 2n Result 2) The Sum of squares of first n natural

numbers
Sn = 1 – 2n + n 2n
n
n(n+1)(2n+1)
Sn = 1− 2n(1−n) = 1+ (n−1) 2n . =  rr =
r 1
2
6

38
Result 3) The sum of the cubes of the first n 50

 n(n + 1) 
n 2 = ∑ (4r − 1)
natural numbers = ∑ rr =  3 r =1

r =1  2  50 50

= ∑ 4r - ∑ 1
The above results can be proved using r =1 r =1

Mathematical Induction. (Chapter No. 4)

50 50
50(50 + 1)
= 4∑ r -∑ 1 = 4 × - 50
r =1 r =1 2
= 2 × 50 × 51 – 50
SOLVED EXAMPLES
= 50 ( 2 × 51-1)
n
= 50 (101)
Ex 1) Evaluate ∑ r(8r − 7)
r =1 = 5050.
n n n
Solution : ∑ r(8r − 7) = ∑ 8r
r =1
r − ∑ r7
r =1 r =1 Ex 4) Find 1 × 5 + 3 × 7 + 5 × 9 + 7 × 11
n n
n(n + 1)  ... upto n terms.
= 8 ∑ rr - 7 ∑ r1 = 8   - 7n
r =1 r =1  2  Solution : Note that first factors of each term
= 4 ( n2+n) -7n = 4n2 + 4n -7n = 4n2-3n. 1, 3, 5, 7, ... are in A.P. with a =1, d=2.
tr = a + ( r-1)d = 1 + (r-1) 2 = 2r-1.
Ex 2) Find 3 +4 + 5 + ... + 29 .
2 2 2 2
Also the second factors 5,7,9,11, ... are also in
Solution: 3 +4 + 5 + ... + 29
2 2 2 2 A.P. with a= 5 , d = 2 .
= ( 12+ 22 + 32 + ... + 292 ) – (12 + 22 ) tr = 5 + (r-1) 2 = 5+ 2r -2 = 2r+3
29 2 n

=∑ r - 2
∑ r 2 ∴ Sn = ∑ r(2r − 1) (2r + 3)
r =1
r =1 r =1

n
29(29+1)(58+1) 2(2+1)(4+1)
=
6
–
6
= ∑ r(4r
r =1
2
+ 4r − 3)

= (29 × 30 × 59) / 6 – (2 × 3 × 5) / 6 n n n

= (29 × 5 × 59) – 5 = 4 ∑ rr2 + 4 ∑ rr − ∑ r3

r =1 r =1 r =1
= 5 (29 × 59 – 1) = 5 (1711-1)
n(n+1)(2n+1) n(n+1)
= 5 (1710) = 8550 =4 6 +4 2 - 3n

Ex 3) Find 1002 – 992 + 982 – 972 + ... + 22 -12  2(n + 1)(2n + 1) 

Solution : 100 – 99 + 98 – 97 + ... + 2 -1
2 2 2 2 2 2 =n 
 3  + 2 n (n+1) - 3n

= (1002 + 982 + 962 + ... + 22 ) – (992 + 972 + n

= 3 [2(2n + n + 2n +1) + 6(n + 1) - 9]
2
952+ .... + 12)
50 50
n
= ∑
r =1
(2 r) -2
∑
r =1
(2r − 1)2 =
3
[(4n2 + 6n + 2) + 6n − 3]

50
n
= ∑
r =1
(4 r2 - 4r2 + 4r -1) =
3
(4n2 + 12n − 1)

39
2.8 Power Series 1×2 + 2×3 + 3×4 + 4×5 + ... upto n terms
9) If
Some functions can be expressed as infinite sums 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... upto n terms
of powers of x. They are called powers series. 100
= , find n.
3
Some examlpes of Power Series are,
10) If S1 , S2 and S3 are the sums of first n natural
x x2 x3 x4 numbers, their squares and their cubes
1) ex = 1 + + + + + ...
1! 2! 3! 4! respectively then show that -
x3 x5 x7 9 S22 = S3 (1+ 8 S1 ).
2) sin x = x − 3! + 5! − 7! + ...

x2 x4 x6
3) cos x = 1 − + 4! − + ... Let's Remember
2! 6!

x x2 x3 x4 1) For A.P. tn = a + (n-1) d

4) e-x = 1− + − + 4! ...
1! 2! 3!
a (r n - 1)
2) For G.P. tn= a r n-1.
, Sn =
5) If x  < 1 then (r - 1)

x2 x3 x4 x+y
log (1+x) = x − + 3 − 4 3) A.M. of two numbers A= 2
2
The proofs of the equations given above are 4) G.M. of two numbers G = xy
obtained at more advanced stage in mathematics. 2xy
5) H.M. of two numbers H= x+y

EXERCISE 2.6 6) G2 =AH

7) If x = y then A = G = H
n
8) If x ≠ y then H < G < A.
1) Find the sum ∑ r(r + 1) (2r − 1)
r =1
n
2) Find ∑ r(3r 2
− 2r + 1)
r =1 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 2
n
 1 + 2 + 3..... + r 
3) Find ∑ r
r =1 r

 (I) Select the correct answer from the given
alternative.
n
 13 + 23 + ..... + r 3 
4) Find ∑ 
r (r + 1)
 1) The common ratio for the G.P.  0.12,0.24,0.48,
r =1  
is –
5) Find the sum 5 × 7 + 9 × 11 + 13 × 15 + ...
upto n terms. A) 0.12  B) 0.2    C) 0.02  D) 2 .

6) Find the sum 22+42 + 62 + 82 + ... upto n terms. 2) The tenth term of the geometric sequence 
7) Find (702 – 692) + (682-672)+(662-652) + ... 1 −1
, , 1, -2, ... is –
+ ( 22-12 ) 4 2
1 −1
8) Find the sum 1×3×5 + 3×5×7 + 5×7×9 + ... + A) 1024 B) C) -128 D)
1024 128
(2n-1) (2n+1) (2n+3)

40
 t6 1458 (II) Answer the following.
3) If for a G.P. t3 = 54 then r = ? 
1) In a G.P., the fourth term is 48 and the eighth
A) 3  B)   2  C)  1 D)  -1. term is 768. Find the tenth term.

4) Which term of the geometric progression 2) Find the sum of the first 5 terms of the G.P.
1, 2, 4, 8, ... is 2048. 2
whose first term is 1 and common ratio is
A)10th    B) 11th      C) 12th  D) 13th 3
4 243
5) If common ratio of the G.P is 5 , 5th term is 3) For a G.P. a = and t7 = , find the
1875 , the first term is - value of r . 3 1024

A) 3     B) 5    C) 15    D) -5 5n - 2
4) For a sequence , if tn= , verify whether
21 7 n -3
6) The sum of 3 terms of a G.P. is and their the sequence is a G.P. If it is a G.P. , find its
4
product is 1 then the common ratio is – first term and the common ratio.
A) 1  B) 2    C) 4  D) 8 5) Find three numbers in G.P. such that their
5 5 5 sum is 35 and their product is 1000.
7) Sum to infinity of a G.P.  5 ,- , , - ,
5 2 4 8
, ... is -  6) Find five numbers in G.P. such that their
16
product is 243 and sum of second and fourth
1 10 3
A) 5  B) -    C) D) number is 10.
2 3 10
7) For a sequence Sn = 4 ( 7n-1) verify that the
8) The tenth term of H.P. 2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , ... is - sequence is a G.P.
9 7 19 12
1 9 5 8) Find 2+22+222+2222+ ... upto n terms.
A)   B)   C)    D) 27.
27 2 2
9) Find the nth term of the sequence
9) Which of the following is not true, where 0.6,0.66,0.666,0.6666, ...
A, G, H are the AM, GM, HM of a and b n

respectively. (a, b > 0) 10) Find ∑ r(5r

r =1
2
+ 4r -3 )
a+b
A) A =   B) G = ab   n
2 11) Find ∑ rr(r -3 )(r-2)
r =1
2ab
C) H =   D) A = GH . n
a+b 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + r 2
  12) Find ∑
r =1
r
2r + 1
10) The G.M.of two numbers exceeds their H.M.
n
13 + 23 + 33 + ...r 3

6
by , the A.M. exceeds G.M. by  3 the two 13) Find ∑ r
( r + 1)
2
5 2 r =1

numbers are ... 14) Find 2 × 6 + 4 × 9 + 6 × 12 + ... upto n terms.

A) 6, 15/2   B) 15, 25     
15) Find 2 × 5 × 8 + 4 × 7 × 10 + 6 × 9 × 12 + ...
C) 3, 12 D) 6/5, 3/2 . upto n terms.

41
 12 + 22 25) If for a G.P. first term is (27)2 and seventh
12 12 + 22 + 32
16) Find + + + ... upto n term is (8)2 , find S8.
1 2 3
terms.
26) If pth, q th and rth terms of a G.P. are x,y,z
17) Find 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + ... 20
2 2 2 2 2
respectively .Find the value of xq-r .y r-p .zp-q
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ... upto n terms 3
18) If = 27) Which 2 terms are inserted between 5 and 40
1× 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 + 4 × 5 + ... upto n terms 22
so that the resulting sequence is G.P.
Find the value of n .
28) If p,q,r are in G.P. and p1/x = q 1/y = r 1/z ,verify
19) Find ( 50 –49 ) + (48 -47 )+(46 -45 ) + ...
2 2 2 2 2 2
whether x,y,z are in A.P. or G.P. or neither.
+ ( 22-12 ).
29) If a,b,c are in G.P. and ax2+2bx+c= 0 and
5 px2+2qx+r=0 have common roots then verify
1× 3 + 2 × 5 + 3 × 7 + ... upto n terms
20) If = , find that p b2 – 2 q b a + r a2 = 0
1 + 2 + 3 + ... upto n terms
3 3 3
9
the value of n. 30) If p,q,r,s are in G.P., show that (p2+ q2 + r2)
(q2 +r2+ s2 ) = (pq+qr+rs)2
21) For a G.P. if t2 = 7 , t4 = 1575 find a
31) If p,q,r,s are in G.P. , show that (pn + qn),
22) If for a G.P. t3= 1/3 , t6 = 1/81 find r (qn + rn) , (rn+sn) are also in G.P.
n r
2 32) Find the coefficientof x6 in the expansion of
23) Find ∑ r  .

r =1  3  e2x using series expansion .

24) Find k so that k-1,k , k+2 are consecutive 33) Find the sum of infinite terms of
terms of a G.P. 4 7 10 13
1+ + + + + ...
5 25 125 625

v v v

42
 3 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
The theory of permutations and combinations
Let's Study is central in problems of counting a large number
of objects that are impossible to count manually.
• Fundamental principles of counting
The theory of permutations and combinations
• Factorial notation enables us to count objects without listing or
• Permutations enumerating them.
• Permutations of distinct objects
Let us begin with the following simple
• Permutations when some objects are example. Every smartphone requires a passcode
identical
to unlock it. A passcode is formed by four of the
• Circular permutations ten digits on the screen. The order of these four
• Combinations digits cannot be changed for passcode to work.
How many distinct passcodes are possible? Note
that a passcode consists of four digits. The first
Let's Recall
digit of a passcode can be any of the ten digits,
the second digit can be any of the ten digits, and
• The number system.
similarly for the third and fourth digits. This
• The four basic mathematical operations:
addition, subtraction, multiplication, gives a total of 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,000 as the
division. number of distinct possible passcodes.

3.1 INTRODUCTION Consider one more example which is not

as easy as the last example. The school cricket
Counting is a fundamental activity in
team has eleven players. The school wants a
Mathematics. Learning to count was our first
photograph of these players, along with the
step in learning Mathematics. After learning to
principal and the two vice principals of the
count objects one by one, we used operations
school, for school magazine. Seven chairs are
of addition and multiplication to make counting
arranged in a row for the photograph. Three chairs
easy. We shall now learn two more methods of
in the middle are reserved for the principal and
counting to make complicated counting easier.
the two vice principals. Four players will occupy
These two methods are known as permutations
the remaining four chairs and seven players will
and combinations.
stand behind the chairs. The question then is: “In
Permutations refer to the number of different how many different ways can the eleven players
arrangements of given objects, when the order of take positions for the photograph?” This example
objects is important. Combinations are related to will be considered later in the chapter. Till then,
the number of different selections from a given we can try, on our own, to find the number of
set of objects, when the order of objects in the different ways in which the eleven players can sit
selections is immaterial. or stand for the photo.

43
 Let us understand three principles of counting 3.2.1 Addition Principle:
that are fundamental to all methods of counting, Consider the situation where a boy wants
including permutations and combinations. to go for movie. He has three T-shirts of three
3.2 Fundamental principles of counting different colours: white, green, and blue. He also
Tree Diagram has four shirts of four different colours: red, green,
yellow, and orange. How many choices does he
We have learnt in set theory that subsets of
have to wear? This situation can be represented
a set can be represented in the form of a Venn
using a tree diagram as follows. (see fig 3.2)
diagram. An alternative method is to draw a tree
diagram if the subsets are disjoint. For example, What to wear?
The games students play at school are of two types
1) Indoor games, 2) Outdoor games. Available
Shirt T-Shirt
indoor games in school are chess, carrom and
table tennis. While outdoor, games in school are
Red Green White Green
cricket, volleyball, basketball and badminton.
Such information is presented with the help of Yellow Orange Blue
tree-diagram as follows: (see fig 3.1)
Fig. 3.2
School Games The tree diagram shows that the boy has 4 choices
in shirt and 3 choices in T-shirt, i.e. seven choices
Indoor in all.
Outdoor
The boy can choose from 4 Shirts OR from
Chess Carrom Cricket Volley ball 3 T-shirts. Hence, the number of ways of choosing
are 3 + 4 = 7 in all.
Table Tenniss Basket Badminton
ball This example shows that the total number
of outcomes is obtained by adding the number of
Fig. 3.1
outcomes of each characteristic when only one
Diagrams of this nature are called tree diagrams. characteristic is to be chosen.
A tree diagram shows the division of a set into
disjoint subsets. Statement of The Addition Principle.
Addition Principle : Suppose one operation
The fundamental principles of counting
can be done in m ways and another operation can
provide an efficient way of finding the number of
be done in n ways, with no common way among
different ways to carry out two or more activities,
them. If one of these operations is to be performed
either simultaneously or successively (that is, one
then there are m + n ways to do it.
after another).

44
 Ex. 1) A restaurant offers five types of fruit So, the tree diagram shows that there are six
juices and three types of milk shakes. If a customer possible outcomes, i.e. 2 × 3 = 6 ways to serve
wants to order a drink, how many choices does Ice cream.
the customer have?
In the example of Ice cream, the final count
Solution : Since the restaurant offers five fruit of six is obtained by multiplying 3 (number
juices, the customer has five ways of selecting a of flavours) by 2 (number of serving options),
fruit juices. Similarly, since the restaurant offers in either order.
three types of milk shakes, the customer has three
Definition of The Multiplication Principle
ways of selecting a milk shake. Finally, since the
customer wants to select only one drink, there are If one operation can be carried out in m
5 + 3 = 8 choices for the customer. ways, followed by the second operation that can
be carried out in n ways, and these two operations
Ex. 2) Consider an experiment of drawing
are independent then the two operations can be
a card from a pack of 52 playing cards. What is
carried out in m × n ways.
the number of ways in which the drawn card is a
spade or a club? Ex. 1) : Samadhan Bhojanalay offers a thali
that has four items: roti, rice, vegetable and dal.
Solution : Since there are 13 spade cards and
Following choices are available and one option is
13 club cards hence the number of ways in which
to be selected for each item.
the drawn card is spade or club is 13 + 13 = 26
ways. Roti: chapati, tandoor roti

Note : The word ‘OR’ in the statement Rice: plain rice, jeera rice, dal khichadi
suggests addition, i.e. ‘+’. Vegetable: dum aloo, paneer masala, mixed
veg
3.2.2 Multiplication principle
Dal: dal fry, dal tadka
Now, consider the following situation. An
Ice cream is served either in a cup or in a cone. Also, How many different menus are possible?
Ice cream is available in three flavours: vanilla, Solution : Since one option is to be selected
chocolate, and strawberry. This information can for each item, the number of different possible
be represented in the form of a tree diagram as thali choices are identified as follows.
follows. (see Fig 3.3)
Roti 2, Rice 3, Vegetable 3, Dal 2 and hence
Ice Cream
the total number of different possible thali menus
cup Cone is 2 × 3 × 3 × 2 = 36.
Vanila Chocolate Strawberry Vanila Chocolate Strawberry
Ex. 2) A company decides to label each of
Fig. 3.3 its different products with a code that consists of
two letters followed by three digits. How many
There are 2 ways of choosing mode of serving
different products can be labeled in this way?
and 3 ways of choosing flavours.

45
 Solution : Since the first two characters 3.3 Invariance Principle
in a label are letters, they can be formed in The result of counting objects in a set does
26 × 26 = 676 ways. The next three characters are not depend on the order in which these objects are
digits and can be formed in 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 counted or on the method used for counting these
ways. The total number of distinct labels is, by objects.
the multiplication principle, given by 676 × 1000
For example, 1) In earlier example of
= 6,76,000.
addition principle of choosing first from
Activity 1) Suresh has 4 pencils and 2 erasers. 4 Shirts, then from 3 T-Shirts is same as
He wants to take one pencil and one eraser for the choosing first from 3 T-Shirts and then from
4 Shirts.
examination. Can we find the number of ways in
which he can select a pencil and an eraser? 2) In earlier example of multiplication
principle choosing first from 2 modes of servings
Activity 2) Sunil has 4 ballpens of one
and then from 3 flavours is same as choosing first
company and 3 ballpens of another company. In from 3 flavours and then from the 2 modes of
how many ways can he select a ball pen? servings.

In the above activities, can we decide when

to use the addition principle and when to use the SOLVED EXAMPLES
multiplication principle? Can we give reasons?
What are answers in the above examples? Ex. 1) : From the figure below, find the total
number of routes from A to B. e.g. one upper route
Remark: The addition and multiplication
is A→D→N→E→B. (See fig 3.4)
principles can be extended from two to any finite
number of activities, experiments, events, or
operations.

Extended Addition Principle : Suppose

there are three possible choices with no common
outcome for any two, the first choice can be made
in m ways, second in n ways and third in r ways.
If only one of the choices is to be made, it has
m + n + r possible ways.

Extended Multiplication Principle: Fig 3.4

Suppose an experiment consists of three
Solution: A D → N E → B is one route
independent activities, where first activity has C F
through N. A N B is another route
m possible outcomes, second has n possible
through N. Thus there are in all 2 × 3 = 6 routes
outcomes, third has r possible outcomes. Then the through N. There are 2 routes through S. Hence
total number of different possible outcomes of the
the total number of routes is 6 + 2 = 8.
experiment is m × n × r.

46
 Ex. 2) : Suppose 5 chocoloates of different The addition principle finally gives the total
type are to be distributed among 4 children and number of ways of forming an even number less
there is no condition on how many chocolates a than 1000 using digits 2,3,7,8 is 2+8+32=42.
child can get (including zero.) How many different
ways are possible for doing so? EXERCISE 3.1
Solution: The first chocolate can be given
1. A teacher wants to select the class monitor
to any of the four children. Therefore, there are
in a class of 30 boys and 20 girls. In how
four different ways of giving the first chocolate.
many ways can the monitor be selected if the
Similarly, the second chocolate can be given in monitor must be either a girl or a boy?
four different ways, and similarly for each of
2. A Signal is generated from 2 flags by putting
the remaining chocolates. The multiplication
one flag above the other. If 4 flags of different
principle then gives the total number of different colours are available, how many different
ways as 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 45 = 1024. signals can be generated?
Ex. 3) : How many even numbers can 3. How many two letter words can be formed
be formed using the digits 2, 3, 7, 8 so that the using letters from the word SPACE, when
number formed is less than 1000? repetition of letters (i) is allowed, (ii) is not
allowed?
Solution: The condition that the number
formed from the given digits is less that 1000 4. How many three-digit numbers can be
formed from the digits 0, 1, 3, 5, 6 if
means that this number can have upto 3 digits. Let
repetitions of digits (i) are allowed, (ii) are
us therefore consider the three cases separately,
not allowed?
case i) One digit numbers 5. How many three-digit numbers can be
Since the number must be even, the one- formed using the digits 2, 3,4,5,6 if digits
digit number can be only 2 or 8. Hence, there are can be repeated?
2 ways of forming a one digit even number. 6. A letter lock contains 3 rings and each ring
containing 5 different letters. Determine the
case ii) Two digit numbers
maximum number of false trials that can be
Since the required number is even, the units made before the lock is opened?
place of a two-digit number must be either 2 or 7. In a test, 5 questions are of the form 'state,
8 i.e. 2 ways. The ten’s place can be filled with true or false'. No student has got all answers
any of the four given digits. Therefore, there are correct. Also, the answer of every student
4×2=8 ways of forming a two-digit even number. is different. Find the number of students
appeared for the test.
case iii) Three digit numbers
8. How many numbers between 100 and 1000
Finally,since the requried number is even, have 4 in the units place?
the units place can be filled in two ways, ten’s
9. How many numbers between 100 and 1000
place can be filled in four ways, and hundred’s have the digit 7 exactly once?
place can also be filled in four ways. The number
10. How many four digit numbers will not
of ways of forming a three digit even number is
exceed 7432 if they are formed using the
4×4×2=32 digits 2,3,4,7 without repetition?

47
11. If numbers are formed using digits 2, 3, 4, 5, Illustrations:
6 without repetition, how many of them will Factorial 1 = 1! = 1
exceed 400?
Factorial 2 = 2! = 2 × 1 = 2
12. How many numbers formed with the digits
Factorial 3 = 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 will fall between 13 and 1000
if digits can be repeated? Factorial 4 = 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24, and so on.

13. A school has three gates and four staircases Note: Though 0 is not a natural number, we
from the first floor to the second floor. How define 0! = 1.
many ways does a student have to go from
Properties of the factorial notaction.
outside the school to his classroom on the
second floor? For any positive integers m,n.,
1) n! = n × (n - 1)!
14. How many five-digit numbers formed using
the digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are divisible by 5 if 2) n > 1, n! = n × (n - 1) × (n - 2)!
digits are not repeated? 3) n > 2, n! = n × (n - 1) × (n - 2) × (n - 3)!
4) (m + n)! is always divisible by m! as well as by
3.4 Factorial Notation. n! e.g. (3 + 4)! is divisible by 3! as well as 4!
The theory of permutations and combinations 5) (m × n)! ≠ m! × n!
uses a mathematical notation known as the 6) (m + n)! ≠m! + n!
factorial notation. Let us first understand the
7) m > n, (m - n)! ≠ m!-n! but m! is divisible
factorial notation, which is defined for natural by n!
number.
8) (m ÷ n)! ≠m! ÷ n!
Definition: For a natural number n, the
Ex. 1) : Find the value of 6!
factorial of n, written as n! or n and read as “n
factorial”, is the product of n natural numbers Solution : 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720
from 1 to n. Ex. 2) : Show that (7-3)! ≠ 7! – 3!

That is, n! or n is expressed as Solution: (7-3)! = 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24.

1 × 2 × 3 ×....× (n−2) × (n−1) × n. 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040
Note: The factorial nonation can also be Also, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1= 6.
defined as the product of the natural numbers 7! - 3! = 5040 − 6 = 5034
from n to 1.
Therefore, (7-3)! ≠7!-3!
That is, n! = n × (n − 1) ×....× 3 × 2 × 1
For example, 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
It is read as “5 factorial is equal to 120.”

48
Ex. 3): Find n if (n+6)! = 56 (n+4)! 2. Compute:
Solution: (n+6)! = 56 (n+4)! 12!  12 
∴ (n+6) (n+5) (n+4)! = 56 (n+4)! (i) (ii)   !
6!  6
∴ (n+6) (n+5) = 56
(iii) (3 × 2)! (iv) 3! × 2!
Here instead of solving quadratic in n, we write
9! 6!-4!
56 as product of 2 consecutive numbers as (v) (vi) 4!
3! 6!
56 = 8×7
8! 8!
∴ (n+6) (n+5) = 8×7 (vii) (viii)
6!-4! (6-4)!
Equating bigger factors from either side
∴ (n+6) = 8 3. Write in terms of factorials
n=8−6=2
(i) 5 × 6 × 7 × 8 × 9 × 10
12 ! 12 ! 13! (ii) 3 × 6 × 9 × 12 × 15
Ex. 4) : Show that + =
5 !7 ! 6 !6 ! 6 !7 !
(iii) 6 × 7 × 8 × 9
Solution: Consider,
(iv) 5 × 10 × 15 × 20
12 ! 12 !
L. H. S. = +
5 !7 ! 6 !6 !
n!
 1 1  4. Evaluate : for
= 12 !  +  r !(n - r )!
 5! × 7 × 6 ! 5! × 6 × 6 !
(i) n = 8, r = 6 (ii) n = 12, r = 12,
( 7! = 7 × 6! 6! = 6 × 5!)
(iii) n = 15, r = 10 (iv) n = 15, r = 8
12 !  1 1 
= +
5!6 !  7 6  5. Find n, if
12 !  13  n 3 1! n 4 3
= (i) = + (ii) = +
5!6 !  6 × 7  8! 6 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8! 6 !
12 ! ×13
= (5! × 6) × (6! × 7) 1! 1! 4
(iii) = −
n ! 4 ! 5!
13!
=
6! × 7 ! (iv) (n + 1)! = 42 × (n − 1)!
= R. H. S. (v) (n + 3)! = 110 × (n + 1)!

6. Find n, if:
EXERCISE 3.2
(17 − n)! (15 − n)!
(i) = 5! (ii) = 12
(14 − n)! (13 − n)!
1. Evaluate:
(i) 8! (ii) 10! n! n!
(iii) : = 5:3
(iii) 10! - 6! (iv) (10 - 6)! 3!(n − 3)! 5!(n − 5)!

49
 n! n! Suppose the 3 seats are numbered 1, 2 and 3
(iv) : = 1: 6
3!(n − 3)! 5!(n − 7)! and the 3 persons are namedA, B and C.

(2n)! n! We can fill the 1st chair in 3 ways. Having

(v) : = 24:1
7 !(2n - 7)! 4 !(n - 4)! done that, we can fill the 2nd chair with any of
the remaining two people, hence in 2 ways. The
7. Show that
3rd chair is then filled in a unique way as there is
n! n! (n + 1)!
+ = only one person left. Thus the total number of the
r !(n − r )! (r − 1)!(n − r + 1)! r !(n − r + 1)!
seating arrangements are
8. Show that
3 × 2 × 1 = 3! = 6
9! 9! 10 !
+ =
3!6! 4 !5! 4 !6 ! This can also be checked by listing them as
follows
9. Show that
(2n)! ABC BAC CAB
= 2n (2n − 1)(2n − 3)...5.3.1
n!
ACB BCA CBA.
10. Simplify
Extending this result for n persons to be
(2n + 2)! (n + 3)!
(i) (ii) 2 placed in n chairs in a row, we get n! ways of
(2n)! (n − 4)(n + 1)!
arrangement.
1 1 1
(iii) - - Note that all persons are distinct and chairs
n ! (n - 1)! (n - 2)!
have their own ordinal numbers (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.)
(iv) n[n !+ (n − 1)!] + n 2 (n − 1)!+ (n + 1)!
Now we see a different problem. There are
n + 2 3n + 1 4 persons and 2 chairs in a row to be filled. The
(v) −
n ! (n + 1)! 1st chair can be filled in 4 ways. Having done this,
the 2nd chair can be filled in 3 ways. So the number
1 1− n
(vi) + of different arrangements is 4 × 3 = 12.
(n − 1)! (n + 1)!

1 3 n2 − 4 See the enumeration

(vii) − −
n ! (n + 1)! (n + 2)! AB BA CA DA

n2 − 9 6 1 AC BC CB DB
(viii) + −
(n + 3)! (n + 2)! (n + 1)! AD BD CD DC

3.5 Permutations: (When all objects are distinct) Extending this argument if 7 different
objects are available and 3 boxes are in a row. We
If we want to place 3 persons on 3 chairs in a
want to place one object in each box. There are
row, in how many ways can we obtain the seating
7 × (7 - 1) × (7 - 2) = 7 × 6 × 5 different ways to
arrangement? do it.

50
A permutation is formally defined as follows. Now, using the multiplication principle of
counting, the total number of ways of filling r
Permutation : A permutation is an
arrangement, in a definite order of a number of places using n distinct objects is denoted by nPr
objects, taken some or all at a time. and given by the product

The number of distinct permutations of r n ×(n-1)×(n-2)×… ×([n-(r-2)]×[n-(r-1)]

distinct objects chosen from a given collection of
= n ×(n-1)×(n-2)×… ×(n-r+2)×(n-r+1)
n distinct objects is denoted by nPr, nPr, or P(n,r).
Hence nPr =n ×(n-1)×(n-2)×… ×(n-r+2)×(n-r+1)
3.5.1 Permutations when all objects are
distinct [r ≤ n]: If we multiply and divide this product by
Theorem 1. The number of permutations of (n-r)×(n-r-1)×… ×3 ×2 ×1,
n distinct objects taken r (r ≤ n) at a time, without
repetitions, is we find that
n (n − r ) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 ×1
n × (n - 1) × (n - 2) × ... × (n - r + 1). Pr = n × (n − 1) × ... × (n − r + 1) ×
(n − r ) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 ×1
Proof. The number of ways of arranging n
= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × (n − r + 1) × (n − r ) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 ×1
distinct objects taken r at a time without repetitions (n − r ) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 ×1
is same as the number of ways r places can be n!
filled using n objets (r ≤ n). =
(n - r )!
For this, consider the following table. We have thus found that
Place 1st 2nd 3rd ... (r-2)th (r-1)th rth n n!
Pr = (for r ≤ n)
Number n n-1 n-2 ... [n-(r- [n-(r- [n-(r- (n − r )!
of ways 3)] 2)] 1)]
Note:
The table shows that the first place can be
When r = n i.e. all n objects are placed in a
filled with any of the n objects. As the result,
row.
there are n ways of filling the the first place. After
n
putting one object in the first place, only n-1 Pn = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × [n − (n − 1)]
objects are available because repetitions are not = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... ×1 = n!
allowed. Therefore, the second place can be filled
in n-1 ways. After putting two distinct objects in Alternatively, from the above formula, we
the first two places, only n-2 objects are available obtain
for the third place, so that the third place can filled n n! n!
Pn = =
in n-2 ways. (n − n)! 0 ! = n!

Continuing in this way, after putting r-1 (since 0!=1, by definition)

objects in the first r-1 places, the number of
available objects is [n – (r-1)] for the rth place.
Hence, the rth place can be filled in [n–(r-1)] ways.

51
 place. The other four digits can be arranged in
SOLVED EXAMPLES 4
P4 = 4! = 24 ways to form numbers that have 3
Ex. 1) Find the value of 5P2. in the unit’s place. This shows that 24 of the 120
numbers have 3 in the unit’s place.
5! 5! 5 × 4 × 3!
Solution: 5 P2 = = =
(5 − 2)! 3! 3! Similarly, each of the other four digits is in
the unit’s place in 24 of the 120 numbers.
= 5 × 4 = 20.
The sum of the digits in the units place among
Ex. 2) How many different ways are there to
all 120 numbers is 24 (3+4+6+7+8) = 24×28 =
arrange letters of the word 'WORLD'? How many
672.
of these arrangements begin with the letter R?
How many arrangements can be made taking Similary, the sum of the digits in the ten’s
three letters at a time? place among all 120 numbers is 672. The same is
also the sum of the digits in each place among all
Solution: The word WORLD has 5 letters
120 numbers.
W, O, R, L, D. These can be arranged among
themselves in 5P5=5!=120! different ways. The required sum is 672 units + 672 tens
+ 672 hundreds + 672 thousands + 672 ten
If an arrangement begins with R, the
remaining four letters can be arranged among thousands.
themselves in 4P4=4!=24 ways. = 672 × (1+10+100+1000+10000)
The Number of arrangements of 5 letters, = 672×11111 = 74,66,592
5!
taken 3 at a time, is 5P3= = 60
2! Ex 5) A teacher has 2 different books on
Ex. 3) How many three digit numbers can be English, 3 different books on Physics, and
formed from the digits 2,4,5,6,7 if no digit is 4 different books on Mathematics. These books
repeated? are to be placed in a shelf so that all books on any
one subjects are together. How many different
Solution: Every arrangement of digits gives
ways are there to do this?
a different number. Therefore, the problem is to
Solution : First, let us consider all books on
find the number of arrangements of five digits
each subjects to be one set, so that there are three
taken two at a time This is given by 5 P=
5!
3 = 60 sets, say E,P,M. These three can be arranged in
2! 3
P3 = 3! = 6 different ways. Now, in each of these
Ex 4) How many numbers can be formed with the ways, the 2 books on English can be arranged in
digits 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 taken all at a time? Find the sum 2
P2 = 2! = 2 different ways the 3 books on physics
of all such numbers. can be arragned in 3P3 =3! = 6 different ways, and
Solution : The five digits can be arranged in the four books on Mathematics can be arranged
5
P5 = 5! = 120 ways. in 4P4 = 4! = 24 different ways.

Now, consider any one of the five given The required number of arrangments is then
digits, say 3. Suppose the digit 3 is in the unit’s given by 6×2×6×24 = 1728

52
Ex 6) Find n if nP5 = 42 × nP3
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Solution: We are given that nP5 = 42 × nP3
Ex 1: It is required to arrange 8 books on a
That is, n! n!
= 42 shelf. Find the number of ways to do this if two
(n − 5)! (n − 3)!
specified books are
n! n! (i) always together (ii) never together.
∴ = 42
(n − 5)! (n − 3)(n − 4)(n − 5)! Solution:
(i) Consider 2 books as one single set. These
∴ (n − 3)(n − 4) = 42
2 books can be arrannged among themselves
∴ (n − 3) (n − 4) = 7 × 6 in 2! ways. The total 7 books can be arranged
∴n − 3 = 7 among themselves in 7! ways.
The total number of ways = 2! 7! = 2 × 5040
∴ n = 3 + 7 = 10
= 10080.
3.5.2 Permutations when repetitions are (ii) We take one of the two books and remaining
allowed: 6 books and arrange these in 7! ways. Then
We now consider problems of arranging we can place the remaining book in such
n objects taken r at a time when repetitions are a way to avoid 2 places adjacent to the
allowed. 1st book, so there are 6 places available hence
6 × 7! = 6 × 5040 = 30240.
Theorem 2. The number of arrangements of n
Alternative Method :
distinct objects taken r at a time, when repetitions
The number is also obtained by subtracting
are allowed, is same as the number of ways of
from the total arrangements those when these
filling r places using n distinct objects when books are together i.e.
repetitions are allowed. Consider the following
table. 8! − 2 × 7! = (8 − 2) × 7! = 6 × 7! = 6 × 5040
= 30240.
Place 1st 2nd 3rd … (r-2)th (r-1)th rth
Number n n n … n n n Ex 2: In how many ways can 7
of ways examination papers be arranged so that papers
6 and 7 are never together?
Because repetitions are allowed, each place
Solution : By the same argument as in
can be filled in n different ways.
example above, the number of ways in which any
Using multiplication principle, it can be two papers are never together is.
concluded that the number of permutations of n
(7-2) (7-1)! = 5×6! = 3600
distinct objects taken r at a time, when repetitions
are allowed, is given by Ex 3: A family of 3 brothers and 5 sisters is to
be arranged for a photograph in such a ways that,
n×n×....×n(r times) = nr
(i) all brothers sit together. (ii) no two brothers sit
together.

53
 Solution : number of permutations of n-m+1 objects taken all
(i) Since all 3 brothers are together, treat them as at a time is (n-m+1)!. The m specified objects are
one person, so that there are 5+1=6 persons. together, but can be rearranged among themselves.
the number of arranging them is The number of permutations of these m objects
taken all at a time is m!. Since this argument
6
P6 = 6! = 720.
holds for each of the (n-m+1)! permutations,
Once this is done, the three brothers can be
the required number of permutations of n objects
arranged among themselves in 3P3 = 3! = 6
ways. taken all together, when m specified objects are
The total number of arrangements is then always together is m! (n-m+1)!
given by 6!×3! = 720 × 6 = 4320. Remarks:
(ii) 5 sisters can be arranged among themselves 1. The number of permutations of n distinct
in 5P5 = 5! = 120 ways. objects taken all at a time, when 2 specified
Consider the following arrangement. objects are always together, is 2×(n-1)!.
* S1 * S2 * S3 * S4 * S5 * 2. The number of permutations of n distinct
objects taken r at a time, when a specified
Where * indicates a position where one object is always to be included, is.
brother can be placed so that no two brothers r × (n-1)P (r-1).
are together. Since there are 6 such positions and
First keep the specified object aside. Arrange
3 brothers, the number of arrangements is
(r−1) from the remaining (n−1) objects in
6!
6
P=
3 = 120 (n−1)
P(r−1) ways. Then place the specified object
3!
in r possible ways. Hence the total number of
The required number of arrangements is arrangements is r × (n−1)P(r−1).
then given by
5
P5 × 6P3 = 120 × 120 3. The number of permutations of n distinct
objects taken r at a time, when a specified
= 14400.
object is not be included in any permutation,
If some of the n objects are always kept
is (n-1)Pr.
together in a permutation problem, then the
following theorem is useful for such cases. EXERCISE 3.3
Theorem. The number of permutations taken
all at a time, when m specified objects among n 1. Find n, if nP6 : nP3 = 120:1
always come together, is m!(n-m+1)!
2. Find m and n, if (m+n)P2 = 56 and
Proof. Since the specified m objects always
(m-n)
P2 = 12
come together, let us consider them as a single
object. This makes the number of distinct objects 3. Find r, if 12Pr-2 : 11Pr-1 = 3:14
n-m+1 for the purpose of permutations. The
4. Show that (n+1) (nPr) = (n-r+1) [(n+1)Pr]

54
5. How many 4 letter words can be formed 12. Find the number of 6-digit numbers using
using letters in the word MADHURI if the digits 3,4,5,6,7,8 without repetition.
(a) letters can be repeated (b) letters cannot How many of these numbers are
be repeated. (a) divisible by 5, (b) not divisible by 5.

6. Determine the number of arrangements of 13. A code word is formed by two different
letters of the word ALGORITHM if. English letters followed by two non-zero
(a) vowels are always together. distinct digits. Find the number of such code
words. Also, find the number of such code
(b) no two vowels are together.
words that end with an even digit.
(c) consonants are at even positions.
14. Find the number of ways in which 5 letters
(d) O is the first and T is the last letter.
can be posted in 3 post boxes if any number
7. In a group photograph, 6 teachers are in the of letters can be posted in a post box.
first row and 18 students are in the second
15. Find the number of arranging 11 distinct
row. There are 12 boys and 6 girls among the objects taken 4 at a time so that a specified
students. If the middle position is reserved object.
for the principal and if no two girls are
(a) always occurs (b) never occurs.
together, find the number of arrangements.
16. In how many ways can 5 different books be
8. Find the number of ways so that letters of arranged on a shelf if
the word HISTORY can be arranged as,
(i) there are no restrictions
(a) Y and T are together (ii) 2 books are always together
(b) Y is next to T. (iii) 2 books are never together
(c) there is no restriction
17. 3 boys and 3 girls are to sit in a row. How
(d) begin and end with vowel many ways can this be done if
(e) end in ST (i) there are no restrictions
(f) begin with S and end with T (ii) there is a girl at each end
9. Find the number of arrangementsof the letters (iii) boys and girls are at alternate places
in the word SOLAPUR so that consonents (iv) all boys sit together
and vowels are placed alternately.
3.5.3 Permutations when some objects are
10. Find the number of 4-digit numbers that can identical
be formed using the digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 if Consider the problem of arranging letters
(a) digits can be repeated in the words like GOOD, INDIA, GEOLOGY,
(b) digits cannot be repeated MATHEMATICS, or PHILOSOPHY, where
some letters occur more than once and hence all
11. How many numbers can be formed using the
letters are not distinct.
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 without repetition so
that resulting numbers are between 100 and Consider the word ODD. First we consider
1000? the 2 D’s as distinct objects D1 and D2.

55
 The total number of words is OD1D2, OD2D1,
SOLVED EXAMPLES
D1OD2, D2OD1, D1D2O, D2D1O = 6 = 3!

But D1 and D2 are identical so, OD1D2 = Ex 1 : Find he number of permutations of the
OD2D1, D1D2O = D2D1O, D2OD1 = D1OD2 and as letters of the word UBUNTU.
D1 and D2 can be arranged among themselves in
Solution : The word UBUNTU consists of
2! ways, (D1D2, D2D1)
6 letters, in which letter ‘U’ is repeated 3 times.
6 3!
Thus there are
= = 3 different words Therefore, number of permutations of the
2 2! 6!
formed (ODD,DOD,DDO) letters of the word UBUNTU = = 120.
3!
Theorem : Consider a set of n objects where
Ex 2 : How many arrangements can be made,
n1 objects are identical and the remaining n - n1
with the letters of the word CALCULATOR? In
are distinct. The number of permutations of these
how many of these arrangements, vowels occur
n!
n objects is . Note that n1 < n. together?
n1 !
Solution : The word CALCULATOR
Proof : Let m be the total number of
consists of 10 letters, in which ‘C’ is repeated two
arrangements, where n1 out of n objects are
times, ‘A’ is repeated two times, ‘L’ is repreated
identical. The number of permutations of n
different objects is n!. Now n1 objects can be two times and rest all are different.
rearranged in n1! ways among themselves if they Therefore, number of permutations of the
were all different. Thus each arrangement where 10 !
these n1 objects are identical corresponds to n1! letters of the word CALCULATOR = .
2! 2! 2!
different arrangements if they were all different.
The word CALCULATOR consists of
n!
Hence m × n1! = n!. Therefore m = 4 vowels A, U, A, O. Let us consider them as a
n1 !
single letter say P.
Remarks.
Therefore, now we have 7 letters P, C, L, C,
1. The number of permutations of n objects, not
all distinct, where n1 objects are of one type L, T, R in which ‘C’ is repeated two times, ‘L’ is
and n2 objects are of a second type, taken all repeated two times. The number of arrangement
7!
n! of these 7 letters is given = 1260. After
at a time is and note that n1 + n2 ≤ n. 2! 2!
n1 !n2 !
this is done, 4 vowels (in which ‘A’ is repeated
The proof is similar to the proof of the above
4!
theorem. 2 times) can be arranged in = 12 ways
2!
2. The number of permutations of n objects, not Therefore, number of arrangements of the
all distinct, where ni objects are of type i, i=1, letters of the word CALCULATOR in which
2, …, k, taken all at a time is n! , vowels are together = 1260 × 12 = 15120.
n1 !n2 !...nk !
n1+ n2+...nk ≤ n.

56
 10. Find the number of different ways of
EXERCISE 3.4
arranging letters in the word ARRANGE.
How many of these arrangement do not have
1. Find the number of permutations of letters in the two R’s and two A’s together?
each of the following words.
(i) DIVYA 11. How many distinct 5 digit numbers can be
formed using the digits 3, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5.
(ii) SHANTARAM
(iii) REPRESENT 12. Find the number of distinct numbers formed
(iv) COMBINE using the digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, so that odd
(v) BALBHARATI positions are occupied by odd digits.

2. You have 2 identical books on English, 13. How many different 6-digit numbers can be
3 identical books on Hindi, and 4 identical formed using digits in the number 659942?
books on Mathematics. Find the number of How many of them are divisible by 4?
distinct ways of arranging them on a shelf . 14. Find the number of distinct words formed
3. A coin is tossed 8 times. In how many ways from letters in the word INDIAN. How
can we obtain. (a) 4 heads and 4 tails? (b) at many of them have the two N’s togethers?
least 6 heads?
15. Find the number of different ways of
4. A bag has 5 red, 4 blue, and 4 green marbles. arranging letters in the word PLATOON
If all are drawn one by one and their if. (a) the two O’s are never together. (b)
colours are recorded, how many different consonants and vowels occupy alternate
arrangements can be found? positions.

5. Find the number of ways of arranging letters 3.5.4 Circular permutation:

of the word MATHEMATICAL How many
We can imagine a circular arrangement
of these arrangements have all vowels
of n different objects to be transformed into an
together?
arrangement in a line by cutting the circle in a
6. Find the number of different arrangements place. This cut can be made at n different places.
of letters in the word MAHARASHTRA.
For example, consider n = 4
How many of these arrangements have
(a) letters R and H never together? (b) all
vowels together?
7. How many different words are formed if the
letters R is used thrice and letters S and T are
used twice each?
8. Find the number of arrangements of letters
in the word MUMBAI so that the letter B is
always next to A. Fig. 3.5

9. Find the number of arrangements of letters Thus given a single circular arrangement
in the word CONSTITUTION that begin of 4 objects, it corresponds to 4 different linear
and end with N. arrangements (arrangements in a row).

57
 Let the circular arrangements be m.
We know that the total number of linear
arrangement of 4 different objects is 4!
Each arrangement in row corresponds to
some circular arrangement.
Therefore number of circular arrangements
4! Fig. 3.5 (b)
is m = = 3!
4
Consider the 4 directions, E, N, W, S on
Similarly, each circular arrangement of n
objects corresponds to n different arrangements Mariner's compass. If 4 stickers of different
in a row. colours are to be placed at the different letters.
Therefore number of circular arrangements The number of arrangements is 4!. Here
n! rotation of W, S, E, N is not allowed. Hence
is = (n − 1)!
n arrangement is like a linear arrangement. Such
arrangement is called as an arrangement with
Note:
respect to round table.
1) A circular arrangement does not have a
Now consider the situation where m out of
fixed starting point and any rotation of
it is considered to be the same circular the n objects are alike and cannot be distinguished
arrangement. This arrangement will be the from one another. The following result gives the
same with respect to each other if a rotation formula for the number of circular arrangements
is made but clockwise and anticlockwise of these n objects.
arrangements are different.
Theorem. The number of circular
arrangements of n objects, of which m objects are
(n-1)!
alike (identical), is given by
m!
Proof. As argued earlier, m like
(indistinguishable) objects can be rearranged
Fig. 3.5 (a)
among themselves in m! ways without affecting
In circular arrangement, (with respect to each the arrangements of the n objects. The number
other) all these count as one arrangement.
of circular arrangements of n objects is
2) If clockwise and anticlockwise circular (n-1)! and the number of arrangements of m like
arrangements are considered to be the same (indistinguishable) objects among themselves is
then each circular arrangement corresponds m!, the required number of arrangements is given
to 2n different linear arrangements. Thus (n -1)!
by
the numbers of such circular arrangement m!
n ! (n -1)! Does this argument remind us of a similar
is = . argument that we came across earlier?
2n 2

58
 Remark: The number of circularpermutations 2
p2 = 2! ways. Hence, the required number of ways
of r objects taken from n distinct objects can be in which two particular students come together
found under two different conditions as follows. = 7! × 2! = 10080.

(a) When clockwise and anticlockwise Ex 2 : In how many ways 6 men and
arrangements are considered to be different, 3 women can be seated at a round table so that
then the required number of circular every man has woman by his side.
n
arrangements is given by pr
r

(b) When clockwise and anticlockwise

arrangements are not to be considered
different, then the required number of circular
n
arrangements is given by pr
2r
Verify these two statements for n = 6, r = 3. Fig. 3.6

Solution : 3 women have (3 − 1)! = 2 ways

SOLVED EXAMPLES
of circular seatings.

Ex 1 : In how many ways can 8 students In each seating a women has one place on
be arranged at a round table so that 2 particular each side for a man. Thus there are 6 different
students are together, if places for 6 men which can be filled in 6! ways.
(i) students are arranged with respect to Hence, the total number of required
each other? (That is the seats are not numbered.) arrangements = 6! × 2 = 720 × 2 = 1440.
(ii) students are arranged with respect to the
Ex 3 : Find the number of ways in which
table? (That is the seats are numbered serially.)
12 different flowers can be arranged in a garland
Solution : Considering those 2 particular so that 4 particular flowers are always together.
students as one student, we have 7 students.
Solution : Considering 4 particular flowers
(i) In circular arrangement 7 students can
be arranged at a round table, in 6! ways and as a single flower, we have 9 flowers which
2 students can be arranged among themselves in can be arranged to form a garland in 8! ways.
2
p2 = 2! ways. Hence, the required number of ways But 4 particular flowers can be arranged in 4!
in which two particular students come together = ways. Hence, the required number of ways
6! × 2! = 1440. 1
= (8! × 4!) = 483840.
(ii) Here the arrangement is like an 2
arrangement in a row. Ex 4 : How many necklaces of 12 bead each,
So 7 students can be arranged in 7! ways and can be made from 18 beads of different colours?
2 students can be arranged amongst themselves in

59
 Solution : Here, clockwise and anticlockwise When 6 gentlemen are arranged around a
arrangements are same. Hence, total number of table, there are 6 positions, each being between
P12
18 18
P12 two gentlemen, for 6 ladies when no two ladies sit
circular permutations = = . side by side. Now, the number of ways in which
2 ×12 24
6 gentlemen can be seated around a table
Ex 5 : Three boys and three girls are to be = (6 − 1)! = 5!
seated around a table in a circle. Among them, the
Now, corresponding to each seating
boy X does not want any girl as neighbour and
arrangement for the gentlemen, the 6 ladies can
girl Y does not want any boy as neighbour. How
be seated in 6! ways.
many such distinct arrangements are possible?
Thus, the required number of arrangements
= (5!) (6!) = 86400.

Ex 7 : In how many different ways can

4 married couples occupy seats around a circular
table if (i) Spouses sit opposite to each other?
(ii) Men and women alternate?

Fig. 3.7
Solution : The arrangement is as shown in
the figure (fig. 3.7). The boy X will have B2 and
B3 as neighbours. The girl Y will have G2, G3 as
neighbours. The two boys B2, B3 can be arranged
in two ways. The two girls G2, G3 can be arranged
in two ways.
Fig. 3.8
Hence, the total number of arrangements
Solution : (i) Spouses sit opposite to each
= 2 × 2 = 4.
other. Since there is no fixed starting point let one
Ex 6 : In how many different arrangements woman occupy one seat. Let, W1H1, W2H2, W3H3
can 6 gentlemen and 6 ladies sit around a table if and W4H4 be the four couples. Since there is no
(i) there is no restriction. (ii) no two ladies sit side fixed starting point of the circle, Let W1 occupy
by side? one seat then H1 has to sit exactly opposite. There
are 3 seats on either side of W1. Then W2 can
Solution : (i) There is no restriction.
occupy any of the 6 seats which confirms the seat
Here, the total number = 6 + 6 = 12. of her husband H2. Now there are 4 seats left. W3
12 persons can be arranged in circular can occupy anyone of them so that her husband's
permutation in (12−1)! = 11! ways. seat is fixed. Now W4 has 2 choices, fixing the
seat of her husband. In all there are 6 × 4 × 2 =
(ii) No two ladies sit side by side.
48 ways.

60
 ii) Let 4 women sit on alternate seats around 10. Fifteen persons sit around a table. Find
a table starting at any place. This is done in 3! the number of arrangements that have two
ways. It leaves 4 alternate seats empty. They are specified persons not sitting side by side.
fixd by 4 men in 4! ways. Hence, the total number
Properties of Permutations
of ways is 4! × 3! = 144.
(i) nPn = n!

EXERCISE 3.5 (ii) nP0 = 1

(iii) nP1 = n
1. In how many different ways can 8 friends sit (iv) nPr = n × (n-1)P(r-1)
around a table?
= n(n-1) × (n-2)P(r-2)
2. A party has 20 participants. Find the number
of distinct ways for the host to sit with them = n(n-1)(n-2) × (n-3)P(r-3) and so on.
around a circular table. How many of these n
pr
ways have two specified persons on either (v) n
= n − r +1
side of the host? p( r −1)
3. Delegates from 24 countries participate in
a round table discussion. Find the number 3.6 Combinations
of seating arrangments where two specified Permutations involve ordered arrangements
delegates are. (a) always together, (b) never of objects. We shall now consider situations
together. where the order of objects in an arrangement is
4. Find the number of ways for 15 people to sit immaterial, but only selection of a set of objects
around the table so that no two arrangements in the arrangement is considered. A selection of
have the same neighbours. objects without any consideration of the order is
called a combination.
5. A committee of 10 members sits around a
table. Find the number of arrangements that Consider the earlier example from
have the president and the vice president permutations where 2 chairs were filled from
together. a group of 4 persons. We make a little change
in the problem. We want to select a group of
6. Five men, two women, and a child sit around
2 people and not consider the order. So the
a table. Find the number of arrangements
arrangements AB and BA correspond to the same
where the child is seated (a) between the two
group. Similarly BC and CB are given in the same
women. (b) between two men.
group. The list is given as follows.
7. Eight men and six women sit around a table.
How many of sitting arrangements will have  AB   BC   CA   AD   BD   CD 
           
no two women together?  BA   CB   AC   DA   DB   DC 
8. Find the number of seating arrangements for P2 4 × 3 4
Thus there are altogether = =6
3 men and 3 women to sit around a table so 2 2 ×1
that exactly two women are together. different groups selected. This is called the
9. Four objects in a set of ten objects are alike. combination number of selecting a group of 2
Find the number of ways of arranging them from 4 persons denoted by 4C2.
in a circular order.

61
 Definition Combination. A combination of as has been stated earlier.
a set of n distinct objects taken r at a time without
3. If nCr = nCs, then either s = r or s = n-r.
repetition is an r-element subset of the n objects.
n
Note: The order of arrangement of the Pr
4. n
Cr =
elements is immaterial in a combination. r!
If we want to choose a team of 3 players from 5. n
Cr + nCr-1 = n+1Cr
a set of 8 different players, we first get the number
6. n
C0 + nC1 + … nCn = 2n
8
P3, i.e. different ordered sets of 3 players and
since any set of 3 gives 3! ordered sets, we divided 7. n
C0 + nC2 + nC4 + … = nC1 + nC3 + nC5 + …
8
P3 by 3!. Thus the number of combinations of = 2(n-1)
8
P3 8!
3 players from 8 players is  n  n   n 1 
3! (8  3)!3! 8. n
Cr=   C(r-1) =   
(n-1)
 C(r-2) =...
(n-2)
r  r   r 1 
Combination (nCr) : From n different n
9. n
Cr has maximum value if (a) r = when n
objects, the number of ways of selecting a group 2
or a set of r objects (without considering order) is n -1 n +1
is even (b) r = or when n is odd.
denoted by nCr or C(n,r) or nCr. It is the number 2 2
of combinations of r nCr objects from n distinct
objects. SOLVED EXAMPLES
n n!
Theorem : Cr 
(n  r )!r ! Ex 1 : Find the value of (i) 7C3 (ii) 10C7 (iii) 52C3
Proof : First we find the number of ‘ordered’ Solution : We know that
sets of r objects from n distinct objects. n!
n! n
Cr =
∴ n Pr  . Now, each set of r objects r !(n - r )!
(n  r )!
7!
corresponds to r! different ordered arrangements. (i) 7
C3 =
3!(7 - 3)!
So, we count the number of different sets or r
objects, without considering the order among 7!
=
n
Pr n! 3!(4)!
them, is = 
r ! (n  r )!r ! 7 × 6 × 5 × 4!
=
3.6.1 Properties of combinations. 3 × 2 × 1× 4 !

n! 765
1. Consider nCn - r = =  35
(n - r )![n - (n - r )]! 3  2 1
n! 10 !
=
(n - r )!r ! (ii) 10
C7 =
7 !(10 - 7)!
= nCr.
10 !
Thus, nCn−r = nCr for 0 < r ≤ n. =
7 !(3)!
n n! n!
2. C0    1, because 0 !  1 10  9  8
0 !(n  0)! n ! =  120
3 2
62
 52 ! 52 ! collinear, therefore they form only one line and no
(iii) 52C3 = = triangle i.e. we have counted (pC2 − 1) extra lines
3!(52 - 3)! 3!(49)!
and pC3 extra triangles.
52 × 51× 50
= = 22100
3 × 2 ×1 ∴ If p-points (p≥3) are collinear, then number
of straight lines = nC2 − (pC2 − 1) and number of
Ex 2 : Find n and r triangles = nC3 − pC3
if nCr-1 : nCr : nCr+1 = 14:8:3
Ex 4 : Four cards are drawn from a pack of
n
C n
14 7 Cr 8 52 playing cards. In how many different ways can
Solution : n r −1 = = and n =
Cr 8 4 Cr +1 3
this be done? How many selections will contain
r 7 r +1 8 (i) exactly one card of each suit?
∴ = and =
n − r +1 4 n−r 3
(ii) all cards of the same suit?
4  3 (iii) all club cards?
∴ (n−r) =  r  −1 and (n−r) = (r + 1)
7  8
(iv) at least one club card?
4  3
∴  r  −1 = (r + 1) (v) three kings and one queen?
7  8
(vi) three black and one red cards?
Solving this we get r = 7 and n = 10
Solution : A pack of 52 cards contains
Ex 3 : There are n points in a plane. Find the 4 different suits, viz. Club, Spade, Diamond and
number of straight lines and triangles that can be Heart. Each suit contains 13 cards. Club and Spade
obtained by joining points on a plane if are black coloured cards. Diamond and Heart are
(i) no three points are collinear red colour cards. i.e. pack of 52 cards contains
26 black and 26 red colour cards.
(ii) p-points are collinear (p≥3)
From a pack of 52 cards, any 4 cards can be
Solution : (i) Straight line can be drawn by
52 !
joining any two points and traingle can be drawn drawn in 52C4 = ways.
4 ! × 48!
by joining any three non-collinear points.
(i) Exactly one card of each suit.
From n-points, any two points can be selected
in nC2 ways. One club card can be selected in 13C1 = 13
ways. One heart card can be selected in 13C1 = 13
∴ Number of straight lines = nC2
ways. One spade card can be selected in 13C1 = 13
Since no three points are collinear, any three ways. One diamond card can be selected in 13C1 =
non-collinear points can be selected in nC3 ways. 13 ways.
∴ Number of triangles = nC3 ∴ Using fundamental principle, exactly one
card of each suit can be selected in 13 × 13 × 13 ×
(ii) If P points are non-collinear then, we can
13 = (13)4 ways.
obtain PC2 straight lines and PC3 triangles from
those p points. But we are given that p points are

63
(ii) All cards are of the same suit. Ex 5 : Find n, if nC8 = nC6
From 4 suits, any one suit can be selected in Solution : If nCx = nCy , then either x = y or x = n−y
4
C1 = 4 ways. After this is done, any four cards ∴ 8 = n−6 (⸪ x ≠ y)
from selected suit can be drawn in 13C4 = 715 ∴ n = 14
ways.
∴ Using fundamental principle, all 4 cards Ex 6 : Find r, if 16C4 + 16C5 + 17C6 + 18C7 = 19Cr
of the same suit can be selected in 4 × 715 = 2860 Solution : (16C4 + 16C5) + 17C6 + 18C7 = 19Cr
ways. ∴ (17C5 + 17C6) + 18C7 = 19Cr
(iii) All club cards ∴ (18C6 + 18C7) = 19Cr
From 13 club cards, any 4 club cards can be ∴ 19
C7 = 19Cr
drawn in 13C4 = 715 ways.
∴ r = 7 or r = 19−7 = 12
(iv) At least one club card
From a pack of 52 cards, any 4 cards can be Ex 7 : Find the difference between the maximum
drawn in 52C4 ways if there is no condition. values of 8Cr and 11Cr

From 52C4 selections, remove those selections Solution :

that do not contain any club card, so that in the 8
remaining selection we have at least one club Maximum value of 8Cr occurs at r = =4
2
card. ∴ maximum value of 8Cr = 8C4 = 70
If the selection does not contain any club card 10
i.e. 4 cards are drawn from remaining 39 non-club Maximum value of 11Cr occurs at r = =5
2
cards, then this can be done in 39C4 ways. 12
or at =6
∴ Number of selections which contain at 2
least one club card = 52C4 − 39C4 . ∴ Maximum value of Cr =
11
C5 =
11
C6
11

(v) Three king cards and one queen card = 462

From 4 kings, any 3 king cards can be ∴ difference between the maximum values
selected in 4C3 = 4 ways and from 4 queen cards of 8Cr and 11Cr = 11C5 − 8C4 = 462 − 70 = 392
1 queen card can be selected in 4C1 = 4 ways.
∴ Using fundamental principle, three king EXERCISE 3.6
cards and one queen card can be selected in 4 × 4
= 16 ways. 1. Find the value of (a) 15C4 (b) 80C2
(vi) Three black cards and one red card
(c) 15C4 +15C5 (d) 20C16 - 19C16
From 26 black cards, any 3 black cards can
be selected in 26C3 ways and from 26 red cards, 2. Find n if
any one red card can be selected in 26C1 ways. (a) 6P2 = n 6C2

Using fundamental principle, three black and (b) 2nC3: nC2 = 52 : 3

one red card can be selected in 26C3 × 26C1 ways. (c) nCn-3 = 84

64
3. Find r if 14 C2r : 10C2r-4 = 143:10 14. Find the number of triangles formed by
joining 12 points if
4. Find n and r if.
(a) no three points are collinear
(a) nPr = 720 and nCn-r = 120
(b) four points are collineas.
(b) nCr-1 : nCr : nCr+1 = 20: 35:42
15. A word has 8 consonants and 3 vowels.
5. If nPr = 1814400 and nCr = 45, find n+4 Cr+3
How many distinct words can be formed if
6. If nCr-1 = 6435, nCr = 5005, nCr+1 = 3003, 4 consonants and 2 vowels are chosen?

find rC5. 16. Find n if,

7. Find the number of ways of drawing 9 balls (i) nC8 = nC12

from a bag that has 6 red balls, 8 green balls, (ii) 23C3n = 23C2n+3
and 7 blue balls so that 3 balls of every colour (iii) 21C6n = 21C(n2+5)
are drawn. (iv) 2nCr-1 = 2nCr+1
8. Find the number of ways of selecting a team (v) nCn-2=15
of 3 boys and 2 girls from 6 boys and 4 girls.
17. Find x if nPr = x nCr
9. After a meeting, every participant shakes
hands with every other participants. If the 18. Find r if 11C4+ 11C5 + 12C6 + 13C7 = 14Cr
number of handshakes is 66, find the number 4

19. Find the value of ∑

( 21− r )
C4
of participants in the meeting. r =1

10. If 20 points are marked on a circle, how many 20. Find the differences between the greatest
chords can be drawn? values in the following:
11. Find the number of diagonals of an n-sided (a) 14Cr and 12Cr ,
(b) 13Cr and 8Cr ,
polygon. In particular, find the number of (c) 15Cr and 11Cr,

diagonals when.
(a) n = 10 (b) n = 15 21. In how many ways can a boy invite his
5 friends to a party so that at least three join
(c) n = 12 (d) n = 8
the party?
12. There are 20 straight lines in a plane so that
22. A group consists of 9 men and 6 women.
no two lines are parallel and no three lines
A team of 6 is to be selected. How many
are concurrent. Determine the number of
of possible selections will have at least
points of intersection.
3 women?
13. Ten points are plotted on a plane. Find the
23. A committee of 10 persons is to be formed
number of straight lines obtained by joining
from a group of 10 women and 8 men. How
these points if
many possible committees will have at least
(a) no three points are collinear. 5 women? How many possible committees
(b) four points are collinear. will have men in majority?

65
24. A question paper has two sections. section I (1) Linear Permutation :
has 5 questions and section II has 6 questions.
(a) The number of permutation of n different
A student must answer at least two question
from each section among 6 questions he objects taken r at a time when repetition
answers. How many different choices does of r objects in the permutation is not
the student have in choosing questions? allowed is given by
25. There are 3 wicketkeepers and 5 bowlers
n!
among 22 cricket players. A team of 11 n
Pr = where r ≤ n
players is to be selected so that there is exactly (n - r )!
one wicketkeeper and at least 4 bowlers in
the team. How many different teams can be (b) The number of permutations of n different
formed? objects, taken r objects at a time, when
26. Five students are selected from 11. How repetition of r objects in the permutation
many ways can these students be selected if. is allowed, is given by nr.
(a) two specified students are selected?
(c) The number of permutations of n objects,
(b) two specified students are not selected?
when p objects are of one kind, q objects
are of second kind, r objects are of third
Let's Remember kind and the rest, (if any), are of different
n!
kind is
• Factorial notation : p!q!r!
n! or n = 1,2,3.... (n−2) (n−1) n,
(ii) Circular Permutation:
(0! = 1)
The arrangements in a circle are called
• Principle of Addition : circular permutations.
If an event can occur either in m or n (a) The number of circular permutations of
mutually exclusive alternate ways, then the n different objects = (n−1)!
total number of ways in which the event can
(b) The number of ways in which n things of
occur is m + n.
which p are alike, can be arranged in a
• Principle of Multiplication : (n - 1)!
circular order is
If an event has m possible outcomes, and p!
another independent event has n possible
• Combination :
outcomes, then there are m.n possible
outcomes for the two events together. A combination is a selection. Total number
of selections of 'n' different objects, taken 'r'
• Permutation : at a time is denoted by nCr or nCr or C(n,r),
n
A permutation is an arrangement, in a or or   and is given by
definite order, of a number of objects, taken r  n
n! Pr
some or all at a time. n
Cr = =
r !(n - r )! r!

66
• Properties of nCr: 4) In how many ways can 10 examination
papers be arranged so that the best and the
(a) nCr = nCn−r
worst papers never come together?
(b) If nCx = nCy, then either x = y or x + y = n
A) 9×8! B) 8×8! C) 9×9! D) 8×9!
(c) nCr + nCr−1 = n+1Cr 1 ≤ r ≤ n (Pascal's rule)
5) In how many ways 4 boys and 3 girls can be
(d) The number of ways of selecting one or
more things from n different things is given seated in a row so that they are alternate.
by 2n−1. A) 12 B) 288 C) 144 D) 256
(e) nCr has maximum value, if
6) Find the number of triangles which can be
n formed by joining the angular points of a
(i) r = when n is even
2 polygon of 8 sides as vertices.
n -1 n +1 A) 16 B) 56 C) 24 D) 8
(ii) r = or when n is odd.
2 2
7) A question paper has two parts, A and B,
each containing 10 questions. If a student has
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 3 to choose 8 from part A and 5 from part B, In
how many ways can he choose the questions?
(I) Select the correct answer from the given A) 320 B) 750 C) 40 D) 11340
alternatives.
1) A college offers 5 courses in the morning 8) There are 10 persons among whom two are
and 3 in the evening. The number of ways a brothers. The total number of ways in which
student can select exactly one course, either these persons can be seated around a round
in the morning or in the evening. table so that exactly one person sits between
A) 5 B) 3 C) 8 D) 15 the brothers, is equal to:

2) A college has 7 courses in the morning and A) 2!×7! B) 2!×8! C) 3!×7! D) 3!×8!
3 in the evening. The possible number of
choices with the student if he wants to study 9) The number of arrangements of the letters of
one course in the morning and one in the the word BANANA in which two N's do not
evening is-. appear adjacently.
A) 21 B) 4 C) 42 D) 10 A) 80 B) 60 C) 40 D) 100

3) In how many ways can 8 Indians and,

10) The number of ways in which 5 male and
4 American and 4 Englishmen can be seated
2 female members of a committee can be
in a row so that all person of the same
nationality sit together? seated around a round table so that the two
females are not seated together is
A) 3! 8! B) 3! 4! 8! 4!
C) 4! 4! D) 8! 4! 4! A) 840 B) 600 C) 720 D) 480

67
(II) Answer the following. 10) Nine friends decide to go for a picnic in two
groups. One group decides to go by car and
1) Find the value of r if 56Pr+6: 54Pr+3= 30800:1
the other group decides to go by train. Find
2) How many words can be formed by writing the number of different ways of doing so if
letters in the word CROWN in different there must be at least 3 friends in each group.
order?
11) A hall has 12 lamps and every lamp can be
3) Find the number of words that can be formed switched on independently. Find the number
by using all the letters in the word REMAIN of ways of illuminating the hall.
If these words are written in dictionary order,
12) How many quadratic equations can be
what will be the 40th word?
formed using numbers from 0,2,4,5 as
4) Capital English alphabet has 11 symmetric coefficients if a coefficient can be repeated
letters that appear same when looked at in a in an equation.
mirror. These letters are A, H, I, M, O, T, U,
13) How many six-digit telephone numbers can
V, W, X, and Y. How many symmentric three
be formed if the first two digits are 45 and no
letter passwords can be formed using these
digit can appear more than once?
letters?
14) A question paper has 6 questions. How many
5) How many numbers formed using the digits
ways does a student have to answer if he
3,2,0,4,3,2,3 exceed one million?
wants to solve at least one question?
6) Ten students are to be selected for a project
15) Find the number of ways of dividing 20
from a class of 30 stdudents. There are
objects in three groups of sizes 8,7,and 5.
4 students who want to be together either
in the project or not in the project. Find the 16) There are 4 doctors and 8 lawyers in a panel.
number of possible selections. Find the number of ways for selecting a team
of 6 if at least one doctor must be in the team.
7) A student finds 7 books of his interest, but
can borrow only three books. He wants 17) Four parallel lines intersect another set of
to borrow Chemistry part II book only if five parallel lines. Find the number of distinct
Chemistry Part I can also be borrowed. Find parallelograms formed.
the number of ways he can choose three
18) There are 12 distinct points A,B,C,.....,L, in
books that he wants to borrow.
order, on a circle. Lines are drawn passing
8) 30 objects are to be divided in three groups through each pair of points
containing 7,10,13 objects. Find the number i) How many lines are there in total.
of distinct ways for doing so.
ii) How many lines pass through D.
9) A student passes an examination if he iii) How many triangles are determined by
secures a minimum in each of the 7 subjects. lines.
Find the number of ways a student can fail.
iv) How many triangles have on vertex C.

v v v

68
 4 METHOD OF INDUCTION AND BINOMIAL THEOREM
Step 1 : (Foundation) The 1st domino falls
Let's Study down.
• Mathematical Induction (followed by it 2nd also falls down. Then 3rd,
• Binomial Theorem 4th and so on.)
• General term of expansion Step 2 : (Assumption) Assume if kth domino
• Expansion for negative and fractional index falls down.
• Binomial coefficients

Let's Learn

Introduction :
The earliest implicit proof by induction was
given by Al Karaji around 100 AD. The first
explicit formulation of the principle was given by
Pascal in 1665. The Mathematical Induction is a Fig. 4.1
powerful method, easy to use for proving many
Step 3 : (Succession) Followed by kth domino,
theorems.
(k + 1)th domino will also fall down.
4.1 Principle of Mathematical Induction : Step 4 : (Induction) It is true that all the dominos
Principle of Mathematical Induction consists of will fall down.
the following four 4 steps:
We will see how to use the principle of
Step 1 : (Foundation) To prove P(n) is true for mathematical induction to prove statements.
n=1
Stepwise Explanation :
(It is advisable to check if P(n) is true for n = 2, 3
also if P(1) is trivial). Step 1. (Foundation) Formulate the statement of
the theorem as P(n) say, for any positive integer
Step 2 : (Assumption) To assume P(n) is true
n and verify it for integer n = 1. In fact, it is
for n = k.
often instructive, though not necessary, to verify
Step 3 : (Succession) To prove that P(n) is true
the statement for n = 2 and 3. This gives better
for n = k + 1.
insight into the theorem.
Step 4 : (Induction) To conclude that P(n) is true
for all n ∈ N Step 2. (Assumption) Assume that the statement
P(n) is true for a positive integer k.
Row of dominos standing close to each other gives
us the idea of how the Principle of Mathematical Step 3. (Succession) Prove the statement for
Induction works. n = k + 1.

69
Step 4. (Induction) Now invoke the principle Step 4 : (Induction) Now by the Principle of
of Mathematical induction. Conclude that the Mathematical induction, the statement P(n) is
theorem is true for any positive integer n. proved for all positive integers n.

Illustration :
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Let us prove a theorem with this method.
The theorem gives the sum of the first n positive Ex.1 By method of induction, prove that.
integers. n
1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + n (2n+1) = (n+1)(4n+5)
It is stated as P(n) : 1 + 2 + 3 . . . + n = n(n+1)/2. 6
for all n ∈ N

Step 1 : (Foundation) Solution :

To prove P(n) is true for n = 1 Let P(n) ≡ 1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + n (2n+1),

1(1 + 1) for all n ∈ N

L.H.S = 1 R.H.S = = 1 which is trivially n
2 = (n+1)(4n+5)
true. 6
2 × (2 + 1) Step (I) : (Foundation) To prove P(1) is true
Check that 1 + 2 = and
2 Let n = 1
3 × (3 + 1) L. H. S. = 1.3 = 3
1+2+3= , so P(2) and P(3) are also
2 1
true. R. H. S. = (1 + 1)(4.1 + 5)
6
1
Step 2 : (Assumption) Assume that P(n) is true = (2) (9) = 3
6
for n = k and in particular,
∴ L. H. S. = R. H. S.
k (k +1) ∴ P(1) is true
1+2+3+...+k= .
2
Step (II) : (Assumption) Assume that let P(k)
Step 3 : (Succession) To prove P(n) is true for is true
n = k +1 that is ∴ 1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + k (2k+1)
(k + 1)(k + 2) k
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) = = (k+1)(4k+5) ...(i)
2 6
Here L.H.S. = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k+1) Step (III) : (Succession) To prove that P(k+1)
k (k +1) is true.
= + (k+1) (by step 2)
2 i.e. 1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + (k+1) [2(k+1) +1]
k (k +1)
= (k + 1) ( + 1) = (k+1+1) [4(k+1) +5]
2 6
(k + 1)(k + 2) i.e. 1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + (k+1) (2k+3)
= = R.H.S.
2 (k +1)
Thus, P(k + 1) is proved. = (k+2) (4k+9)
6

70
Now Step (II) : Assume that P(k) is true.
k
L.H.S. = 1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + (k+1) (2k+3)
=1.3+2.5+...+k(2k+1)+(k+1)(2k+3)
∑ axr =1
r −1
= a + ax + ax2 + .... + axk−1

k 1 − x k 
=
(k+1)(4k+5)+(k+1) (2k+3) =a 
6  ....(i)
 1− x 
... from (i)

= (k+1)  k (4k + 5) + 2k + 3 Step (III) : To prove that P(k+1) is true

 6 
1 − x k +1 
i.e. a + ax + ax2 + .... + axk = a  
= (k+1) 
 4k 2 + 5k + 12k + 18  1− x 
6 Now, L.H.S. = a + ax + ax2 + ... + axk−1 + axk
(k + 1)(k + 2)(4k + 9)
= 1 − x k 
6 =a   + ax [by (i)]
k

 1 − x 
= R.H.S.
∴ P (k+1) is true. a (1 − x k ) + ax k (1 − x)
=
(1 − x)
Step (IV) : (Induction) From all steps above by
the principle of mathematical induction, a[1 − x k + x k − x k +1 ]
=
P(n) is true for all n ∈ N. (1 − x)
∴ 1.3 + 2.5 + 3.7 + .... + n (2n+1) 1 − x k +1 
n = a  
= (n+1)(4n+5), for all n ∈ N.  1− x 
6
= R. H. S.
Ex.2 By method of induction, prove that.
∴ P(k+1) is true.
n
 1− x  n

∑ ax r −1
=a  , for all n ϵ N, x ≠ 1. Step (IV) : From all steps above by the principle
r =1  1− x  of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for
n
all n ∈ N.
Solution : Let P(n) ≡ ∑ ax
r =1
r −1

n
 1 − xn 
 1 − xn  ∴∑
r −1
ax =a   , for all n ∈ N, x ≠ 1.
= a + ax + ax + .... + ax = a 
2 n−1
  1− x 
 1− x 
r =1

Step (I) : To prove that P(1) is true Ex.3 By method of induction, prove that.
Let n = 1
52n − 1 is divisible by 6, for all n ∈ N.
∴ L. H. S. = a
Solution : 52n − 1 is divisible by 6, if and only if
 1− x 
R. H. S. = a   =a 52n − 1 is a multiple of 6
 1− x 
∴ L. H. S. = R. H. S. Let P(n) be 52n − 1 = 6m, m ∈ N.
Step (I) : To prove that P(1) is true, Let n = 1
∴ P(1) is true
∴ 52n − 1 = 25 − 1 = 24 = 6.4

71
 ∴ 52n − 1 is a multiple of 6 Since k ≥ 4, k + 1 > 4+1, i.e. k + 1 ≥ 5,
∴ P(1) is true. also k +1 ≥ 2 (why?)
and from Step II, k ! ≥ 2k ; k ≥ 4.
Step (II) : Assume that P(k) is true.
Therefore, L.H.S. = (k+1)k! ≥ 2.2k = 2k+1 =R.H.S.
∴ 52k − 1 = 6a, where a ∈ N
i.e. (k+1)! ≥ 2k+1, k + 1 ≥ 4
∴ 52k = 6a + 1 ...(i)
Therefore P(k+1) is true.
Step (III) : To prove that P(k+1) is true Step (IV) : (Induction) From all steps above,
i.e. to prove that 52(k+1) − 1 is a multiple of 6 P(n) is true for ∀ n ∈ N, n ≥ 4.
i.e. 52k+2 − 1 = 6b, b∈N
Ex. 5) Given that (recurrence relation)
Now 52k+2 − 1 = 52k.52 − 1
tn+1 = 3tn + 4, t1 = 1, prove by induction that
= (6a + 1) 25 − 1 by (i) (general statement) tn = 3n − 2.
= 150a + 24 = 6(25a + 4)
Solution : The statement P(n) has L.H.S. a
= 6b recurrence relation tn+1 = 3tn + 4, t1 = 1 and
Step (IV) : From all the steps above R.H.S. a general statement tn = 3n − 2.
P(n) = 52n −1 is divisible by 6, Step I : (Foundation) To prove P(1) is true.
for all n ∈ N L.H.S. = 1, R.H.S = 31 − 2 = 3 − 2 = 1
So P(1) is true.
Note :
For n = 2, L.H.S. = t2 = 3t1 + 4 = 3(1) + 4
1) 5<5 is not a true statement, whereas 5 ≤ 5,
=7
5 ≥ 5 are true statements.
Now R.H.S. = t2 = 32 − 2 = 9 − 2 = 7. P(2)
2) 2 = 3, 2 > 3, 2 ≥ 3 are not true statements,
is also true.
whereas 2 < 3, 2 ≤ 3are true statements,
Step II : (Assumption) Assume that P(k) is true.
Ex. 4) By method of induction, prove that i.e. for tk+1 = 3tk + 4, t1 = 1, then tk = 3k − 2
n ! ≥ 2n ; ∀ n ∈ N, n ≥ 4.
Step III : (Sucession) To prove that P(k + 1) is
Solution : Step I : (Foundation) Since P(n) is ture.
stated for n ≥ 4. Take n = 4
i.e. to prove tk+1 = 3k+1 − 2
L.H.S. = 4! = 24, R.H.S. = 2 = 16.
4
Since tk+1 = 3tk + 4, and tk = 3k − 2 (From
Since 24≥16, P(n) is true for n = 4 Step II) tk+1 = 3(3k − 2) + 4 = 3k+1 − 6 + 4
[P(n) is not true for n = 1, 2, 3 (Verify!)] = 3k+1 − 2.
Step (II) : (Assumption) Assume that let P(k) Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
is true. Step IV: (Induction) From all the steps
i.e. k ! ≥ 2 ; k ∈ N, k ≥ 4.
k above P(n), tn = 3n − 2 is true for ∀ n ∈ N, where
tn+1 = 3tn + 4, t1 = 1.
Step (III) : (Succession) To prove that P(k+1)
is true.
i.e. to prove that (k + 1)! ≥ 2k+1, k + 1 ≥ 4.
L.H.S. = (k +1)! = (k + 1)k!

72
Ex.6 By method of induction, prove that. 1.6 + 2.9+ 3.12 +....+ (k + 1) (3k + 6) =
2n > n, for all n ∈ N. (k+1)3+3(k+1)2+2(k+1)+3
L.H.S. = 1.6 + 2.9+ 3.12 +....+ (k + 1) (3k + 6)
Solution : Let P(n) = 2n > n
= 1.6+2.9+3.12 +....+ k(3k+3) + (k+1)
Step (I) : To prove that P(1) is true, Let n = 1 (3k+6)
L.H.S. = 21 = 2 = k3 + 3k2 + 2k + 3 + (k + 1) (3k + 6)by(i)
= k3 + 3k2 + 2k + 3 + 3k2 + 6k+ 3k + 6
R.H.S. = 1
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 + 3k2+6k+3+2k+2+3
2 > 1 Which is true
= (k + 1)3 + 3(k2 + 2k + 1) + 2(k + 1) + 3
∴ P(1) is true
= (k + 1)3 + 3(k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1) + 3
Step (II) : Assume that P(k) is true, k ∈ N = R. H. S.
∴ 2k > k ...(i) ∴ P(k + 1) is true.
If P(k) is true then P (k+1) is true.
Step (III) : To prove that P(k+1) is true
Now we examine the result for n = 1
i.e. 2k+1 > k + 1
Now 2k+1 = 2k.21 > k.2 ...by (i) L.H.S. = 1.6 = 6
∴ 2k+1 > 2k R. H. S. = 13 + 3(1)2 + 2 (1) + 3
∴ 2k+1 > k + k =9
∴ 2k+1 > k + 1 (∴ k≥1) ∴ L. H. S. ≠ R. H. S.
∴ P(k + 1) is true. ∴ P(1) is not true
∴ P (n) is not true for all n ∈ N.
Step (IV) : From all steps above and by the
principle of mathematical induction, P(n)
is true for all n ∈ N. EXERCISE 4.1
∴ 2n > n, for all n ∈ N.
Prove by method of induction, for all n ∈ N.
Remarks : (1) In the proof of P(n) by method
of induction, both the conditions viz. (1) 2 + 4 + 6 + ..... + 2n = n (n+1)
(i) P(1) is true and (ii) P(k+1) is true when (2) 3 + 7 + 11 + ..... + to n terms = n(2n+1)
P(k) is true, must be satisfied. (2) In some
n(n+1)(2n+1)
problems, second step is satisfied but the (3) 12 + 22 + 32 + .... + n2 =
6
first step is not satisfied. Hence the result is n
not valid for all n ∈ N. (4) 12+32 + 52 + .... + (2n−1)2= (2n−1)(2n+1)
3
for example, (5) 1 +3 + 5 + .... to n terms = n2 (2n2−1)
3 3 3

let P(n) ≡ 1.6+2.9+3.12+....+n(3n + 3) = n

n3 + 3n2 + 2n + 3 (6) 1.2+2.3+3.4+.....+n(n+1) = (n+1)(n+2)
3
Let us assume that P(k) is true. n
(7) 1.3+3.5+5.7+ ..... to n terms = (4n2+6n−1)
∴1.6+2.9+3.12+....+k(3k + 3) = k3 + 3k2 + 2k + 3 3
...(i) 1 1 1 1
(8) + + +....+
We have to prove that P(k+1) is true, 1.3 3.5 5.7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1)
n
i.e. to prove that =
2n + 1
73
 1 1 1 n Index
(9) + + + ... to n terms =
3.5 5.7 7.9 3(2n + 3) 0 0
C0 = 1
1 1
C0 = 1 1C1 = 1
(10) (23n−1) is divisible by 7.
2 2
C0 = 1 2C1 = 2 2C2 = 1
(11) (24n−1) is divisible by 15. 3 3
C0 = 1 3C1 = 3 3C2 = 3 3C3 = 1
4 4
C0=1 4
C1=4 4
C2= 6 4C3= 4 4C4=1
(12) 3n − 2n − 1 is divisible by 4.
5 n Now, we will study how to expand
(13) 5 + 52 + 53 + .... + 5n = (5 − 1) binomials of higher powers.
4
Theorem : If a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
(14) (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos (nθ) + i sin (nθ)
(a+b)n = nC0 anb0 + nC1 an−1 b1 +
(15) Given that tn+1 = 5tn + 4, t1= 4, prove by n
C2 an−2b2 + ...+nCn a0 bn
method of induction that tn = 5n − 1 Proof : We prove this theorem by method
of induction.
(16) Prove by method of induction Let P(n) be (a+b)n =
1 2
n
 1 2n  n
C0 anb0 + nC1 an−1 b1 +nC2 an−2b2 +...+nCn a0 bn
  =   ∀n∈N
0 1 0 1  Step (I) : Let n = 1
4.2 Binomial Theorem for positive integral ∴ L. H. S. = (a + b)1 = a + b
index :
R. H. S. = 1C0 a1b0 + 1C1 a0b1 = a + b
We know that
∴ L. H. S. = R. H. S.
(a + b)0 = 1
∴ P (1) is true.
(a + b)1 = 1a + 1b
Step (II) : Let P(k) be true.
(a + b)2 = 1a2 + 2ab +1b2
∴(a+b)k=kC0 akb0+kC1ak−1 b1+kC2ak−2b2+..+kCka0 bk

(a + b)3 = 1a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 1b3

(a + b)4 = 1a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + 1b4 ....(i)
Step (III) : We have to prove that P(k+1) is true.
The coefficients of these expressions are
i.e. to prove that
arranged by Pascal's triangle as follows and
are expressed in the form of nCr (a+b)k+1 =
k+1
C0 ak+1b0 + k+1C1akb1 + k+1C2ak−1b2 +...
Index
+ k+1Ck+1a0 bk+1
0 1 Now L. H. S. = (a + b)k+1
1 1 1
= (a+b) (a+b)k
2 1 2 1 = (a+b) [kC0 akb0+kC1ak−1 b1+kC2ak−2b2+..
3 1 3 3 1 +kCka0 bk] by (i)
k−1 k−2 2
= a[ C0a b + C1a b+ C2a b +...+kCka0bk]
k k 0 k k
4 1 4 6 4 1
+b[kC0akb0+kC1ak−1 b+kC2ak−2b2+...+kCka0 bk]

74
 = [kC0ak+1b0+kC1akb1+kC2ak−1b2+...+kCkabk]+
SOLVED EXAMPLES
[kC0akb+kC1ak−1 b2+kC2ak−2b3+...+kCka0 bk+1]
= k
C0ak+1b0+kC1akb1+kC0akb1+kC2ak−1b2 + Ex. 1 : Expand (x2 + 3y)5
k
C1ak-1b2+...+kCka1 bk+ kCk−1a1bk + kCka0 bk+1 Solution : Here a = x2, b = 3y and n = 5 using

= kC0ak+1b0 + (kC1+kC0)akb1+(kC2+kC1)ak-1b2+ binomial theorem,
... + (kCk+ kCk−1) a1bk + kCka0 bk+1 (x2+3y)5 = 5C0(x2)5 (3y)0 + 5C1(x2)4 (3y)1 + 5C2(x2)3

(3y)2 + 5C3(x2)2 (3y)3 +5C4(x2)1 (3y)4
But we know that
+5C5(x2)0 (3y)5
k
C0 = 1 = k+1Ck+1, kC1+ kC0 = k+1C1. Now 5C0 = 5C5 = 1, 5C1 = 5C4 = 5,
k
C2+kC1 = k+1C2,.... kCk + kCk−1= k+1Ck,.... 5.4
5
C2 = 5C3 = . = 10
21
k
Ck = 1 = k+1Ck+1
∴(x2+3y)5 = 1(x 10 )(1)+5(x 8 )(3y)+10(x 6 )(9y 2 )+

∴ L.H.S. = k+1C0ak+1b0 +k+1C1akb1 +k+1C2ak−1b2 10(x 4 )(27y 3 )+5(x 2 )(81y 4 )+1(1)
+ ....... + k+1Ck+1a0bk+1 (243y5)

= R.H.S. ∴(x2+3y)5= x10+15x8y+90x6y2+270x4y3+405x2 y4

+243y5
∴ P (k+1) is true.
5
Step (IV) : From all steps above and by the  y
Ex. 2 : Expand  2x − 2 
principle of mathematical induction, P(n)  
is true for all n ∈ N. y
Solution : Here a = 2x, b = and n = 5
2
∴(a+b)n=nC0 anb0+nC1an−1 b1+nC2an−2b2...+nCna0 bn,
Using binomial theorem,
for all n ∈ N.
0 1
 y
5
Remarks :  y  y
 2x −  = 5C0(2x)5   − 5C1(2x)4  
 2 2 2
(1) The expansion of (a+b)n contains n+1
2 3
terms.  y  y
+ C2(2x)   − 5C3(2x)2  
5 3

(2) First term is an and last term is bn. 2 2

(3) In each term, the sum of indices of a and b y
4
 y
5

is always n. + C4(2x)   − 5C5(2x)0  

5 1

2 2
(4) In successive terms, the index of a decreases
by 1 and index of b increases by 1. Now 5C0 = 5C5 = 1, 5C1 = 5C4 = 5,
(5) Coefficients of the terms in binomial 5.4
expansion equidistant from both the ends 5
C 2 = 5C 3 = = 10
2.1
are equal. i.e. coefficients are symmetric. y
5
 y
∴  2x − 2  = 1(32x5)(1) − 5(16x4)( )
(6) (a−b)n = nC anb0 − nC an−1 b1+nC an−2b2 − ... +
0 1 2
  2
(−1)nCna0 bn. y2 y3

+ 10(8x ) ( ) − 10(4x )( )
3 2

In the RHS, the first term is positive and 4 8

consequent terms are alternately negative y 4
y 5
+ 5(2x)( ) − 1(1)( )
and positive. 16 32

75
  y
5 Similarly,
∴  2x − 2  = 32x5 − 40x4y + 20x3y2 − 5x2y3
 
( ) = ( 4 2 ) −20+ ( 20 2 ) − 20+ (5 2 ) −1
5

5
2 −1
5 4 y
+ xy − ... (ii)
8 32
Subtracting (ii) from (i) we get,

( ) ( ) ( )
4 5 5
Ex.3 : Expand 5+ 3 2 +1 − 2 −1

Solution : Here a = 5 , b = 3 and n = 4 = (4 2 + 20 + 20 2 + 20 + 5 2 + 1 )

Using binomial theorem,
(
− 4 2 − 20 + 20 2 − 20 + 5 2 − 1 )
( ) ( )( ) ( 5) ( 3)
4 4 0 3 1
5+ 3 = C0 4
5 3 + C14

= 2(20 + 20 + 1)
+ C ( 5) ( 3) + C ( 5) ( 3)
2 2 1 3
4 4
2 3 = 82
( ) ( )
5 5

+ C ( 5) ( 3)
0 4 ∴ 2 +1 − 2 −1 = 82
4
4
Ex. 5 (Activity) : Using binomial theorem, find
4.3 the value of (99)4
Now C0 = C4 = 1, C1 = C3 = 4, C2 =
4 4
= 6, 4 4 4
2.1
Solution : We have (99)4 = ( − 1)4
( ) ( )( )
4
∴ 5 + 3 =1(25)(1)+4 5 5 3 3 +6(5)(3)
∴ (99)4 = 4C0 ( )4 − 4C1 ( )3 + 4C2 ( )2
( 5 )(3 3 ) + 1(1)(9)
+4
− 4C 3 ( ) 1 + 4C 4 ( ) 0

( 3 ) =25+ ( 20 15 ) +90+ (12 15 ) +9

4
∴ 5+ 4.3
Now 4C0 = 4C4 = 1, 4C1 = 4C3 = 4, 4C2 = =6
2.1
( 3 ) = 124 + ( 32 15 )
4
∴ 5+ ∴ (99)4 = 1(10) − 4(10) + 6(10)

− 4(10) + 1(1)
( ) ( )
5 5
Ex.4 : Evaluate 2 +1 − 2 −1

= − + − + =
( 2 + 1) = C ( 2 ) + C ( 2 )
5 5 4
Solution : 5
0
5
1
+
Ex. 6 : Find the value of (2.02)5 correct upto 4
C ( 2) + C ( 2) + C ( 2)
3 2 1
5
2
5
3
5
4 decimal places.

+ C ( 2)
5
0 Solution : (2.02)5 = [2+0.02]5
5
5.4

= 5C0 (2)5(0.02)0 + 5C1 (2)4(0.02)1 +
Now C0 = C5 = 1, C4 = C1 = 5, C2 = C3 =
5 5 5 5 5 5
2.1 5C2 (2)3(0.02)2 + 5C3 (2)2(0.02)3 +
= 10
5C4 (2)1(0.02)4 + 5C5 (2)0(0.02)5
∴ ( ) ( )
5
2 + 1 = 1 4 2 + 5(4) + 10 2 2 + 10(2) ( ) Now 5C0 = 5C5 = 1, 5C1 = 5C4 = 5, 5C2 = 5C3 = 10

+ 5 ( 2) + 1 ∴ (2.02)5 = 1(32)(1) + 5(16)(0.02)

+ 10(8)(0.0004) + 10(4)(0.000008)
( 2 + 1) = ( 4 2 ) + ( 20 2 )
5
∴ 20 + + 20
+ 5(2)(0.00000016)
+ (5 2 ) + 1 ... (i)
+ 1(0.0000000032)

76
Ignore last two terms for four decimal places (5) Using binomial theorem, find the value of
∴ (2.02)5 = 32 + 1.60 + 0.0320 + 0.0003 (i) (102)4 (ii) (1.1)5
∴ (2.02)5 = 33.6323.
(6) Using binomial theorem, find the value of
Ex. 7 : Without expanding, find the value of (i) (9.9)3 (ii) (0.9)4
(2x−1)5 + 5 (2x−1)4 (1−x) + 10 (2x−1)3(1−x)2+
(7) Without expanding, find the value of
10 (2x−1)2(1−x)3+5(2x−1)(1−x)4+ (1−x)5
(i) (x+1)4 − 4(x+1)3 (x−1) + 6 (x+1)2 (x−1)2
Solution : We notice that 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 are the
values of 5C0 , 5C1 , 5C2 , 5C3 , 5C4 and 5C5 − 4(x+1) (x−1)3 + (x−1)4
respectively.
(ii) (2x−1)4 + 4(2x−1)3 (3−2x) +
Hence, given expression can be written as
6 (2x−1)2 (3−2x)2 + 4(2x−1)1 (3−2x)3
5
C0(2x−1)5 + 5C1(2x−1)4 (1−x)
+ (3−2x)4
+ 5C2(2x−1)3(1−x)2 + 5C3(2x−1)2(1−x)3 (8) Find the value of (1.02)6, correct upto four

+ 5C4(2x−1)(1−x)4+ 5C5 (1−x)5 places of decimals.

=[(2x−1) + (1−x)]5 (9) Find the value of (1.01)5, correct upto three
places of decimals.
= (2x − 1 + 1 − x)5
(10) Find the value of (0.9)6, correct upto four
= x5 places of decimals.
∴ (2x−1)5+5(2x−1)4 (1−x) +10 (2x−1)3(1−x)2
4.3 General term in expansion of (a+b)n
+ 10 (2x−1)2(1−x)3 + 5(2x−1)(1−x)4 + (1−x)5

= x5 In the expansion of (a+b)n, we denote the
terms by t1, t2, t3, ...., tr, tr+1, .... tn .... then
t1 = nC0 an b0
EXERCISE 4.2

t2 = nC1 an−1 b1

( ) ( ) t3 = nC2 an−2 b2
4 5
(1) Expand (i) 3+ 2 (ii) 5− 2
. . .
 1
6 . . .
(2) Expand (i) (2x2 + 3)4 (ii)  2 x −  . . .
 x
tr = nCr−1 an−r+1 br−1
(3) Find the value of
tr+1 = nCr an−r br

( ) ( )
4
(i) 3 +1
4
− 3 −1

tr+1 is called a general term for all r ∈ N and
0 ≤ r ≤ n. Using this formula, we can find
(ii) ( 2 + 5 ) ( )
5 5
+ 2− 5 any term of the expansion.

(4) Prove that 4.3 Middle term (s) in the expansion of (a+b)n:
(i) In (a+b)n if n is even then the number of
( 3 + 2) + ( ) = 970
6 6
(i) 3− 2 terms in the expansion is odd. So the only

(ii) ( 5 + 1) − ( 5 − 1) = 352
th
n+2
middle term is 
5 5
 term.
 2 

77
 (ii) In (a+b)n if n is odd then the number of 4
2
terms in the expansion is even. So the two t5 = C4 (x )
8 2 8−4
 
th x
middle terms are  n + 1  term and 4
8.7.6.5 2 4  2 
th  2  = (x )  
 n + 3  term. 4.3.2.1 x
 
 2  16
= 70 (x8)
x4
SOLVED EXAMPLES = 1120x4

Ex. 1 : Find the fifth term in the expansion of Ex. 3 : Find the middle terms in the expansion of
9
8  1 
 2 3   2x − 
 2x +   4x 
 2x  1
3 Solution : Here a = 2x, b = − ,n=9
Solution : Here a = 2x2, b = ,n=8 4x
2x
For t5, r = 4  n +1   n +3
Now n is odd   =5  2  =6
 2   
Since, tr+1 = nCr an−r br, ∴ Fifth and sixth terms are the middle terms.
4
 3  We have tr+1 = nCr an−r br,
t5 = 8C4 (2x2)8−4  
 2x 
For t5 , r = 4
4
8.7.6.5  3   1 
4
= (2x2)4   ∴ t5 = C4 (2x)
9 9−4
− 
4.3.2.1  2x   4x 
9.8.7.6
4
 81  5  1 
= 70(16x ) 8
4 

= . . . (32x)  − 
 16 x  4321  4x 
= 5670x4  1 

= 126 (2x5)  4 
∴ The fifth term in the expansion of  256 x 
8  63 x 
 2 3  =  
 2 x +  is 5670x
4
 4 
 2x 
For t6 , r = 5
5
Ex. 2 : Find the middle term(s) in the expansion  −1 
∴ t6 = C5 (2x)  
9 9−5

 2 2
8
 4x 
of  x + 
 x 9.8.7.6  −1 
5

= . . . (2x)  
4
2
Solution : Here a = x2, b =,n=8 4321  4x 
x  −1 
n+2 8+ 2 = 126 (16x4)  5 
 1024 x 
Now n is even, hence   =  2  = 5
 2  63
= −
∴ Fifth term is the only middle term. 32x
For t5, r = 4  63 x  63
∴ The middle terms are   and −
We have tr+1 = nCr an−r br,  4  32x

78
Ex. 4 : Find the coefficient of x7 in the expansion ∴ r =4
11
 1 ∴ coefficient of x−2
of  x 2 + 
 x 4
10.9.8.7 4

1 = 10
C4 (2)10−4  −1  = (2)6  −1 
Solution : a = x2, b = , n = 11   4.3.2.1  
x  3  3

We have tr+1 = nCr an−r br, 1

= 210 (64)  
r 9
1
tr+1 = 11
Cr (x ) 2 11−r
  4480
 x =
3

= 11Cr x22−2r x−r
4480
∴ Coefficient of x−2 is
= 11
Cr x 22−3r 3

To get coefficient of x7, we must have Ex. 6 : Find the term independent of x, in the
10
expansion of  x − 2 
x22−3r = x7 2

∴ 22 − 3r = 7  x 
−2
∴ r =5 Solution : Here a = x,b= , n = 10
x2
11.10.9.8.7
∴ 11
C5 = . . . . = 462
54321 We have tr+1 = nCr an−r br
∴ Coefficient of x7 is 462.  −2 
r

( x)
10 − r
= 10
Cr  2
x 
Ex. 5 : Find the coefficient of x−2 in the expansion
10  10− r 
 
 1  = 10
Cr x  2 
(−2)r x−2r
of  2 x − 
 3x 2 
−1 10 −5 r
Solution : Here a = 2x, b = , n = 10
3x 2

= 10Cr (−2)r x 2

We have tr+1 = nCr an−r br, To get the term independent of x, we must have
r
 −1  10 −5 r
= 10
Cr (2x2)10−r  2  x 2
= x0
 3x 
r 10 − 5r
 −1  −2r
∴
=0
= 10
Cr (2) 10−r
x 10−r
  x 2
 3
∴ 10 − 5r = 0
r
 −1  10−3r ∴ r =2
= 10Cr (2)10−r   x

 3
∴ the term independent of x is

To get coefficient of x , we must have−2
10.9
x10−3r = x−2 10
C2 (−2)2 = (−2)2 = 45(4) = 180
2.1

∴ 10 − 3r = −2
∴ the term independent of x is 180.
∴ −3r = −12

79
 (4) Find the middle terms in the expansion of
EXERCISE 4.3
12 7
 x y
(ii)  x 2 + 
1
(i)  + 
(1) In the following expansions, find the y x  x
indicated term. 8 10
 2  x a
8 (iii)  x 2   (iv)   
(i)  2 x 2 
3  , 3rd term  x a x

 2x  11
 1
11 (v)  x 4  3 
 4  x 
(ii)  x 2  3 
, 5th term
 x 
(5) In the expansion of (k+x)8, the coefficient
9
(iii)  4x  5  , 7th term of x5 is 10 times the coefficient of x6. Find
  the value of k.
 5 2x 
12
(6) Find the term containing x6 in the expansion
(iv)   a2  , 9th term
1
of (2−x) (3x+1)9
3 
13
(7) The coefficient of x2 in the expansion of
(v)  3a+  , 10th term
4

 a (1+2x)m is 112. Find m.

(2) In the following expansions, find the 4.4 Binomial Theorem for Negative Index or
indicated coefficients. Fraction.
9 8 If n is negative then n! is not defined.
 3 2  5 5
(i) x in  x 2 +
3
 (ii) x in  2x  3 
8

 x   x  We state binomial theorem in another form.

5 n n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 2
18
 1  (a+b)n = an + a b+ a b
(iii) x in  1 +x 2 
9
(iv) x in  x  
−3
1! 2!
   2x 
x 
n(n − 1)(n − 2)
 1 
15
+ an−3 b3 + .....
3!
(v) x−20 in  x3  2 
 2x 
n(n − 1)....(n − r+1) an−r br + .....+ bn
(3) Find the constant term (term independent r!
of x) in the expansion of n(n − 1)(n − 2)....(n − r+1) n−r r
15
Here tr+1 = r!
a b
9
 2
(i)  2 x + 1 2  (ii)  x  2 
3x   x  Consider the binomial theorem

8
 3
10
§ 2 1· (1+x)n = 1 + nC1x + nC2 x2 + .... + xn
(iii)  x  2  (iv) ¨ [  ¸
 x  © [¹ n(n − 1) 2
= 1 + nx + x + ....+ xn
9 2!
(v) ¨§ 2[ 2  5 ¸· This is a finite sum.
© [¹

80
 The theorem has an extension to the case 1
where 'n' is negative or faction. We state it (3) = (1+x)−2 =1−2x+3x2 − 4x3+...
(1  [) 2
here without proof.
1
(4) = (1−x)−2 =1+2x+3x2 + 4x3+...
For |x|<1 (1 − x) 2
n(n − 1)
(1+x)n = 1 + n x + x2 +
1 x x 2 x3
2! (5) 1  x  (1  x) 2  1     ...
2 8 16
n(n − 1)(n − 2)
x3 + ... 1 x x 2 x3
3! (6) 1  x  (1  x) 2
 1     ...
2 8 16
n(n − 1)....(n − r+1) r
x + ....
r!
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Here n is not an integer and the terms on
the RHS are infinite, the series does not
Ex.1 : State first four terms in the expansion of
terminate.
1 where |b|<|a|
Here there are infinite number of terms in the
(a − b) 4
expansion. The general term is given by
Solution : We have 1 = (a−b)−4
n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − r+1)x r
tr+1 = ,r≥0 (a − b) 4

r!
4

Remarks : (1) If |x|<1 and n is any real number,   b 

= a 1   
not a positive integer, then   a 
4
n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2) 4
 2
 b  (4)(5)  b  (4)(5)(6)  b 
3

 a 1+(-4)            ...
(1−x)n = 1− nx + 2! x2 − 3! x3 +...   a  2 !  a  3!  a  

The general term is given by 4  b 20 b 2 120 b3 

= a 1  4  2
 3
 ...
( − 1) r n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − r+1) r  a 2 a 6 a 
tr+1 = x
r!
 4b 10b 2 20b3
4 
(ii) If n is any real number and |b|<|a|, then = a 1   2  3  ...
 a a a 
n n
  b 
(a + b) = a  1+   = an 1+ 
n b
  a   a Ex. 2 : State first four terms in the expansion of
1
, |b|<|a|
Note : While expanding (a+b)n where n is a (a+b)
negative integer or a fraction, reduce the binomial 1
Solution : = = (a+b)−1
to the form in which the first term is unity and the (a+b)
second term is numerically less than unity. 1
= a1 1  
b
Particular expansion of the binomials for
 a
negative index, fraction. |x|<1
1  2
 b  (1)(2)  b  (1)(2)(3)  b 
3

(1) =(1+x)−1 = 1− x+x2−x3+x4−x5+... a1 1  (1)          ...
1 [  a 2!  a  3! a 

1
(2) =(1−x)−1 = 1+ x+x2+x3+x4+x5+...  b b 2 b3
1 
1− [ = a 1   2  3  ...
 a a a 
81
Ex. 3 : State first four terms in the expansion of   1  1 
−
(2−3x)−1/2 if |x|<
2  1  2   2   1 
3 = 5 1 + +  
2  10 2  25 
Solution : |x|< 
3
 1   1   −3  
∴ 3x < 1   −   1
 2  2  2    
2 +   + ...
6  125  
We have (2−3x)−1/2 
−1
= 5 1 + − 
 3x  2 1 1 1
−1/2 + − ...
=2 1 − 

 2   10 200 2000 
  1  1  = 5 [ 1 + 0.1 − 0.005 + 0.0005]
  1   −3 x   − 2   − 2 − 1  −3 x  2 (upto 4 decimal places)
−1   
= 2 1 +  −   +
2
 
  2  2  2!  2  = 5[1.0955]
 = 5.4775

 1  1  1  
 −   − − 1  − − 2  −3 x 3  EXERCISE 4.4
+ 
2  2  2  
+ ...
 
3!  2  
 (1) State, by writing first four terms, the
expansion of the following, where |x|<1
  1  3 
− − (ii) (1−x)1/3
−1

2 
3 x  2   2   9 x 2  (i) (1+x)−4
= 2 1+ +  
4 2!

(iii) (1−x2)−3 (iv) (1+x)−1/5
  4 
 (v) (1+x2)−1

( − 1 ) ( − 3 ) ( − 5 )  −27 x 3

 (2) State, by writing first four terms, the
+ 2 2 2 
  + .... expansion of the following, where |b|<|a|
6  8 
 (i) (a−b)−3 (ii) (a+b)−4
−1  3 x 27 x 2 135 x 3  (iii) (a+b)1/4 (iv) (a−b)−1/4
= 2 1 + 4 + 32 + 128 + ...
2

  (v) (a+b)−1/3
(3) Simplify first three terms in the expansion
Ex. 4 : Find the value of 30 upto 4 decimal
of the following
places.
(i) (1+2x)−4 (ii) (1+3x)−1/2
Solution: (iii) (2−3x)1/3 (iv) (5+4x)−1/2
(v) (5−3x)−1/3
30 = (25 + 5)1/2
1 (4) Use binomial theorem to evaluate the
 5  2
following upto four places of decimals.
= (25)1/2 1 + 

 25  (i) 99 (ii) 3 126
1
 1 2
(iii) 4 16.08 (iv) (1.02)−5
= 5 1 + 
 5 (v) (0.98)−3

82
4.5 Binomial Coefficients :
SOLVED EXAMPLES
The coefficients C0, C1, C2, ... Cn in the
n n n n

expansion of (a+b)n are called the binomial Ex.1 : Show that C0 + C1+ C2 + .... + C10 =1024
coefficients and denoted by C0, C1, C2, ... Cn Solution : We have C0 + C1+ C2 + .... Cn = 2n
respectively
Put n = 10, we get
Now (1+x)n = n
C0x0 + nC1x1+ nC2x2+...+ C0 + C1+ C2 + .... C10 = 210
n
Cnxn...(i)
∴ C0 + C1+ C2 + .... + C10 =1024
Put x = 1 we get
Ex. 2 : Show that
(1 + 1)n = nC0 + nC1+ nC2+ ... + nCn
C0 + C2+ C4 + .... + C12 = C1 + C3+ C5 + ....
∴ 2n = nC0 + nC1+ nC2+ ..... + nCn

+ C11 = 2048

∴ C0 + C1+ C2+ ..... + Cn = 2
n n n n n
Solution : We have

∴ C0 + C1+ C2+ ..... + Cn = 2n C0 + C1+ C2 + C3+ C4+ C5 +.... + Cn-1+ Cn = 2n

∴ The sum of all binomial coefficients is 2n

Put n = 12, we get
C0 + C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 + ...
(ii) Put x = −1, in equation (i) we get
+ C11+ C12 = 212 = 4096 (i)
(1 − 1)n = nC0 − nC1+ nC2− ... + (−1)n nCn
We know that

∴0 = nC0 − nC1+ nC2− ..... + (−1)n nCn The sum of even coefficients = The sum
of odd coefficients.

∴ nC0 − nC1+ nC2− nC3+ ..... + (−1)n nCn = 0
∴ C0 + C2+ C4 + .... + C12 = C1 + C3+ C5 + ....
∴ nC0 + nC2+ nC4+ ..... = nC1 + nC3+ nC5+ .....
+ C11 = k ...(ii)

∴ C0 + C2+ C4+ ..... = C1 + C3+ C5+ ..... Now from (i)
C0 , C2, C4,..... are called as even coefficients. (C0 + C2+ C4 + .... + C12) + (C1 + C3+ C5 + ....
C1 , C3, C5,.... are called as odd coefficients. + C11) = 4096
∴ k + k = 4096
Let C0 + C2+ C4+ .... = C1 + C3+ C5+ .... = k
∴ 2k = 4096
Now C0 + C1+ C2 + C3 + .... + Cn = 2n
∴ k = 2048

∴ (C0 + C2+ C4+ ....)+(C1 + C3+ C5+ ....) = 2 n
∴C0+C2+C4 +....+C12=C1+C3+C5+...+ C11= 2048

∴ k + k = 2n
Ex. 3 : Prove that

∴ 2k = 2n
n
C1+2C2+3C3+4C4+...+ nCn= n.2n−1
2

∴k= , k = 2n−1 Solution :
2

∴ C0 + C2+ C4+ .... = C1 + C3+ C5+ .... =2n−1 L.H.S. = C1+ 2C2+ 3C3+ 4C4+ ... + nCn

∴ The sum of even coefficients = The sum n(n  1) 3n(n  1)(n  2)
=n  2   ....  n.1
of odd coefficients = 2n−1

2! 3!

83
  (n − 1)(n − 2)  EXERCISE 4.5
= n 1 + (n − 1) + + .... + 1
 2! 
= n [n-1C0 + n-1C1+ n-1C2+ .....+ n-1Cn-1] Show That
(1) C0 + C1+ C2 + .... C8 = 256
= n [C0 + C1+ C2+ ....+ Cn-1]
(2) C0 + C1+ C2 + .... C9 = 512
n−1
= n.2
(3) C1 + C2+ C3 + .... C7 = 127
= R.H.S. (4) C1 + C2+ C3 + .... C6 = 63
∴ C1+ 2C2+ 3C3+ ... + nCn = n.2n−1 (5) C0+C2+C4+C6+C8=C1 +C3+C5+C7 = 128
(6) C1 + C2+ C3 + .... Cn = 2n − 1
Ex. 4 : Prove that
(7) C0+2C1+3C2+4C3+...+(n+1)Cn=(n+2)2n−1
C1 C2 C 2n +1 − 1
C0 + + + .... + n =
2 3 n +1 n +1
Let's Remember
Solution : L.H.S.

C0 C1 C2 C3 C ∙ Step (I) Foundation : To prove P(1) is true

= + + + .... + n
1 2 3 4 n +1 Step (II) Assumption : To assume P(k) is
true.
n 1 n(n − 1) 1 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 1
= 1+ + + + ... + Step (III) Succession : To prove that P(k+1)
2 3 2! 4 3! n +1
is true.
1  n(n+1) (n+1)n(n − 1)  Step (IV) Induction :P(n) is true for all
=  (n + 1) + + + ... + 1
(n + 1)  2! 3!  n ∈ N.
1 ∙ If a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
= [n+1C1 + n+1C2+ n+1C3+ .....+ n+1Cn+1]
(n +1) (a+b)n = nC0 an b0+nC1 an-1 b1+nC2 an-2 b2+....
+ nCn a0 bn
1
= [1+n+1C1 + n+1C2+ n+1C3+...+ n+1Cn+1−1]
(a−b)n = nC0 an b0−nC1 an-1 b1+nC2 an-2 b2....
(n +1)
+ (−1)n nCn a0 bn
1
= [n+1C0 + n+1C1+ n+1C2+ .....+ n+1Cn+1−1] General term in the expansion of (a+b)n is
(n +1) ∙
1 tr+1 = nCr an-r br
= [C0 + C1+ C2+ .....+ Cn+1−1]
(n +1)
∙ If |x| < 1 and n is any real number then
1 n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1)(n − 2) 3
= (2n+1−1) (1+x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...
(n +1) 2! 3!
n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(2n +1 − 1) (1+x)n = 1 − nx + x − x + ...
= = R.H.S. 2! 3!
n +1
∙ C0 + C1+ C2 + .... + Cn = 2n
C1 C2 C 2n +1 − 1
∴ C0 + + + .... + n = ∙ C0 + C2+ C4 + C6+ ....
2 3 n +1 n +1
= C1 + C3+ C5 + C7+ ....= 2n−1

84
 (II) Answer the following.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 4
(1) Prove, by method of induction, for all
n∈N
(I) Select the correct anwsers from the given n
(i) 8 + 17 + 26 + .... + (9n−1) = (9n+7)
alternatives. 2
(1) The total number of terms in the expression n
(ii) 12 + 42 + 72 + ... + (3n−2)2 = (6n2−3n −1)
of (x+y)100 + (x−y)100 after simplification is : 2
A) 50 B) 51 C) 100 D) 202 (iii) 2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... + (n+1)2n-1 = n. 2n
(2) The middle term in the expansion of (1+x)2n
will be : (iv) 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
3.4.5 4.5.6 5.6.7 (n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4)
A) (n−1)th B) nth C) (n+1)th D) (n+2)th
n(n + 1)
(3) In the expansion of (x2−2x)10, the coefficient =
6(n + 3)(n + 4)
of x16 is
A) −1680 B) 1680 C) 3360 D) 6720 (2) Given that tn+1 = 5tn − 8, t1 = 3, prove by
method of induction that tn = 5n−1 +2
(4) The term not containing x in expansion of
 1
10
(3) Prove by method of induction
(1−x) 
2 x   is Q
 x 3 4 2Q  1 4Q
,∀n∈N
A) 11C5 B) 10C5 C) 10C4 D) 10C7 1 1 Q 2Q  1

(5) The number of terms in expansion of (4) Expand (3x2 + 2y)5

(4y+x)8−(4y−x)8
4
A) 4 B) 5 C) 8 D) 9  2x 3 
(5) Expand   
 3 2x 
(6) The value 14C1 + 14C3+ 14C5+ ..... + 14C11 is
(6) Find third term in the expansion of
A) 214−1 B) 214−14 C) 212 D) 213−14 4
 2 y3 
(7) The value 11C2 + 11C4+ 11C6+ 11C8 is equal to  9x  
 6 
A) 210−1 B) 210−11 C) 210+12 (D) 210−12
(7) Find tenth term in the expansion of
(8) In the expansion of (3x+2) , the coefficient
4
12
of middle term is  2 1
 2x  
A) 36 B) 54 C) 81 D) 216  x
(8) Find the middle term (s) in the expansion of
(9) The coefficient of the 8th term in the
10
expansion of (1+x)10 is : 6
 1 
(i)  2a  3  (ii)  x  
A) 7 B) 120 C) 10C8 D) 210  3 2a   2y 
(10) If the coefficient of x2 and x3 in the expansion 9
(iv)  3x  1 
2

of (3+ax)9 are the same, then the value of a (iii) (x2+2y2)7

is  2 3x 
7 9 7 9
A) − B) − C) D)
9 7 9 7

85
(9) Find the coefficients of (16) Show that there is no term containing x6 in
11
 3
9 the expansion of  x 2   .
x6 in the expansion of  3x 2  
(i)
1  x
 3x 
(17) Show that there is no constant term in the
18 9
 1   x2 
(ii) x in the expansion of  2  x 4 
60
expansion of  2 x  
x   4
(18) State, first four terms in the expansion of
(10) Find the constant term in the expansion of 1
 2x  2

1  
9
 4x 3 
2 12

(i)     1
(ii)  2x 2    3 
 3 2x   x
(19) State, first four terms in the expansion of
(11) Prove the following by using by method of (1−x)−1/4
induction
(20) State, first three terms in the expansion of
(i) loga x = n loga x, x > 0. n ∈ N
n
(5 + 4x)−1/2
(ii) 152n-1+1 is divisible by 16, for all n ∈ N. (21) Using binomial theorem, find the value of
(iii) 52n − 22n is divisible by 3, for all n ∈ N. 3
995 upto four places of decimals.
1
(12) If the coefficient of x16 in the expansion of (22) Find approximate value of upto four
(x2 + ax)10 is 3360, find a. places of decimals. 4.08

(13) If the middle term in the expansion of (23) Find the term independent of x in the in
6
 b  2
6
 x   is 160, find b. expansion of (1 −x )  x  
2
 x  x
(14) If the coefficient of x2 and x3 in the expansion (24) (a + bx) (1 − x)6 = 3 −20x + cx2 + ..... then
of (3 + kx)9 are equal, find k. find a, b, c.
(15) If the constant term in the expansion of (25) The 3rd term of (1+x)n is 36x2. Find 5th term.
11
 3 k  is 1320, find k. (26) Suppose (1+kx)n = 1−12x + 60x2 − .... find
x  8 
 x  k and n.

v v v

86
 5 SETS AND RELATIONS

‘Happy people’, ‘Clever student’ are all relative

Let's Study terms. Here, the objects are not well-defined. In
the last two collections. We can determine the
• Representation of a set objects clearly. Thus, we can say that objects are
• Types of sets well-defined.
• Intervals
5.1.1 Set : Definition:
• Operations on sets
• Ordered pair A collection of well-defined objects is
called a set.
• Types of relations
The object in a set is called its element or
member.
Let's Recall
We denote sets by capital letters A,B,C. etc.
5.1 Introduction: The elements of a set are represented by small
The concept of a set was developed by letters a, b, c, x, y, z etc. If x is an element of a set
German mathematician George Cantor (1845- A we write x∈A, and read as ‘x belongs to A’. If
1918) x is not an element of a set A, we write x∉A, and
read as ‘x does not belong to A.’
You have already learnt about sets and some
e.g. zero is a whole number but not a natural
basic operations involving them in the earlier
number.
standards.
∴ 0∈W (Where W is the set of whole
We often talk about group or collection of numbers) and 0∉N (Where N is the set of natural
objects. Surely you must have used the words numbers)
such as team, bouquet, bunch, flock, family for
collection of different objects. 5.1.2 Representation of a set:
There are two methods of representing a set.
It is very important to determine whether a
1) Roster or Tabular method or List method
given object belongs to a given collection or not.
Consider the following collections: 2) Set-Builder or Rule Method
3) Venn Diagram
i) Successful persons in your city.
ii) Happy people in your town 1. Roster Method:
iii) Clever students in your class. In the Roster method, we list all the elements
iv) Days in a week. of the set within braces {,} and separate the
elements by commas.
v) First five natural numbers.
Ex : State the sets using Roster method.
First three collections are not examples of
sets, but last two collections represent sets. This is i) B is the set of all days in a week.
because in first three collections, we are not sure B = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
of the objects. The terms ‘successful persons,’ Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}

87
ii) C is the set of all vowels in English alphabets. 5.1.4 Types of Sets:
C = {a, e, i, o, u} 1) Empty Set:
Let’s Note: A set containing no element is called an
1) If the elements are repeated, they are written empty or a null set and is denoted by the
only once. symbol φ or { } or void set.
2) While listing the elements of a set, the e.g. A = {x/x∈N, 1<x<2} = { }
order in which the elements are listed is
immaterial. Here n(A) = 0
2. Set-Builder Method: 2) Singleton set:
In the set builder method, we describe the
A Set containing only one element is called
elements of the set by specifying the property
which determines the elements of the set uniquely. a singleton set.

Ex : State the sets using set-Builder method. e.g. Let A be a set of all integers which are
neither positive nor negative.
i) Y = {Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, ...., Dec}
Y = {x/x is a month of a year} ∴A = {0} Here n (A) = 1
ii) B = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, .....} 3) Finite set:
B = {x/x∈N and x is a square} The empty set or set which contains finite
number of objects is called a finite set.
3) Venn Diagram:
e.g set of letters in the word 'BEAUTIFUL'
The pictorial representation of a set is
called Venn diagram. English Logician John Venn A = {B, E,A ,U, T, I, F, L}, n(A) = 7
introduced such diagrams. We can use triangles,
A is a finite set
circles, rectangles or any closed figure to represent
a set. 4) Infinite set:
In a Venn diagram the elements of the sets A set which is not finite, is called an infinite
are shown as points
set.
A = {1,2,3} B = {a,b,c,d,e,f} C = {4,5,6}
e.g. set of natural numbers, set of rational
numbers.
Note :
1) An empty set is a finite set.
2) N, Z, set of all points on a circle, are
A B C infinite sets.
Fig. 5.1
5) Subset:
5.1.3 Number of elements of a set: A set A is said to be a subset of set B if every
The number of distinct elements contained in element of A is also an element of B and we
a finite set A is denoted by n(A). write A ⊆ B.
Thus, if A = {5, 2, 3, 4}, then n(A) = 4
Note: 1) φ is subset of every set.
n(A) is also called the cardinality of setA.
2) A ⊆ A, Every set is subset of itself.

88
6) Superset: If A ⊆ B, then B is called a 10) Equivalent sets:
superset of A and we write, B ⊇ A. Two finite sets A and B are said to be
equivalent if n (A) = n (B)
7) Proper Subset: A nonempty set A is said to
be a proper subset of the set B, if all elements e.g. A = {d, o, m, e}
of set A are in set B and at least one element B = {r, a, c, k}
of B is not in A. n (A) = n (B) = 4
i.e. If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B then A is called a ∴ A and B are equivalent sets.
proper subset of B and we write A ⊂ B.
11) Universal set: If in a particular discussion
e.g. Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7}. all sets under consideration are subsets of a
Then, evey element of A is an element of B set, say U, then U is called the universal set
but A ≠ B. for that discussion.
∴ A⊂B, i.e. A is a proper subset of B. e.g. The set of natural numbers N, the set
Remark: If there exists even a single of integers Z are subsets of real numbers
element in A which is not in B then A is not R. Thus, for this discussion R is a universal
a subset of B and we wrtie, A ⊄ B. set.
In general universal set is denoted by U or
8) Power Set: X.
The set of all subsets of a given set A is
called the power set of A and is denoted by 5.1.5 Operations on sets:
P(A), Thus, every element of power set A is 1) Complement of a set:
a set.
The complement of the set A is denoted by
e.g. consider the set A= {a,b}, let us write
A' or Ac . It is defined as
all subsets of the set A. We know that φ is
a subset of every set, so φ is a subset of A. A' = {x/x∈U, x∉A} = set of all elements in
Also {a}, {b}, {a,b} are also subsets of A. U which are not in A.
Thus, the set A has in all four subsets viz.
Ex. Let X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} be the
φ, {a}, {b}, {a,b}
Universal Set and A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
∴ P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}

9) Equal sets:
Two sets are said to be equal if they contain
the same elements i.e. if A⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
e.g. Let X be the set of letters in the word
'ABBA' and Y be the set of letters in the
word 'BABA'.
∴ X = {A, B}, Y = {B, A} Fig. 5.2

Thus the sets X and Y are equal sets and we ∴ The complement of the set A is
denote it by X = Y A' = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7}

89
 Properties: 3) Intersection of sets:
i) (A')' = A ii) φ' = U iii) U' = φ The intersection of two sets A and B is the
2) Union of Sets: set of all elements which are both in A and
B is denoted by A∩B
The union of two sets A and B is the set of
all elements which are in A or in B, (here Thus, A ∩ B = {x/x∈A and x∈B}
'or' is taken in the inclusive sense) and is
denoted by A ∪ B
Thus, A ∪ B = {x/x∈A or x∈B}
The Union of two sets A and B i.e.
A ∪ B is represented by a shaded part in
Venn-diagram as in fig. 5.3 and fig. 5.4. A∩B
Fig. 5.5

The shaded portion in Fig. 5.5 represents

the intersection of A and B i.e. A∩B

Ex. A={1,3,5,7,9}
Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4
B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Ex. A = {x/x is a prime number less than 10} Find A∩B.
B= {x/x∈N, x is a factor of 8} Solution: A∩B = {1,3,5,7}
find A∪B.
Ex. (Activity) : If A = {x/x∈N, x is a factor of 12}
Solution : We have A = {2,3,5,7}
B = {x/x∈N, x is a factor of 18}
B = {1, 2, 4, 8}
∴ A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} Find A∩B
Solution:
Properties:
A= { , , , , , }
i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutativity)
B = { , , , , , }
ii) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
∴ A∩B = { , , , }
(Associativity)
= common factors of 12 & 18
iii) A ∪ φ = A Identity for union
iv) A ∪ A = A Idempotent law Ex. : A = {1,3,5,7,9}
v) If A∪ A' = U B = {2,4,6,8, 10}, A∩B = ?
Solution : ∴ A∩B = { } = φ
vi) If A⊂B then A∪B = B
If A∩B = φ, A and B are disjoint sets.
vii) U∪A = U
viii) A⊂(A∪B), B⊂(A∪B)

90
Properties: Note:
i) A∩B = B ∩A (Commutativity) i) A-B ⊆ A and B-A ⊆ B.
ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) ii) The sets A-B, A∩B and B-A are mutually
(Associativity) disjoint sets, i.e. the intersection of any of
iii) φ∩ A = φ these two sets is the null (empty) set.
iv) A ∩ A = A Idempotent law iii) A-B = A∩B' , B-A = A'∩B
v) A∩ A = ∅ iv) A∪B = (A-B)∪(A∩B) ∪ (B-A)
vi) if A⊂B then A∩B =A Shaded portion in fig. 5.7 represents A∪B
vii) U∩A = A (Identity for intersection)
viii) (A∩B) ⊂A, (A∩B) ⊂B
ix) a) A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B)∪ (A∩C)
b) A∪(B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
..... Distributivity

De Morgan's Laws:
Fig. 5.7
For any two sets A and B
1) (A∪B)' = (A'∩B') v) (A-B) ∪ (B-A) = A∆B is called symmetric
2) (A∩B)' = (A'∪B') difference of sets A and B

Verify the above laws by taking Illustration :

U = {1,2,3,4,5} A = {1,3,4} B = {4,5} If A = {4,5,6,7,8} and B = {3,5,6,8,9} then

A−B = {4,7}, B−A = {3,9}
4) Difference of Sets: and A∆B = (A−B)∪(B−A) = {4,7}∪{3,9}
= {3,4,7,9}
Difference of set A and set B is the set of
elements which are in A but not in B and is Properties:
denoted by A-B, or A∩B'
i) A∆B = (A∪B)−(A∩B)
The shaded portion in fig. 5.6 represents
ii) A∆A = φ iii) A∆φ = A
A-B. Thus, A-B = {x/x∈A, x∉B}
iv) If A∆B = A∆C then B=C
v) A∆B = B∆A
vi) A∩(B∆C) = (A∩B) ∆ (A∩B)
Properties of Cardinality of Sets:
For give sets A, B
1) n (A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A∩B)
2) When A and B are disjoint sets, then
Fig. 5.6
n(A∪B) = n (A) + n(B), as A∩B = φ,
Similary B-A = {y/y∈B, y∉A}
n(A∩B) = 0

91
3) n(A∩B')+ n(A∩B) = n(A) 4) Semi-open Interval:
4) n(A'∩B)+ n(A∩B) = n(B) (a, b] = {x/x∈R, a < x ≤ b}
5) n(A∩B')+ n(A∩B) + n(A'∩B) = n(A∪B)
6) For any sets A, B, C. Fig. 5.11
n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A∩B) (a, b] excludes a but includes b.
-n(B∩C) - n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C)
i.e. a∉(a, b] but b∈(a, b]
7) If n(A) = m , n[P(A)] = 2m Where p(A) is
power set of A
5) i) The set of all real numbers greater than
8) n(A∆B) = n(A) + n(B) − 2n (A∩B) a i.e. (a,∞) = {x/x∈R, x > a}

5.1.6 Intervals:
1) Open Interval: Let a, b ∈ R and a < b then Fig. 5.12
the set {x/x∈R, a < x < b} is called open
interval and is denoted by (a,b). All the ii) The set of all real numbers greater than
numbers between a and b belong to the or equal to a
open interval (a,b) but a, b themselves do [a,∞) = {x/x∈R, x ≥ a}
not belonging to this interval.

Fig. 5.13
Fig. 5.8
6) i) The set of all real numbers less than b.
∴ (a,b) = {x/x∈R, a < x < b} ie. (-∞, b)
2) Closed Interval: Let a, b∈R and a < b ∴(-∞, b) = {x/x∈R, x < b}
then the set {x/x∈R, a ≤ x ≤ b} is called
closed interval and is denoted by [a,b]. All
the numbers between a and b belong to the Fig. 5.14
closed interval [a, b]. Also a and b belong to ii) The set of all real numbers less than or
this interval. equal to b i.e. (-∞, b]

Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.15

[a, b] = {x/x∈R, a ≤ x ≤ b} ∴(-∞, b] = {x/x∈R, x ≤ b}

3) Semi-closed Interval: 7) The set of all real numbers R is (-∞, ∞)

[a, b) = {x/x∈R, a ≤ x < b}

Fig. 5.16
Fig. 5.10
R = (-∞,∞) = {x/x∈R, -∞ < x < ∞}
Note that a∈[a, b) but b∉[a, b)

92
Rules of inequality of real numbers. x
c) 4
1) If 0<a<b and k>0 then a±k<b±k, ka<kb, x 3
ak <bk subtracting, 4, we get
2) If 0<a<b and k<0 then ka>kb, ak>bk [Note that, as we do not know value of x, we
do not multiply by (x − 3)]
Ex. : Solve the following inequalities and write x
40
the solution set using interval notation. x 3
a) −7 < 2x + 5 ≤ 9 x  4( x  3)
0
: Subtracting 5, we get x 3

−7−5 < 2x ≤ 9−5 x  4 x  12

0
x3
−12 < 2x ≤ 4
3 x  12
Dividing by 2, we get 0
x 3
−6 < x ≤ 2
3( x  4)
0
So, x ∈ (−6,2]. x3
Dividing by -3, we get
b) x2 + 2x <15
x4
Subtracting 15, we get Say p(x) = 0
x 3
x2 + 2x − 15 < 0
Take x = 3, 4 as critical points. It divides
Factor x2 + 2x − 15, we get
number line into 3 regions as follows.
Say p(x) = (x − 3) (x + 5) < 0
Regions (x ≤ 3) (3 ≤ x ≤ 4) (x ≥ 4)
As x−3 and x + 5 is 0, for x = 3, −5, consider
them as critical points. They divide number Test Points 2 3.5 5
line into 3 regions as follow. Sign of x−4 −ve −ve +ve

Sign of x−3 −ve +ve +ve
Regions x<−5 (−5<x<3) (x>3)
p(x)>0
Sign of
Test Points −6 0 4 Except at p(x)<0 p(x)>0
p(x)
x=3
(−6−3) (0−3) (4−3)
Value (x−3)
(−6 + 5) (0+5) (4+5) The solution set is (x < 3) and (x ≥ 4).
(x+5) of at
= (−9) (−1) = (−3)(5) = (1)(9) So x ∈ (−∞, 3) ∪ [4, ∞).
test points
=9 = −15 =9
Here x = 3 is not in the solution set, as it
Sign of makes denominator 0.
p(x)>0 p(x)<0 p(x)>0
p(x)
Ex. 8 : If A = [−5,3], B = (3,7), and (5,8]. Find
Therefore the solution set is (−5 < x < 3)
(a) A∪B (b) B∪C (c) A∪C (d) A∩B (e) B∩C
So, x (−5, 3). (f) A∩C (g) A∪C' (h) B − C (i) C − B

93
Solution : Ex. 3 : If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
(a) A∪B = [−5, 3] ∪ (3, 7) = [−5, 7) C = {5, 6, 7, 8}, D = {7, 8, 9, 10}

(b) B∪C = (3, 7) ∪ (5, 8] = (3, 8] find i) A∪B ii) A∪B∪C iii) B∪C∪D

(c) A∪C = [−5, 3] ∪ (5, 8] Are the sets A, B, C, D equivalent?

(d) A∩B = [−5, 3] ∩ (3, 7) = φ Solution: We have

i) A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(e) B∩C = (3, 7) ∩ (5, 8] = (5, 7)
ii) A∪B∪C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
(f) A∩C = [−5, 3] ∩ (5, 8] = φ
iii) B∪C∪D = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
(g) A∪C' = [−5, 3] ∪ (5, 8]' = [−5, 3] ∪
As n(A) = n(B) = n(C) = n(D) = 4, the sets A, B,
{(−∞, 5] ∪ (8, ∞)} = (−∞, 5] ∪ (8, ∞)
C, D are equivalent.
(h) B − C = (3, 7) − (5, 8] = (3, 5]
Ex. 4 : Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}be the
(i) C − B = (5, 8] − (3, 7) = [7, 8] universal set, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {6, 7, 8, 9}
SOLVED EXAMPLES
find i) A' ii) (A∩C)' iii) (A')' iv) (B-C)'
Ex. 1: If A= {x/x∈N, x is a factor of 6} Solution: We have
B = {x/x∈N, x is a factor of 8} i) A' = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
find the A-B and B-A ii) (A∩C) = {7, 9}
Solution : A = {1, 2, 3, 6} ∴ (A∩C)' = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}
B = {1, 2, 4, 8}
iii) (A')' = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}' = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = A
∴A-B = {3, 6}
iv) B-C = {2, 3, 4, 10}
B-A = {4, 8}
∴ (B-C)' = {1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
1 
Ex.2: A   / x  N , x  8
x  Ex. 5 : Let X be the universal set, for the non-
empty sets A and B, verify the De Morgan's laws
1 
B =  / x  N , x  8 Find A-B and B-A
 2x  i) (A∪B)' = A'∩B'

 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii) (A∩B)' = A'∪B'

Solution: A = 1, , , , , , 
 2 3 4 5 6 7 Where X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7}
B =  , , , , , , , 
 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16  Solution: A∪B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
 1 1 1 (A∩B) = {1, 2, 5}
∴A-B = 1, , , 
 3 5 7 A' = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
1 1 1 1 1 
and B-A =  , , , ,  B' = {3, 4, 8, 9, 10}
 8 10 12 14 16 

94
i) (A∪B)' = {8, 9, 10} ...(1) ii) n(A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A∪B)
A'∩B' = {8, 9, 10} ...(2) n(A∩B) = 35 + 22 - 47
from (1) and (2), = 10
(A∪B)' = A'∩B' iii) n(A'∩B) = n(B) - n(A∩B)
= 22 - 10
ii) (A∩B)' = {3,4,6,7,8,9,10} ...(3)
= 12
A'∪B' = {3,4,6,7,8,9,10} ...(4)
from (3) and (4) iv) n(A∪B') = n(X) - n[(A∪B)']'
(A∩B)' = A'∪B' = n(X) - n(A'∩B)
=50 - 12
Ex.6: If P = {x/x + 14x + 40 = 0}
2
=38
Q = {x/x2 - 5x + 6 = 0}
R = {x/x2 + 17x - 60 = 0} and the universal Ex. 8 : In a board examination, 40 students
set X = {-20, -10 - 4, 2, 3, 4}, find failed in Physics, 40 in Chemistry and 35.
i) P∪Q ii) Q∩R iii) P∪(Q∩R) In Maths, 20 failed in Maths and Physics,
iv) P∩(Q∪R) v) (P∪Q)' vi) Q'∩R' 17 in Physics and Chemistry, 15 in Maths
and Chemistry and 5 in all the three
Solution: P = {x/x2 + 14x + 40 = 0} subjects. If 350 students appeared in the
∴ P = {-10, -4} examination, how many of them did not fail
Similarly Q = {3, 2}, R = {-20, 3} and in any subject?

X = {-20, -10, -4, 2, 3, 4} Solution:

i) P∪Q = {-10, -4, 3, 2} P = set of students failed in Physics
ii) Q∩R = {3} C = set of students failed in Chemistry
iii) P∪(Q∩R) = {-10, -4, 3} M = set of students failed in Maths
iv) P∩(Q∪R) = φ
v) (P∪Q)' = {-20, 4}
vi) Q' = {-20, -10, -4, 4}, R' = {-10, -4, 2, 4}
Q'∩R' = {-10, -4, 4}

Ex. 7: If A and B are the subsets of the universal

set X and n(x) = 50, n(A) = 35, n(B) = 22 and
n(A'∩B') = 3 , find Fig. 5.17
i) n (A∪B) ii) n(A∩B)
From figure 5.17, we have
iii) n(A'∩B) iv) n (A∪B')
n(X) = 350, n(P) = 40, n(C) = 40, n(M) = 35
Solution:
n(M∩P) = 20, n(P∩C) = 17, n(M∩C) = 15
i) n(A∪B) = n(X) - n[(A∪B)']
= n(X) - n(A'∩B') (De Morgan's Law) and n(M∩P∩C) = 5
= 50 - 3 The number of students who failed in at least one
= 47. subject = n(M∪P∪C)

95
we have, i) n(A∪B∪C) = n(X) - n[(A∪B∪C)]'
n (M∪P∪C) = n(M) + n(P) + n(C)-n (M∩P) - = n(X) - n (A'∩B'∩C') = 1600 - 30 = 1570
n(P∩C) - n (M∩C)+ n (M∩ P ∩ C ) Since, (A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) -
= 35 + 40 + 40 - 20 - 17 -15 + 5 = 68 n(A∩B) - n(B∩C) - n(C∩A)
The number of students who did not fail in any + n(A∩ B∩C)
subject = n(X) - n (M∪P∪C) = 350 - 68 = 282
∴ 1570 = 1250 + 930 + 1000 - 650 - 610
Ex. 9 : A company produces three kinds of products - 700 + n(A∩B∩C)
A, B and C. The company studied the perference of
∴ n(A∩B∩C) = 1570 + 1960 - 3180
1600 consumers for these 3 products. It was found
that the product A was liked by 1250, the product =350
B was liked by 930 and product C was liked by ∴ The number of consumers who liked all
1000. The proudcts A and B were liked by 650, the three products is 350.
the products B and C were liked by 610 and the
products C and A were liked by 700 consumers. ii) n[(A∩B)∩C'] = n (A∩B) - n [(A∩B)∩C]
None of the products were liked by 30 consumers.  n (P∩Q') = n(P) - n [P∩Q]
Find number of consumers who liked. = 650 - 350 = 300
i) All the three products Similarly n(A'∩B∩C) = 610 - 350 = 260
ii) Only two of these products. and n(A∩B'∩C) = 700 - 350 = 350
Solution: Given that totally 1600 consumers ∴ The number of consumers who liked
were studied. ∴n (X) = 1600, Let A be the set of only two of the three products is
all consumers who liked product A. Let B the set = n(A∩B∩C') + n(A∩B'∩C) + n(A'∩B∩C)
of all consumers who liked product B and C be
the set of all consumers who liked product C. = 300 + 350 + 260 = 910

n(A) = 1250, Maximum & Minimum of Sets:

n(B) = 930, n(C) = 1000. (a) min {n(A∪B)} = max{n(A), n(B)}
(b) max {n(A∪B)} = n(A) + n(B)
n(A∩B) = 650, n(B∩C) = 610
(c) min {n(A∩B)} = 0
n(A∩C) = 700, n(A'∩B'∩C') = 30
(d) max {n(A∩B)} = min{n(A), n(B)}

Illustration:
e.g. If n(A) = 10, n(B) = 20 then
min {n(A∪B) = max{10,20} = 20 and
max {n(A∪B)} = 10 + 20 = 30, so 20≤n(A∪B)≤30.
Also min {n(A∩B)} = 0 and
max {n(A∩B)} = min {10,20} = 10, so
Fig. 5.18 0≤n(A∩B)≤10.

96
 Ex. 10) In a survey of 100 consumers 72 4) If A, B, C are the sets for the letters in the
like product A and 45 like product B. Find the words 'college', 'marriage' and 'luggage'
least and the most number that must have liked respective, then verify that [A-(B∪C)] =
both products A and B. [(A-B)∩(A-C)]
Soln.: Let n(A) and n(B) be number of 5) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6},
consumers who like proudct A and B respectively,
C = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and universal set
i.e. n(A) = 72, n(B) = 45.
X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, then verify
Since
the following:
n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A∩B)
i) A∪(B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C)
= 72 + 45 − n(A∩B) = 117 − n(A∩B).
ii) A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∪C)
But as only 100 consumers are surveyed.
iii) (A∪B)' = (A'∩B)'
Therefore n(A∪B)≤ 100 i.e. 117 − n(A∩B)≤100.
∴ 117 − 100≤n(A∩B), 17≤n(A∩B). iv) (A∩B)' = A'∪B'

So the least number of consumers who like v) A = (A∩B)∪ (A∩B')

both the products is 17. vi) B = (A∩B)∪ (A'∩B)
Since n(A∩B)≤n(A), n(A∩B)≤n(B), then vii) (A∪B) = (A−B) ∪ (A∩B) ∪ (B−A)
n(A∩B)≤min{n(A), n(B)} = min {72, 45} viii) A ∩ (B∆C) = (A∩B) ∆ (A∩C)
= 45. So the most number of consumers who like ix) n (A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A∩B)
both products is 45. x) n (B) = (A'∩B) + n(A∩B)

EXERCISE 5.1 6) If A and B are subsets of the universal set X

and n(X) = 50, n(A) = 35, n(B) = 20,
1) Describe the following sets in Roster form n(A'∩B') = 5, find
i) A={x/x is aletter of the word 'MOVEMENT'} i) n (A∪B) ii) n(A∩B) iii) n(A'∩B)
iv) n(A∩B')
ii) B = {x/x is an integer,  3  x  9 }
2 2 7) In a class of 200 students who appeared
certain examinations, 35 students failed
iii) C = {x/x = 2n + 1, n∈N}
in CET, 40 in NEET and 40 in JEE,
2) Describe the following sets in Set-Builder 20 failed in CET and NEET, 17 in NEET
form and JEE, 15 in CET and JEE and 5 failed
in all three examinations. Find how many
i) {0} ii) (0, ±1, ±2, ±3}
students,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7  i) did not fail in any examination.
iii)  , , , , , , 
 2 5 10 17 26 37 50  ii) failed in NEET or JEE entrance.
iv) {0, -1, 2, -3, 4, -5, 6, ...}
8) From amongst 2000 literate individuals of a
3) If A = {x/6x2+x-15 = 0} town, 70% read Marathi newspapers, 50%
read English newspapers and 32.5% read
B = {x/2x2-5x-3 = 0}
both Marathi and English newspapers. Find
C = {x/2x2-x-3 = 0} then the number of individuals who read.
find i) (A∪B∪C) ii) (A∩B∩C) i) at least one of the newspapers.

97
 ii) neither Marathi and English newspaper. 5.2 Relations:
iii) Only one of the newspapers. 5.2.1 Ordered Pair:
A pair (a, b) of numbers, such that the order,
9) In a hostel, 25 students take tea, 20 students
in which the numbers appear is important, is called
take coffee, 15 students take milk, 10
an ordered pair. Ordered pairs (a,b) and (b, a) are
student take bot tea and coffee, 8 students
different. In ordered pair (a,b), 'a' is called first
take both milk and coffee. None of them
component and 'b' is called second component.
take tea and milk both and everyone takes
atleast one beverage, find the total number Note : i) (a,b)=(c, d), if and only if a = c and b = d.
of students in the hostel. ii) (a, b) = (b, a) if and only if a = b
10) There are 260 persons with a skin disorder.
Ex. : Find x and y when (x + 3, 2) = (4, y - 3)
If 150 had been exposed to the chemical
A, 74 to the chemical B, and 36 to both Solution: Using the definition of equality of two
chemicals A and B, find the number of ordered pairs, we have
persons exposed to (x +3, 2) = (4, y - 3)
i) Chemical A but not Chemical B ⇒ x + 3 = 4 and 2 = y -3
ii) Chemical B but not Chemical A ⇒ x = 1 and y = 5
iii) Chemical A or Chemical B
5.2.2 Carstesian Product of two sets:
11) Write down the power set of A = {1,2,3) Let A and B be two non-empty sets then,
12) Write the following intervals in Set-Builder the cartensian product of A and B is denoted by
form A×B and is defined as set of all ordered pairs
i) (-3, 0), ii) [6,12], (a, b) such that a ∈A and b∈B
iii) (6, ∞), iv) (-∞, 5] Thus, A×B = {(a, b) / a∈A, b∈B}
e.g. 1) If A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}
v) (2, 5] vi) [-3, 4)
then A×B = {(1, a) (1, b), (1, c),
13) A college awarded 38 medals in volley ball, (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
15 in football and 20 in basket ball. The 2) If A = φ or B = φ, we define
medals awarded to a total of 58 players and
∴ A×B = φ
only 3 players got medals in all three sports.
How many received medals in exactly two Note:
of the three sports? Let A and B be any two finite sets with
n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the number of elements
14) Solve the following inequalities and write
in the Cartesian product of two finite sets A and B
the solution set using interval notation.
is given by n(A×B) = mn
i) −9 < 2x + 7 ≤ 19 ii) x2 − x > 20
Ex. 2 : Let A = {1,3} ; B = {2, 3, 4} Find the
2x number of elements in the Cartesian product of
iii) ≤ 5 iv) 6x2 + 1 ≤ 5x
x-4 A and B.
15) If A = (-7, 3], B = [2, 6] and C = [4, 9] then
Solution: Given A = {1, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}
find (i) A∪B (ii) B∪C (iii) A∪C (iv) A∩B
(v) B∩C (vi) A∩C (vii) A'∩B (viii) B'∩C' ∴ n(A) = 2 and n (B) = 3
(ix) B-C (x) A-B ∴ n (A×B) = 2×3 = 6

98
5.2.3 Cartesian product of a set with itself: e.g. if A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6) and B = {6, 7, 8,
A × A = A2 = {(a, b) / a, b ∈ A} 10} then the relation aRb if a is factor of b gives
the subset {(2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 6), (4, 8),
Where (a, b) is an ordered pair.
(5, 10)} of A×B.
A3 = A ×A×A = {(a, b, c) /a, b, c∈A}
On the other hand, if we consider the subset
Where (a, b, c) is an ordered triplet. S' = {(2, 7), (3, 10), (4, 7)} of A×B, then there is
e.g. If A = {4, 5} then we have a unique relation R' given by this subset. i.e. 2R'7,
3R'10, 4R'7. Thus S' has defined R'.
A2 = A ×A = {(4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 5)}
For every relation between A and B,
A3 = A ×A×A= {(4, 4, 4), (4, 4, 5), (4, 5, 4)
there is a unique subset defined in A×B and for
(5, 5, 5), (5, 4, 4) (5, 4, 5), (5, 5, 4), (4, 5, 5)}
every subset of A×B, there is a unique relation
associated with it. Hence we can say that every
Note: If n(A) = m then n (A × A × A) = m3. i.e.
relation between A and B is a subset of A×B and
n(A3) = [n(A)]3
all relationships are ordered pairs inA×B.
In general, n (A × A × ........ r times) = n(A)r
When A = B, that is when we have relation
between the elements of A, that will be subset of
5.2.4 Definitions of relation, Domain,
A×A. If a is nonempty, any relation in A×A is
Co- domain and Range of a Relation:
called binary relation on A.
Relation:
Ex. : Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 4, 5}
The concept of the term Relation is drawn
Let R be a relation such that (x, y) ∈ R
from the meaning of relation in English language,
implies x < y. We list the elements of R.
according to which two objects or quantities are
related if there is recognizable link between them. Solution: Here A = {1,2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 4, 5}

Members in a family are often related to each ∴ R = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4),
other. We describe relation as A is friend of B, F is (3, 5), (4, 5)}
father of S, P is sister of Q etc. In Mathematics we Arrow diagram for this relation R is given by
can have different relations. e.g. among integers
A B
we can define the relation as m is factor of n. If
this relation is denoted by R, then we write 2R4,
3R6, 5R10.
A well defined relation between elements of
A and B is given by aRb, a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Thus
the relation gives ordered pair (a,b) and defines a
subset of A×B. Fig. 5.19

99
Domain: Ex. 3.: If R' is defined in Z×Z as aR'b if (a+b) is
even. Let R be defined Z×Z as a Rb if (a−b)
The set of all first components of the
is even.
ordered pairs in a relation R is called the domain
of the relation R. Note that R and R' define the same relation
and subset related to them is {a, b)/a and b
i.e. domain (R) = {a/(a, b) ∈ R}
both even or a and b both odd}.
Range: Note : i) Since φ ⊂A×A, φ is a relation on A
The set of all second components of all and is called the empty or void relation
ordered pairs in a relation R is called the range of on A.
the relation. ii) Since A×A ⊂ A×A, A×A is a relation
i.e. range (R) = {b/(a, b) ∈ R} on A called the universal relation on
A. i.e. R = A×A
Co-domain:
Ex. 4 : If A = {2, 4, 6}
If R is a relation from A to B then set B is
called the co-domain of the relation R. then R = A×A = {(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6),
(4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 6), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)} and
Note : Range is a subset of co-domain R = A×A is the universal relation on A.
(check!).
Note : The total number of relation that
can be defined from a set A to a set B is the
5.2.5 Binary relation on a set:
number of possible subsets of A×B.
Let A be non-empty set then every subset if n(A) = m1 and n(B) = m2
of A×A is binary relation on A. then n(A×B) = m1m2
Illustrative Examples: and the total number of relations is 2m1m2.
Ex. 1.: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and
5.2.6 Identity Relation:
R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2)}
If the relation in A is given by aRa for every
A×A = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2,), a ∈ A, then the subset given by this relation is the
(2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)} diagonal subset {a,a)/a∈A}. Hence, aRb if b = a.
R⊂A×A and therefore, R is a binary relation This is called identity relation.
on A. 5.2.7 Types of relations:

Ex. 2.: Let N be the set of all natural numbers and Let A be a non-empty set. Then a binary
R = {(a, b) / a, b ∈ N and 2a + b = 10} relation R on A is said to be
(i) Reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R for every a∈A i.e.
Since R⊂N×N, R is a binary relation on N.
aRa for every a∈A
R = {(1, 8), (2, 6), (3, 4), (4, 2)}
(ii) Symmetric, if (a, b)∈R
We can state domain, range and co-domain
of the relation. ⇒ (b, a) ∈R for all a, b∈A
i.e. aRb ⇒ bRa for all a, b∈A
They are as follows:
(iii) Transitive, if (a, b)∈R and (b, c) ∈ R
Domain (R) = {1, 2, 3, 4}
⇒ (a, c)∈R for all a, b, c∈A.
Co-domain (R) = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Co-domain (R) = range (R) Note: Read the symbol ' ⇒' as 'implies'.

100
Equivalence relation: iii) Transitive, since ∆1≅ ∆2 and ∆2≅ ∆3, then
A relation which is reflexive, symmetric ∆1≅ ∆3 for all ∆1 , ∆2 , ∆3∈S. Hence, the given
and transitive is called an equivalence relation. relation is an equivalence relation.

Congruence Modulo:
Illustrative examples:
Let m be any positive integer. a ≡ b (mod m) ⇔
Ex. 1: Let R be a relation on Q, defined by (a − b) is divisible by m. read as 'a is congruent
R = {(a, b)/a, b∈Q and a-b∈Z} to b modulo m' e.g: 14 ≡ 4 (mod 5) since 14 − 4 =
Show that R is an equivalence relation. 10 is divisible by 5.

Solution: Given R = {(a, b)/a, b∈Q and a-b∈Z} Ex. R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ Z, a ≡ b (mod m)} is
i) Let a ∈Q then a - a = 0∈Z an equivalence relation.
∴ (a, a)∈R Solution: Since a − a = 0 is divisible by m
So, R is reflexive. ∴ a ≡ a (mod m) ∴ R is reflexive.
If a ≡ b (mod m) i.e. a − b is divisible by
ii) (a, b)∈R⇒ (a-b)∈Z
m then b − a is also divisible by m
i.e. (a-b) is an integer
i.e. b ≡ a (mod m). ∴ R is symmetric.
⇒ -(a-b) is an integer
⇒ (b-a) is an integer If a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m)
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R i.e. a − b is divisible by m and b − c is
Thus (a, b) ∈R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R divisible by m.
∴ R is symmetric. Then a − c = a − b + b − c = (a − b) + (b − c)
is also divisible by m. i.e. a ≡ c (mod m).
iii) (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R
∴ R is transitivie.
⇒ (a-b) is an integer and (b-c) is an integer
⇒ {(a-b) + (b-c)} is an integer So, R is an equivalence relation.
⇒ (a-c) is an integer Note:
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R Since each relation defines a unique subset
Thus (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R of A×B.
∴ R is transitive. 1) If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then number of
Thus, R is reflexive, symmetric and relations S from A to B is 2mn.
transitive.
∴ R is an equivalence relation. 2) If R is relation on A and n(A) = m then
2
number of relations on A is 2m
Ex. 2 : Show that the relation "is congruent to" on
the set of all triangles in a plane is an equivalence
relation. SOLVED EXAMPLES
Solution: Let S be the set of all triangles in a
plane. Then, the congruence relation on S is Ex. 1: If (x+1, y-2) = (3, 1) find the value of x
i) Reflexive, since ∆ ≅ ∆ for every ∆ ∈ S and y.

ii) Symmetric, since ∆1≅ ∆2 ⇒ ∆2 ≅ ∆1 for all Solution: Since the order pairs are equal, the
∆1, ∆2 ∈ S. coresponding elements are equal.

101
 ∴ x + 1 = 3 and y-2 = 1 Ex. 6: Express {(x, y)/x2 +y2 = 25 where x,y∈ W}
∴ x = 2 and y = 3 as a set of ordered pairs.

Ex. 2: If A = {1, 2}, find A×A Solution: We have x2 +y2 = 25

Solution: We have A = {1, 2} ∴ x = 0, y = 5 ⇒ x2 +y2 = (0)2 +(5)2 = 25

∴ A×A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)} x = 4, y = 3 ⇒ x2 + y2 = (4)2 +(3)2 = 25
x = 5, y = 0 ⇒ x2 + y2 = (5)2 + (0)2 = 25
Ex. 3: If A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 3} find A×B
and B×A show that A×B ≠ B×A x = 3, y = 4 ⇒ x2 + y2 = (3)2 + (4)2 = 25

Solution: We have A×B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 2), ∴ The set = {(0, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 0)}
(3, 3), (5, 2), (5, 3)} and B×A = {(2, 1), (2, 3),
Ex. 7: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6} Show
(2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 5)}
that R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4)} is a relation
All elements in A×B, B×A except (3, 3) are from A to B. Find i) domain (R) ii) Co-domain
different. (R) iii) Range (R).
∴ A×B ≠ B×A Solution : Here A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {2, 4, 6}

Ex. 4 : (Activity) If A×B = {(3, 2), (3, 4), (5, 2), and R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4)}
(5, 4)} then find A and B Since R⊂A×B, R is a relation from A to B
Solution: Clearly, we have i) Domain (R) = Set of first components of
A = Set of all first components of A×B R = {1, 3}
∴ A = { , } ii) Co-domain (R) = B = {2, 4, 6}
B = Set of all second components of A×B iii) Range (R) = Set of second components
∴ B = { , } of R = {2, 4}

Ex. 5: A and B are two sets given in such a way Ex. 8: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 4, 5}.
that A×B contains 6 elements. If three elements of Let R be a relation from A to B. Such that (x, y)∈R
A×B are (1, 3), (2, 5) and (3, 3), find its remaining if 2x < y.
elements. i) List the elements of R.
Solution: Since (1, 3), (2, 5) and (3, 3) are in A×B ii) Find the domain, co-domain and range of R.
it follows that 1, 2, 3 are elements of A and 3, 5
Solution : A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 4, 5}
are elements of B. As A×B contains 6 elements
and if we let. i) The elements of R are as follows:

A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 5}, then R = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 5),}

A×B = {(1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 3) (3, ii) Domian (R) = {1, 2}
5)} giving n (A×B) = 6. Range (R) = {4, 5}
Hence, the remaining elements of A×B are Co-domain (R) = {1, 4, 5} = B
(1, 5), (2, 3) and (3, 5).

102
Ex. 9: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Define a relation R Verify, i) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
from A to A by R = {(x, y) / y = x + 1}. ii) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Write down the domain, co-domain and range of R.
Solution : A relation R from A to A is given by 6) Express {(x, y) / x2 + y2 = 100,
R = (x, y) / y = x + 1} is given by where x, y ∈ W} as a set of ordered pairs.
R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 6) 7) Let A = {6, 8} and B = {1, 3, 5}
Domain (R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Show that R1 = {(a, b)/a∈ A, b∈B, a−b
Range (R) = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is an even number} is a null relation.
Co-domain (R) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} R2 = {(a, b)/a∈ A, b∈B, a+b is odd number}
Note: is an universal relation.
1) R represents set of real numbers on number
line. 8) Write the relation in the Roster form. State
2) R × R represents set of all ordered pairs on its domain and range.
cartesian plane.
i) R1 = {(a, a2) / a is prime number less
3) R × R × R represents set of all ordered
than 15}
triplets in three dimensional space.
1
ii) R2 = {(a, ) / 0<a ≤ 5, a∈N}
a
EXERCISE 5.2
iii) R3 = {(x, y) / y = 3x, y∈ {3, 6, 9, 12},
1) If (x−1, y+4) = (1, 2) find the values of x and x∈ {1, 2, 3}
y. iv) R4 = {(x, y) / y > x+1, x = 1, 2 and y = 2,
1 3 4, 6}
2) If (x + 1 , y − 1) = ( , ), find x and y,
3 3 2 2 v) R5 = {(x, y) / x+y = 3, x, y∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}
3) If A = {a, b, c}, B = (x , y} find vi) R6 = {(a, b) / a ∈N, a < 6 and b = 4}
A×B, B×A, A×A, B×B. vii) R7 = {(a, b) / a, b ∈N, a + b = 6}
4) If P = {1, 2, 3) and Q = {1,4}, viii) R8 = {(a, b) / b = a + 2, a ∈z, 0 < a < 5}
find sets P × Q and Q × P 9) Identify which of if the following relations
are reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
5) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4), B = {4, 5, 6}, [Activity]
C = {5, 6}.
Relation Reflexive Symmetrice Transitive
R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ Z, a−b is an integer}
R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ N, a+b is even}   
R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ N, a divides b}
R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ N, a2 − 4ab + 3b2 = 0}
R = {(a,b) : a is sister of b and a,b ∈ G = Set of girls}
R = {(a,b) : Line a is perpendicular to line b in a place}
R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ R, a < b}
R = {(a,b) : a,b ∈ R, a ≤ b3}

103
 2) If aN = {ax : x ∈N}, then set 6N∩8N =
Let's Remember A) 8N B) 48N C) 12N D) 24N

• A∪B = {x x ∈ A OR x ∈ B} 3) If set A is empty set then n[P [P [P (A)]]] is

• A∩B = {x x ∈ A AND x ∈ B} A) 6 B) 16 C) 2 D) 4
• A' = {x x ∈ U, x ∉ A} where U is universal 4) In a city 20% of the population travels by
set.
car, 50% travels by bus and 10% travels by
• A−B = {x x ∈ A, x ∉ B} both car and bus. Then, persons travelling
• A∆B = (A−B) ∪ (B−A) by car or bus are
• n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A∩B) A) 80% B) 40% C) 60% D) 70%
• n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A∩B) 5) If the two sets A and B are having 43
− n(B∩C) − n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C) elements in common, then the number of
• A×B = {(x, y) x ∈ A, y ∈ B} elements common to each of the sets A × B
• Relation R from set A to set B is a subset of and B × A is
A×B. A) 432 B) 2 43 C) 43 43 D) 2 86
• Domain of R = {x (x, y)∈ R, x ∈ A, y ∈ B}
6) Let R be a relation on the set N be defined
⊆ A.
by {(x, y) / x, y∈ N, 2x + y = 41} Then R is
• Range of R = {y (x, y)∈ R, x ∈ A, y ∈ B} ⊆
A) Reflexive B) Symmetric
B (Co-domain of R).
C) Transitive D) None of these
• R is a relation on set A and if (x, x)∈ R for all
x ∈ A then R is reflexive. 7) The relation ">" in the set of N (Natural
• R is a relation on set A and if (x, y)∈ R then number) is
(y, x) ∈ R for all x, y ∈ A then R is symmetric. A) Symmetric B) Reflexive
• R is a relation on set A and if (x, y)∈ R and C) Transitive D) Equivalent relation
(y, z)∈ R then (x, z)∈ R for all x, y, z ∈ A
then R is transitive. 8) A relation between A and B is
• If R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive A) only A × B
then R is an equivalence relation. B) An Universal set of A × B
C) An equivalent set of A × B
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 5 D) A subset of A × B

9) If (x,y) ∈ N × N, then xy = x2 is a relation

(I) Select the correct answer from given which is
alternative (Q:1 to Q:10). A) Symmetric B) Reflexive
1) For the set A = {a, b, c, d, e} the correct C) Transitive D) Equivalence
statement is
10) If A = {a, b, c} The total no. of distinct
A) {a, b} ∈ A B) {a}∈ A relations in A × A is
C) a∈ A D) a∉ A
A) 3 B) 9 C) 8 D) 29

104
(II) Answer the following. 6) If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6} check if the
1) Write down the following sets in set builder following are relations from A to B. Also
form write its domain and range.

i) {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}, i) R1 = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)}

ii) {a, e, i, o, u) ii) R2 = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 6)}

ii) {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, iii) R3 = {(1, 4 ), (1, 5), (3, 6), (2, 6), (3, 4)}
Thursday, Friday, Saturday} ii) R4 = {(4, 2), (2, 6), (5, 1), (2, 4)}

2) If U = {x/x∈N, 1 ≤ x ≤ 12} 7) Determine the domain and range of the

A = {1, 4, 7, 10} B = {2, 4, 6, 7, 11} following relations.
i) R = {(a, b) / a ∈ N, a < 5, b = 4}
C = {3, 5, 8 9, 12}
ii) R = {(a, b) / b = a−1 a ∈ z, a < 3}
Write down the sets
i) A∪ B ii) B∩C iii) A-B 8) Find R : A gA when A = {1,2,3,4} such that
iv) B∩C' v) A∪B∪C vi) A ∩(B∪C) i) R = (a, b) / a−b = 10}
ii) R = {(a, b) / a − b ) ≥ 0}
3) In a survey of 425 students in a school, it
was found that 115 drink apple juice, 160 9) R = {1,2,3} g { 1,2,3} given by R = {(1,1)
drink orange juice and 80 drink both apple (2,2), (3,3), (1,2) (2,3)} Check if R is
as well as orange juice. How many drink a) relflexive b) symmentric
neither apple juice nor orange juice? c) transitive

4) In a school there are 20 teachers who teach 10) Check if R : Z g Z, R = {(a, b) 2 divides
Mathematics or Physics. Of these, 12 teach a-b} is equivalence relation.
Mathematics and 4 teach both Physics and 11) Show that the relation R in the set
Mathematics. How many teachers teach A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Given by R = {(a, b) /
Physics? a−b is even} is an equivalence relation
12) Show that following are equivalence
5) i) If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4}, state the
relation
elements of A × A, A × B, B × A, B × B,
a) R in A is set of all books. given by
(A × B) ∩ (B × A)
R = { (x, y) / x and y have same number
ii) If A = {−1, 1} , find A × A × A of pages}
b) R in A = {x∈Z 0 < x < 12} given by
R = {(a, b) / a−b  is a multiple of 4}
c) R in A = {x∈ N/x ≤10} given by
R = {(a, b) a=b}

v v v

105
 6 FUNCTIONS

Since, every element from A is associated

Let's Study to exactly one element in B, R1 is a well defined
function.
• Function, Domain, Co-domain, Range
• Types of functions
• Representation of function
• Basic types of functions
• Piece-wise defined and special functions

Let's : Learn

6.1 Function Fig. 6.2

Definition : A function (or mapping) f from a set R2 is not a function because element 'd' in A
A to set B (f : A→B) is a relation which associates
is not associated to any element in B.
for each element x in A, a unique (exactly one)
element y in B.
Then the element y is expressed as y = f(x) .
y is the image of x under f.
f is also called a map or transformation.
If such a function exists, then A is called the
domain of f and B is called the co-domain of f.

Illustration:
Examine the following relations which are given
Fig. 6.3
by arrows of line segments joining elements in A
and elements in B.
R3 is not a function because element a in A
is associated to two elements in B.

The relation which defines a function f from

domain A to co-domain B is often given by an
algebraic rule.

For example, A = Z, the set of integers and

B = Q the set of rational numbers and the function
Fig. 6.1 n
f is given by f(n) = here n ∈ Z, f(n) ∈ Q.
7
106
6.1.1 Types of function
One-one or One to one or Injective function
Definition : A function f : A → B is said to be
one-one if different elements in A have different
images in B. The condition is also expressed as
f (a) = f(b) ⇒ a = b [As a ≠ b ⇒ f (a) ≠ f(b)]

Onto or Surjective function

Fig. 6.6
Definition: A function f : A → B is said to be onto
if every element y in B is an image of some x in A f3 is onto but not one-one as f (a) = f (b) = 1
(or y in B has preimage x in A) but a ≠ b.
The image of A can be denoted by f (A).
f(A) = {y ∈ B | y = f (x) for some x ∈ A}
f (A) is also called the range of f.
Note that f : A → B is onto if f(A) = B.
Also range of f = f (A) ⊂ co-domain of f.

Illustration:
Fig. 6.7

f4 is neither one-one, nor onto

6.1.2 Representation of Function
Verbal Output exceeds twice the input by 1
form Domain : Set of inputs
Range : Set of outputs
Arrow
Fig. 6.4
form on
f1 is one-one, but not onto as element 5 is in Venn
B has no pre image in A Diagram

Fig. 6.8
Domain : Set of pre-images
Range: Set of images
Ordered f = {(2,5), (3,7), (4,9), (5,11)}
Pair Domain : Set of 1st components from
(x, y) each ordered pair = {2, 3, 4, 5}
Fig. 6.5 Range : Set of 2nd components from
f2 is one-one, and onto each ordered pair = {5, 7, 9, 11}

107
Rule / y = f(x) = 2x + 1
Formula Where x ∈ N, 1 < x < 6
f(x) read as ‘f of x’ or ‘function of x’
Domain : Set of values of x for
which f (x) is defined
Range : Set of values of y for which
f (x) is defined
Tabular x y
Form
2 5
3 7 Fig. 6.10
4 9
Since every x has a unique associated value of y.
5 11
It is a function.
Domain : x values
Range: y values
Graphical
form

Fig. 6.11
This graph does not represent a function as vertical
line intersects at more than one point some x has
more than one values of y.
Horizontal Line Test:
Fig. 6.9 If no horizontal line intersects the graph of a
function in more than one point, then the function
Domain: Projection of graph on
is one-one function.
X-axis.
Illustration:
Range: Projection of graph on y-axis.

6.1.3 Graph of a function:

If the domain of function is in R, we can show
the function by a graph in XY plane. The graph
consists of points (x,y), where y = f(x).
Vertical Line Test
Given a graph, let us find if the graph represents a
function of x i.e. f(x)
A graph represents function of x, only if no
vertical line intersects the curve in more than one Fig. 6.12
point.

108
The graph is a one-one function as a horizontal Solution : From graph when x = −4, y = 0
line intersects the graph at only one point. so g (−4) = 0
From graph when x = 3, y = −5 so g (3) = −5

Function Solution:
Ex. 3) If t (m) = 3m2 − m and t (m) = 4, then find m
Solution : As
t (m) = 4
3m2 − m = 4
3m2 − m − 4 = 0
3m2 − 4m + 3m − 4 = 0
Fig. 6.13
m (3m − 4) + 1 (3m − 4) = 0
The graph is a one-one function (3m − 4) (m + 1) = 0
6.1.4 Value of funcation : f(a) is called the value 4
Therefore , m = 3 or m = −1
of funcation f(x) at x = a
Evaluation of function: Ex. 4) From the graph below find x for which
f (x) = 4
Ex. 1) Evaluate f(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 4 at
x = 7 & x = −2t
Solution : f (x) at x = 7 is f (7)
f (7) = 2(7)2 - 3(7) + 4
= 2(49) − 21 + 4
= 98 − 21 + 4
= 81
f (−2t) = 2(−2t)2 − 3(−2t) + 4
= 2(4t2) + 6t + 4
Fig. 6.15
= 8t2 + 6t + 4
Solution : To solve f (x) = 4 i.e. y = 4
Ex. 2) Using the graph of y = g (x) , find g (−4)
and g (3) Find the values of x where graph intersects
line y = 4

Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.16

109
Therefore , x = −1 and x = 3. 2) Identity function
Function from equation: If f : R → R then identity function is defined by
f (x) = x, for every x ∈ R.
Ex. 5) (Activity) From the equation 4x + 7y = 1
express Identity function is given in the graph below.
i) y as a function of x
ii) x as a function of y
Solution : Given equation is 4x + 7y = 1
i) From the given equation
7y =
y = = function of x
So y = f (x) =

ii) From the given equation

4x =
x= = function of y Fig. 6.18
So x = g (y) = Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and Range : R or (−∞, ∞)
[Note : Identity function is also given by
6.1.5 Some Basic Functions I (x) = x].
(Here f : R → R Unless stated otherwise)
3) Power Functions : f (x) = axn , n ∈ N
1) Constant Function (Note that this function is a multiple of nth
Form : f (x) = k , k ∈ R power of x)
Example : Graph of f (x) = 2 i) Square Function
Example : f (x) = x2

Fig. 6.17 Fig. 6.19

Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and Range : {2} Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and Range : [0, ∞)

110
Properties:
1) Graph of f (x) = x2 is a parabola opening
upwards and with vertex at origin.
2) Graph is symmetric about y - axis .
3) The graph of even powers of x looks similar
to square function. (verify !) e.g. x4, x6.
4) (y − k) = (x − h)2 represents parabola with
vertex at (h, k)
5) If −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 then 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 4 (see fig.) and
if −3 ≤ x ≤ 2 then 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 9 (see fig). Fig. 6.21
ii) Cube Function
Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and Range : R or (−∞, ∞)
Example : f (x) = x3
Properties :
1) Graph of f (x) = ax + b is a line with slope
 b
‘a’, y-intercept ‘b’ and x-intercept  −  .
 a
2) Function : is increasing when slope is positive
and deceasing when slope is negative.
ii) Quadratic Function
Form : f (x) = ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0)

Fig. 6.20

Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and Range : R or (−∞, ∞)

Properties:
1) The graph of odd powers of x (more than 1)
looks similar to cube function. e.g. x5, x7.
4) Polynomial Function
f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn-1 + ... + an-1 x + an
Fig. 6.22
is polynomial function of degree n , if a0 ≠ 0, and
ai s are real. Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and Range : [k, ∞)
i) Linear Function Properties :
Form : f (x) = ax + b (a ≠ 0) 1) Graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c and where
Example : f (x) = − 2x + 3, x ∈ R a > 0 is a parabola.

111
 iii) If D = b2 − 4ac < 0, the parabola lies above
X-axis and y ≠ 0 for any x. Here y is positive
for all values of x. e.g. f(x) = x2 + 4x + 5

iii) Cubic Function

Example : f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d (a ≠ 0)
Domain : R or (−∞, ∞) and
Range : R or (−∞, ∞)

Fig. 6.23

Consider, y = ax2 + bx + c
b b2 b2
= a x2 + x + + c − 4a
a 4a2

b 2 b2−4ac
= a x + 2a − 4a

b2−4ac b 2
y + 4a = a x + 2a
Fig. 6.24
With change of variable
Property:
b b 2  4ac
X= x + ,Y= y  1) Graph of f (x) = x3 − 1
2a 4a
this is a parabola Y = aX2 f (x) = (x − 1) (x2 + x + 1) cuts x-axis at only
one point (1,0) , which means f (x) has one real
This is a parabola with vertex
root & two complex roots.
b b2−4ac  b  D 
− 2a , or  ,  where Note that, any polynomial of odd degree must
4a  2a 4a 
have at least one real root, because the complex
D = b2 − 4ac and the parabola is opening upwards. roots appear in conjugate pairs.
There are three possibilities.
5) Radical Function
For a>0,
Ex: f(x) = n
x,n∈N
i) If D = b − 4ac = 0, the parabola touches
2

X-axis and y ≥ 0 for all x. e.g. g(x) 1. Square root function

= x2 − 2x + 1
f(x) = x,x≥0
ii) If D = b − 4ac > 0, then parabola intersects
2

x-axis at 2 distinct points. Here y is negative (Since square root of negative number is not a
for values of x between the 2 roots and real number, so the domain of x is restricted to
positive for large or small x. positive values of x).

112
 i.e. 9 ≥ 9 − x2 ≥ 0

i.e. 3 ≥ 9 − x2 ≥ 0
∴ 3≥y≥0 ...(II)
From (I) and (II), y ∈ [0,3] is range of
f (x).
2. Cube root function
f(x) = 3
x,

Fig. 6.25

Domain : [0, ∞) and Range : [0, ∞)

Note :
1) If x is positive, there are two square roots of
x. By convention x is positive root and
− x is the negattive root.

2) If −4 < x < 9, as x is only deifned for

x ≥ 0, so 0 ≤ x < 3.

Ex. 6 : Find the domain and range of f (x) = Fig. 6.26

9− x .
2
Domain : R and Range : R
Soln. : f (x) = 9 − x is defined for
2
Note : If −8 ≤ x ≤ 1 then −2 ≤ 3
x ≤ 1.
9 − x ≥ 0, i.e. x − 9 ≤ 0 i.e. (x − 3)(x + 3)
2 2

≤0 Ex. 7 : Find the domain f (x) = x3 − 8 .

Therefore [−3, 3] is domain of f (x). Soln. : f (x) is defined for x3 − 8 ≥ 0
(Verify !)
i.e. x3 − 23 ≥ 0, (x − 2) (x2 + 2x + 4) ≥ 0
To find range, let 9 − x2 = y
In x2 + 2x + 4, a = 1 > 0 and D = b2 − 4ac
Since square root is always positive, so
y≥0 ...(I) = 22 − 4 × 1 × 4 = −12 < 0

Also, on squaring we get 9 − x2 = y2 Therefore, x2 + 2x + 4 is a positive

quadratic.

Since, −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
i.e. 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 9 i. e. x2 + 2x + 4 > 0 for all x

i.e. 0 ≥ − x2 ≥ − 9 Therefore x − 2 ≥ 0, x ≥ 2 is the domain.

i.e. 9 ≥ 9 − x2 ≥ 9 − 9 i.e. Domain is x ∈ [2, ∞)

113
6) Rational Function Solution : f (x) is defined for all x ∈ R exccept
Definition: Given polynomials when denominators is 0.
5
p(x) Since, 4x + 5 = 0 ⇒ x = − .
p(x), q(x) f (x) = q(x) is defined for x if q(x) ≠0. 4
 5
1 So Domain of f (x) is R −   .
Example : f (x) = x , x ≠ 0  4
6  4x2
To find the range, let y =
4x  5
i.e. y(4x + 5) = 6 − 4x2
i.e. 4x2 + (4y)x + 5y − 6 = 0.
This is a quadratic equation in x with y as
constant.
Since x ∈ R − {−5/4}, i.e. x is real, we get
Solution if, D = b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
i.e. (4y)2 − 4(4)(5y − 6) ≥ 0
16y2 − 16(5y − 6) ≥ 0
y2 − 5y + 6 ≥ 0
(y − 2) (y − 3) ≥ 0
Fig. 6.27
Therefore y ≤ 2 or y ≥ 3 (Verify!)
Domain : R-{0} and Range : R −{0} Range of f(x) is (−∞, 2] ∪ [3,∞)
Properties:
7) Exponential Function
1) As x → 0 i.e. (As x approaches 0) f (x) →
Form : f (x) = ax is an exponential function with
∞ or f (x) → −∞ , so the line x = 0 i.e Y-axis
base a and exponent (or index) x, a ≠ 0,
is called vertical asymptote.( A straight line
which does not intersect the curve but as x a > 0 and x ∈ R.
approaches to ∞ or −∞ the distance between Example : f (x) = 2x and f(x) = 2−x
the line and the curve tends to 0, is called an
asymptote of the curve.)

2) As As x → ∞ or x → −∞, f (x) → 0, y = 0 the

line i.e y-axis is called horizontal asymptote.
p(x)
3) The domain of rational function f (x) = q(x)
is all the real values of except the zeroes of
q(x).
Ex. 8 : Find domain and range of the function
6  4x2 Fig. 6.28
f (x) =
4x  5 Domain: R and Range : (0, ∞)

114
Properties: i.e. 6.2x − (2x)2 − 8 ≥ 0
1) As x → −∞ , then f (x) = 2x → 0, so the graph i.e. (2x)2 − 6.2x + 8 ≤ 0
has horizontal asymptote (y = 0)
i.e. (2x − 4)(2x − 2) ≤ 0
2) By taking the natural base e (≈ 2.718),
graph of f (x) = ex is similar to that of 2x in 2x ≥ 2 and 2x ≤ 4 (Verify !)
appearance
2x ≥ 21 and 2x ≤ 22
x ≥ 1 and x ≤ 2 or 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
Doamin is [1,2]

8) Logarithmic Function:
Let, a > 0, a ≠ 1, we define
y = loga x if x = ay.
for x > 0, is defined as

y  log a x ⇔ a y  x
logarithmic form exponential form

Properties:
1) As a0 = 1, so loga1 = 0 and as a1 = a,
Fig. 6.29 so logaa = 1

3) For a > 0, a ≠ 1, if ax = ay then x = y. So ax is 2) As ax = ay ⇔ x = y so loga x = loga y ⇔

one-one function. (check graph for horizontal x= y
line test).
3) Product rule of logarithms.
4) r > 1, m > n ⇒ r > r and
m n
For a, b, c > 0 and a ≠ 1,
r < 1, m > n ⇒ rm < rn
loga bc = loga b + loga c (Verify !)
Ex. 9 : Solve 52x+7 = 125.
4) Quotient rule of logarithms.
Solution : As 52x+7 = 125
For a, b, c > 0 and a ≠ 1,
i.e : 52x+7 = 53, ∴ 2x + 7 = 3
b
loga = loga b − loga c (Verify !)
3−7 −4 c
and x = 2 = 2 = − 2
5) Power/Exponent rule of logarithms.
Ex. 10 : Find the domain of f(x) = 6 − 2 x − 23 − x
For a, b, c > 0 and a ≠ 1,
Solution : Since x is defined for x ≥ 0 loga bc = c loga b (Verify !)
f (x) is defined for 6 − 2x − 23−x ≥ 0

23
i.e. 6 − 2 − x ≥ 0
x
2

115
6) For natural base e , loge x = ln x as Natural Ex. 12 : Evaluate lne9 − lne4.
Logarithm Function. Solution : lne9 − lne4 = logee9 − logee4

= 9 logee − 4 logee
= 9(1) − 4(1) (∴ lne = 1)
= 5

 x 3  x  3 
Ex. 13 : Expand log  2
 2  x  4  

Solution : Using Quotient rule

= log [x3(x+3)] − log [2 (x−4)2 ]
Using Product rule
= [log x3 + log (x+3)] − [log2 + log (x−4)2]
Using Power rule
= [3log x + log (x+3)] − [log2 − 2log (x−4)]
Fig. 6.30
= 3log x + log (x+3) − log2 + 2log (x−4)
Here domain of ln x is (0, ∞) and range is (−∞, ∞).
Ex. 14 : Combine
8) Logarithmic inequalities:
1
3ln (p + 1) − ln r + 5ln(2q + 3) into single
(i) If a>1, 0<m<n then loga m < loga n 2
logarithm.
e.g. log10 20 < log10 30
Solution : Using Power rule,
(ii) If 0<a<1, 0<m<n then loga m > loga n 1

= ln (p + 1) − ln r + ln(2q +3)5
3 2
e.g. log0.1 20 > log0.1 30
Using Quotient rule
(iii) For a, m>0 if a and m lies on the same side of
unity (i.e. 1) then loga m>0.  p  1
3
= ln + ln(2q +3)5
e.g. log2 3>0, log0.3 0.5>0 r
Using Product rule
(iv) For a, m>0 if a and m lies on the different
sides of unity (i.e. 1) then loga m<0.  ( p  1) 3 
= ln  (2q  3)5 
e.g. log0.2 3<0, log3 0.5<0  r 

Ex. 11 : Write log72 in terms of log2 and log3. Ex. 15 : Find the domain of ln(x − 5).
Solution : log 72 = log(2 .3 )
3 2
Solution : As ln(x − 5) is defined for (x − 5) > 0
= log 23 + log 32 (Power rule)
that is x > 5 so domain is (5, ∞).
= 3 log 2 + 2 log 3(Power rule)

116
Let’s note:
1) log (x + y) ≠ log x + log y

2) log x log y ≠ log (xy)

log x x
3) ≠ log
log y y Fig. 6.31
4) (log x) ≠ n log x
n
9) Trigonometric function
The graphs of trigonometric functions are
9) Change of base formula: discuse in chapter 2 of Mathematics Book I.
log x
For a, x, b > 0 and a, b ≠ 1, loga x = log b a f (x) Domain Range
b

logx x 1 sin x R [−1,1]

Note: loga x = log a = log a (Verify !) cos x R [−1,1]
x x
tan x   3  R
log 81 R −  2 ,  2 ...
Ex. 16 : Evaluate log4 9
4

Solution : By Change of base law, as the base is

same (that is 4)
log4 81 EXERCISE 6.1
log4 9 = log9 81 = 2

1) Check if the following relations are functions.

Ex. 17 : Prove that, 2logb a4. logc b3. logac5 = 120
(a)
Solution : L.H.S. = 2logb a4. logc b3. logac5
= 4 × 2logb a × 3logc b × 5logac
Using change of base law,
log a log b log c
= 4 × 2 log b × 3 log c × 5 log a

= 120 Fig. 6.32

Ex. 18 : Find the domain of f(x) = logx +5 (x2 − 4) (b)

Solution : Since loga x is defined for a, x > 0 and

a ≠ 1 f(x) is defined for (x2 − 4) > 0, x + 5 > 0,
x + 5 ≠ 1.
i.e. (x − 2)(x + 2) > 0, x >−5, x ≠ −4
i.e. x < −2 or x > 2 and x > −5 and x ≠ −4
Fig. 6.33

117
(c) a−x
7) If f (x) = b−x , f (2) is undefined, and
f (3) = 5, find a and b.

8) Find the domain and range of the follwoing

functions.
(a) f (x) = 7x2 + 4x − 1

Fig. 6.34 x+4

(b) g (x) = x−2
2) Which sets of ordered pairs represent
x+5
functions from A = {1, 2, 3, 4} to B = {−1, 0, (c) h (x) =
1, 2, 3}? Justify. 5+ x

(a) {(1,0), (3,3), (2,−1), (4,1), (2,2)} (d) f (x) = 3

x +1
(b) {(1,2), (2,−1), (3,1), (4,3)}
(e) f (x) = ( x − 2)(5 − x)
(c) {(1,3), (4,1), (2,2)}
(d) {(1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1)} x −3
(f) f (x) =
7−x
3) Check if the relation given by the equation
represents y as function of x.
(g) f (x) = 16 − x 2
(a) 2x + 3y = 12 (b) x + y2 = 9
(c) x2 − y = 25 (d) 2y + 10 = 0 9) Express the area A of a square as a function
(e) 3x − 6 = 21 of its (a) side s (b) perimeter P.

4) If f (m) = m2 − 3m + 1, find 10) Express the areaA of circle as a function of its

(a) f (0) (b) f (−3) (a) radius r (b) diameter d (c) circumference
C.
1
(c) f (d) f (x + 1) 11) An open box is made from a square of
2
cardboard of 30 cms side, by cutting squares
(e) f (−x) of length x centimeters from each corner and
 f (2 + h) − f (2)  folding the sides up. Express the volume
(f)   ,h≠0. of the box as a function of x. Also find its
 h 
domain.
5) Find x, if g (x) = 0 where
Let f be a subset of Z × Z defined by
5x−6 18−2x 2
(a) g (x) = 7 (b)g (x) = 12) f = {(ab,a+b) : a,b ∈ Z} . Is f a function from
7
Z to Z? Justify.
(c) g (x) = 6x2 + x −2
14) Check the injectivity and surjectivity of the
(d) g (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
following functions.
6) Find x, if f (x) = g (x) where (a) f : N → N given by f (x) = x2

(a) f (x) = x4 + 2x2, g (x) = 11x2 (b) f : Z → Z given by f (x) = x2

(b) f (x) = x −3, g (x) = 5 − x (c) f : R → R given by f (x) = x2

118
 (d) f : N → N given by f (x) = x3 21) Write the following expressions as a single
logarithm.
(e) f : R → R given by f (x) = x3
(a) 5log x + 7log y − log z
14) Show that if f : A → B and g : B → C are 1 1
one-one, then g ◦ f is also one-one. (b) log (x−1) + log (x)
3 2
15) Show that if f : A → B and g : B → C are (c) ln (x+2) + ln (x−2) − 3ln (x+5)
onto, then g ◦ f is also onto.

16) If f (x) = 3(4x+1) find f (−3) . 22) Given that log 2 = a and log 3 = b,

17) Express the following exponential equations write log 96 in terms of a and b.
in logarithmic form
23) Prove that
(a)25 = 32 (b) 540 = 1
1
(c) 23 = 23 (a) b logb a = a (b) log bm a = logba
1
(d) 9 = 27
3/2
m
1 (c) a logc b = b logc a
(e) 3−4 = 81 (f) 10−2 = 0.01
(g) e2 = 7.3890 (h) e1/2 = 1.6487 24) If f (x) = ax2 − bx + 6 and f (2) = 3 and
(i) e−x = 6 f (4) = 30, find a and b
18) Express the following logarithmic equations
in exponential form 25) Solve for x.
1 (a) log2 + log(x+3) − log(3x−5) = log3
(a) log264 = 6 (b) log5 25 = −2
 11 
(c) log100.001=−3 (d) log1/2 (−8) = 3 (b) 2log10x = 1 + log10  x + 
 10 
(e) ln 1 = 0 (f) ln e = 1 21
(c) log2x + log4x + log16x = 4
1
(g) ln = − 0.693
2 (d) x + log10(1+2x) = x log105 + log106
19) Find the domain of
x+ y 1 1
(a) f (x) = ln (x −5) 26) If log   = 2 log x + 2 log y,
 3 
(b) f (x) = log10 (x2−5x +6) x y
show that y + x = 7.
20) Write the following expressions as sum or
difference of logarithms
 x− y
27) If log   = log x + log y ,
(a) log 
pq 

 rs 
(b) log ( x3 y )  4 
show that (x+ y)2 = 20 xy
 a 3 ( a − 2 )2 
(c) ln   28) If x = logabc, y = logbca, z = logcab
 b2 + 5 
 
1 1 1
 3 x − 2 ( 2 x + 1)4 
2
then prove that + + =1
(d) ln   1+ x 1+ y 1+ z
 ( x + 4 ) 2 x + 4 

119
6.2 Algebra of functions: iii) As (fg) (x) = f (x) g (x)
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B. (f o g ) (3m) = f (3m)g (3m)
f
Then the functions f + g, f − g, fg, g are defined = [(3m)2 + 2] [5(3m) − 8]
on A∩ B as follows. = [9m2 + 2] [15m−8]
Operations = 135m3 − 72m2 + 30m −16
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
 f  f(x)
(f − g) (x) = f (x) − g (x) iv) As   (x) = g(x) , g (x) ≠ 0
g
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g (x)  f  f(0) 02 + 2
  (0) = g(0) = 5(0) − 8
 f  f(x) g
  (x) = g(x) where g (x) ≠ 0 2 1
g = −8 = −
4
Ex. 1 : If f (x) = x2 + 2 and g (x) = 5x − 8, then find
Ex. 2 : Given the function f (x) = 5x2 and
i) (f + g) (1) g (x) = 4 − x find the domain of
ii) (f − g) (−2) f
i) (f + g) (x) ii) (f o g) (x) iii) g (x)
ii) (f o g) (3m)
Solution : i) Domain of f (x) = 5x2 is (−∞, ∞) .
f
iv) (0) To find domain of g (x) = 4− x
g
4−x≥0
Solution : i) As (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
x−4≤0
(f + g) (1) = f (1) + g (1)
Let x ≤ 4, So domain is (−∞, 4].
= [(1) + 2] + [5(1) − 8]
2
Therefore, domain of (f + g) (x) is
= 3 + (− 3) (−∞, ∞) ∩(−∞, 4], that is (−∞, 4]
=0
ii) Similarly, domain of (fog) (x) = 5x2 4 − x
is (−∞, 4]
ii) As (f − g) (x) = f (x) − g (x)
 f  5x2
(f − g) (−2) = f (−2) − g (−2) iii) And domain of   (x) = is (−∞, 4)
g 4− x
= [(−2)2 + 2] − [5(−2) − 8] As , at x = 4 the denominator g (x) = 0 .
= [4 + 2] − [−10−8]
6.2.1 Composition of Functions:
= 6 + 18
A method of combining the function f : A→B with
= 24 g : B→C is composition of functions, defined as
(f ◦ g) (x) = f [g (x)] an read as ‘f composed with g’

120
 ii) As (g ◦ f) (x) = g [f (x)] and g (x) = x2 − 1
Replace x by f (x), to get
(g ◦ f) (x) = [f (x)]2 − 1
2
 2 
=   −1
 x5
Now let x = 3
2
 2 
(g ◦ f) (3) =   −1
 35
Fig. 6.35 2
2
=   −1
Note: 8
2
1) The domain of g ◦ f is the set of all x in A such 1
=   −1
that f (x) is in the B. The range of g ◦ f is set 4
of all g [f(x)] in C such that f(x) is in B. 1 − 16
=
16
2) Domain of g ◦ f ⊆ Domain of f and Range
15
of g ◦ f ⊆ Range of g. = −
16
Illustration: 1
Ex 4 : If f (x) = x 2, g (x) = x + 5, and h (x) = x ,
A cow produces 4 liters of milk in a day.
x ≠ 0, find (g ◦ f ◦ h) (x)
Then x number of cows produce 4x liters of milk
in a day. This is given by function f (x) = 4x = 'y'. Solution : (g ◦ f ◦ h) (x)
Price of one liter milk is Rs. 50. Then the price = g {f [h (x)]
of y liters of the milk is Rs. 50y. This is given by 1
= g f x
another function g(y) = 50y. Now a function h(x)
gives the money earned from x number of cows in
2
a day as a composite function of f and g as h(x) = = g 1
x
(g ◦ f )(x) = g[f (x)] = g(4x) = 50(4x) = 200x.
2 1 2
Ex. 3 : If f (x) = x+5 and g (x) = x2 − 1 , then find =
x +5
i) (f ◦ g) (x) ii) (g ◦ f) (3) 1
= x2 + 5
Solution :
2
i) As (f ◦ g) (x) = f [g (x)] and f (x) = x+5 Ex. 5 : If h (x) = (x − 5)2, find the functions f and
g, such that h = f ◦ g .
Replace x from f (x) by g (x) , to get
→ In h (x), 5 is subtracted from x first and then
2 squared. Let g (x) = x − 5 and f (x) = x2, (verify)
(f ◦ g) (x) = g(x)+5
2 1
= x2−1+5 Ex. 6 : Express m (x)= x3+7 in the form of f ◦ g ◦ h

2 → In m (x), x is cubed first then 7 is added and

= x2+4
then its reciprocal taken. So,

121
 1 x−5
h(x) = x3, g(x) = x + 7 and f (x) = x , (verify) Ex. 8 : Verify that f (x) = 8 and g (x) = 8x + 5
6.2.2 Inverse functions: are inverse functions of each other.
Let f : A → B be one-one and onto function and
x−5
f (x) = y for x ∈ A. The inverse function Solution : As f (x) = 8 , replace x in f (x) with
f -1 : B → A is defined as f -1 (y) = x if f(x) = y g (x)

g(x)−5 8x+5−5 8x
f [g (x)] = 8 = 8 = 8 =x
and g (x) = 8x + 5, replace x in g (x) with f (x)

 x − 5
g [f (x)] = 8 f (x) + 5 = 8  +5=x−5+5
 8 
=x
As f [g (x)] = x and g [f (x)] = x , f and g are inverse
Fig. 6.36
functions of each other.
Note:
1) As f is one-one and onto every element Ex. 9 : Determine whether the function
y ∈ B has a unique element x ∈ A such that
y = f (x) . 2x+1
f (x) = x−3 has inverse, if it exists find it.
2) If f and g are one-one and onto functions
such that f [g(x)] = x for every x ∈ Domain Solution : f -1 exists only if f is one-one and onto.
of g and g [f (x)] = x for every x ∈ Domain
of f, then g is called inverse of function f. Consider f (x1) = f (x2),
Function g is denoted by f -1 (read as f inverse).
i.e. f [g(x)] = g [f(x)] = x then g = f-1 which Therefore,
Moreover this means f [f -1 (x)] = f -1[f (x)] = x 2x1+1 2x2+1
x1−3 = x2−3
1
3) f -1(x) ≠ [f (x)]−1, because [f (x)]−1 = f (x) (2x1+1) (x2−3) = (2x2+1) (x1−3)
[f (x)]−1 is reciprocal of function f (x) where as 2x1x2 − 6x1 + x2 − 3 = 2x1x2 − 6x2 + x1 − 3
f (x) is the inverse function of f (x).
-1
− 6x1 + x2 = − 6x2 + x1
e.g. If f is one-one onto function with f (3) =
6x1 + x2 = 6x2 + x1
7 then f -1 (7) = 3 .

7x2 = 7x1
Ex. 7 : If f is one-one onto function with x2 = x1

f (x) = 9 − 5x , find f -1 (−1) .
Hence, f is one-one function.
Soln. : → Let f -1 (−1) = m, then − 1 = f (m)
2x+1
Therefore, Let f (x) = y, so y = x−3
−1 = 9 − 5m
Express x as function of y , as follows
5m = 9 + 1
5m = 10 2x+1
y = x−3
m=2
That is f (2) = −1, so f -1 (−1) = 2 . y (x −3) = 2x + 1

122
 xy −3y = 2x + 1
xy −2x = 3y + 1
x(y −2) = 3y + 1
3y+1
∴ x = y−2 for y ≠ 2.

Thus for any y ≠ 2,

we have x such that f (x) = y
f−1 is well defined on R - {2}
If f(x) = 2 i.e. 2x + 1 = 2 (x − 3)
i.e. 2x + 1 = 2x − 6 i.e. 1 = −6
Which is contradiction. Fig. 6.37
2 ∉ Range of f. As (1,3) lies on line y = 4 − x , so it is
Here the range of f (x) is R − {2}. shown by small black disc on that line.
(1,2) is shown by small white disc on the line y=
x is defined for all y in the range. x +1, because it is not on the line.
Therefore f (x) is onto function.
1) Signum function :
As f is one-one and onto, so f exists.
-1
Definition: f (x) = sgn (x) is a piecewise function
As f (x) = y , so f (y) = x
-1

−1 if x < 0
3y+1 
Therefore, f -1 (y) = y−2 f (x) =  0 if x = 0
 1 if x > 0

Replace x by y , to get

3x+1
f -1 (x) = x−2 .

6.2.3 Piecewise Defined Functions:

A function defined by two or more equations
on different parts of the given domain is called
piecewise defind function.
 x + 1 if x < 1
e.g.: If f (x) = 
 4 − x if x ≥ 1

Here f (3) = 4 − 3 = 1 as 3 > 1 ,

whereas f (−2) = −2 + 1 = −1 as −2 < 1 and Fig. 6.38

f (1) = 4 − 1 = 3. Domain: R and Range: {−1, 0, 1}

123
Properties:
1) For x > 0, the graph is line y = 1 and for x <
Fig. 6.40
0 , the graph is line y = −1 .
6) If |x| < m , then it represents every x whose
2) For f (0) = 0 , so point (0,0) is shown by distance from origin is less than m, 0 ≤ x < m
black disc, whereas points (0,−1) and (0,1) and 0 ≥ x > −m That is −m < x < m. In interval
are shown by white discs. notation x ∈ (− m, m)

Absolute value function (Modulus function):

Definition: f (x) = |x|, is a piece wise function Fig. 6.41

 x if x  0 7) If |x| ≥ m , then it represents every x whose

f (x) =  distance from origin is greater than or equal to
 x if x < 0
m, so, x ≥ m and x ≤ −m . In interval notation
x ∈ (− ∞, m] ∪ [m, ∞)

Fig. 6.42
8) If m < |x| < n, then it represents all x whose
distance from origin is greater than m but less
than n . That is x ∈ (− n,−m) ∪ (m, n) .

Fig. 6.43
Fig. 6.39
9) Triangle inequality |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| .
Domain : R or (−∞,∞) and Range : [0,∞) Verify by taking different values for x and y
Properties: (positive or negative).

1) Graph of f (x) = |x| is union of line y = x from 10) |x| can also be defined as |x| = x2
quadrant I with the line y = −x from quadrant = max{x, −x}.
II. As origin marks the change of directions
of the two lines, we call it a critical point. Ex. 10 : Solve |4x −5| ≤ 3.
2) Graph is symmetric about Y-axis . Solution : If |x| ≤ m , then − m ≤ x ≤ m
3) Graph of f (x) = |x−3| is the graph of |x| shifted
Therefore
3 units right and the critical point is (3,0).
−3 ≤ 4x −5 ≤ 3
4) f (x) = |x| , represents the distance of x from −3 + 5 ≤ 4x ≤ 3 + 5
origin.
2 ≤ 4x ≤ 8
5) If |x| = m, then it represents every x whose 2 8
≤x≤ 4
distance from origin is m, that is x = + m or 4
x = −m . 1 ≤x≤2

2
124
 1 3) Greatest Integer Function (Step Function):
Ex. 11 : Find the domain of Definition: For every real x , f (x) = [x] = The
||[|-1|-3
greatest integer less than or equal to x . [x] is also
Solution : As function is defined for ||x|−1|−3>0
called as floor function and represented by  x  .
Therefore ||x|−1|>3
Illustrations:
So |x|−1>3 or |x|−1<−3
That is 1) f (5.7)= [5.7] = greatest integer less than or
equal to 5.7
|x|>3 + 1or |x|<−3+1
Integers less than or equal to 5.7 are 5, 4, 3, 2 of
|x|>4 or |x|<−2 which 5 is the greatest.
But |x|<−2 is not possible as |x|>0 always 2) f (−6.3)= [−6.3] = greatest integer less than or
So −4 < x < 4 , x ∈ (−4, 4) . equal to −6.3.
Integers less than or equal to −6.3 are −10, −9, −8,
Ex. 12 : Solve |x −1| + |x +2| = 8. −7 of which −7 is the greatest.
Solution : Let f (x) = |x −1| + |x +2|
∴ [−6.3] = −7
Here the critical points are at x =1 and x =−2 .
3) f (2) = [2] = greatest integer less than or equal
They divide number line into 3 parts, as follows. to 2 = 2.
4) [π] = 3 5) [e] = 2
The function can be defined piece-wise as follows
f (x) = n, if n ≤ x < n + 1 or x ∈ [n, n +1), n ∈ I
Fig. 6.44
2 if  2  x  1 or x   2, 1
Region Test Sign f (x) 1 if  1  x  0 or x   1, 0 
Value 
f (x) = 0 if 0  x  1 or x   0,1
I −3 (x −1) < 0, − (x −1) − (x +2) 1 if 1  x  2 or x  1, 2 
x < −2 
(x +2) < 0 = −2 x −1 2 if 2  x  3 or x   2, 3
II 0 (x −1) < 0, − (x −1) + (x +2)
−2≤ x ≤1 (x +2) > 0 = 3
III 2 (x −1) > 0 (x −1) + (x +2)
x >1 (x +2) > 0 = 2 x +1

As f (x) = 8
9
From I, −2x −1= 8 ∴ −2 x = 9 ∴ x = − 2 .

From II, 3 = 8 , which is impossible, hence there

is no solution in this region.
7
From III, 2x +1= 8 ∴ 2x = 7 ∴ x = 2 .
Fig. 6.45
9 7
Solutions are x = − and x = 2 . Domain = R and Range = I (Set of integers)
2

125
Properties: Properties:
1) If x ∈ [2,3), f (x) = 2 shown by horizontal 1) If x ∈ [0,1], f (x) = {x} ∈ [0,1) shown by
slant line y = x . At x = 0, f (0) = 0, 0 ∈ [0,1)
line. At exactly x = 2 , f (2) = 2 , 2 ∈ [2,3)
hence shown by black disc, whereas at
hence shown by black disc, whereas 3 ∉ x = 1, f (1) = 1, 1 ∉ [0,1) hence shown by
[2,3) hence shown by white disc. white disc.

2) Graph of y = [x] lies in the region bounded 2) Graph of y = {x} lies in the region bounded
by y = 0 and y = 1. So 0 ≤ {x} < 1
by lines y = x and y = x−1. So x−1 ≤ [x] < x
0 if x ∈ I
 0 if x ∈ I 3) {x} + {−x} = 
3) [x] + [−x] =  1 if x ∉ I
 −1 if x ∉ I
Ex. 13:{5.2}+{−5.2} = 0.2+0.8 = 1where 5.2 ∈ 1
Ex. [3.4] + [−3.4] = 3 + (−4) = −1where 3.4 ∉ I
{7} +{−7} = 0 + (0) = 0 where 7 ∈ I
[5] + [−5] = 5 + (−5) = 0 where 5 ∈ I
4) {x ± n} = {x}, where n ∈ I
4) [x+n] = [x] + n, where n ∈ I Ex. 14 : {2.8+5}= {7.8} = 0.8 and {2.8} = 0.8
{2.8 − 5} = {−2.2} = −2.2 − (−2.2) = −2.2 − (−3)
Ex. [4.5 + 7] = [11.5] = 11 and
= 0.8 ( {x} = x − [x])
[4.5] + 7 = 4 +7 = 11
Ex. 15 : If {x} and [x] are the fractional
4) Fractional part function: part function and greatest integer function
of x respectively. Solve for x, if {x + 1} + 2x
Definition: For every real x, f (x) = {x} is defined = 4[x + 1] − 6.
as {x} = x −[x]
Solution : {x + 1} + 2x = 4 [x + 1] − 6
Illustrations: Since {x + n} = {x} and [x + n] = [x] + n, for
f (4.8) = {4.8} = 4.8 − [4.8] = 4.8 − 4 = 0.8 n ∈ I, also x = [x] + {x}
∴ {x} + 2({x} + [x]) = 4([x] + 1) − 6
f (−7.1) = {−7.1} = −7.1 − [−7.1]
∴ {x} + 2{x} + 2[x] = 4[x] + 4 − 6
= −7.1 − (−8) = −7.1+8 = 0.9
∴ 3{x} = 4[x] − 2[x] − 2
f (8) = {8} = 8 − [8] = 8 − 8 = 0 ∴ 3{x} = 2[x] − 2 ... (I)

Since 0 ≤ {x} < 1

∴ 0 ≤ 3{x} < 3
∴ 0 ≤ 2 [x] − 2 < 3 ( from I)
∴ 0 + 2 ≤ 2 [x] < 3 + 2
∴ 2 ≤ 2 [x] < 5
Fig. 6.46 2 ≤ [x] < 5
∴
Domain = R and Range = [0,1) 2 2
∴ 1 ≤ [x] < 2.5

126
But as [x] takes only integer values
log10 10 < log10 23 < 2log1010
[x] = 1, 2 since [x] = 1 ⇒ 1≤x<2 and [x] = 2 ⇒
1 < log1023 < 2 (⸪ log10
10
= 1)
2≤x<3
Then [log10 23] = 1, hence Characteristic of
Therefore x ∈ [1,3)
log10 23 is 1.
Note: The characteristic of the logarithm of a number N,
1) with 'm' digits in its integral part is 'm−1'.
Ex. 16 : Given that log10 2 = 0.3010, find the
Property f (x)
number of digits in the number 2010.
f (x+y) = f (x) + f (y) kx
Solution : Let x = 2010, taking log10 on either
f (x+y) = f (x) f (y) akx
sides, we get
f (xy) = f (x) f (y) xn
f (xy) = f (x) + f (y) log x log10 x = log10 (2010) = 10log1020
= 10log10 (2×10) = 10{log102 + log1010}
2) If n(A) = m and n(B) = n then = 10{log10 2 + 1} = 10{0.3010 + 1}

(a) number of functions from A and B is = 10 (1.3010) = 13.010

nm (b) for m≤n, number of one-one That is characteristic of x is 13.
n! So number of digits in x is 13 + 1 = 14
functions is
( n − m )!
EXERCISE 6.2
(c) for m>n, number of one-one functions is
0
1) If f (x) = 3x + 5, g (x) = 6x − 1, then find
(d) for m≥n, number of onto functions are
(a) (f+g) (x) (b) (f−g) (2)
nm − nC1(n−1)m + nC2(n−2)m − nC3(n−3)m (c) (fg) (3) (d) (f /g) (x) and its domain.
+ ... + (−1)n−1 nCn−1
2) Let f :{2,4,5}→{2,3,6} and g :{2,3,6}→{2,4}
(e) for m<n, number of onto functions are 0.
be given by f ={(2,3), (4,6), (5,2)} and
(f) number of constant fuctions is m. g ={(2,4), (3,4), (6,2)} . Write down g ◦ f

3) Characteristic & Mantissa of Common 3) If f (x) = 2x2 + 3, g (x) = 5x − 2, then find

Logarithm log10 x : (a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f
As x = [x] + {x} (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g
log10 x = [log10 x] + {log10 x}
4) Verify that f and g are inverse functions of
Where, integral part [log10 x] is called each other, where
Characteristic & fractional part {log10 x} is called x−7
Mantissa. (a) f (x) = 4 , g (x) = 4x + 7
Illustration : For log10 23, (b) f (x) = x3 + 4, g (x) = 3
x−4
log10 10 < log10 23 < log10 100
x+3 2x+3
log10 10 < log10 23 < log10 102 (c) f (x) = x−2 , g (x) = x−1

127
5) Check if the following functions have an 11) Solve the following for x, where |x| is modulus
inverse function. If yes, find the inverse function, [x] is greatest integer function, [x]
function. is a fractional part function.
(a) f (x) = 5x2 (b) f (x) = 8 (a) |x+4|≥5 (b) |x−4| + |x−2| = 3
6x−7 (b) x2 + 7|x| + 12 = 0 (d) |x| ≤ 3
(c) f (x) = 3 (d) f (x) = 4x + 5
(e) 2|x| = 5
(e) f (x) = 9x + 8
3
(f) [x + [x + [x]]] = 9 (g) {x}>4
x + 7 x < 0 (h) {x} = 0 (i) {x} = 0.5
(f) f (x) = 
8 − x x ≥ 0 (j) 2{x} = x + [x]

 x 2 + 3, x≤2
6) If f (x) =  , then find
5 x + 7, x>2
Let's Remember
(a) f (3) (b) f (2) (c) f (0)
• If f:A → B is a function and f (x) = y, where
4 x − 2, x ≤ −3 x ∈ A and y ∈ B, then

7) If f (x) =  5, −3 < x < 3 , then find
 x2 , Domain of f is A = Set of Inputs = Set of
 x≥3
Pre-images = Set of values of x for which
(a) f (−4) (b) f (−3)
y = f (x) is defined = Projection of graph of
(c) f (1) (d) f (5)
f (x) on X-axis.

8) If f (x) = 2|x| + 3x, then find Range of f is f (A) = Set of Outputs = Set
(a) f (2) (b) f (−5) of Images = Set of values of y for which y =
f (x) is defined = Projection of graph of
9) If f (x) = 4[x] − 3, where [x] is greatest integer f (x) on Y-axis.
function of x, then find Co-domain of f is B.
(a) f (7.2) (b) f (0.5)
• If f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2 then f is one-one
 5 and for every y ∈ B, if there exists x ∈ A
(c) f  −  (d) f (2π), where π = 3.14
 2 such that f (x) = y then f is onto.

10) If f (x) = 2{x} + 5x , where {x} is fractional • If f:A → B. g:B → C then a function
part function of x, then find g ° f:A → C is a composite function.
1 • If f:A → B, then f−1:B → A is inverse
(a) f (−1) (b) f  
4 function of f.
(c) f (−1.2) (d) f (−6)
• If f:R → R is a real valued function of real
variable, the following table is formed.

128
 Type of f Form of f Domain of f Range of f
Constant function f (x) = k R k
Identity function f (x) = x R R
Square function f (x) = x2 R [0, ∞ ) or R+
Cube function f (x) = x3 R R
Linear function f (x) = ax + b R R

 4ac − b 2 
Quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c R  ,∞
 4a 
Cubic function f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d R R
Square root funtion f (x) = x [0, ∞) [0, ∞) or R+

Cube root function f (x) = 3

x R R

p( x) depends on p(x) and

Rational function f (x) = R − {x q(x) = 0}
q( x) q(x)
Exponential function f (x) = ax, a > 1 R (0, ∞)
Logarithmic function f (x) = loga x, a > 1 (0, ∞) or R+ R
Absolute function f (x) = x  R [0, ∞) or R+
Signum function f (x) = sgn (x) R {−1, 0, 1}
Greatest Integer
f (x) = [x] R I (set of integers)
function
Fractional Part function f (x) = {x} R [0,1)

3) Find x, if 2log2 x = 4
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 6
A) 4, −4 B) 4

(I) Select the correct answer from given C) −4 D) not defined

alternatives. 4) The equation log x2 16 + log2x64 = 3 has,
1) If log (5x – 9) – log (x + 3) = log 2 then A) one irrational solution
x = ...............
B) no prime solution
A) 3 B) 5 C) 2 D) 7 C) two real solutions
2) If log10(log10(log10x)) = 0 then x = D) one integral solution
1
A) 1000 B) 1010 5) If f (x) = , then f (f{f (x)}] is
1 – x
C) 10 D) 0
A) x – 1 B) 1 – x C) x D) –x

129
6) If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = x3 then f–1 (8) 3) Find whether following functions are onto
is euqal to : or not.
A) {2} B) {–2. 2} i) f: Z→Z defined by f(x) = 6x–7 for all
C){–2} D) (–2. 2) x∈Z
2x + 1 ii) f: R→R defined by f(x) = x2+3 for all
7) Let the function f be defined by f (x) = x∈R
1 – 3x
then f–1 (x) is:
x–1 x+1 4) Let f: R→R be a function defined by
A) B) f(x) = 5x3–8 for all x∈R, show that f is one-
3x + 2 3x – 2
one and onto. Hence find f –1.
2x + 1 3x + 2
C) C) 3x
1 – 3x x–1 5) A function f: R→R defined by f(x) = +2,
5
8) If f (x) = 2x2 + bx + c and f (0) = 3 and x∈R. Show that f is one-one and onto. Hence
f (2) = 1, then f (1) is equal to find f –1.

A) –2 B) 0 C) 1 D) 2 6) A function f is defined as f(x) = 4x+5, for

–4 ≤ x < 0. Find the values of f(–1), f(–2),
1
9) The domain of where [x] is greatest f(0), if they exist.
[x]−x
integer function is 7) A function f is defined as : f(x) = 5–x for
0 ≤ x ≤ 4. Find the value of x such that
A) R B) Z C) R−Z D) Q - {o} (i) f(x) = 3 (ii) f(x) = 5
10) The domain and range of f (x) = 2 − x − 5is 8) If f(x) = 3x4 – 5x2 + 7 find f(x–1).
A) R+, (−∞, 1] B) R, (−∞, 2] 9) If f(x) = 3x + a and f(1) = 7 find a and f(4).
C) R, (−∞, 2) D) R , (−∞, 2]
+

10) If f(x) = ax2 + bx + 2 and f(1) = 3, f(4) = 42,

(II) Answer the following. find a and b.

1) Which of the following relations are 11) Find composite of f and g

functions? If it is a function determine its i) f = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}
domain and range.
g = {(3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10), (6, 12)}
i) {(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4), (10, 5),
ii) f = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3)}
(12, 6), (14, 7)}
g = {(1, 1), (3, 27), (4, 64)}
ii) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, –1), (4, 2), (4, –2),
(9, 3), (9, –3), (16, 4), (16, –4)} 12) Find fog and gof
iii) {2, 1), (3, 1), (5, 2)} i) f(x) = x2 + 5, g(x) = x–8
ii) f(x) = 3x – 2, g(x) = x2
2) Find whether following functions are one-
one. iii) f(x) = 256x4, g(x) = x
i) f:R→R defined by f(x) = x2+5 2x – 1 5
13) If f(x) = ,x≠
5x + 7 5x – 2 2
ii) f: R−{3}→R defined by f(x) =
x–3
for x∈ R−{3} Show that (fof) (x) = x.

130
 x+3 3 + 5x 29) If log3 [log2(log3x)] = 1, show that x = 6561.
14) If f(x) = , g(x) = then show that
4x – 5 4x – 1
30) If f(x) = log(1–x), 0 ≤ x < 1 show that
(fog) (x) = x.
 1 
x2 –4 f   = f(1–x) – f(–x)
15) Let f: R – {2}→ R be defined by f(x) =  1 x 
x–2
and g : R → R be defined by g (x) = x + 2. Ex 31) Without using log tables, prove that
whether f = g or not. 2 1
< log103 <
16) Let f: R → R be given by f(x) = x + 5 for all 5 2
x ∈R. Draw its graph. 32) Show that
17) Let f: R → R be given by f(x) = x3 + 1 for all  15  8 2  32 
7 log   +6 log   +5 log   +log  
x ∈R. Draw its graph.  16  3 5  25 
18) For any base show that = log 3
log (1+2+3) = log 1 + log2 + log3. 2
33) Solve : log 2 x 4 + 4 log 4 =2
x
19) Find x, if x = 33log32
3  log10 343
20) Show that, 34) Find value of
1  49  1  1 
2  log10    log10  
log | x  1  x |  log | x  1  x | = 0 2  4  2  25 
2 2

a2 b2 c2 loga logb logc

21) Show that, log + log + log =0 35) If = y+z–2x = z+x–2y , show that
bc ca ab x+y–2z

22) Simplify, log (logx4) – log (logx). abc = 1.

36) Show that, logy x3.logz y4.logx z5 = 60
23) Simplify
28 35 325 13 log2a log2b log2c
log10 – log10 + log10 – log10 37) If = 6 = 3k and a b c = 1
3 2
45 324 432 15 4
find the value of k.
 a+b  1 47
24) If log   = (loga + logb), then show 38) If a2 = b3 = c4 = d 5, show that logabcd = .
 2  2 30
that a=b
39) Solve the following for x, where x is
25) If b =ac. prove that, log a + log c = 2log b
2 modulus function, [x] is greatest interger
function, {x} is a fractional part function.
26) Solve for x, logx (8x – 3) – logx4 = 2
a) 1 < x − 1< 4 c) x2 − x −6= x + 2
27) If a2 + b2 = 7ab, show that, c) x2 − 9+ x2 − 4= 5
 a+b  1 1 d) −2 < [x] ≤ 7 e) 2[2x − 5] − 1 = 7
log  = 2 log a + 2 log b
 3  f) [x2] − 5 [x]+6 = 0
 x y 1 1 g) [x − 2] + [x + 2] + {x} = 0
28) If log   = 2 log x + 2 log y, show that
 5 
x2 + y2 = 27xy.  x   x  5x
h)      
2 3 6

131
40) Find the domain of the following functions. 42) Find (f ° g) (x) and (g ° f) (x)
x2 + 4x + 4
a) f ( x) = 2 a) f (x) = ex, g (x) = log x
x + x−6
x
b) f ( x) = x − 3 +
1 b) f ( x) = , g ( x) = x
log(5 − x) x +1 1− x

43) Find f (x) if

c) f ( x) = 1 − 1 − 1 − x
2

a) g(x) = x2 + x − 2 and (g ° f) (x)
d) f ( x) = x !
= 4x2 − 10x + 4
e) f ( x) =5− x Px −1
(b) g(x) = 1 + x and f [g(x)] = 3 + 2 x + x.
f) f ( x) = x − x + 5 − x
2

g) f ( x) = log( x 2 − 6 x + 6) 44) Find (f ° f) (x) if

x
(a) f ( x) =
41) Find the range of the following functions. 1 + x2
x
a) f ( x) = x − 5 b) f ( x) = 2x +1
9 + x2 (b) f ( x) =
1 3x − 2
c) f ( x) = d) f ( x) = [ x ] − x
1+ x
x x
e) f ( x) = 1 + 2 + 4

v v v

132
 7 LIMITS

We will study functions of x, a real variable, and

Let's Study a, b, c etc will denote constants. x → a implies that
x takes values as near a as possible. So in this case
• Meaning – Definition of Limit
we have to consider x going nearer a from either
• Calculation of various limits
1 1 1 1
• Limits of Trigonometric Functions side. So, x = a – , a + , a – , a + ......
4 4 2 2
• Limits of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions We will illustrate with an example.
• Limit at Infinity and Infinite limit
Consider the function f(x) = x + 3
Introduction:
Take the value of x very close to 3 but not equal
Calculus is an important branch of
to 3.
mathematics. The concept of limit of a function
is a fundamental concept in calculus. The following table shows that as x gets nearer to
3, the corresponding values of f(x) also get nearer
7.1.1 Definition of Limit: to 6.
(I)
Let's :Learn
x approaches to 3 from left
7.1.1 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION : x 2.5 2.6 … 2.9 2.99
Suppose x is a variable and a is a constant. f(x) 5.5 5.6 … 5.9 5.99
If x takes values closer and closer to ‘a’ but
(II)
not equal to ‘a’, then we say that x tends to a.
Symbolically it is denoted as x → a. x approaches to 3 from right
x 3.6 3.5 … 3.1 3.01
f(x) 6.6 6.5 … 6.1 6.01

From the table we see that as x → 3 from either

Fig. 7.1 side, f(x) → 6.
You can observe that the values of x are very This idea can be expressed by saying that the
near to ‘a’ but not equal to ‘a’. limiting value of f(x) is 6 when x approaches 3,
at x = 3, which is the limiting value of f(x) as
When x > a and x takes values near a, for example, x→3
1 1 1
x = a + , x = a + , x = a + ... etc; we say that Observe that if P(x) is a polynomical in x, then
8 4 2
lim P(x) = P(a), for any constant ‘a’.
x  a+ (x tends to a from larger values). When x→a

x < a and x takes values near a, for example, We are going to study the limit of a rational
1 1 1 P( x)
x = a – , x = a – , x = a – ... etc. then we function f(x) = as x  a.
2 4 8 Q( x)
say that x a (x tends to a from smaller values).
–
Here P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x.

133
We get three different cases.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
(1) Q(a) ≠ 0,
(2) Q(a) = 0 and P(a) = 0 Strategy : Steps for verifying the ∈ - δ definition.
(3) Q(a) = 0 and P(a) ≠ 0 Consider ∈ > 0 given, substitute the values of f(x)
and l in |f(x) – l|< ∈ and proceed to find the value
In case (1) the limit of f(x) as x → a is
of δ. We may have to manipulate the inequalities.
P( x) P(a)
lim = . Ex. 1. Consider the example f(x) = 3x + 1, take
x→a Q( x) Q(a)
a = 0 and l = 1
In Case (2) (x – a) is a factor of P(x) as We want to find some δ > 0 such that,
well as Q(x). So we expresse P(x) and Q(x) as 0 < |x – 0|< δ impies that, |(3x + 1)– 1| <∈
P(x) = (x – a)P1(x) and Q(x) = (x – a)Q1(x) ∈
if |3x| <∈ i.e. if 3|x| <∈ i.e. if |x| <
3
∈
P( x) ( x − a ) r P1 ( x) So, we can choose δ=
Now = = (x – a ≠ 0) 3
Q( x) ( x − a) s Q1 ( x) ∈
(If fact any δ ≤ will do.)
P( x) P1 (a ) 3
If r = s then lim = ∴ 0 < |x – 0| < δ ⇒ |f(x) – l|< ∈
x→a Q( x) Q1 (a )
P( x) ∴ lim (3x + 1) = 1
If r > s then lim =0 x→0
x→a Q( x)
If r < s then we proceed to case (3).

In case (3), if Q(a) = 0 and P(a) ≠ 0

P( x)
lim does not exist.
x→a Q( x)

7.1.2 Definition of Limit :

We need to confirm that f(x) is very near to
l (or as near as expected). This is expressed by
|f(x) – l| < ∈ for any ∈ > 0. Here ∈ can be arbitrarily
small to ensure that f(x) is very near l. If this
condition is satisfied for all x near enough, then Fig. 7.2
we can say that f (x) → l as x → a, the fact that x is
near enough a is expressed by 0 < |x – a| < δ where Ex. 2. f(x) = x2
δ > 0. This δ can be very small and depends upon Here take a = 3 and l = 9
f(x) and ∈. We want to find some δ > 0 such that
Hence the Definition 0 < |x – 3| < δ implies |x2 – 9|< ∈
i.e. 3 – δ < x < 3 + δ ⇒ |x2 – 9|< ∈
If given ∈ > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that
|f(x) – l |< ∈ for all |x – a |< δ, then we say δ can be chosen as small as we like
that f(x) → l as x → a. and take δ < 1

134
 Then, 3 – δ < x < 3 + δ ⇒ 2 < x < 4 or From the above example we notice that the
5<x+3<7 limits of f(x) as x → a+ or a– can be different. This
We want |(x + 3) (x – 3)| < ∈ induces us to define the following.

But |(x + 3) (x – 3) | < 7 |x – 3| 7.1.3 One Sided Limit: xlim →a−

f(x) and xlim
→a+
f(x);
So 7 |(x – 3)| < ∈ ⇒ |x2 – 9| < ∈ if they exist are called one sided limits.
∈ 7.1.4 Left hand Limit: If given ∈ > 0, there
If δ = , |(x – 3)| < δ ⇒ |x2 – 9| < ∈
7 exists δ > 0 such that for |f(x) – l| < ∈ for all
∈
So we choose δ = min { ,1} x with a – δ < x< a then
7
lim f(x) =l
then |(x – 3)| < δ ⇒ |f (x) – 9| < ∈ x→a−

* Note that, we want to get rid of factor 7.1.5 Right hand Limit : If given ∈ > 0 there
|x + 3| Hence we have to get its lower bound. exists δ > 0 such that for |f(x) – l| < ∈ for all
x with a < x < a + δ then
Ex. 3. f(x) = [x], 2 < x< 4 where [x] is a greatest
integer function. lim f(x) = l
x→a+
We have seen the f(x) = [x], 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
Note that 7.1.6 Existence of a limit of a function at a
point x = a
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3
= 3 for 3 ≤ x < 4 If lim+ f(x) = lim− f(x) = l, then limit of the
x→a x→a
Let us study the limits of f(x) as x  3 and function f(x) as x a
exists and its value is l.
  
x  2.7
And if lim+ f(x) ≠ lim− f(x) then lim f(x) does
x→a x→a
lim f(x) = 3, x→a
x→3+ not exist.
lim− f(x) = 2.
But for x < 3, f(x) = 2. So, x→ 3
Example:
1
If we take l = 3, then for ∈ = and any δ >0 Find left hand limit and right hand limit for the
2
following function.
3 − δ < x < 3 ⇒ f(x) = 2 and |f(x) – l| = 1 ∈
V

 3 x + 1 if x < 1
If we take l = 2, then 3< x <3 + δ ⇒ f(x) = 3, 
f ( x) = 
7 x 2 − 3 if x ≥ 1
|f(x) – 2| = 1 ∈ 
V

∴ lim
x→3
f(x) does not exist. Solution : Right hand limit, lim f(x), for x > 1
x→1
lim f(x)
Consider x→2 .7 i.e. lim+ f(x) = lim (7x2 – 3) = 4
x→1 x→1
Consider a = 2.7 We see that for 2 < x < 3,
Left hand limit, lim f(x), for x < 1:
f(x) = 2. x→1
lim f(x) = lim (3x + 1) = 4
If we choose δ = 0.3, x→1− x→1

then 2 < 2.7 − δ < 2.7 < 2.7 + δ < 3 Since left and right-hand limits are equal, the
two-sided limit is defined, and lim f(x) = 4.
and f(x) = 2 is a constant. x→1

∴ lim f(x) = 2 Note : lim lim lim

x→2.7 x → a f(x) means x → a − f(x) = x → a + f(x)

135
7.1.7 ALGEBRA OF LIMITS: (3) × (3 + 1) × (6 + 1)
=
It is easy to verify the following. 6
Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions such that 3× 4 × 7
=
lim f(x) = l and lim g(x) = m, then 6
x→a x→a
= 14
1. lim [f(x) ± g(x)] = lim f(x) ± lim g(x)
x →a x →a x →a
Ex. 2 : lim [(y2 – 3)(y + 2)]
= l ± m y→2

= lim [(y2 – 3) [y + 2]
2. lim [f(x) × g(x)] = lim f(x) × lim g(x) y→2
x →a x →a x →a
= (22 – 3)(2 + 2) = (8– 3)(4) = 5 × 4 = 20
=l×m

3. lim [k f(x)]= = k × lim f(x) = kl, where ‘k’  6+ x − 7− x 

x →a x →a Ex. 3 : lim 
x →3 

 x 
is a constant

f ( x) lim f ( x ) l
=
lim
x →3
( )
6 + x − lim
x →3
( 7−x )ˇ
4. lim = x →a where m ≠ 0 =
x →a g ( x) lim g ( x ) m lim ( x )
x →a x →3

Note:
6+3 − 7−3
=
1) lim k = k , where k is a constant 3
x→a

9− 4 3− 2 1
2) lim x=a = = = 2
x→a 3 3
3) lim xn = an
x→a 1 
 −1 
4) lim r x = r a Ex. 4 : lim
x →1
x 
x→a
 x −1 
 
5) If p(x) is a polynomial,
 1− x 
then lim p ( x) = p (a )  x 
x→a
= lim  
 x −1 
x →1
While evaluating limits, we must always
 
check whether the denominator tends to zero, and
if it does, then whether the numerator also tends  (1 − x ) 
= = lim 
x →1 ( x − 1) × x

to zero. In case both tend to zero we have to study  
the function in detail.
 − ( x − 1) 
= = lim 
x →1 ( x − 1) × x

 
SOLVED EXAMPLES
 −1  1 1
= = lim   = − lim  [As
 = −x g1, x−1 ≠ 0]
 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 
x →1
x x →1 x
  1
Ex. 1 : lim  ∑ r 2  = lim 
n

n →3
 r =1 
n → 3
 6   −1  1 1
= lim  =  = − lim   = −
(3) × (3 + 1) × (6 + 1)
x →1
x x →1 x
  1
= = –1
6

136
Ex. 5 : Discuss the limit of the following function 77.1.8 Theorem: Prove that
as x tends to 3 if
xn − an
lim = na n −1 where n∈N, a > 0
 x 2 + x + 1, 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 x→a x − a
f(x) = 
 2 x + 1, 3< x ≤ 4
Proof : We know, an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2b +
Solution: As f(x) is defined seperately for x ≤ 3 an−3b2 + ... +bn−1) for n ∈ N.
and x > 3, we have to find left hand limit (when x
 xn − an 
≤ 3) and right hand limit (when x > 3) to discuss lim  =
the existance of limit of f(x) as x→3.
x→a
 x−a 

lim  ( x − a ) ( x + x a + x a + ...... + a ) 
For the interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 3; f(x) = x2 + x + 1  n −1 n−2 n −3 2 n −1

x→a
∴ lim− f(x) = lim− (x2 + x + 1) = (3)2 + 3 + 1  x−a 
x→3 x→3

= 9 + 3 + 1 = 13 -----(I) = lim (xn−1 + xn−2a + xn−3a2 + ... +an−1)

x→a

Similarly for the interval 3 < x ≤ 4; for [x − a ≠0]

f(x) = 2 x + 1 = an−1 + an−2a + an−3a2 + ... +an−1
lim f(x) = lim+ (2x + 1) = (2 × 3) + 1 = an−1 + an−1 + an−1 + ... +an−1 (n terms)
x→3+ x→3
=6+1=7 -----(II) = nan−1
From (I) and (II), lim− f(x) ≠ lim+ f(x)
x→3 x→3
Note : The above limit can also be found by using
∴ lim f(x) does not exist.
x→3 the substitution x − a = h.

Ex. 6 : For a given ∈ > 0, find δ > 0 such that x − a = h ∴ x = a + h and x→a ⇒ h→0. Use
whenever |x − a| < δ, we have |f(x) − l| < ∈ so that binomial theorem to expand (a + h)n, simplify
lim (4x + 3) = 7 and apply the limit to get the result
x→1

Solution : We want to find δ so that  xn − an 

lim  =na
n −1

lim (4x + 3) = 7
x→1
x→a
 x−a 
Here a = 1, l = 7 and f(x) = 4x + 3 Verify : If n < 0 say n = – m then

Consider ∈ > 0 and |f(x) − l| < ∈ lim  x − a  lim  x − a 

n n −m −m

x→a   = x→a  x − a 
|(4x + 3) − 7| < ∈  x−a   

if |(4x − 4)| < ∈ = – ma–m–1

i.e. if |4(x − 1)| < ∈ Note : The above theorem can also be verified if
ε p
i.e. if |x − 1| < n is a fraction say n = where q ≠ 0. Then
4 q
ε
We can have δ ≤ so that |(x − 1)| < δ
4  qp p
 p
lim  x − a  lim  x − a
n n q
⇒ |f(x) − 7| < ∈  p a q −1
x→a   = x→a  = q
 x−a   x−a 
 

137
 SOLVED EXAMPLES  2x − 2 
Ex. 4 : Evaluate lim  3 
x →1
 26 + x − 3 
 x 4 − 625  Solution: Put 26 + x = t3, ∴ x = t3 – 26
lim
Ex. 1 : Evaluate x→5  x − 5 
  As x 1, t 3

 x 4 − 625   x 4 − 54   2x − 2 
lim lim ∴ lim
lim  3 
Solution : x→5  x − 5  = x→5  x − 5  x →1
x→1
 26 + x − 3 
   

lim
xn − an 
= na n −1  lim 
( )
 2 t 3 − 26 − 2 

= 4(5) .....  x →a
4−1
= lim
 x−a  t→3 
x →3
t
3 3
− 3 


= 4(125) = 500 (
 2 t 3 − 33

) 
= lim
x →3
 t − 3 
 x 7 − 128 
Ex. 2 : Evaluate lim
x→2  
 x − 32 
5
 t 3 − 33 
= 2 lim  
 x 7 − 128  lim  x 7 − 27 
t →3
 t −3 
Solution : lim
x→2   = x→2  5 5
 x − 32   x −2  = 2 × 3(3)3–1
5

= 54
 x7 − 2 7 
 
= lim
x→5 
x−2 
 x 5 − 25  EXERCISE 7.1
 
 x−2 
... [As x→2, x − 2 ≠ 0] Q.I Evaluate the following limits :
6
7(2)  z+6
= 1. lim 
5(2) 4 
 z 
z →−3

 xn − an 
...  lim = na n −1 
 x→a x − a   y 5 + 243 
2. lim  3 
7(2) 2
y →−3
 y + 27 
=
5  1 1  
 z + 5  
28 3. lim   
= z →−5
 z + 5 
5
 
 x n − 4n 
lim
Ex. 3 : If x →4   = 48 and n∈N, find n.
 x−4  Q.II Evaluate the following limits :
x −4 
n n
Solution : Given lim   = 48  2x + 6 
x→4
 x−4  1. = lim  
 x 
x →3
∴ n(4)n-1 = 48
∴ n(4)n–1 = 3(4)3–1
∴n=3 .… by comparing

138
  x −3 − 2−3  Q.IV In the following examples, given ∈ > 0,
2. lim   find a d > 0 such that whenever, x-a < d, we
x→2
 x−2  must have f(x)-l < ∈
 x3 − 125  1. lim(2 x + 3) = 7 2. lim (3 x + 2) = −7
3. lim  5  x→2 x →−3
x →5 x − 3125
 
3. lim( x 2 − 1) = 3 4. lim( x 2 + x + 1) = 3
 x − 1 4
x −a  3 3 x→2 x →1
4. If lim   = lim  ,
x →1
 x − 1  x→a  x − a 
7.2 METHOD OF FACTORIZATION:
find all possible values of a.
P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x such that
Q.III Evaluate the following limits : P( x)
f(x) = . We consider lim
x → a f(x).
Q( x)
 x + x 2 + x3 + ......... + x n − n 
1. lim 
x →1 x −1
 Let’s check lim lim
x → a Q(x) and x → a P(x).
 
If lim Q(x) = m ≠ 0
2. lim 
 ( 3
x−37 )(
x+37 
3

) 1)
x→a

x →7  x−7   P( x) 
  then lim f(x)= lim 
x→a x → a
 m 
 x k − 5k 
3. If lim   = 500 , find all possible If lim
x →5
 x −5  2) x → a Q(x) = 0, then (x − a) divides Q(x). In

values of k. such a case if (x − a) does not divide P(x) then

lim f(x) does not exist.
 (1 − x )8 − 1  x→a
4. lim  
 (1 − x ) − 1 
x →0 2

(3) Further if lim

x→a
P(x) is also 0, then (x − a) is a
 3 1+ x − 1+ x  factor of both P(x) and Q(x).
5. lim  
x →0
 x 
So lim f(x) = lim  P ( x) / ( x − a )  .
 Q( x) / ( x − a) 
x→a
 2y − 2  x→a
6. lim  
y →1 3 7 + y − 2 Factorization of polynomials is a useful tool
 
to determine the limits of rational algebraic
 3 3
 expressions.
lim  ( z + 2 ) 2 − ( a + 2 ) 2

7. z →a  z−a 
  SOLVED EXAMPLES
 x 3 − 343 
8. lim    z ( 2 z − 3) − 9 
x →7
 x− 7 Ex.1 : Evaluate lim  2 
 z − 4z + 3 
z →3

 x + x 3 + x5 + ... + x 2 n −1 − n 
9. lim   Solution: If we substitute z = 3 in numerator
x →1
 x −1  and denominator,

139
 we get z(2z – 3) –  9 = 0 and z2 –  4z + 3 = 0  1 
2
= lim  − 
So (z  –  3) is a factor in the numerator and x →1 x − 1
 ( x − 1) ( x + 1) 
denominator.
 z ( 2 z − 3) − 9   2 z 2 − 3z − 9   1+ x − 2 
lim  2 lim
 = z →3  2  = lim 
x →1 ( x − 1) ( x + 1)

z →3
 z − 4z + 3   z − 4z + 3   

 ( z − 3) ( 2 z + 3)   x −1 
= = lim   = lim  
z →3
 ( z − 3) ( z − 1)  x →1 ( x − 1) ( x + 1)
 

 ( 2 z + 3)   1 
= = lim   lim
= x →1  x + 1 
z →3
 ( z − 1)   ( ) 
...[As z→3, z − 3 ≠ 0] ...[As x→1, x − 1 ≠ 0]
1
2 ( 3) + 3 =
= = 2
3 −1
9
= =  x3 + x 2 − 5 x + 3 
2 Ex.4: Evaluate lim  
x →1
 x2 −1 
 3  Solution : In this case (x – 1) is a factor of the
( x − 8 x 2 + 16 x)9 
Ex.2: Evaluate lim  numerator and denominator.
x→4 
( 
)
18

 x 2
− x − 12  To find another factor we use synthetic division.
Numerator: x3 + x2 – 5x + 3
  x x − 4 2 9 
  ( ) 
1 1 1 –5 3
Solution : lim
x→4  18 
 ( x − 4 ) ( x + 3) 
18
1 2 –3
1 2 –3 0
 ( x − 4 ) x9  18
∴ x3 + x2 – 5x + 3 = (x– 1)(x2 + 2x –3)
= x→4 
lim 
 ( x − 4 ) ( x + 3) 
18 18
Denominator: x2 – 1 = (x + 1)(x –1)

 x9   x3 + x 2 − 5 x + 3 
lim  
= x→4 
lim 
x2 −1
 ( x + 3) 
x →1
18
 

...[As x→4, x − 4 ≠ 0]

(
 ( x − 1) x 2 + 2 x − 3 ) 
= lim
49
x →1
 ( x + 1) ( x − 1) 
= 18
7
 x2 + 2x − 3 
lim
= x →1 
Ex.3: Evaluate lim 
 1
+
2  x + 1  ...[As x→1, x −1 ≠ 0]
x →1 x − 1 1 − x 2 
 

 1  1+ 2 − 3
2 = = 0
Solution : lim  +  1+1
x →1 x − 1
 (1 − x ) ( x + 1) 
140
  1 − 3 x2 + 1  Q.II Evaluate the following limits :
Ex.5: Evaluate lim
x→0  
 x 2   u 4 − 1
  1. lim  3 
u →1 u − 1
 
Solution : Put 3
x 2 + 1 = t, x2 + 1 = t3
2.  1 9x 
∴ x2 = t3 − 1, as x→0, t→1 lim  − 3
x →3 x − 3
 x − 27 
 (1 − t ) 
lim  1 − x + 1  = lim  3
3 2
  x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x 
x→0
 x 2  t →1
 (t − 1)  3. lim  
  x→2
 x2 −1 
 −(t − 1) 
= lim 
t →1 (t − 1)(t + t + 1)

2 
 lim 
( ) 
 ( x + ∆x )2 − 2 ( x + ∆x ) + 1 − x 2 − 2 x + 1
4. ∆x →0  ∆x 
 −1   
= lim  2 
t →1 t + t + 1
   x2 + x 2 − 4 
...[As t→1, t − 1 ≠ 0] lim
5. x → 2  x 2 − 3 x 2 + 4 
 
−1 1
= =−  x3 − 7 x + 6 
1+1+1 3 6. lim  3 
x → 2 x − 7 x + 16 x − 12
2
 

EXERCISE 7.2
Q.III Evaluate the Following limits :

Q.I Evaluate the following limits :  1 − 8 y3 

1. lim  3
y→  y − 4 y 
1
 z 2 − 5z + 6  2
1. lim  
 z −4 
z →2 2
 x−2 1 
2. lim  2 − 3 
x →1 x − x x − 3x + 2 x 
2
 x+3  
2. lim  2
x →−3 x + 4 x + 3 
 
 x 4 − 3x 2 + 2 
3. lim  3
 5 y3 + 8 y 2  x →1 x − 5 x 2 + 3 x + 1 
lim  4  
3. 
y →0 3 y − 16 y 2
 
 x+2 x−4 
 −2 x − 4  4. lim  2 + 
4. lim  3 x →1 x − 5 x + 4
 2
(
3 x − 3x + 2 ) 
 x + 2 x 
x →−2 2

 1 1 
 x 2 + 2 x − 15  5. lim  2 + 2 2
x → a x − 3ax + 2a 2 2 x − 3ax + a 
5. lim  2  
x →3
 x − 5x + 6 

141
7.3 METHOD OF RATIONALIZATION:  b+ z − b−z b+ z + b−z 
= = lim  × 
If the function in the limit involves a square z →0
 z b+ z + b−z 
root or a trigonometric function, it may be possible
to simplify the expression by multiplying and  (b + z ) − (b − z ) 1 
dividing by its rationalizing factor. = lim  × 
z →0
 z b+ z + b−z 

SOLVED EXAMPLES  2z 1 
= lim  × 
z →0
 z b+ z + b−z 
 1+ x −1 
Ex. 1. Evaluate : lim    2 
x →0  x = lim ...[As z→0, z ≠ 0]
  z →0  b + z + b − z 
 
 1+ x −1  2
Soluton : lim   =
x →0  x b+0 + b−0
 
2
 1+ x −1 1+ x +1  =
= lim  ×  2 b
x →0 
 x 1 + x + 1 
1
  =
1+ x −1 b
= lim  
x →0 
 (
x 1+ x +1 ) 
  x 2 + x − 20 
lim
Ex. 3. Evaluate x →4  2 
 x − 7 − 25 − x 
2
 
 x 
= lim
x →0 

x ( 1+ x +1 
) lim

Solution : x →4  2
x 2 + x − 20 

 x − 7 − 25 − x 
2

 1 
= lim
x →0  1 + x + 1 
...[As x→0, x ≠ 0]
   x 2 + x − 20 x 2 − 7 + 25 − x 2 
= lim  × 
x→4  
 x − 7 − 25 − x x 2 − 7 + 25 − x 2
2 2
1 1 
= =
1+ 0 +1 2

= lim
(
 ( x − 4 ) ( x + 5) x 2 − 7 + 25 − x 2
 ) 
 x→4  x 2 − 7 − 25 + x 2 
) ( ) 2 
1 1
( b + z − b − z  
Ex. 2. Evaluate lim 
2
 
z →0  z 
 
(
 ( x − 4 ) ( x + 5) x 2 − 7 + 25 − x 2
= lim 
) 
 1 1
 2( x 2 − 16) 
Solution : lim  ( b + z ) 2 − ( b − z ) 2

x→4




z →0  z 
 
(
 ( x − 4 ) ( x + 5) x 2 − 7 + 25 − x 2
 ) 
 b+ z − b−z  = lim
x→4  2( x − 4)( x + 4) 
= lim    
z →0 z  
 

142
  ( x + 5)
 ( )
x 2 − 7 + 25 − x 2 
  x2 + 9 − 2x2 + 9 
 
= lim
x→4   5. = lim
x →0  
 2( x + 4)   3x + 4 − 2 x + 4 
2 2

 
...[As x→4, x − 4 ≠ 0] Q.III Evaluate the Following limits :

=
(4 + 5) ( 42 − 7 + 25 − 42 ) = (9)(3 + 3) = 27 1. lim 
 x2 + x x − 2 

2( 4 + 4) 2(8) 8 x →1
 x −1 

 1 + x2 − 1 + x 
EXERCISE 7.3 2. lim  
x →0
 1 + x 3 − 1 + x 

Q.I Evaluate the following limits :  x 2 + x − 20 

3. lim  
 6 + x + x2 − 6 
x→4
 3x + 4 − 4 
1. lim  
x →0
 x  3 − 5 + z 
4. lim  
z →4 1 − 5 − z
 2x + 3 − 4x − 3   
2. lim  
x →3
 x2 − 9   3 1
5. lim  − 
x →0 x 9 − x
 x
 1− y2 − 1+ y2 
3. lim  
y →0
 y2 
7.4 LIMIT OF A TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTION :
 2+ x − 6− x 
4. lim   Let’s Learn :
x→2
 x− 2 
To evaluate the limits involving trigonometric
functions, we state -
Q.II Evaluate the following limits :
1) lim sinx = sina
x→a
 a + 2 x − 3x 
1. lim   2) lim cosx = cosa
 3a + x − 2 x 
x→a
x→a

Using these results and trigonometric identities,

 x2 − 4 
2. lim   we solve some examples.
x→2
 x + 2 − 3x − 2 
Evaluation of limits can be done by the
 1+ 2 + x − 3  method of Factorization, Rationalization or
3. lim   Simplification as the case may be. While solving
x→2
 x−2  examples based on trigonometric functions we
can use trigonometric identities.
 a+ y − a
4. lim   Squeeze theorem (Also known as Sandwich
y →0
 y a + y  theorem)

143
 Suppose f(x), g(x) and h(x) are given In ∆OAP,
functions such that f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in PM
an open interval about a. sin θ =
OP
Suppose lim lim
x → a f(x) = L and x → a h(x) = L ∴ PM = OP sin θ
So, lim lim lim
x → a f(x) ≤ x → a g(x) ≤ x → a h(x) = r sin θ
Also, in ∆OAB
⇒ L ≤ lim
x → a g(x) ≤ L ∴ lim
x → a g(x) = L

AB
sinθ tan θ =
7.4.2 Theorem : lim = 1; where θ is OA
θ →0
θ ∴ AB = OA tan θ
measured in radian.
Proof : First consider the case when θ is = r tan θ
tending to zero through positive values. using these in (I), we get
We may take 0 < θ < π . 1 1 2 1
2 r.r. sin θ < r θ< r.r tan θ
2 2 2
Draw a standard circle with radius r i.e.
circles with centre at origin O and radius r.
θ 1 1
Let A be the point of intersection of the i.e. 1 < < ... [Divide by r2 sin θ]
sinθ cosθ 2
circle and the X-axis. Take point P on the circle
such that m∠AOP = θ sinθ
∴ 1 > > cos θ
Draw PM ⊥ OX. Draw a line through A θ
parallel to Y-axis to meet OP extended at B sinθ
(fig. 7.2) i.e. cos θ < <1
θ
Area of ∆OAP < Area of sector OAP < Area
of ∆OAB Taking limit as θ → 0+
1 1 1 sinθ
∴ OA.PM< r2θ < OA.OB ..... (I) ∴ θlim cos θ ≤ θlim ≤ θlim 1
2 2 2 → 0+ → 0+ θ → 0+

sinθ
∴ 1≤ θlim ≤1
→ 0+ θ
By using squeeze theorem
sinθ
∴ θlim =1 .... (II)
→ 0+ θ
Now suppose θ→0 through negative values
Let θ = – φ where φ > 0. Also as θ → 0, φ→0
sinθ sin(−φ )
∴ θlim
→ 0− = φlim
θ →0 +
−φ

− sin φ sin φ
= lim+ = φlim =1
Fig. 7.3 φ →0 −φ →0+
φ

144
 sinθ  cot x − 1 
∴ θlim
→ 0− =1 .... (III) Ex. 2 : Evaluate : limπ  
θ x→
4  cosec x − 2 
2

sinθ
∴ from (II) and (III), lim
θ →0 =1  cot x − 1 
θ Solution : limπ  
4  cosec x − 2 
x→ 2

Note:
 θ   cot x − 1 
lim  2
Corollary 1 : lim 
θ → 0 sin θ
 =1 
= x → π4  cot x + 1 − 2 
 
 tan θ   cot x − 1 
Corollary 2 : lim   =1 lim  2
= x → π  cot x − 1 
θ →0
 θ 
4
 θ 
Corollary 3 : lim 
θ → 0 tan θ
 =1  cot x − 1 
  lim 
= x → ( cot x + 1) ( cot x − 1) 
π
4 
 sin pθ 
Corollary 4 : lim   = 1 , (p constant.)  1 
θ →0
 pθ  = limπ  
x →  ( cot x + 1) 
 tan pθ  4

Corollary 5 : lim   = 1 , (p constant.) .....[As x π cot x − 1 ≠ 0]

θ →0
 pθ  4
 pθ  1 1
= =
Corollary 6 : lim 
θ → 0 sin pθ
 = 1 , (p constant.) π  1+1
  cot   + 1
4
 pθ 
Corollary 7 : lim   = 1 , (p constant.) 1
θ → 0 tan pθ
  =
2
 3 − sin x − 2 
SOLVED EXAMPLES Ex. 3) Evaluate : lim  
3π  cos 2 x
x→
2  
Ex. 1) If 3x2 + 2 ≤ f(x) ≤ 5x2 − 6 for all x ∈ R,  3 − sin x − 2 
Solution : lim 
3π 

lim f(x).
then find x→−2 x→  cos 2 x 
2

Solution : Let g(x) = 3x2 + 2 and h(x) = 5x2 − 6  3 − sin x − 2 3 − sin x + 2 

= lim  × 
3π  cos 2 x
So, we have g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x) x→
2  3 − sin x + 2 
Taking as limit x→ −2 throughout we  
 3 − sin x − 4 
= lim
get
x→
3π 
2  (
cos x 3 − sin x + 2 
2
 )
lim g(x) ≤ lim f(x) ≤ lim h(x)
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2  
 −1 − sin x 
= lim
lim (3x2+2) ≤ lim f(x) ≤ lim (5x2− 6)
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
x→
3π 
2  (
1 − sin x 3 − sin x + 2
2
) 

lim f(x) ≤ 5(−2)2 − 6
3(−2)2 + 2 ≤ x→−2  
 − (1 + sin x ) 
= lim
lim f(x) ≤ 14
14 ≤ x→−2 x→
3π 
2  (
(1 − sin x ) (1 + sin x ) 3 − sin x + 2 ) 


∴ lim f(x) = 14 ....... [By squeeze .....As x→, 3π , sin x → −1 and 1+sinx ≠ 0
x→−2
theorem] 2
145
   1× 8
 −1  = = 2 (... as x → 0, 8x → 0, 4x → 0)
=  1× 4
 3π   3π  
 1 − sin     3 − sin  
 + 2    tan pθ 
  2     2  
 .... lim  sin pθ 
= 1 lim   =1
  θ →0
 pθ 




θ →0
 pθ 

−1 1 2sinx - sin 2x 
=− Ex. 6. Evaluate : lim 
(1 + 1) ( )
=
3 +1 + 2 8 x →0  x3 

 2 sinx − sin 2 x 
Solution : lim  
 sin7θ  x →0
 x3
Ex. 4. Evaluate : lim
θ →0 
 θ 
 2 sinx − 2 sinx.cosx 
= lim  
 sin 7θ  x →0
 x3
Solution : lim  
θ →0
 θ 
 2 sinx(1 − cosx) 
= lim
x →0  
 sin 7θ   x.x 2
= lim  =×17
θ →0
 7θ 
 2 sinx   (1 − cosx) 
... as θ → 0, 7θ → 0 = lim   × lim  
x →0
 x  x →0  x2
 sin pθ 
= 1 × 7 lim = 1  sinx   (1 − cosx) (1 + cosx) 
 θ →0 pθ  = 2 × lim  × lim  ×
x →0 
 x  x →0  x2 (1 + cosx) 
=7
 (1 − cos 2 x) 1 
 sin8x  = 2 × 1 × lim  × 
Ex. 5. Evaluate : lim 
x →0
 x 2
(1 + cosx) 
x →0 tan 4 x 
 
 ( sin 2 x)   1 
 sin8 x  = 2 × lim   × lim  
Solution : lim 
 x   (1 + cosx) 
2
x →0 tan 4 x 
x →0 x → 0
 
Divide Numerator and Denominator by x  sinx 
2
 1 
= 2 × lim  × lim  
 sin8 x  x →0
 x  x →0  (1 + cos0) 
 x 
= lim 
x →0 tan 4 x
  1   sin θ 
= 2 (1) × 
2
   lim = 1
 x  1 + 1  θ →0 θ 

 sin8 x  1
lim  =2×1× =1
x →0
 x  2
=
 tan 4 x 
lim 
x →0
 x   sin x 2 (1 − cos x 2 ) 
Ex. 7. Evaluate : lim
x →0
 x6 
 sin8 x   
lim  × 8
x →0
 8x 
=  sin x 2 (1 − cos x 2 ) 
 tan 4 x  lim
Solution : x →0  
lim  × 4  x6 
x →0
 4x 

146
  sin x 2 (1 − cos x 2 ) 1 + cos x 2   πx   πx 
= lim  ×  sin   π  sin   π
x →0
 x6 1 + cos x 2  =– 2 lim   45   × × lim   180   ×
x →0
 π x  45 x →0  πx  180
 sin x 2 (1 − cos 2 x 2 ) 1     
×  45   180 
= lim 
x →0
 x6 1 + cos x 2 
π π   sin pθ  
 sin x 2 .sin 2 x 2 1 
= −2 × (1) × × (1) × ......  lim   = 1
lim
= x →0  × 2
45 180  θ →0  pθ  
 x 6
1 + cos x 
2
π π  π 
= −2 × 4 × × = −8  
 3 2  180 180  180 
 sin x 1 
= lim ×
 (x )
x →0  2 3 1 + cos x 2
 tan x − sin x
 Activity-1 lim
x →0 sin 3 x
3
 sin x 2   1  tan x − sin x
= lim   × lim  
2
x →0
 x  x →0  1 + cos x 
2 2 Solution : lim
x →0 sin 3 x
.....[As x→ 0, x2 → 0]  
 sin x × 1 − sin x 
1 1 1 lim  
(1) �
3
= = = = x →0
1 + cos 0 1 + 1 2  sin 3 x 
 
  sin θ  2  1 
..... lim   = 1, here θ = x  sin x  −� 
  θ 
θ →0
  cos x 
= lim
x →0 sin 3 x
 cos 5 xο − cos 3 xο 
lim
Ex. 8. Evaluate : x →0    (1 − cos x) 1 
 x2  = lim × 2 
x →0 
 cos x sin x 
 cos 5 xο − cos 3 xο 
lim
Solution : x →0   (1 cos x) 1
 x2  =
lim
x 0 cos x 1
 −2 sin 4 xο sin xο  (1 cos x) 1
lim
= x →0   = lim
 x2  x 0 co 1 cos )

 sin 4 xο sin xο   1 1 
× = lim  ×
= – 2 lim   x → 0 cos x
 (1 + cos x) 
x →0
 x x 

  πx   πx   1 1 
=  ×
 sin 4  180  sin  180  
 ×   � ) 
 cos� (1 + cos
= – 2 lim 
x →0
 x x  1 1
  = ×
  � (1 +
� )
  1 1
 πx   πx  = ×
= – 2 lim  sin  45  sin  180   1 �
x →0
  ×  
1
 x x  =
  �
147
 Activity-1:
EXERCISE 7.4
1 − cos px 1 2
lim = p
Q.I Evaluate the following limits :
x→0 x 2
2

 sin (mθ )  Consider,

1. lim 
θ →0 tan ( nθ )  1 − cos px
  lim
x→0 x2
1 − cos 2θ 
2. lim  
 θ
θ →0 2
2.
= lim
x→0
x2
 x.tanx 
3. lim 
x →0 1 − cosx 
  Use 1– cos A = 2sin2 A
2
2
 sec x − 1  2.
4. lim   = lim
 x x
2 x→0
x →0

2
Q.II Evaluate the Following limits :  px 
 sin 2 
= lim 2 ×� 
 1 − cos(nx)  x→0 px
1. lim   
x →0 1 − cos ( mx )   2 
 

 2 − cosecx   px 
2
2. lim  
x →  cot x − 3 
π 2
 sin 2   p 2 
= lim 2
px   4 
6
x→0
 
 cosx − sinx   2 
3. lim 
x→ 
π cos 2 x 
4
 p2  sin θ
= 2 (1)  
2
∵ lim =1
 4 
x→0
Q.III Evaluate the following limits : θ
 cos ( ax ) − cos(bx) 
1. lim   =
x →0
 cos ( cx ) − 1 
1 − cos px 1 2
 1 − cosx − 2  lim = p
2. lim  
x→0 x 2
2
x →π
 sin 2 x 
7.5 Substitution Method :
 tan 2 x − cot 2 x 
3. lim   We will consider examples of trigonometric
x →  secx − cosecx 
π
4 functions in which x→a where generally a takes
π π π π
 2sin 2 x + sinx − 1  the values such as π, , , , etc. In such
4. lim  2 3 4 6
 a case we put x – a = t so that as x→a, t→o.
x →  2sin x − 3sinx + 1 
π 2
6

148
  t  sin(t / 2)   1 
SOLVED EXAMPLE = – 2 lim  sin  a +   lim   
t →0
  2  t → 0  t / 2   2 
 
 cos x  1   sin θ  
= −2sin(a + 0).(1) .... lim   =1
Ex. 1. Evaluate limπ  π 2  θ →0  θ  
x→
2 x− 
 2 = −sina
π π
Solution : Put x – =t ∴x= +t
2 2
1 + cos π x 

π
As x→ ; t→0. Ex. 3. Evaluate lim  1− x 2 
2
x →1
 ( ) 

   π 
 cos  + t   Solution : Put 1 – x = t ∴ x = 1 – t;
 cos x   2 
lim   = lim  As x→1, t→0.
π π t →0
 t 
x→
2 x− 
 2   1 + cos π x  1 + cos[π (1 − t )] 
lim  2 
= lim  
x →1
 (1 − x)  t → 0  t2
 − sin t 
= lim
t→0 
 t  1 + cos (π − π t ) 
= lim
t→0  (1 − x) 2

 sin t   
= – lim
t →0  t 
  1 − cos π t 
= lim  
t →0  t2
  sin θ  
=–1 lim   = 1
 θ →0
 θ    2  πt 
 2 sin  2  
lim   
= t →0  t 2

 cos x − cos a   
lim
Ex. 2. Evaluate x →a  
 x −a 
2
Solution : Put x – a = t ∴ x = a + t;   πt 
 sin  2  
As x→a, t→0.   
= 2 lim
t →0
 t 
 cos x − cos a   cos( a + t ) − cos a   
lim   = lim  
x→a
 x −a  t →0  t
  πt  2
 sin  2    π  2
  2a + t  t 2 lim    
 −2 sin  2  . sin 2  = t →0  π t   2 
lim    
= t →0   2 
t 
 
π2    sin Pθ  
= 2 (1)   ....  lim   =1
  t  sin(t / 2)   4   θ → 0  Pθ  
lim  − sin  a + . 
= 2 t →0   2 t 
π2
=
2

149
  3 − tan x  4 1  tan θ 
lim  (1) × .......  lim = 1

( )
=
Ex. 4. Evaluate x →  π − 3 x 
π
3
3 1 + 3 tan 0  θ →0 θ 

π π 4
Solution : Put − x = t, ∴ x = – t, =
3 3 3

π
As x → ,t→0
3
EXERCISE 7.5
 
 3 − tan x   3 − tan  I) Evaluate the following
lim   = lim   π 
π
x→  π − 3 x  x → π  3  − x  
3 3
 3   
   cos ec x −1 
lim  2 
1) x → π2   π − x  
   
  2  
1 π   
= lim  3 − tan  − t  
3 t →0   3 
 t  sin x − sin a
 
2) lim
x→a 5
x−5a
 
1  3 − tan(π / 3) − tan t   5 + cos x − 2 
= lim  1 + tan(π / 3) tan t  lim  
3 t →0   3) x →π
 (π − x)
2
 t  
 
 cos x − 3 sin x 
  lim  
4) x → π π − 6x
 3 − tan t  6  
1
= lim  3 − 1 + 3 tan t 
3 t →0  
 t   1 − x2 
  5) lim  
x →1
 sin π x 
 
 3 + 3 tan t − 3 + tan t  II) Evaluate the following
1
= lim  
3 t →0  1 + 3 tan t   2 sin x −1 
 t  lim 
  1) x →  π − 6 x 
π
6

1  4 tan t   2 − cos x − sin x 

= lim   lim  
3 t →0  t (1 + 3 tan t )  2) x → π  (4x −π )
2
4 


4  tan t   1   2 − 3 cos x − sin x 

= lim   lim   lim
3) x → π
 
3 t →0  t  t →0  (1 + 3 tan t )  ( )
2

6 
6 x − π 

150
 lim
 sin

 x   sin  a  
4) x a  xa 
  SOLVED EXAMPLES

cos 3 x 3 cos x
lim  5x  1
5) x (2 x )3 Ex. 1. Evaluate : lim  
2 x 0
 sinx 
 5x  1
7.6 LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL AND Solution : lim  
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS :
x 0
 sinx 
Divide Numerator and Denominator by x
Let's :Learn  5x  1 
 
= lim  x 
We use the following results without proof.
x 0
 sinx 
 x 
 ex 1 
1) lim    log e  1
x 0
 x   5x  1
lim  
=
x 0
 x 
 a x 1 
2) lim    log a (a > 0, a ≠ 0)  sinx 
lim 
x 0
 x  x 0
 x 
1
log 5
3) lim
x 0
1  x  x  e =
1

 log 1  x     ax 1  
4) lim   1  sin  
x 0 x .... lim    1, lim    log a 
   0
   x 0
 x 
 
 e px  1  = (log5)
5) lim    1 , (p constant)
x 0
 px 
 5 x - 3x 
 a 1 
px Ex. 2. Evaluate : lim  
6) lim    log a , (p constant)
x 0
 x 
x 0
 px 
 5 x  3x 
Solution : Given lim  
 log 1  px   x 0
 x 
7) lim    1, (p constant)
x 0
 px 
 5 x  1  3x  1 
= lim  
1 x 0 x
8) lim
x 0
1  px  px  e , (p constant)  

where ‘e’ is the natural base

lim 
 
 5 x  1  (3x  1) 

or Naperian base of logarithm = x 0
 x 

151
 3 1
 a x −1  ×
= log5 – log3 ..... lim   = log a  
2 2 3
 3 x  3x
x→a
 x  lim 1 +  
 x →0  2  
  5  =  
= log    −5 1
×
  3   2
 2 3

lim 1 + −5 x  
−5 x

  
x → 0 2  
1
 
 5x  x 3
Ex. 3. Evaluate : lim
x →0 
1+  e6  1

 6 = −5
.....  lim
 x →0 (1 + kx ) kx = e

e 6

1
 5x 
8 4
x
Solution : lim 1+  = e=
6
e3
x →0  6

5  log 4 + log(0.25 + x) 
 1
6 Ex. 5. Evaluate : lim  
 5 x  6 x →0
 x
= lim  1+ 
x →0 
  5x 
 6 
   log 4 + log(0.25 + x) 
Solution : lim  
x →0
 x
5
= (e)6
= lim  log [ 4(0.25 + x) ] 
x →0
 x 
1
 3x + 2  3 x  log (1 + 4 x ) 
Ex. 4. Evaluate : lim  = lim  
x →0 2 − 5 x 
  x →0
 x 
1 1
 log (1 + 4 x ) 
 3x + 2  3 x  2 + 3x  3 x = 4 × lim  
Solution: lim   = lim  x →0
4x
x →0 2 − 5 x x →0 2 − 5 x   
   
 
1 = 4(1) ..... lim  log(1 + px)  = 1
  3x   3x
 x →0  px  
 2 1 + 2  
= lim    =4
x →0
 2 1 − 5 x  
  
2    e 2 x + e −2 x − 2 
Ex. 6. Evaluate : lim  
1 x →0
 x sin x 
 
1 3
 3 x
 1 +    x
Solution :
 2  
= lim   1   e 2 x ( e 2 x + e −2 x − 2 ) 
x →0  e 2 x + e −2 x − 2 
  5x  x  lim   = lim  
 1 − 2   x →0
 x sin x  x →0 

e 2 x x sin x 

 
 e 4 x + 1 − 2e 2 x 
= lim  2 x 
x →0
 e x sin x 

152

 ( e 2 x ) 2 − 2e 2 x + 1   ( 3x − 1) ( 7 x − 1) 
= lim  2x   
x →0
 e x sin x   x 2
 ....[ As x → 0, x 2 ≠ 0]
= lim
x →0  x log(1 + x) 
 (e 2 x − 1) 2 1   x2 
= lim  × 2x   

x →0
 x sin x e   3x − 1 7 x − 1 
 ×
= lim  x x 
 (e 2 x − 1) 2 
 1 
x →0
 log(1 + x) 
= lim  x 2
× 2x   x 

x →0
 x sin x e 
 x 2 
  log 3.log 7
=
....[As x→0, x ≠ 0, x2≠0] 1
2  ax −1 log (1 + x ) 
  e2 x − 1   ....  lim = log a, lim = 1
lim   × 4  x →0 x x →0 x 

x →0
 2 x   1 
= × lim  2 x 
 sin x  x → 0
e  = log 3.log 7
lim  
x →0
 x 

(1) 2 × 4 1  e kx − 1 sin θ  Activity-3

= × ο .....  lim = 1, lim = 1
e θ →0 θ
1  x →0 kx   8x − 4 x − 2 x + 1
Evaluate : lim  
=4 x →0
 x2 

(4× � )
x
− 4x − 2x + 1
= lim  
 21x − 7 x − 3x + 1  x →0
 x2 
lim
Ex. 7. Evaluate : x →0  x log(1 + x) 
  x
4x 4x 2x 1
lim
x 0 x2
 21 − 7 − 3 + 1 
x x x
Solution : lim  
x →0
 x log(1 + x)  (2 1)
lim 2
x 0 x
 7 .3 − 7 − 3 + 1 
x x x x
= lim   (2 x 1). (4 x 1)
x →0
 x log(1 + x)  lim
x 0 x2

 7 x ( 3x − 1) − ( 3x − 1) 
= lim    (2 x − 1)   (4 x − 1) 
x →0  x log(1 + x)  = lim   × lim  
  x →0
 x  x →0  x 

 ( 3x − 1) ( 7 x − 1) 
= lim   =

x →0
 x log(1 + x) 

153
Activity-4: Q.II Evaluate the following limits :

 e x − sin x − 1 
lim
Evaluate : x →0    3x + 3− x − 2 
 x  1) lim  
x →0
 x.tanx 

 (e x − 1) −�  1
= lim   3 + x  x
x →0 x 2) lim
  x →0  3 − x 
 
2
� sin x   5x + 3  x
= lim  −

x →0 x
 �  3) lim
x →0  3 − 2 x 
 

�   sin x 
= lim   − lim   log ( 3 − x ) − log (3 + x) 
  x →0  x 
x →0 x 4) lim  
x →0
 x 
= −1 1
 4 x + 1 x
= 1−1 5) lim 
x →0 1 − 4 x 
 
=
1
 5 + 7 x  3x
6) lim 
x →0 5 − 3 x 
EXERCISE 7.6  

Q.I Evaluate the following limits : Q.III Evaluate the following limits :

 9 x − 5x   ax − bx 
1) lim  x  1) lim  
x →0 sin ( 4 x ) − sin ( 2 x )
x →0
 4 −1   

 ( ) 
3
 5 x + 3x − 2 x − 1  2x −1
2) lim   2) lim  x 
x →0
 x  x →0  (3 − 1).sinx.log (1 + x ) 
 
 ax + bx + cx − 3 
3) lim   15 x − 5 x − 3x + 1 
x →0
 sin x  lim
3) x →0  
 x . sinx 

 6 x + 5 x + 4 x − 3x +1 
4) lim    (25) x − 2 ( 5 ) x + 1 
x →0
 sin x  4) lim  
x →0
 x . sinx 

 8sin x − 2 tan x   (49) x − 2 ( 35 ) x + ( 25 ) x 

5) lim  2x  5) lim  
x →0
 e −1  x →0
 sin x.log(1 + 2 x) 

154
7.7 LIMIT AT INFINITY : Definition : A function f is said to tend to limit ‘l’
(FUNCTION TENDING TO INFINITY) as x tends to – ∞ if for given ∈ > 0, there exists
a positive number M such that |f(x) – l| < ∈, for
all x > M
Let's :Learn
∴ xlim f ( x) = l
→− ∞
7.7.1 Limit at infinity :
1 Note : Whenever expression is of the
Let us consider the function f ( x ) =
x form ∞∞ , then divide, by suitable power of
Observe that as x approaches to ∞ or –∞ the value x to get finite limits of numerator as well as
of f(x) is shown below,
denominator.
1
i) Observe the following table for f ( x ) =
x
7.7.2 Infinite Limits :
x 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 … 1
Let us consider the function f(x) = .
f(x) 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 … x
Observe the behavior of f(x) as x approaches zero
We see that as x assumes larger and larger
from right and from left.
1
values, assumes the value nearer and nearer 1
x i) Observe the following table for f ( x ) =
to zero. x

∴ lim = 0
1 x= 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 …
x →∞ x f(x) 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 …

Definition : A function f is said to tend to limit ‘l’ We see that as x assumes values nearer 0, but
as x tends to ∞ if for given ∈ > 0, there exists a 1
greater than 0, assumes the values larger and
positive number M such that |f(x) – l| < ∈, ∀ x in x
larger.
the domain of f for which x > M
1
∴ lim f ( x) = l ∴ xlim f ( x) = lim+ →∞
x →∞
→ 0+ x →0 x

1 1
ii) Observe the following table for f ( x ) = ii) Observe the following table for f ( x ) =
x x
x -1 -10 -100 -1000 -10000 -100000 … x= -1 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 -0.00001 …
f(x) -1 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 -0.00001 … f(x) -1 -10 -100 -1000 -10000 -100000 …

We see that as x assumes values which tend We see that as x assumes values nearer to
1 1
to −∞, assumes the value nearer and nearer to 0, but less than 0, assumes the values which
x x
zero. tends to – ∞
1
∴ xlim =0
→−∞ x 1
∴ xlim f ( x) = lim− → −∞
→ 0− x →0 x

155
 SOLVED EXAMPLES 10 + 0 + 0 ( lim
1
= 0)
= x
5−0+0 x →∞

 ax +b  10
Ex. 1. Evaluate : lim
x →∞  cx + d 
=
  5

 ax + b  = 2
Solution : lim
x →∞  cx + d 
 
Ex. 3. Evaluate : lim  x 2 + 3 x − � x 
 ax + b  x →∞  
 x 
= lim 
x →∞ cx + d

Solution : lim  x 2 + 3x − x 
  x →∞  
 x 
b  ( x 2 + 3 x − x)( x 2 + 3 x + x) 
  
lim  a +  = lim
x →∞
 x x →∞
 ( x 2 + 3x + x) 
=
 d
lim c + 
x →∞
 x  x 2 + 3x − x 2 
= lim  2 
 x + 3x + x 
x →∞
a+0
= --- as x → ∞, 1 → 0
c+0 x
 3x 
lim  
a = x →∞
 x + 3x + x 
2
=
c
 
 3x 
10x 2 +5x +3  lim  3 
Ex. 2. Evaluate : lim  2  = x →∞  x 1 + + x 
x →∞
 5x -3x +8  x
 
 
10 x 2 + 5 x + 3 
Solution : lim  2   
x →∞
 5 x − 3x + 8   3 
Divide by x2 to get finite limits of the lim  3 
= x →∞  1 + + 1 
numerator as well as of the denominator,
 x 
 
 10 x 2 + 5 x + 3 
 x2  3 1
= lim   = ( lim = 0)
 5 x − 3x + 8  x →∞ x
2
x →∞ 1+ 0 +1
 x2 
3
=
 5 3 1+1
lim 10 + + 2 
x →∞
 x x  3
= =
 3 8 2
lim 5 − + 2 
x →∞
 x x 

156
 EXERCISE 7.7
Let's Remember

I Evaluate the following : Note : For limits of trigonometric functions,

angle is supposed to be in radian.
 ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d 
lim
1) x →∞  3 
 ex + fx + gx + h 
2
1) lim sin x = 1
x→0 x
 x3 + 3x + 2  2) lim sin x = sin a
lim
2) x →∞   x→a
 ( x + 4 ) ( x − 6 ) ( x − 3) 
3) lim
x→0 cos x = cos a
 7 x2 + 5x − 3 
3) lim  2  tan x = 1
x →∞ 8 x − 2 x + 7
  4) lim
x→0 x

II Evaluate the following : 5) lim sin kx = k

x→0 x
 7 x2 + 2x − 3 
1) lim   6) lim tan kx = k
x→0 x
 x +x+2 
x →∞ 4

1
2) lim  x 2 + 4 x + 16 − x 2 + 16  7) lim
x→0 x.sin   =0
x →∞   x
1–cosp x = p
2

3) lim  x 4 + 4 x 2 − x 2  8) lim 2
x →∞  
x→0
x2
cosm x – cosn x = n − m
2 2

III Evaluate the following : 9) lim

x→0
x2 2

1) lim 
( )( )
 3 x 2 + 4 4 x 2 − 6 (5 x 2 + 2) 
 10) lim
x→0
ax–1 = log a, " a > 0
4 x6 + 2 x4 − 1 x
x →∞
 
11) lim
1
 ( 3 x − 4 )3 ( 4 x + 3 ) 4  x→0 (1 + x ) x = e
2) lim  
( 3x + 2 )
7
x →∞
 
12) lim log (1 + x) = 1
x→0
x
3) lim  x
x →∞ 
( x +1 − x 
 )  xn − an 
lim
13) x →a   = nan–1 for a > 0
 ( 2 x − 1)20 ( 3 x − 1)30   x − a 
4) lim  
( 2 x + 1)
50
x →∞
   ex −1 
lim
14) x→0   =1
 x2 + 5 − x2 − 3   x 
5) lim  
x →∞
 x 2 + 3 − x 2 + 1  1
15) lim   =0
x→∞  x 

157
  k   3 cos x + cos 3 x 
16) lim  p  = 0 for k, p ∈ R and p > 0 7)
lim  =
x→∞
x  π
x→  ( 2 x − π )3 
2

1 3 1 1 1
A) B) C) – D)
17) As x → 0,  x  → ∞ 2 2 2 4
 
x  15 x − 3x − 5 x + 1 
18) lim  a  = 0, if a < b 8) lim  =
x→∞   sin 2 x
x→ 0
b  
A) log 15 B) log 3 + log 5
C) log 3.log 5 D) 3 log 5
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 7
1
 3 + 5x  x
I) Select the correct answer from the given 9) x → 0  3 − 4 x  =
lim
alternatives.  
A) e3 B) e6 C) e9 D) e–3
 x 4 −16 
1) lim  2
x→2 x − 5 x + 6
=
   log(5 + x) − log(5 − x) 
10) lim  =
A) 23 B) 32 C) –32 D) –16 x→ 0
 sin x 
3 5 1 2
 x 7 + 128  A) B) – C) – D)
2 2 2 5
2) lim  3 =
x →−2
 x +8 
 
56 112 121 28  3cos x −1 
A) B) C) D)
3 3 3 3 lim
11) x → π  π =
2  −x 
   2 
1 1 π
3) x →3 x −11x + 24 x − x − 6  =
lim  2
+ 2 A) 1 B) log 3 C) 3 2 D) 3 log 3
 
2 2 7 7  x.log (1 + 3 x) 
A) − B) C) D) − =
25 25 25 25 12) lim  3x
 (e −1) 
x→ 0 2

 x + 4 −3  1 1 1 1
A) 9 B) 3 C) D)
4) lim  = e e 9 3
x →5  3 x − 11 − 2 
 
−2 2 5 2  (3sin x −1)3 
A)
9
B)
7
C)
9
D)
9 13) x→ 0  (3x −1) ⋅ tan x ⋅ log(1 + x)  =
lim
 
A) 3 log 3 B) 2 log 3
 tan 2 x − 3 
5) limπ  = C) (log 3)2 D) (log 3)3
x →  sec x − 8 
3
3

1 1 1  5 x −3 − 4 x −3 
A) 1 B)
2
C)
3
D)
4 14) x → 3  sin( x − 3)  =
lim
 
5
 5 sin x − x cos x  A) log 5 – 4 B) log
4
6) x →0  2 tan x − 3 x 2  =
lim
  log 5 log 5
C) D)
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 log 4 4

158
  (2 x + 3)7 ( x − 5)3   log x − log 2 
lim = 12) lim 
15) x → ∞  (2 x − 5)10 x→2
 x−2 
 
3 1 1 1
A) B) C) D)  ab x − a x b 
8 8 6 4 13) lim  2 
x →1
 x −1 
II) Evaluate the following.  ( ) 
2
5x − 1
 (1 − x ) − 1 
5 14) lim  x 
x →0  ( 2 − 1)log (1 + x ) 
1) lim    
 (1 − x ) − 1 
x →0 3

 ( 2 x + 1)2 ( 7 x − 3)3 
2) lim [ x ] ([*] is a greatest integer function.) 15) lim  
(5x + 2)
5
x →0
x →∞
 

 f (r + h) − f (r )   x cos a − a cos x 
3) If f(r) = πr2 then find lim   16) lim
h →0
 h  x→a  x−a 

 x 
4) lim  lim  (sin x − cos x) 
2
2
x →0
 x + x  17) x→ 
π 
4  2 − sin x − cos x 

5) Find the limit of the function, if it exists,

at x = 1  22 x − 2 − 2 x + 1 
18) lim  
 sin ( x − 1) 
2
x→1
7 − 4 x for x <1
f(x) = 
 x + 2 for
2
x ≥1  4 x −1 − 2 x + 1 
19) lim  
 ( x − 1) 
x→1 2

6) Given that 7x ≤ f(x) ≤ 3x2 – 6 for all x.

Determine the value of lim f ( x )  

x →3 20) lim  x − 1 
 log x 
x→1

 secx 2 −1 
7) lim  
 x
x →0 4
  1− cos x 
21) lim
x→0  
 x
 e x + e− x − 2   
8) lim  
x →0
 x.tanx  22) lim x 3x 2 5 x3 (2n 1) x n n 2
x→1
x 1
 x (6 x − 3 x ) 
9) lim  
x →0 cos ( 6 x ) − cos( 4 x )
  23) lim
x→0

 a3 x − a 2 x − a x + 1
10) lim    1   x2   x4   x2   x 4   
x →0
 x.tanx   12 1 − cos   − cos   + cos   cos    
 x   2   4   2   4   
 sinx − sina 
11) lim  4 x +3
x→a
 x − a  24) lim
 8 x 2 + 5 x + 3  8 x −1
x→∞  
 2x − 7x − 5 
2

v v v
159
 8 CONTINUITY

8.1.1 CONTINUITY OFA FUNCTION AT A

Let's Study
POINT
• Continuity of a function at a point. We are going to study continuity of functions of
• Continuity of a function over an interval. real variable so the domain will be an interval in
• Intermediate value theorem. R. Before we consider a formal definition of a
function to be continuous at a point, let’s consider
various functions that fail to meet our notion of
Let's Recall continuity. The functions are indicated by graphs
where y = f(x)
• Different types of functions.
• Limits of Algebraic, Trigonometric,
Exponential and Logarithmic functions.
• Left hand and Right hand limits of functions.

8.1 CONTINUOUSAND DISCONTINUOUS

FUNCTIONS
The dictionary meaning of the word continuity is Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2
the unbroken and consistent existence over a
period of time. The intuitive idea of continuity is
manifested in the following examples.
(i) An unbroken road between two cities.
(ii) Flow of river water.
(iii) Railway tracks.
(iv) The changing temperature of a city during a
day.
Fig. 8.3
In winter the temperature of Pune rises from
140C at night to 290C in the afternoon. This The function in figure 8.1 has a hole at x = a.
change in the temp is continuous and all the In fact f(x) is not defined at x = a.
values between 14 and 29 are taken during 12
The function in figure 8.2 has a break at x = a.
hours. An activity that takes place gradually,
without interruption or abrupt change is called a For the function in figure 8.3, f(a) is not in the
continuous process. There are no jumps, breaks, continuous line.
gaps or holes in the graph of the function.

160
8.1.2 DEFINITION OF CONTINUITY Hence f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point Illustration 2 : Consider f (x) = x2 and let us
x = a, if the following three conditions are discuss the continuity of f at x = 2.
satisfied:
f (x) = x2
i. f is defined at every point on an open interval
containing a. ∴ f (2) = 22 = 4

ii. lim f (x) exists lim f (x) = lim (x2) = 22 = 4

x→a x→2 x→2

iii. lim f (x) = f (a). ∴ lim

x→2
f (x) = f (2) = 4
x→a

Among the three graphs given above, decide ∴ The function f (x) is continuous at x = 2.
which conditions of continuity are not satisfied.

The condition (iii) can be reformulated and the Observe that f(x) = x3, x4, ... etc. are continuous
continuity of f(x) at x = a, can be restated as at every point. It follows that all polynomials are
follows : continuous functions of x.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous
at a point x = a if it is defined in some There are some functions, which are defined
neighborhood of ‘a’ and if in two different ways on either side of a point.
In such cases we have to consider the limits of
lim [f (a + h) −f (a)] = 0. function from left as well as right of that point.
h→0

Illustration 1. Let f (x) = |x| be defined on R.

8.1.3 CONTINUITY FROM THE RIGHT
f (x) = −x , for x < 0
AND FROM THE LEFT
= x , for x ≥ 0
A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the
right at x = a if lim f (x) = f (a).
xa

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the

left at x = a if lim f (x) = f (a).
xa

If a function is continuous on the right and also

on the left of a then it is continuous at a because

lim f(x) = f(a) = lim f (x) .

xa xa

Fig. 8.4
Illustration 3: Consider the function f (x) =  x 
Consider, lim f (x) = lim (−x) = 0 in the interval [2, 4).
x0 x→0

lim f (x) = lim (x) = 0 Note :  x  is the greatest integer function or floor
x0 x→0

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (0) = 0 function.

x0 x0

161
Solution : lim f (x) = lim (5x − 4.5) = 15 − 4.5 = 10.5
x3
f (x) =  x  , for x ∈ [ 2, 4) x→3

that is f (x) = 2 , for x ∈ [ 2, 3) lim f (x) = 10.5

lim f (x) = x
x3 3

= 3 , for x ∈ [3, 4)
∴ lim
x→3
f (x) = f (3)
The graph of which is as shown in figure 8.5
Test of continuity at x = 3. ∴ f(x) is continuous at x = 3.

For x = 3, f(3) = 3

Fig. 8.5

lim f (x) = lim  x  = lim (2) = 2, and

x3 x3 x3

lim f (x) = lim  x  = lim (3) = 3 Fig. 8.6

x3 x3 x3

8.1.4 Examples of Continuous Functions.

lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)
x3 x3
(1) Constant function, that is f(x) = k, is
∴ f (x) is discontinuous at x = 3. continuous at every point on R.
(2) Power functions, that is f(x) = xn, with
Illustration 4 : positive integral exponents are continuous at
every point on R.
3
Consider f (x) = x2 + for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 (3) Polynomial functions,
2
P(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1+ a2xn-2 + ...... + an-1x + an
= 5x − 4.5 for 3 < x ≤ 5;
are continuous at every point on R
3 (4) The trigonometric functions sin x and cos x
For x = 3, f (3) = 32 + = 10.5 are continuous at every point on R.
2
(5) The exponential function ax (a > 0) and
lim f (x) = lim (x2 + 3 ) = 32 + 3 = 10.5
x3 x→3 2 2 logarithmic function logbx (for x, > 0, and b,
b ≠ 1) are continuous on R.

162
 P( x) Illustration 5: Consider
(6) Rational functions are of the form ,
Q( x) f (x) = x2 − x − 5, for −4 ≤ x < − 2.
Q(x) ≠ 0. They are continuous at every point
= x3 − 4x − 3, for −2 ≤ x ≤ 1.
a if Q(a) ≠ 0.
For x = -2, f (−2) = (−2)3 − 4 (−2) −3 = −3
8.1.5 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS
lim f (x) = lim (x2 − x − 5) = 4 + 2 − 5 = 1 and
FUNCTIONS: x2 x2

If the functions ƒ and g are continuous at x = a, lim f (x) = lim (x3 − 4x − 3) = −8 + 8 − 3 = −3

x2 x2
then,
1. their sum, that is ( ƒ + g ) is continuous at ∴ lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)
x2 x2
x = a.
2. their difference, that is ( ƒ – g) or (g – f) is Hence lim f(x) does not exist.
x2
continuous at x = a.
∴ the function f(x) has a jump discontinuity.
3. the constant multiple of f(x), that is k.ƒ, for
any k ∈ R, is continuous at x = a.
8.1.8 REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITY
4. their product, that is ( ƒ.g ) is continuous at
x = a. Some functions have a discontinuity at some
5. their quotient, that is f , if g(a) ≠ 0, is point, but it is possible to define or redefine the
g
continuous at x = a. function at that point to make it continuous. These
6. their composite function, f[g(x)] or g[f(x)], types of functions are said to have a removable
that is fog(x) or gof(x), is continuous at x = a. discontinuity. Let us look at the function f(x)
represented by the graph in Figure 8.1 or Figure
8.1.6 TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES
8.3. The function has a limit. However, there is a
We have seen that discontinuities have several
hole or gap at x = a. f(x) is not defined at x = a.
different types. Let us classify the types of
discontinuities. That can be corrected by defining f(x) at x = a.
A function f(x) has a discontinuity at
8.1.7 JUMP DISCONTINUITY
x = a, and lim f (x) exists, but either f(a) is not
x→a
As in figure 8.2, for a function, both left-hand defined or lim f (x) ≠ f (a) . In such case we
x→a
limit and right-hand limits may exist but they define or redefine f(a) as lim f (x). Then with
x→a
are different. So the graph “jumps” at x = a. The new definition, the function f(x) becomes
function is said to have a jump discontinuity. continuous at x = a. Such a discontinuity is
A function f(x) has a Jump Discontinuity at called a Removable discontinuity.

x = a if the left hand and right-hand limits If the original function is not defined at a and the
both exist but are different, that is new definition of f makes it continuous at a, then
the new definition is called the extension of the
lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)
xa xa original function.

163
Illustration 6:
1
x 2  3 x  10 Observe the graph of xy = 1. y = f(x) = is the
Consider f (x) = , for x ≠ 2. x
x3  8 function to be considered. It is easy to see that
Here f(2) is not defined. f(x) → ∞ as x → 0+ and f(x) → −∞ as x → 0–.
f(0) is not defined. Of course, this function is
 2 
lim f(x) = lim  x  3 x  10  discontinuous at x = 0.
 x 8 
x→2 x→2 3

A function f(x) is said to have an infinite

  x  2   x  5  discontinuity at x = a,
= lim  
x→2
 
  x  2 x2  2x  4  

if lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞
xa xa

 x5  2+5 7 Fig. 8.7 says, f(x) has an infinite discontinuity.

= lim
x→2  2  = =
 x  2x  4  4 + 4 + 4 12
8.1.10 CONTINUITY OVER AN INTERVAL
So far we have explored the concept of continuity
 x 2  3 x  10  7
lim
∴ x→2   = 12 of a function at a point. Now we will extend the
 x 8 
3
idea of continuity on an interval.
Here f(2) is not defined but lim f(x) exists. Let (a, b) be an open interval. If for every
x→2

Hence f(x) has a removable discontinuity. x ∈ (a, b), f is continuous at x then we say that
The extension of the original function is f is continuous on (a, b) .

x 2  3 x  10 Consider f defined on [a, b). If f is continuous

f(x) = for x ≠ 2 on (a, b) and f is continuous to the right of a,
x3  8
7 lim f (x) = f(a) then f is continuous on [a, b)
xa
= for x = 2
12
Consider f defined on (a, b]. If f is continuous
This is coninuous at x = 2. on (a, b) and f is continuous to the left of b
lim f (x) = f(b), then f is continuous on (a, b]
8.1.9 INFINITE DISCONTINUITY xa

Consider a function f continuous on the open

interval (a, b). If lim f (x) and x
lim f (x) exists,
b
xa

then we can extend the function to [a, b] so that it

is continuous on [a, b].

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Ex. 1. : Discuss the continuity of the function

f (x) = |x − 3| at x = 3.
Solution : By definition of a modulus function,
Fig. 8.7 the given function can be rewritten as

164
 f(x) = – (x – 3) if x < 3 and lim f (x) = 7,
x 2
= x – 3 if x ≥ 3
So lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 7 ⇒ lim f (x) = 7
x→2
Now, for x = 3, f(3) = 3 – 3 = 0. x 2 x 2

lim f (x) = – (3 – 3) = 0 and Also, lim f (x) = f (2) = 7

x→2
x3

lim f (x) =3 – 3 = 0 ∴ f(x) is continuous at x = 2.

x3
Let us check the continuity at x = 4.
so, lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = 0
x3 x3 x→3 f(4) = (42 − 8) = 8
lim f (x) = lim (7) = 7 and
x 4 x→4

lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 8) = 42 – 8 = 8

x 4 x→4

lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)

x 4 x 4

so lim f (x) does not exist.

x→4

Since one of the three conditions does not hold at

x = 4, the function. Hence f (x) is discontinuous at
Fig. 8.8 x = 4. Therefore the function f (x) is continuous
on it’s domain � , except at x = 4. There exists a
and lim f (x) = f (3) = 0 jump discontinuity at x = 4.
x→3

Therefore the function f(x) is continuous at x = 3. \ f is discontinuous at x = 4.

Ex. 2 : Determine whether the function f is Ex. 3 : Test whether the function f (x) is continuous
continuous on the set of real numbers at x = − 4, where
where f(x) = 3x + 1, for x < 2 x 2 + 16 x + 48
f (x) = , for x ≠ −4
= 7, for 2 ≤ x < 4 x+4
= 8, for x = −4.
= x2 −8 for x ≥ 4 .
Solution : f(−4) = 8 (defined)
If it is discontinuous, state the type of discontinuity.
 2 
lim f (x) = lim  x  16 x  48 
Solution : The function is defined in three parts, by x4 x4
x4
 
polynomial functions, and all polynomial functions
lim  
are continuous on their respective domains. Any  x  4   x  12  
= 
discontinuity, if at all it exists, would be at the
x4
 x4 
points where the definition changes. That is at
= lim (x+12) ....... [∵ x + 4 ≠ 0]
x = 2 and x = 4. x4

Let us check at x = 2. = − 4 + 12 = 8
∴ lim f (x) = f (−4) = 8
f (2) = 7 ( Given ) x4

∴ by definition, the function f(x) is continuous at

lim f (x) = lim (3x +1) = 3(2) + 1 = 7.
x 2 x 2 x = −4.

165
 Test of continuity of f at x = 0.
Ex. 4 : Discuss the continuity of f (x) = 9 − a2 ,
For x = 0, f(0) = 0
on the interval [ −3, 3 ].
Solution : The domain of f is [−3, 3]. lim f (x) = lim  x  = lim (−1) = −1 and
x0 x0 x0

[Note, f(x) is defined if 9 − x2 ≥ 0] lim f (x) = lim  x  = lim (0) = 0

x0 x0 x0
Let x = a be any point in the interval ( -3, 3 ) that
is a ∈ ( −3, 3 ). lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)
x0 x0

lim f (x) = lim

x→a x→a  9  x2  Therefore f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0.
Test of continuity of f at x = 1.
= 9 − a 2 = f (a)
For x = 1, f(1) = 1
∴ for a = 3, f(3) = 0 and for a = −3 , f(−3) = 0
lim f (x) = lim  x  = lim (0) = 0 and
Now, lim f(x) = f(3) = 0 x1 x1 x1
x3
lim f (x) = lim  x  = lim (1) = 1
and lim f (x) =f(–3) = 0 x1 x1 x1
x3

lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)

Thus f (x) is continuous at every point on (−3, 3) x1 x1

and also continuous to the right at x = −3 and to

Therefore f (x) is discontinuous at x = 1.
the left at x = 3.
Hence, f (x) is continuous on [−3, 3 ]. Hence the function f (x) =  x  is not continuous
at x = 0, 1 in the interval [−1, 2 ).
Ex. 5 : Show that the function f (x) =  x  is not
continuous at x = 0, 1 in the interval [−1, 2) Ex. 6 : Discuss the continuity of the following
function at x = 0, where
Solution : f (x) =  x  for x ∈ [ −1, 3)
that is f (x) = −1 for x ∈ [ −1, 0) 1
f (x) = x2 sin   , for x ≠ 0
f (x) = 0 for x ∈ [ 0, 1) x
f (x) = 1 for x ∈ [ 1, 2) = 0, for x = 0.
Solution : The function f (x) is defined for all
x ∈ R.
Let’s check the continuity of f (x) at x = 0.
Given, for x = 0, f(0) = 0.
1
we know that, −1≤ sin   ≤ 1 for any x ≠ 0
x
Multiplying throughout by x2 we get

1
− x2 ≤ x2 sin   ≤ x2
x
Fig. 8.9 Taking limit as x → 0 throughout we get,

166
 lim (−x2) ≤ lim  x 2 sin  1   ≤ lim (x2)   sin   = 1 = lim  tan  
since lim
 0     0  
x→0 x→0
  x   x→0      

  1  2
0  lim  x 2 sin     0 ∴ k =
 x  3
x 0

Ex. 8 : If f is continuous at x = 1, where
∴ by squeeze theorem we get, sin( x )
f (x) = + a, for x < 1
x 1
lim  x 2 sin  1   = 0
x→0
  x  = 2π , for x = 1
1  cos( x )
lim f (x) = lim  x 2 sin  1   = 0 =
 (1  x ) 2
+ b, for x > 1,
x→0 x→0
  x 
then find the values of a and b.
lim f (x) = f (0) = 0
x→0 Solution : Given that f (x) is continuous at x = 1

∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 0 ∴ lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (1) ............ (1)

x1 x1

Ex. 7 : Find k if f(x) is continuous at x = 0, where Now, lim f (x) = f (1)
x1

xe x + tan x
f (x) = , for x ≠ 0 lim  sin( x)  a  = 2p
sin 3 x x1
 x 1 
= k , for x = 0
Put x – 1 = t, x = 1 + t as x→1, t → 0
Solution : Given that f(x) is continuous at x = 0,
lim  sin  (1 t )  a  = 2p
∴ f (0) = lim f (x) t →0  
x→0  t 

 sin(   t )  a 
k = lim  xe  tan x 
x

x→0  
lim   = 2p
 sin 3 x 
t →0
 t 
 x tan x 
e  x    sin  t 
= lim  sin 3 x  lim   a  = 2p
x→0
 
t →0
 t 
 x 
 sin  t 
 tan x  − lim
t →0   × π + lim
t →0 (a) = 2p
lim(e x )  lim    t 
x 0 x 0
 x 
= − (1) π + a = 2π ⇒ a = 3p
 sin 3 x   3
lim  
x 0
 3x 
 lim  sin   
= 1
1+1 1 2   0   
= × = as x → 0, 3x → 0    
1 3 3
From (1), lim f (x) = f (1)
x1

167
 Solution :
lim  1  cos( x)  b  = 2p
x1  
  (1  x)
2
 x 2 − 3 x − 18
(1) f (x) =
Put 1− x = θ ∴ x =1− θ , as x → 1, θ → 0 x−6
Here f (x) is a rationalfunction, which is continuous
 1  cos( (1   ))  for all real values of x, except for x = 6. Therefore
∴ lim  b  = 2p
 0   2
  f(6) is not defined.
 1  cos(   ) 
∴ lim  b  = 2p lim  x  3 x  18 
2
 0  Now, lim f (x) =
  2
 x→6 x→6  
 x6 
 1  cos  
∴ lim  b  = 2p  ( x  6)( x  3) 
 0 
 
2
 = lim  
x→6
 x6 
 2    
 2 sin  2  
  b
∴ lim  = 2p = lim
x→6 (x +3) [
 (x−6)≠ 0]
 0
  2 
  ∴ lim f (x) = 9
  x→6

   
2
Here f(6) is not defined but lim
x→6
f (x) exists.
 sin    2
  
2 lim   2    + lim (b) = 2p Hence f (x) has a removable discontinuity.
p  0    2
 0

 2  (2) g(x) = 3x + 1, for x < 3

= 2 – 3x, for x ≥ 3
2 (1) × p2 + b = 2p  sin  
[ lim
 0   = 1]
p 4    This function is defined by different polynomials
on two intervals. So they are continuous on the
p 3p
∴ 2 + b = 2p ∴b= open intervals (– ∞, 3) and (3, ∞).
2
3p We examine continuity at x = 3.
∴ a = 3p , b =
2 For x = 3, g(3) = 2 – 3(3) = −7
Ex. 9 : Identify discontinuities for the following lim g (x) = lim (3x + 1) = 10 and
x3 x3
functions as either a jump or a removable
discontinuity on R. lim g (x) = lim (2 − 3x) = −7
x3 x3

x 2 − 3 x − 18 lim g (x) ≠ lim g (x) ∴ lim g (x) does not exist.

(1) f (x) = , x3 x3 x→3
x−6
Hence g is not continuous at x = 3.
(2) g (x) = 3x + 1, for x < 3
The function g (x) has a jump discontinuity at
= 2 − 3x, for x ≥ 3
x = 3.
(3) h (x) = 13 − x2, for x < 5 (3) h (x) = 13 − x2 , for x < 5 ,
= 13 – 5x, for x > 5 = 13 – 5x , for x > 5 ,

168
but h(5) is not defined. Solution : f (p / 2) = log 5 − e
h(x) is continuous at any x < 5 and x > 5  cos x  2  x  
Now, lim f (x) = lim  5  e 
 

lim h(x) = lim (13 − x2) = 13 − 25 = −12    

x5 x5
x
2
x
2 
cot x 
 
and lim h(x) = lim (13 – 5x) = 13 − 25 = −12 p p p
x5 x5 Let − x = t, x = − t as x → ,t→0
2 2 2
So, lim h(x) = lim h(x) ∴ lim h(x) = −12    
x5 x5 x→5
 5cos 2 t   et 
But for x = 5, f(x) is not defined. lim f (x) = lim  
x
 t→0
 cot    t  
So the function h(x) has a removable discontinuity. 2    
 2  
Note :  5sin t  et 
lim
= t→0  
We have proved that lim sin x = 1.  tan t 
x→0 x
Some standard limits are stated without proof.  5sin t  1  et  1 
lim
= t→0  
 tan t 
lim ex – 1 = 1
x→0 x
x  lim  (5sin t  1)  (et  1) 
lim a – 1 = log a = t→0  
x→0 x  tan t 
1
lim (1 + t ) t = e  5sin t  1 et  1 
x→0
  
1
= lim  t t 
lim (1 − t ) t = e–1 = 1 t→0
 tan t 
x→0 e  t 
 
lim log(1 + x)
x = 1,
x→0
[As t→0, t ≠ 0]
lim log(1 – x) = –1  sin t 5sin t  1 et  1 
x→0 x  
 
= lim t sin t t 
These can be proved using L' Hospital's rule, or t→0  tan t
expressions in power series which will be studied  
 t 
 
at advanced stage.
[sin t ≠ 0]

Ex. 10 : Show that the function   sin  

   1  lim
 tan  
 

 lim 
  (1).(log 5) − 1 
 0
    0
  

 x =   e 1 
x
 a 1  
5cos x  e 2 
p 1  lim    1, lim    log a 
f (x) = , for x ≠  x 0  x  x 0
 x  
cot x 2
p lim f (x) = log5 - 1
= log 5 − e , for x = 
2 x
2

p f (p / 2) is defined and lim f (x) exists

has a removable discontinuity at x =
. 
2 x
2
Redefine the function so that it becomes
p
p But lim f (x) ≠ f
continuous at x = .  2
2 x
2

169
∴the function f(x) has removable discontinuity. Ex. 12 :If f(x) is defined on R, discuss the
This discontinuity can be removed by redefining p
continuity of f at x = , where
2
f (p / 2) = log 5 – 1.
5cos x  5 cos x  2 p
So the function can be redefined as follows f ( x)  , for x ≠
 2    2x  2
(3 cot x).log  
 cos x  2  x 
  2 
 5  e   p
f (x) =   , for x ≠ 2 2 log 5
cot x p
  = , for x = .
  3 2
p p
= log 5 − 1 , for x = Solution : Given that, for x = ,
2 2
1
   2 log 5
Ex. 11 : If f (x) =  3 x  2  , for x ≠ 0, f   = ,
x
2 3
 2  5x 
is continuous at x = 0 then find f (0)  
 5cos x  5 cos x  2 
lim f (x) = lim  
Solution : Given that f(x) is continuous at x = 0 x

x

  2    2x  
2 2 3(cot x ) log  
1
  2 
∴ f (0) = lim  3x  2  x
x→0    
 2  5x 
 5cos x  5 cos x  2 
1 = lim  
  3x   x x    2x  
2  3(cot x ) log  1 
 2 1  2   
  2  
= x→0  
lim 
 2 1  5 x     2x p p
  
2   Let =t ⇒ x= − t as x → ,t→0
  2 2 2
 1
3x  x  ∴ lim f (x)

 1    x

= x→0  
lim 2   2

1 
 1  5x  x       
    cos  2  t   cos  2  t  
 2    5  5  2 
= lim
t →0 
 
3 cot   t  .log 1  t 
3

 2
2  
 3x  3 x  2  
lim  1     
 x 0  2  
 
= 5  5sin t  5 sin t  2 
 2
2 = lim  
 5x 5x t →0
 3(tan t ).log 1  t  
lim  1     
 x 0  2  
 

e2
3
= lim
 
 5sin t 5sin t  5 sin t  2
 
 lim 1  kx kx1  e  t →0 

 x 0   sin t
= −5
  3(tan t ) log 1  t  .5 
e2  

f(0) = e4 .........[Multiply and divide by 5sin t ]

170
  (5sin t )2  1  2  5sin t  Activity 1 :
= t →0 
lim 
Discuss the continuity of f(x)
 3(tan t ) log 1  t  (5sin t ) 
 
log x − log 5
 (5sin t  1) 2  where f(x) = for x ≠ 5
  x −5
= lim
t →0  sin t 
 3(tan t ).log  
1  t .(5 ) 
1
  = for x = 5
(5sin t  1) 2 5
  sin t
2 
= lim  sin 2
t  Solution. : Given that f(5) = ........... (I)
t →0 
sin t 
 3(tan t ).log(1  t ).(5 ) 
 log x  log 5 
∴ lim f ( x)  lim  
t is small but t ≠ 0. Hence sin t ≠ 0 x 5 x 5
 x 5
So we can multiply and divide the numerator by put x – 5 = t ∴ x = 5 + t. As x → 5, t → 0
sin2t
log( og 5
lim f ( x)= lim
  sin t 2

 1   sin t  
2 5 t
 5  
  sin t   t  
= lim    
t →0
  tan t  log 1  t  sin t 
t

 3 . .5  log
 t  t = lim 5
  t
  t
[Dividing Numerator and Denominator by t2 as
t ≠ 0]
t
lim log 1
  5sin t  1  
2
= t 5
sin t 2
lim     lim   t
 t 0  sin t   t 0  t   1 
=   × lim  sin t 
 tan t   log(1  t )  t →0
5  t
3 lim  .lim
t 0  t  t 0  t


log 1 1
5
= lim
t
t
(log 5)2 × (1) 1   sin  
lim    1, lim
 tan  
  1


= × 
 0
    0
   
3(1)(1) 50   x  
lim  log(1  x)   1, lim  a  1   log a  1   log 1  px   
 x 0  x  x 0  x   =  1 lim    1
    �  x 0  px  

(log 5) 2  lim f ( x) 
1
∴ lim f (x) = ........... (II)
x 3 x 0 �
2
∴ from (I) and (II)
 
∴ lim f (x) ≠ f   lim f ( x)  f (5)
x
2
2 x 5

  ∴ The function f(x) is continuous at x = 5.

∴ f(x) is discontinuous at x =  
2

171
8.1.11 THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE So by intermediate value theorem there has to be
THEOREM FOR CONTINUOUS a point c between 1 and 2 with f (c) = 0.
FUNCTIONS
Hence there is a root for the equation
Theorem : If ƒ is a continuous function on a closed
x3 − x −1 = 0 between 1 and 2.
interval [a, b], and if y0 is any value between f(a)
and f(b) then y0 = f(c) for some c in [a, b].

EXERCISE 8.1

1) Examine the continuity of

(i) f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 at x = − 2.
p
(ii) f (x) = sin x, for x ≤
4
p p
= cos x, for x > , at x =
4 4
x −9
2
(iii) f (x) = , for x ≠ 3
x −3
Fig. 8.10
= 8 for x = 3
Geometrically, the Intermediate Value Theorem
says that any horizontal line y = y0 crossing the 2) Examine whether the function is continuous
Y-axis between the numbers ƒ(a) and ƒ(b) will at the points indicated against them.
cross the curve y = f (x) at least once over the
(i) f (x) = x3 − 2x + 1 , if x ≤ 2
interval [a, b]. The proof of the Intermediate Value
Theorem depends on the completeness property = 3x − 2 , if x > 2 , at x = 2.
of the real number system and can be found in
more advanced texts. The continuity of ƒ on the x 2  18 x  19
interval is essential. If ƒ is discontinuous at even (ii) f (x) = , for x ≠ 1
x 1
one point of the interval, the conclusion of the
theorem may fail. = 20 for x = 1 , at x = 1

Illustration 1 : Show that there is a root for the x

(iii) f (x) = + 2 , for x < 0
equation x3 − x −1 = 0 between 1 and 2 tan 3 x

Solution : Let f (x) = x3 − x −1 . f(x) is a polynomial 7

= , for x ≥ 0 , at x = 0.
function so, it is continuous everywhere. We say 3
that root of f(x) exists if
3) Find all the points of discontinuities of
f (x) = 0 for some value of x.
f(x) =  x  on the interval (−3, 2).
For x = 1, f (1) = 13 − 1− 1 = −1 < 0
so, f (1) < 0 4) Discuss the continuity of the function
For x = 2, f(2) = 23 − 2 − 1 = 5 > 0 so, f(x) = |2x + 3| , at x = −3/2
f(2) > 0

172
5) Test the continuity of the following functions (iii) f (x) = x2 − 3x − 2 , for x < −3
at the points or interval indicated against = 3 + 8x , for x > −3.
them.
1 (iv) f(x) = 4 + sin x , for x < π
x − 1 − ( x − 1) 3
= 3 – cos x for x > π
(i) f (x) = , for x ≠ 2
x−2
1 7) Show that following functions have
= , for x = 2
5 continuous extension to the point where f(x)
at x = 2 is not defined. Also find the extension
1 − cos 2 x
x3  8 (i) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0.
(ii) f (x) = for x ≠ 2 sin x
x  2  3x  2
3 sin 2 x  2 cos x(1  cos 2 x)
(ii) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0.
= - 24 for x = 2 at x = 2 
2 1  cos 2 x 
x2 1
(iii) f (x) = 4x + 1, for x ≤ 8/3. (iii) f (x) = 3 for x ≠ −1.
x 1
59 − 9 x
= , for x > 8/3, at x = 8/3. 8) Discuss the continuity of the following
3
functions at the points indicated against
1 them.
(27  2 x) 3  3
(iv) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
1
3  tan x p
9  3(243  5 x) 5 (i) f (x) = ,x≠
  3x 3
= 2 for x = 0 , at x = 0 3 p p
= , for x = , at x = .
4 3 3
x 2  8 x  20
(v) f (x) = for 0 < x < 3; x≠2 e1/ x  1
2 x 2  9 x  10 (ii) f (x) = 1/ x , for x ≠ 0
e 1
= 12 , for x = 2
= 1 , for x = 0 , at x = 0.
2 − 2 x − x2
= for 3 ≤ x < 4 4 x  2 x 1  1
x−4
(iii) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
at x = 2 1  cos 2 x

(log 2) 2
= , for x = 0 , at x = 0.
6) Identify discontinuities for the following 2
functions as either a jump or a removable
discontinuity. 9) Which of the following functions has
a removable discontinuity? If it has a
x 2  10 x  21 removable discontinuity, redefine the
(i) f (x) = .
x7 function so that it becomes continuous.

(ii) f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2 , for x ≤ 4 e5 sin x − e 2 x

(i) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
= 5x + 3 , for x > 4. 5 tan x − 3 x
= 3/4 , for x = 0 , at x = 0.

173
 (ii) f (x) = log(1+3x) (1+5x) for x > 0 sin 2 x
(iii) If f (x) = − a , for x > 0
5x
32 x − 1
= , for x < 0 , at x = 0. = 4 for x = 0
8x − 1
= x2 + b − 3 , for x < 0
1
is continuous at x = 0, find a and b.
(iii) f (x) =  3  8 x  , for x ≠ 0.
x

 3  2x  (iv) For what values of a and b is the function
(iv) f (x) = 3x + 2 , for −4 ≤ x ≤ −2 f (x) = ax + 2b + 18 , for x ≤ 0
= x2 + 3a − b , for 0 < x ≤ 2
= 2x – 3 , for −2< x ≤ 6.
= 8x – 2 , for x > 2,
continuous for every x ?
x3 − 8
(v) f (x) = , for x > 2
x2 − 4
= 3 , for x = 2 (v) For what values of a and b is the function
2
e3( x − 2 ) − 1 x2 − 4
= , for x < 2 f (x) = , for x < 2
2( x − 2) 2 x−2
= ax2 − bx + 3 , for 2 ≤ x < 3
2  sin x  3 = 2x – a + b , for x ≥ 3
p
10) (i) If f (x) = , for x ≠ , continuous for every x on R?
cos x
2
2
12) Discuss the continuity of f on its domain,
p  
is continuous at x = then find f   . where
2 2
f (x) = |x + 1| , for −3 ≤ x ≤ 2
cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1
(ii) If f (x) = for x ≠ 0, = |x − 5| , for 2 < x ≤ 7 .
3x 2  1  1
is continuous at x = 0 then find f(0). p
13) Discuss the continuity of f(x) at x =
4
4 x   4  x  2 where,
(iii) If f (x) = for x ≠ p ,
( x   )2 (sin x  cos x)3  2 2 p
is continuous at x = p, then find f(p) . f (x) = , for x ≠
sin 2 x  1 4

3 p
24 x  8 x  3x  1 = , for x = .
11) (i) If f (x) = x , for x ≠ 0 2 4
12  4 x  3x  1
= k , for x = 0 14) Determine the values of p and q such that
is continuous at x = 0, find k. the following function is continuous on the
5 x  5 x  2 entire real number line.
(ii) If f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
x2
f (x) = x + 1 , for 1 < x < 3
= k for x = 0
= x2 + px + q , for |x − 2| ≥ 1.
is continuous at x = 0, find k.

174
15) Show that there is a root for the equation
2x3 − x − 16 = 0 between 2 and 3. Let's Remember

16) Show that there is a root for the equation Continuity at a point
x − 3x = 0 between 1and 2.
3
A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and
17) Activity : Let f(x) = ax + b (where a and b only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
are unknown) (1) f (a) is defined, (2) lim f (x) exists, and
x→a

= x2 + 5 for x ∈ R (3) lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Find the values of a and b, so that f(x) is

Continuity from right : A function is continuous
continuous at x = 1. (Fig. 8.11)
from right at a if xlim
a 
f (x) = f (a)

Continuity from left : A function is continuous

from left at b if lim f (x) = f (b)
x b

Continuity over an interval :

Open Interval : A function is continuous over an
open interval if it is continuous at every point in
the interval.
Closed Interval : A function f (x) is continuous
over a closed interval [a,b] if it is continuous at
every point in (a,b),and it is continuous from
Fig. 8.11 right at a and from left at b.
Discontinuity at a point :
18) Activity : Suppose f(x) = px + 3 for a ≤ x ≤ b
A function is discontinuous at a point or has a pont
= 5x2 − q for b < x ≤ c
of discontinuity if it is not continuous at that point
Find the condition on p, q, so that f(x) is
continuous on [a,c], by filling in the boxes. Infinite discontinuity :
An infinite discontinuity occurs at a point a if
f(b) =
lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞
x a  x a
lim f(x) =
xb
Jump discontinuity :
∴ pb + 3 = –q
A jump discontinuity occurs at a point ‘a’ if
∴p= b is the required condition.
lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist, but
x a  x a

lim f (x) ≠ lim f (x)

x a  x a

175
Removable discontinuity :
(4) f (x) = x 2  7 x  10 , for x ∈ [−6, −3]
2

A removable discontinuity occurs at a point a if x  2x  8

f (x) is discontinuous at a, but lim f (x) exists and (A) f is discontinuous at x = 2.
x→a

f (a) may or may not be defined. (B) f is discontinuous at x = -4.

(C) f is discontinuous at x = 0.
Intermediate Value Theorem :
(D) f is discontinuous at x = 2 and x = -4.
Let f be continuous over a closed bounded interval
[a,b]. If z is any real number between
(5) If f (x) = ax2 + bx + 1, for |x −1| ≥ 3 and
f (a) and f (b), then there is a number c in [a,b] = 4x + 5, for -2 < x < 4
satisfying f (c) = z. is continuous everywhere then,
1 1
(A) a = , b = 3 (B) a = - , b = - 3
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE-8 2 2
1 1
(C) a = - , b = 3 (D) a = , b = -3
(I) Select the correct answer from the given 2 2
alternatives.

(1) f (x) =
2cot x  1
, for x ≠
p 16  1 9  1
x x

(6) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0

  2x 2
p
 27  1 32  1
x x

= log 2 , for x =
2 = k , for x = 0
p is continuous at x = 0, then ‘k’ =
(A) f is continuous at x =
2
p 8 8 8 20
(B) f has a jump discontinuity at x = (A) (B) (C) - (D)
2 3 15 15 3
(C) f has a removable discontinuity

(D) lim f (x) = 2log3 32 x  8 x  4 x  1

x
2 (7) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
4 x  2 x 1  1
1  2 sin x = k , for x = 0,
p
(2) If f (x) = , for x ≠ is continuous at x = 0, then value of ‘k’ is
  4x 4
p   (A) 6 (B) 4 (C) (log2)(log4) (D) 3log4
is continuous at x = , then f   =
4 4
1 1 1 1 12 x  4 x  3x  1
(A) (B) - (C) - (D) (8) If f (x) = , for x ≠ 0 is
2 2 4 4 1  cos 2 x
continuous at x = 0 then the value of f(0) is
 sin 2 x  tan 5 x log12
(3) If f (x) = , for x ≠ 0 (A) (B) log2.log3
(e 2 x  1) 2 2
is continuous at x = 0, then f(0) is log 2.log 3
(C) (D) None of these.
10 10 5 5 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
e2 e4 4 2

176
 4
x 1
4  5x  x
(9) If f (x) =   , for x ≠ 0 and f(0) = k, is
(5) f (x) =
2x  x 1
2
, for x ≠ −1
 4  7x 
continuous at x = 0, then k is = 0 for x = -1 at x = -1.
3

(A) e7 (B) e3 (C) e12 (D) e 4

(6) f (x) =  x  1 for x ∈ [−2, 2)
Where [*] is greatest integer function.
(10) If f(x) =  x  for x∈(−1,2) then f is
discontinuous at (7) f (x) = 2x2 + x + 1, for |x − 3| ≥ 2
(A) x = -1, 0, 1, 2, (B) x = -1, 0, 1 = x2+3 , for 1 < x < 5
(C) x = 0, 1 (D) x = 2 (III) Identify discontinuities if any for the
following functions as either a jump or a
(II) Discuss the continuity of the following
removable discontinuity on their respective
functions at the point(s) or on the interval
domains.
indicated against them.
x 2 − 3 x − 10 (1) f (x) = x2 + x - 3 , for x ∈ [ -5, -2 )
(1) f (x) = , for 3 ≤ x ≤ 6, x ≠ 5 = x2 - 5 , for x ∈ ( -2, 5 ]
x −5
= 10 , for x = 5 (2) f (x) = x2 + 5x + 1 , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
x 2 − 3 x − 10 = x3 + x + 5 , for 3 < x ≤ 6
= , for 6 < x ≤ 9
x −5 x2 + x + 1
(3) f (x) = , for x ∈ [ 0, 3 )
(2) f (x) = 2x2 −2x + 5 , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 x +1
3x  4
1 − 3x − x 2 = , for x ∈ [ 3, 6].
= , for 2 < x < 4 x2  5
1− x
(IV) Discuss the continuity of the following
x 2 − 25
functions at the point or on the interval
= x − 5 , for 4 ≤ x ≤ 7 and x ≠ 5
indicated against them. If the function
= 7 for x = 5 is discontinuous, identify the type of
discontinuity and state whether the
cos 4 x − cos 9 x discontinuity is removable. If it has a
(3) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
1 − cos x removable discontinuity, redefine the
function so that it becomes continuous.
68  
f (0) = , at x = 0 on   x 
15 2 2 ( x  3)( x 2  6 x  8)
(1) f (x) =
x 2  x  12
sin 2  x (2) f (x) = x2 + 2x + 5, for x ≤ 3
(4) f (x) = , for x ≠ 1
3(1  x) 2
= x3 − 2x2 − 5, for x > 3
x 
 2 sin 2  
 2 
= for x = 1, at x = 1.
x 
3  4 cos 2  
 2 

177
(V) Find k if following functions are continuous (2) f (x) = ax2 + bx + 1 , for |2x − 3| ≥ 2
at the points indicated against them. 1 5
= 3x + 2 , for < x < .
3
2 2
(1) f (x) =  5 x  8 
2 x4
, for x ≠ 2
 8  3x  (VII) Find f(a), if f is continuous at x = a where,
= k , for x = 2 at x = 2. 1  cos( x)
(1) f (x) = , for x ≠ 1 and
 (1  x) 2
45 x  9 x  5 x  1 at a = 1.
(2) f (x) = , for x ≠ 0
(k x  1)(3x  1)
2 1  cos[7( x   )]
= , for x = 0, at x = 0 (2) f (x) = , for x ≠ p at
3 5( x   ) 2
a = p.
(VI) Find a and b if following functions are
continuous at the points or on the interval (VIII) Solve using intermediate value theorem.
indicated against them.
(1) Show that 5x − 6x = 0 has a root in [1, 2]
4 tan x  5 sin x
(1) f (x) = , for x < 0
ax 1 (2) Show that x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 6 = 0 has at
9 least two real roots between x = 1 and
= , for x = 0
log 2 x = 5.
11x  7 x.cos x
= , for x > 0.
bx 1

v v v

178
 9 DIFFERENTIATION

When we speak of velocity, it is the speed with

Let's :Learn the direction of movements. In problems with
no change in direction, words speed and velocity
• The meaning of rate of change. may be interchanged.
• Definition of derivative and the formula The rate of change in a function at a point with
associated with it. respect to the variable is called the derivative of
• Derivatives of some standard functions. the function at that point. The process of finding a
• Relationship between Continuity and derivative is called differentiation
Differentiability.
9.1.2 DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY

Let's Recall Let f(x) be a function defined on an open interval

containing the point ‘a’. If
• Real valued functions on R.
 f (a   x)  f (a )  exists, then f is said to
• Limits of functions. lim  
 x 0
 x 
• Continuity of a function at a point and over
an interval. be differentiable at x = a and this limit is said to
be the derivative of f at a and is denoted by f ′(a).
9.1.1 INTRODUCTION :
We can calculate derivative of ‘f  ’ at any point x in
Suppose we are travelling in a car from
the domain of f.
Mumbai to Pune. We are displacing ourselves
from the origin (Mumbai) from time to time. We Let y = f ( x) be a function. Let there be a small
know that the average speed of the car increment in the value of ‘x’, say δ x , then
correspondingly there will be a small increment
Total distance travelled
= in the value of y say δ y .
Time taken to travel that distance
 y   y  f ( x   x)
But at different times the speed of the car can be
different. It is the ratio of a very small distance   y  f ( x   x)  y
travelled, with the small time interval required to  y  f ( x   x)  f ( x) .... [  y  f ( x)]
travel that distance. The limit of this ratio as the
time interval tends to zero is the speed of the car As δ x is a small increment and δx ≠ 0, so dividing
at that time. This process of obtaining the speed
is given by the differentiation of the distance  y f ( x   x)  f ( x)
throughout by δ x , we get 
function with respect to time. This is an example x x
of derivative or differentiation. This measures Now, taking the limit as δ x → 0 we get
how quickly the car moves with time. Speed is
the rate of change of distance with time.  y   f ( x   x)  f ( x) 
lim    lim  
 x 0  x x
   x 0  

179
If the above limit exists, then that limiting value
 f ( x  h)  f ( x)  dy
is called the derivative of the function and it is f '( x)  lim   = dx = f '( x)
h 0
 h 
dy
symbolically represented as, = f '( x)
dx The derivative of y = f(x) with respect to x at x = a
dy by method of first principle is given by
so = f '( x)
dx
 f (a  h)  f (a )   dy 
We can consider the graph of f(x) i.e. f (a )  lim   =  dx  x  a
h 0  h   
{(x, y) / y = f(x)} and write the differentiation in
terms of y and x
9.1.4 DERIVATIVES OF SOME
NOTE : (1) If y = f(x) is a differentiable function
STANDARD FUNCTIONS
  y  dy (1) Find the derivative of x n w. r. t. x. for n∈N
of x then lim   and
 x 0   x 
 dx
Solution :
 f ( x   x)  f ( x) 
lim    f '( x) Let f ( x) = x n
 x 0
 x 

(2) Let δ x = h , Suppose that f ( x + h) = ( x + h) n

 f ( a  h)  f ( a )  By method of first principle,

lim   exists. It implies that
h 0  h 
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
f ( x)  lim  
 f ( a  h)  f ( a )   f ( a  h)  f ( a ) 
h 0  h 
lim   = lim  
h 0  h  h 0  h 
 ( x  h) n  x n 
f ( x)  lim  
 f (a  h)  f (a )  is called the Left Hand h 0
 h 
lim   Derivative (LHD)at x = a
h 0  h 
 x n  nC1 x n 1h  nC2 x n  2 h 2  .......  h n  x n 
= lim  
 f ( a + h) − f ( a )  h 0
 h 
lim+   is called the Right Hand
h →0  h  Derivative (RHD)at x = a  nC1 x n 1h  nC2 x n  2 h 2  nC3 x n 3 h3  .....  h n 
= hlim
0  
 h 
Generally LHD at x = a is represented as f ′(a-)
or L f ′(a), and RHD at x = a is represented as  h( nC1 x n 1  nC2 x n  2 h  nC3 x n 3 h 2  .....  h n 1 ) 
f ′(a+) or R f ′(a) = hlim
0  
 h 

9.1.3 DERIVATIVE BY METHOD OF = hlim

0
 nx n 1
 nC2 x n  2 h  nC3 x n 3 h 2  .....  h n 1 
FIRST PRINCIPLE.
The process of finding the derivative of a function = nxn-1+ 0 + 0 +...+ 0 (as h →0 , h ≠ 0)
from the definition of derivative is known as
∴ if f(x) = xn, f (x) = nxn−1
derivatives from first principle. Just for the sake
of convenience δx can be replaced by h.
If f(x) is a given function on an open interval, then
the derivative of f(x) with respect to x by method
of first principle is given by

180
(2) Find derivative of sin x w. r. t. x.  tan(x  h)  tan x 
f ( x)  lim  
Solution : h 0  h 

Let f ( x) = sin x  sin( x  h) sin x 

 cos( x  h)  cos x 
= lim  
f ( x + h=
) sin( x + h) h 0 
 h 

 
By method of first principle,
 sin( x  h).cos x  cos( x  h) sin x 
 f ( x  h)  f ( x )   cos( x  h).cos x 
f ( x)  lim  
= lim  

h 0  h  h 0  h 
 
 
 sin( x  h)  sin x 
f ( x)  lim  

h 0  h   sin h 
= lim 
h0 h.cos( x  h).cos x 
 
  2x  h  h
 2cos  2  .sin  2  
lim     
 sin h   1 
h 0  h  = hlim  . hlim  
0 
 h 




 0
 cos( x  h).cos x 

 h 1    sin   
 sin    = (1).   ........  lim    1
 2x  h   2   1   cos x 
2
  0    
= 2 lim cos   lim   
h 0  2  h 0  h   2 
 2  ∴ if f(x) = tan x, f (x) = sec2x
 

 h
(4) Find the derivative of sec x w. r. t. x.
 sin   
 h  2   1 
= 2 lim cos  x   lim   
h 0  2  h 0  h   2  Solution:
 2 
  Let f ( x) = sec x
1   sin p  
= 2 cos x.(1)   .......  lim    1 f ( x + h=
) sec( x + h)
2 
 0
 p  
From the definition,
∴ if f(x) = sin x, f (x) = cosx
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
f ( x)  lim  
(3) Find the derivative of tan x w. r. t. x. h 0  h 
Solution:
 sec( x  h)  sec x 
Let f ( x) = tan x f ( x)  lim  
h 0  h 
f ( x + h=
) tan( x + h)
 1 1 
From the definition,  cos( x  h)  cos x 
lim  
h 0  h 
 f ( x  h)  f ( x )   
f ( x)  lim    

h 0  h 

181
  cos x  cos( x  h)    h
 cos( x  h).cos x   log 1  x    1 
= lim   = lim    
h 0  h h  
 h 0   x
   x 
   
  2x  h   h  
 2 sin  2  .sin  2     log(1 + x)  
= 1.  
    1
= lim   xlim   = 1
h 0  h.cos( x  h).cos x  x  →0  x  
 
 
1
∴ if f(x) = log x, f (x) =
  2x  h    h x
 sin  2    sin  2    1 
    lim   
= 2 hlim  
 0  cos( x  h).cos x  h  0  h  2 
   2  (6) Find then derivative of a x w. r. t. x. (a > 0)
   
Solution:
2 sin x 1   sin p  
= .(1).   .......  lim    1
cos x  0
 p
2
2    Let f ( x) = a x

∴ if f(x) = sec x, f (x) = secx tanx a x+h

f ( x + h) =

(5) Find the derivative of log x w. r. t. x.(x > 0) From the definition,
Solution:
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
f ( x)  lim  
Let f ( x) = log x h 0  h 

f ( x + h=
) log( x + h)
 a( xh)  a x 
f ( x)  lim  
From the definition, h 0 h
 
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
f ( x)  lim    a x (a h  1) 
h 0  h  = hlim  
0
 h 

 log( x  h)  log( x)   ah 1 
f ( x)  lim  
h 0  h  = a x lim  
h 0
 h 
  xh   h   a x 1  
 log  x    log 1  x   f ( x)  a x log a.........  lim    log a 
     lim   
= hlim 
x 0
 x  
0  h  h  0  h 
    ∴ if f(x) = ax, f (x) = ax.loga
   

  xh   h
 log  x    log 1  x  
lim      lim   
h 0  h  = h  0  h 
   
   

182
Try the following
 h 
= lim  
(1) If f ( x) = 1n , for x ≠ 0, n∈N, then prove that h 0 h ( x  h  x )
 
x
n  1 
f ( x)   = hlim
0  x  h  x 
 ...[As h0, h ≠ 0]
x n1 

(2) If f(x) = cos x, then prove that 1

=
f ′( x) = − sin x 2 x
(3) If f(x) = cot x, then prove that
f ′( x) = − cos ec 2 x (ii) Let f(x) = cos (2x + 3)
f(x+h) = cos (2(x+h)+3) =cos ((2x+3)+2h)
(4) If f(x) = cosec x, then prove that
f ′( x) = − cos ecx.cot x From the definition,

(5) If f ( x) = e x , then prove that f ′( x) = e x  f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 

f ( x)  lim  
h 0  h 

SOLVED EXAMPLES
 cos[(2 x  3)  2h]  cos(2 x  3) 
f ( x)  lim  
Ex. 1. Find the derivatives of the following from
h 0  h 
the definition,   2(2 x  3)  2h  
 2 sin  2
 sin(h) 
lim    
(i) x (ii) cos (2x+3) (iii) 4 x (iv) log(3x−2) =
h 0  h 
 
Solution :  

(i) Let f ( x) = x  2 sin(2 x  3  h) sin(h) 

lim 
h 0 
=
 h 
f ( x + h) = x+h
 sin h 
= = lim[−2sin(2 x + 3 + h)] lim 
From the definition, h →0 h →0  h  

 f ( x  h)  f ( x )    sin   
f ( x)  lim   [2 sin(2 x  3)](1).......  lim 
h 0  h 
=   1
  0    
 xh  x 
f ( x)  lim  
h 0 h f (=
x)  2 sin(2 x  3)
 

 xh  x xh  x  (iii) Let f ( x) = 4 x

= lim   
h 0
 h x  h  x 
4 x+h
f ( x + h) =
 xhx  From the definition
= lim  
h 0 h ( x  h  x )
 

183
  f ( x  h)  f ( x )   3    log(1  px)  
f ( x)  lim   = (1)    lim    1
h 0  h   3x  2   x  0
 px  
 4 xh  4 x 
f ( x)  lim  
h 0
 h  3
f ( x) 
3x  2
 4 x (4h  1) 
lim
= h 0  
 h 
Ex. 2. Find the derivative of f(x) = sin x, at
h
x  4 1  x =π
= 4 hlim  
0
 h  Solution:

f=
( x) sin
= x sin
= π 0
  a x 1  
 x
f ( x)  4 log 4......  lim    log a  f(π) = sin π = 0

x 0
 x  
f (  h)  sin(  h)   sin h
From the definition,
f ( x) log(3x − 2)
(iv) Let =
 f ( a  h)  f ( a ) 
f (a )  lim  
f ( x +=
h) log[3( x + h) −=
2] log[(3 x − 2) + 3h] h 0  h 
From the definition,  f (  h)  f ( ) 
f ( )  lim  
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
h 0  h 
f ( x)  lim  

h 0  h 
  sin h  0   sin h 
= hlim
0    hlim  
 h   0  h 
 log[(3 x  2)  3h]  log(3 x  2) 
f ( x)  lim  
h 0  h   sin h 
=  lim 
h 0  h  
  (3 x  2)  3h  
 log  3 x  2  
     sin   
= hlim = –11  lim    1
0  h   0    
 
 
Ex. 3. Find the derivative of x 2 + x + 2 , at
  3h  
 log 1 + 3 x − 2   x=–3
== lim   
h →0  h  Solution :
 
  Let f ( x) = x 2 + x + 2
  3h   For x = – 3, f(– 3) = (–3)2 – 3+2 = 9 – 3 + 2
 log 1 + 3 x − 2    3 
== lim    × =8
3h  
h →0    3x − 2 
 3x − 2  f (3  h)  (3  h) 2  (3  h)  2
 
 h 2  6 h  9  3  h  2  h 2  5h  8

From the definition,

184
  f ( a  h)  f ( a )    f ( a  h)  f ( a )  
f (a )  lim 
h 0  h
 lim  h     lim  hf '(a)
 h 0
  h   h 0
 f (3  h)  f (3)  lim [f(a + h) − f(a)] = 0[f’(a)] = 0
f (3)  lim   h→0

h 0  h 
∴ lim
h→0
f(a + h) = f(a)
 h  5h  8  8 
2

= hlim
0   This proves that f(x) is continuous at x = a.
 h 
Hence every differentiable function is continuous.
 h  5h 
2
Note that a continuous function need not be
= lim  
h 0
 h  differentiable.
 h(h  5)  This can be proved by an example.
= lim  
h 0  h 
Ex.: Let f ( x) = x be defined on R.
= hlim (h  5)......[h  0, h  0] f(x) = - x for x < 0
0
= x for x ≥ 0
f (3)  5
Consider, lim f ( x)  lim ( x)  0
x 0 x 0
9.1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
DIFFERENTIABILITY AND lim f ( x)  lim ( x)  0
x0 x 0
CONTINUITY
For, x = 0, f(0) = 0
Theorem : Every differentiable function is
continuous. lim f ( x)  lim ( x)  f (0)  0
x0 x 0
Proof : Let f(x) be differentiable at x = a.
Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Then, f (a )  lim  f (a  h)  f (a )  ........... (1)
h 0   Now, we have to prove that f(x) is not differentiable
 h 
at x = 0 i.e. f ′(0) doesn’t exist.
we have to prove that f(x) is continuous at x = a.
i.e. we have to prove that,
i.e. we have to prove that lim f ( x)  f (a )  f ( 0  h )  f ( 0)   f ( 0  h )  f ( 0) 
x a
lim    lim  
Let x = a + h, x→a, h→0 h 0  h  h 0  h 
We need to show that We have, L. H. D. at x = 0, is f ′(0−)
lim f(a + h) = f(a)
h→0  f ( 0  h )  f ( 0) 
lim
h0  
=
The equation (1) can also be written as  h 
 f ( a  h)  f ( a )   h 
f '(a ) lim    lim (1)
lim    lim = h 0  h  h 0
h 0
 h  h 0
As h→0, h ≠ 0 f ′(0−) = −1 ……….. (I)
Multiplying both the sides of above equation by Now, R. H. D. at x = 0, is f ′(0+)
h we get

185
  f ( 0  h )  f ( 0)   2
  52 
lim   (3h)   3 5 lim  h
2
= 5
h 0  h  = lim  
h 0  h  h 0  h 
   
h    
= lim    lim (1)
h 0  h  h 0  1 
= 2
lim  3 
f ′(0+) = 1……….. (II) 3 h 0  5
5

h 
Therefore from (I) and (II), we get This limit does not exist.

f (0 )  f (0 ) that is ∴ f(x) is not differentiable at x = 2

3
 f ( 0  h )  f ( 0)   f ( 0  h )  f ( 0) 
lim
h0    hlim  
 h   0  h  Ex. 2. Examine the differentiability of
Though f(x) is continuous at x = 0, it is not f ( x) =( x − 2) x − 2 at x = 2

differentiable at x = 0.
Solution : Given that f ( x)  ( x  2) x  2

SOLVED EXAMPLES That is f ( x)  ( x  2) 2 for x < 2

2 = ( x − 2) 2 for x ≥ 2
Ex. 1. Test whether the function f ( x)  (3 x  2) 5

 f (2  h)  f (2) 
Lf (2)  lim  
2 h 0  h 
is differentiable at x =
3
 (2  h  2) 2  (2  2) 2 
Solution : = lim  
2

h 0
 h 
Given that, f (=
x) (3 x − 2) 5

 f ( a  h)  f ( a )   h 2 
f (a )  lim   = hlim    lim  h 

h 0  h 
0 
 h  h 0

Lf ′(2) = 0
2
Note that f   = 0  f (2  h)  f (2) 
3 Rf ′(2) = lim  
2 
h 0
 h 
 2 
 f   h   f   
2  
2 3
For, x  , f     lim   3   lim
 (2  h  2) 2  (2  2) 2 
3 3 h  0
 h  = h0  
 h 
 
 h2 

   
2
 = h0    hlim
lim h
 h  0
2
 3  h   2 5
 

   3   
= lim   
h 0 h Rf ′(2) = 0
 
  So, Lf ′(2) = Rf ′(2) = 0
 
 2
 Hence the function f(x) is differentiable at x = 2.
lim 
 2  3h  2  5

= h 0  
 h
 

186
 Ex. 3. Show the function f (x) is continuous at ∴ f(x) is not differentiable at x = 3.
x = 3, but not differentiable at x = 3. if Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 3, but not
f(x) = 2x + 1 for x ≤ 3 differentiable at x = 3.

= 16 − x 2 for x > 3. Ex. 4. Show that the function f(x) is differentiable

Solution : f(x) = 2x + 1 for x ≤ 3 at x = − 3 where, f ( x=

) x2 + 2 .
Solution :
= 16 − x 2 for x > 3.
For x = −3, f (3)  lim  f (3  h)  f (3) 
For x = 3 , f(3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7 h 0  h 

lim f ( x)  lim(2 x  1)  2(3)  1  7  (3  h) 2  2  11 

x3 x3 = lim  
h 0
 h 
lim f ( x)  lim(16  x 2 )  16  (3) 2  7
x3 x3  9  6h  h 2  2  11 
= lim  
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  f (3)  7
h 0
 h 
x3 x3

f(x) is continuous at x = 3.  h 2  6h 
= lim
 
h 0
 h 
 f (3  h)  f (3) 
Lf (3)  lim 
h 0  h
 = lim  h  6 (h→0, h ≠ 0)
 h 0

f (3)  6
 2(3  h)  1  7   6  2h  1  7 
= hlim    lim  
0  h  h 0  h  f (3) exists so, f(x) is differentiable at x = − 3.

3  h)  1  7   6  2h  1  7 
  hlim   EXERCISE 9.1
h   0  h 

 2h  (1) Find the derivatives of the following w. r. t. x

= hlim
0    lim (2) by using method of first principle.
 h  h 0
(a) x 2 + 3 x − 1 (b) sin (3x)
Lf ′(3) = 2 ……………… (1)
(c) e 2 x +1 (d) 3x (e) log(2 x + 5)
 f (3  h)  f (3)  (f) tan (2x +3) (g) sec ( 5x − 2)
Rf (3)  lim  

h 0  h 
(h) x x
 16  (3  h) 2  7   16  9  6h  h 2  7 
= lim    lim  
h 0
 h  h 0  h 
(2) Find the derivatives of the following w. r. t. x.
at the points indicated against them by using
  h (6  h )  method of first principle
= lim    hlim  (6  h ) 
h 0  h  0
(a) 2 x + 5 at x = 2 (b) tan x at x = π / 4
Rf ′(3) = − 6 ……………… (2)
(c) 23 x+1 at x = 2 (d) log(2 x + 1) at x = 2
from (1) and (2), Lf ′(3) ≠ Rf ′(3)
(e) e3x − 4 at x = 2 (f) cosx at x = 5π
4

187
(3) Show that the function f is not differentiable Let there be a small increment in the value of
at x = −3, x ,say δ x ,then u changes to ( u + δ u ) and v
where f(x) = x2 + 2 for x < − 3 changes to ( v + δ v ) respectively, correspondingly
= 2 − 3x for x ≥ −3 y changes to ( y + δ y )

(4) Show that f ( x) = x 2 is continuous and
  y   y  u   u   v   v
differentiable at x = 0.  y  u   u   v   v - y
(5) Discuss the continuity and differentiability of  y  u   u    v   v  - u  v 
(i) f ( x) = x x at x = 0
 y  u  v 
(ii) f ( x) =(2 x + 3) 2 x + 3 at x = − 3/2
  y  u v
(6) Discuss the continuity and differentiability of As δ x is small increment in x and δ x ≠ 0 ,
f(x) at x = 2 dividing throughout by x we get,

f ( x)   x  if x ∈ [0, 4) . [where [*] is a  y u v u v

  
greatest integer ( floor ) function] x x x x

(7) Test the continuity and differentiability of Taking the limit as δ x → 0 , we get,
f(x) = 3x + 2 if x > 2
 y   u v 
= 12 − x 2 if x ≤ 2 at x = 2. lim
 x 0    lim   
x  x  0 x x 
(8) If f(x) = sin x – cos x if x ≤ π / 2
= 2 x − π + 1 if x > π / 2 . Test the continuity  y   u   v 
lim    lim    lim   ...... (I)
 x 0   x   x 0   x   x 0   x 
and differentiability of f atx = π / 2
Since u and v are differentiable function ofx
(9) Examine the function
  u  du   v  dv
 lim    and lim    ….. (II)
1  x0   x  dx  x0   x  dx
f ( x) = x 2 cos   , for x ≠ 0
x
  y  du dv [From (I) and (II)]
∴ lim  
= 0 , for x = 0  x 0 
x  dx dx
for continuity and differentiability atx = 0.
i.e. dy  du  dv
dx dx dx
9.2 RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
9.2.2 Theorem 2. Derivative of Difference of
9.2.1. Theorem 1. Derivative of Sum of functions.
functions.
If u and v are differentiable functions of x such If u and v are differentiable functions of x such
dy du dv dy du dv
that y= u + v , then = + that y= u − v , then  
dx dx dx dx dx dx
Proof: Given that, y= u + v where u and v are [Left for students to prove]
differentiable functions of x

188
Corollary : If u , v, w..... are finite number Given that, u and v are differentiable functions of x
of differentiable functions of x such that
y = k1u ± k2 v ± k3 w ± .....   u  du   v  dv
 lim    and lim   
 x0   x  dx  x0   x  dx ….. (2)
dy du dv dw
then  k1  k2  k3 ......  y  dv du du
dx dx dx dx  lim   u v  ( 0)
 x 0   x  dx dx dx
9.2.3 Theorem 3. Derivative of Product of [From (1) & (2)]
functions.
If u and v are differentiable functions of x such  y  dv du
 lim   u v
 x 0   x  dx dx
dy dv du
that y = u.v , then u v
dx dx dx
dy dv du
Proof : Given that y = uv i.e. u v
dx dx dx
Let there be a small increment in the value of x,
say δ x , then u changes to ( u + δ u ) and v changes
to ( v + δ v ) respectively, correspondingly y Corollary : If u , v and w are differentiable
changes to ( y + δ y ) functions of x such that y = uvw then

 y+ y  u   u   v   v  dy dw dv du
 uv  uw  vw
dx dx dx dx
 y  u   u   v   v   y
  y  uv + u v  v u   u v  uv 9.2.4 Theorem 4. Derivative of Quotient of
  y  u v  v u   u. v functions.
If u and v are differentiable functions of x
As δ x is small increment in x and δx ≠ 0,
such that
dividing throughout by δ x We get,
du dv
u v  u
dy
 y u v  v u   u v v  v  u v y = where v ≠ 0 then  dx 2 dx
 u v  v dx v
x x x x x
Taking the limit as δ x → 0 , we get, u
Proof : Given that, y = , where u and v are
v
differentiable functions of x
 y   v  u  u v 
lim   lim u v 
 x 0 
x x  0  x  x  x  Let there be a small increment in the value of x
 v   u   u  say δ x then u changes to ( u + δ u ) and v changes
u lim    v lim    lim   lim  v 
 x 0   x   x 0   x   x 0   x   x 0
to ( v + δ v ) respectively, correspondingly y
As δ x → 0 , we get δ v → 0 changes to ( y + δ y )

u u
 y   v   u  \ y  y 
lim    u lim    v lim   v v
 x 0   x   x 0   x   x 0   x 
u u
\ y  y
 u  v v
 lim   lim  v  .... (1)
 x 0   x   v 0

189
 u u u  u  SOLVED EXAMPLES
\ y   .......   y  \
v v v  v 
Find the derivatives of the following functions
v(u   u )  u (v   v) v.u  v. u  u.v  u. v
 y   3
(v   v).v (v   v).v
Ex. 1. 1) y = x + logx – cosx
2

v. u  u. v ex – 5
y 2) f(x) = x5 cosecx + x tan x 3) y =
(v   v).v ex + 5
x sin x
As δ x is small increment in x and δ x ≠ 0 , 4) y = x + sin x
dividing throughout by δ x We get,
u v
v.  u Solution :
y v. u  u. v
  2x x
3
 x  x.(v   v).v v  v. v
1) Given, y = x 2 + logx – cosx
Taking the limit as δ x → 0 , we get, Differentiate w.r.t.x.

 u v  dy d 3

v.  u = ( x 2 + logx – cosx)
 y   x  dx dx
lim    lim  2x 
 x 0   x   x 0
 v  v. v 
  d 3
d d
= ( x2 ) + (logx) – (cosx)
As  x  0 , we get  v  0 dx dx dx
1
3 2 1
 u   v  = x + – (– sin x)
v. lim    u. lim   2 x
 x 0   x   x 0   x 
 ......... (1)
v  v. lim ( v)
2 dy 3 1
 v 0 = x + + sin x
dx 2 x
Since, u and v are differentiable functions of x
2) Given f(x) = x5 cosecx + x tan x
  u  du   v  dv Differentiate w.r.t.x.
lim    and lim    ….. (2)
 x0   x  dx  x0   x  dx d
f ‘(x) = (x5 cosecx + x tan x)
du dv dx
v.  u.
 y  dx dx ... [ From (1) and (2)]
lim   d d
 x 0   x 
 v 2  v.(0) = (x5 cosecx) + ( x tan x)
dx dx
du dv
v u d d
∴ lim   y   dx dx = x5 × (cosecx) + cosecx × (x5) +
 x 0  
x v 2 dx dx
d d
du dv x× (tan x) + tan x × x
v u dx dx
i.e. dy
 dx 2 dx
dx v = x5× (–cosecx × cotx) + cosecx ×(5x4) +
1
x × (sec2x) + tan x × ( )
2 x

190
 = –x5 cosecx.cotx + 5x4 cosecx + Ex. 2) If f(x) = p tan x + q sin x + r, f(0) = −4 3 ,
1
x × (sec2x) + tan x    
2 x f   = −7 3 , f’   = 3 then find p, q
3 3
 ex  5  and r.
3) Given that y =  x 
e 5 Solution :
Differentiate w.r.t.x. Given that f(x) = p tan x + q sin x + r ...(1)
f’(x) = p sec2 x + q cos x ...(2)
dy d  ex  5 
=  
dx dx  e x  5  f(0) = −4 3
d x d put x = 0 in (1)
(e x  5)  (e  5)  (e x  5)  (e x  5)
dx dx
=
(e x  5) 2 f(0) = p tan 0 + q sin 0 + r = r ∴r = −4 3

 
(e x  5).(e x )  (e x  5).(e x ) f   = −7 3 ,
= 3
(e x  5) 2    
∴ from (1) p tan   + q sin   + r = −7 3
3 3
e 2 x  5(e x )  e 2 x  5(e x )
=
(e x  5) 2 3
p 3+q − 4 3 = −7 3 ∴ 2p + q = −6 ...(3)
2
10 e x
=  
(e x + 5) 2 f’   = 3
3
x sin x    
4) y = x + sin x ∴ from (2), psec2   + qcos   = 3
3 3
Differentiate w.r.t.x., q
4p + = 3 ∴ 8p + q = 6 ...(4)
dy d  x sin x  2
=   (4) − (3) gives 6p = 12 ∴ p = 2, put p = 2 in (3),
dx dx  x  sin x 
we get q = −10 ∴ p = 2, q = −10 and r = −4 3
d d
( x  sin x)  ( x sin x)  ( x sin x )  ( x  sin x)
dx dx 9.2.5 Derivatives of Algebraic Functions
=
( x  sin x) 2
Sr.No. f (x) f '(x)
 d d 
( x  sin x)   x (sin x)  sin x ( x)   ( x sin x).(1  cos x) 01 c 0
 dx dx 
= ( x  sin x) 2 02 xn nxn-1

( x  sin x).( x cos x  sin x)  ( x sin x).(1  cos x)

= 03 1 n
( x  sin x) 2 −
xn x n +1
x 2 cos x  x sin x  x sin x cos x  sin 2 x  x sin x  x sin x cos x
=
( x  sin x) 2
04 1
x
x cos x + sin x
2 2
2 x
=
( x + sin x) 2

191
 3
9.2.6 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions 6) y = logex log x3
Sr.No. y = f (x) dy/dx = f '(x) (III) Differentiate the following w.r.t.x.
01 sin x cos x
02 cos x − sin x 1) y = x2 x +x4logx
03 tan x sec2 x 5

04 cot x − cosec2 x 2) y = exsecx − x 3 logx

05 sec x sec x tan x
3) y = x4 + x x cos x − x2ex
06 cosec x − cosec x cot x
4) y = (x3 − 2) tan x − x cos x + 7x.x7
9.2.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic and
Exponential functions 5) y = sinx logx + ex cosx − ex x
Sr.No. y = f (x) dy/dx = f '(x) 6) y = ex tanx + cos x log x − x 5x
01 log x 1/x
02 ex ex (IV) Differentiate the following w.r.t.x.
03 ax ax log a
x2  3
1) y= 2
x 5
EXERCISE 9.2
x 5
2) y=
(I) Differentiate the following w.r.t.x x 5
4 xe x
1) y = x + e − sin x
3 x 3) y=
x + ex
2) y= x + tan x − x3 x log x
4) y=
3 x + log x
3) y = log x − cosec x + 5x − 3
x2 x 2 sin x
5) y =
7 4 5 x + cos x
4) y = x + 5x −
3 5
2
x5 5e x − 4
6) y=
2 3e x − 2
5) y = 7x + x7 − x x − logx + 77
3
4 (V) (1) If f(x) is a quadratic polynomial such
6) y = 3 cotx − 5ex + 3logx − 3 that f(0) = 3, f '(2) = 2 and f '(3) = 12
x4 then find f(x)
(II) Differentiate the following w.r.t.x.
 
1) y = x5 tan x (2) If f(x) = a sin x−b cos x, f '   = 2
4
 
2) y = x3 logx and f '   = 2, then find f(x).
6
3) y = (x2 + 2)2 sin x
(VI) Fill in the blanks. (Activity Problems)
4) y = ex logx
(1) y = ex.tanx
3
5) y = x exlogx
2 diff. w.r.t.x.

192
 dy d x f ( x) f '( x) p
= (e tan x) then lim  lim 
dx dx xa g ( x) x  a g '( x ) q
d
tan x tan x
d If lim
x→a
g'(x) = 0, then provided
dx dx
lim f '(x) = 0, we can study lim f '(x)
tan x . x→a x → a g'(x)

ex using the same rule.

sin x  sin x 
(2) y = Ex. 1 : lim  2 
x2 + 2 x 0
 x 
diff. w.r.t.x.
Here f(x) = sinx, lim
x→0
f(x) = 0 and
d d
dy
(sin x) sin x g(x) = x2, lim g(x) = 0
dx dx x→0
2 2
dx ( x 2) f '(x) = cos x, lim f '(x) = cos 0 = 1 ≠ 0
x→0
sin x
( x 2) 2
2 g'(x) = 2x, lim
x→0
g'(x) = 2(0) = 0

Since lim
x→0
g'(x) = 0. L’ Hospital Rule cannot
( x2 2) 2 be applied.

3) y = (3x2 + 5) cos x  x 2  7 x  10 
lim
Ex. 2 : x 2  x 2  2 x  8 
Diff. w.r.t.x  
Here f(x) = x2 − 7x + 10, lim f(x) = 0 and g(x)
dy d x→2
 (3 x 2  5) cos x  = x2 + 2x − 8 lim g(x) = 0
dx dx  x→2

d d f '(x) = 2x −7, lim f '(x) = 2(2) − 7 = −3 ≠ 0

  3x 2  5    cos x   x→2
dx dx
g'(x) = 2x +2, lim g'(x) = 2(2) + 2 = 6 ≠ 0,
  3x  5 
x→2
2
  cos x   So L ‘Hospital’ s rule is applicable.
dx
∴   3x 2  5     cos x  x 2  7 x  10 
dy ∴ lim  2 
x2
 x  2x  8 
4) Differentiate tan x and sec x w.r.t.x. using
 2 x  7  3 1
the formulae for differentiation of u and 1  lim    
v v x2
 2x  2  6 2
respectively.

Brief idea of L’ Hospital Rule

Let's Remember
Consider the functions f(x) and g(x),

If lim
x→a
f(x) = 0 and lim
x→a
g(x) = 0 and if • f(x) is differentiable at x = a if
lim f '(x) = p and lim g'(x) = q where q ≠ 0 Lf  ′(a) = Rf  ′(a)
x→a x→a

193
• Derivative by First Principle : ax + b dy
f(x + h) – f(x) 2) If y = cx + d , then =
f  ′(x) = lim dx
h→0 h
• Derivatives of standard functions : ab  cd ax  c
(A) (B) (cx  d ) 2
dy (cx  d ) 2
y = f(x) = f ′(x)
dx
c(constant) 0 ac  bd ad  bc
(C) (D)
xn nxn–1 (cx  d ) 2 (cx  d ) 2
1 – nn+1 3x + 5 dy
xn x
3) If y = , then =
1 4x + 5 dx
x
2 x
15
sin x cos x 15
(A)  (3x  5)2 (B)  (4 x  5)2
cos x –sin x
tan x sec2 x
5 13
cot x –cosec2 x (C)  (4 x  5)2 (D) 
(4 x  5) 2
sec x sec x tan x
cosecx –cosecx cot x
loge x 1 5 sin x  2 dy
x 4) If y = , then =
4 sin x  3 dx
loga x 1
x log a 7 cos x 23 cos x
ex ex (A) (B)
(4 sin x + 3) 2 (4 sin x + 3) 2
ax ax log a
u±v u′ ± v′ 7 cos x 15 cos x
(C)  2 (D) 
uv uv′ + u′v (4 sin x  3) (4 sin x  3) 2
u vu′ – uv′
v v2 5) Suppose f(x) is the derivative of g(x) and g(x)
is the derivative of h(x).
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE-9 If h(x) = asin x + bcos x + c then f(x) + h(x) =

I) Select the appropriate option from the (A) 0 (B) c (C) −c (D) −2(asin + b cosx)
given alternative.
6) If f(x) = 2x + 6 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
x4 dy
1) If y = , then = ax2 + bx for 2 < x ≤ 4
x2 dx
is differentiable at x = 2 then the values of
1 x a and b are.
(A) (B)
x+4 ( x + 2) 2 3 3
(A) a   , b  3 (B)=a = ,b 8
2 2
1 x
(C) (D) 1 3
2 x ( x + 2) 2 (C)=a =,b 8 (D) a   , b  8
2 2

194
7) If f(x) = x2 + sin x + 1 for x ≤ 0 (4) Determine all real values of p and q that
= x2 − 2x + 1 for x ≤ 0 then ensure the function

(A) f is continuous at x = 0, but not f ( x=

) px + q for, x ≤ 1
differentiable at x = 0
πx 
(B) f is neither continuous nor differentiable
= tan   , for 1 < x < 2 is differentiable at
 4 
x =1.
at x = 0
(5) Discuss whether the function
(C) f is not continuous at x = 0, but
f ( x) = x + 1 + x − 1 is differentiable∀x ∈ �R
differentiable at x = 0

(D) f is both continuous and differentiable (6) Test whether the function
at x = 0 f ( x=
) 2 x − 3 , for x ≥ 2

x x 50
x 49
x 48 2
= x-1, for x < 2
8) If, f(x)     ....   x  1 ,
50 49 48 2
then f '(1) = is differentiable at x = 2.

(A) 48 (B) 49 (C) 50 (D) 51 (7) Test whether the function

II) f ( x=
) x 2 + 1 , for x ≥ 2
= 2x+1, for x < 2
(1) Determine whether the following function is
differentiable at x = 3 where, is differentiable at x = 2.

f ( x=
) x2 + 2 , for x ≥ 3 (8) Test whether the function
= 6x − 7 , for x < 3.
f ( x=
) 5 x − 3x 2 for x ≥ 1
(2) Find the values of p and q that make = 3-x , for x < 1
function f(x) differentiable everywhere on R
is differentiable at x = 1.
f ( x)= 3 − x , for x < 1

= px 2 + qx , for x ≥ 1 . (9) If f(2) = 4, f ′(2) = 1 then find

(3) Determine the values of p and q that make  xf (2) − 2 f ( x) 

lim
the function f(x) differentiable on R where x →2 
 x−2 

f ( x) = px3 , for x < 2 ex dy

= x 2 + q , for x ≥ 2 . 10) If y = find when x = 1.
x dx

v v v

195
 ANSWERS

1. COMPLEX NUMBER

Q.6 4 + 6i
EXERCISE 1.1
Q.7 i) −i ii) 1

Q.1 i) 0 ii) 11i iii) i iv) 1

Q.2 i) (3−i) ii) (3+i) v) −i vi) −1

iii) − 5 + 7 i iv) 5i vii) 1 viii) 0

v) − 5i vi) ( 5 + i) Q.9 i) 2i ii) 0

vii) ( 2 − 3 i) viii) cosq − i sinq
Q.10 − 1
1
Q.3 i) a = 3, b = ii) a = 5 , b = 0 Q.11 1
2
Q.13 Yes, its value = −2 ∈ R
iii) a = −3 , b = 7 iv) a = ±2 , b = ±6
3 2 Q.14 2i
v) a = ,b=
13 13 Q.16 0
3 -1 Q. 24 i) x = 1, y = 2 ii) x = −2, y = 2
vi) a = ,b=
2 2
iii) x = 1, y = 2 iv) x + y = 3

Q.4 i) a = −4, b = −3 ii) a = 0, b = 1 v) x + y = 9

-7 1 3 -1
iii) a = , b = iv) a = ,b=
2 2 10 10 EXERCISE 1.2
-8
v) a = −1, b = 0 vi) a = ,b=0
29 Q.1 i) ± (1−3i) ii) ± (4+3i)
-1 -1 iii) ± (2− 3 i) iv) ± ( 5 + 2 i)
vi) a = , b=
4 4
v) ± ( 3 − i) ii) ± ( 5 + 2 i)
11 2 3
viii) a = ,b=
19 19 1  7i 1  7i
Q.2 i) ,
23 15 8 8
ix) a = ,b=
13 13
3  5i 3  5i
ii) ,
4 4

196
 7  11i 7  11i 1  7 7 7p
 1 e4i
iii) , iv) 2 + 3i , 2 - 3i iv)  cos  i sin  ;
6 6 2 4 4  2
i
Q.3 i) −5i, 2i ii) , − 2i 1  3 3  1 e 3p4 i
2 v)  cos  i sin ;
2 4 4  2
iii) − 2i iv) − 2i
 3 3 ; 3p i
vi) 2  cos  i sin  2e 4
 4 4 
Q.4 i) −1 + 2i, 3 − i ii) 3 2 , 2i
4 -2i 3 3i
iii) 2 + 3i, 3 − 4i iv) 1 − i, Q.5 i) + ii) (1 − i)
5 5 2 2

Q. 5 i) 7 ii) 2 -7 3 7i 1 + 3i
iii) - iv)
2 2 2
iii) 7 iv) 200 - 264i
1  i 3
v) 6 v) vi)  3  i
2 2
1 3π
EXERCISE 1.3 Q. 6 ,
2 4

1  5 
Q. 7 2 (cos θ + i sin θ) where
Q.1 i) 74 ,  tan  
7 3 1
tan θ =
 2 3 1
ii) i , tan 1  
 3
2 3π EXERCISE 1.4
1  15 
iii) 17,  tan   iv) 3 2 ,
8 4
π 11π Q.1 i) 1 ii) 1
v) 4 2 , 4 vi)
6
iii) 1 iv) 1
π
vii) 3,0 viii) 2, 4
Q.3 i) −1 ii) 0
π
ix) 2, x) 5 2 , tan-1 7 iii) −1 iv) 0
3
v) 1
Q.2 θ = nπ, n∈Z
Q.6 i) x2 + y2 = 100 ii) (x−3)2 + y2 = 4
 2 2  2p i
Q.4 i) 2  cos  i sin  ; 2e 3 iii) (x−5)2 + (y+6)2 = 25
 3 3 
iv) x + 2 = 0 v) y = −x
 3 3  3p i
ii) 1  cos  i sin  ; e2
 2 2  vi) 2y − 3 = 0

iii) 1 (cos π + i sin π) ; e pi Q.7 i) Cos2θ + i Sin2θ ii) Cos11θ + i Sin11θ

iii) 1

197
Q.8 i) −4+4i ii) −8i
 15 
6) i) 17, tan−1   ,
iii) −8 + 8 3 i iv) 512 3 + 512i 8
15
17(cos θ + i sin θ ( where tanθ =
MISECLLANEOUS EXERCISE - 1 8
ii) 37 ,   tan1  1  ,
 
(I)  6 
1
Q. No. 1 2 3 4 5 37 (cos   i sin  ) where tan  
6
Ans B D A C B
iii) 1,  , 1 cos   i sin  
6 7 8 9 10 3  3 3

B B A D D      
iv) 1, 5 , 1 cos 5  i sin  5  
4  4  4 
(II) 1)
v) 2,  , 2  cos   i sin  
i) (3 + 8i) ii) −4 + 0i 2  2 2
15
iii) (14 − 5i) − 10i
vi) 3, 3 , 3  cos 3  i sin 3 
iv)
2
1 7 2  2 2 
v) −30 + 10i vi) + i
2 2    
vii) 1, , 1 cos  i sin 
−35 45 1 15 4  4 4
vii) − i viii) + i
26 26 4 4 9) =x 1=
, y 2
40 56
ix) −i x) + i    p
25 25 12) i) 2  cos  i sin  ; 2e 3 i
 3 3
2) i) x = 2, y = 1 ii) x = 17, y = 19  2
ii) 38 (cos   i sin  ) where tan   ;
28 3 6
=
iii) x = ,y iv) x = 4, y = −2
61 61 38 eiq

3) i) −i ii) 0 iii) 3(cosθ + i sin θ) where tan θ = − 3 ;

3eiq
4) i) 1 ii) 0

5) i) ± (3+5i) ii) ± (4−i) 16) i) −i ii) 0 iii) −1

1 9
iii) ± 3 + i) iv) ± (3+3i) 17) + i
4 4
v) ± (2−i) vi) ± 2 (2+i)
20) 2

198
 2. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

3
EXERCISE 2.1 5) i) 10 10n  1  9n 
81  

1) i), ii) and iii) are G.Ps iv) and v) not G.Ps. 8
ii) 10 10n  1  9n 
1
n 1
81  
i) 2(3)n−1 ii) (−5)n−1 5  iii)
5
1 4   1 
2) i) t7 = ii) t6 = 7 iii) a = −7 iv) r = 3 6) i)  9n   1  n  
81 81   10  
4
4) x  
4 5
3) t10 = 510 5) t1
= = ,r
9 25 2 7   1 
6) 3, 6, 12 or 12, 6, 3 ii)  9n   1  n  
81   10  
1 1 1 1
7) , , 3, 27 or 27, 3, ,
2  1  
n
5  1  
n
27 3 3 27
7) i) 1     ii) 1    
8) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 or 1,−2,4,−8,16 9   10   9   10  
6 n
8) tn = 4(3)n−1
12) 80   ft , 80   ft
3 3
11) 800
4 4 15 10
11) i) 6138 ` ii) 3  1
13) i) 6, −3 ii) 3(2)19; −3 iii) 3(2)n−1; 3(−1)n−1 2 
12) 20.1 Lac 15) 10 years
14) i) 200(1.1)3 ii) 200(1.1)10 iii) 200(1.1)n

15) i) 10 ii) 4 iii) 4(5)n−1 EXERCISE 2.3

EXERCISE 2.2 1) i) 1 ii) 6
9
iii) − iv) does not exist v) 90
4
p  q 
2 n

1) i) 3  2  1
n
ii) 1     if q < p 7 22 106
p  q   p   2296
2) i) ii) iii) iv)
9 9 45 45
p 2  q 
n

and    1 if q > p 11 15 15 15
q  p  p  3) 4 4) - 5) , , ...
 6 4 16 64

 5  1 8 2
7 1 
   1 ii) -
n
6) i) 4 iii) iv)
iii) 1  n  iv)  5
9  10   
5  1   4 3 3

4 2
266 3 7) i) 2 ii) 8) 25 m
2) i) ii) 3 3) i) 5 ii) 2 -1
243 5
4) i) 635 ii) 2046

199
 EXERCISE 2.4 8.n (n + 1)(2n + 1) 3.n (n + 1)
8) n 2 (n + 1) 2 + +
6 2
9) 48
1) (i) and (iii) are H.P. ; (ii) is not H.P.
1 1 1 1 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 2
2) i) ; ii) ;
3n - 1 23 2n + 2 18
1 1 (I)
iii) ;
5n 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
24 3 3 D C A C A C C A D C
3) 5 4) 5) 60 6) ,
5 11 10 II)
211 3
7) −3, 9 8) 4, 16 9) 4, 9 1) 3072 2) 3)
81 4
49 5
4) a = 5 ; r = 5) 5,10,20 or 20,10,5
EXERCISE 2.5 7
1 1
6) , 1, 3, 9, 27 or 27, 9, 3, 1,
3 3
2 (1 − n x n ) 2 x (1 − x n −1 )
1) i) + 2
1− x (1 − x )
2
8) 10 10n  1  9n 
81  
1− 3 −2 n
3 (1 − n −1
) 2 1  n
ii) + 9) 1  n  10) 10n 2  27 n  1
1− x (1 − x ) 3  10  6
2

n ( n + 1) 3n 2 17 n 26
3n −1 3 − 3n
iii)
2 4
iv) 3 [ −1 2n 1 [ 11)
12
75 n n+ n+2 n  n  1  2n  1
16 3 12) 13)
2) i) ii) iii) 18 24
9 16 16
 n  n  1  2n  1 n(n  1) 
14) 6   
 6 2 
EXERCISE 2.6
15) 2n(n+1)(n+3)(n+4)
n  4n 2  9n  1
2
4 5 7
1) n (2n2 + 2n + 1)
2) __ 16)
6 2 36
17) 2364 18) 9 19) 1275
n  n  3 +1 +2
3) 4) 7 1   2 n 
4 12 20) 5 21) 22) 23) 2 1    
15 3   3  
2
5) 16 + 48 + 41   2 8 
3
24) 2 25) 2187 1     26) 1
  3  
2n  n  1 (2n  1)
6) 7) 2485 4 35
3 27) 10, 20 (28) A.P. 32) 33)
45 16

200
 3. PERMUTIONS AND COMBINATIONS

4) i) 28 ii) 1
EXERCISE 3.1
iii) 3003 iv) 6435
1) 50 ways 5) i) 1848 ii) 43/14
2) 12 iii) 5 iv) 6
3) i) 25 ii) 20 v) 8
4) i) 100 ii) 48
6) i) 11 ii) 11
5) 125 iii) 7 iv) 8
6) 124 v) 5
7) 31 n+3
10) i) (2n + 1)(2n + 2) ii)
8) 90 (n  1) n-2
iii) iv) (3n +2)n!
9) 225 n (n  2)!

10) 24 n2 +1 (n 2 + 1)
v) vi)
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
11) 276
1
12) 207 vii) 0 viii)
(n + 2)!
13) 12
14) 216
EXERCISE 3.3

EXERCISE 3.2 1) n=9

2) m = 6, n = 2
1) i) 40320 ii) 3628800
3) r=6
iii) 3628080 iv) 24
5) a) 2401 b) 840
2) i) 665280 ii) 2 6) a) 30240 b) 151200

iii) 720 iv) 12 c) 43200 d) 5040

v) 84 vi) 29 12 ! ×13!
7)
7
vii) 57.93 viii) 20160
8) a) 1440 b) 720
10 ! c) 7! d) 240
3) i) ii) 35 × 5!
4!
e) 120 f) 120
9!
iii) iv) 54 × 4!
5!

201
9) 144 14 !
4)
10) a) 1296 b) 360 2
11) 100 5) 2.8!
12) 720 a) 120, b) 600 6) a) 5! × 2! = 240 b) 2400
13) 46800, 20800 7) 7! × 8P6 8) 144
14) 243 9!
9) 10) 12.13!
4!
15) i) 2880 ii) 5040
16) i) 120 ii) 48 iii) 72 EXERCISE 3.6
17) i) 720 ii) 144 iii) 288 iv) 144
1) a) 1365 b) 3160 c) 16C5 d) 19C15
EXERCISE 3.4 2) a) n = 2 b) n = 7
c) n = 9
1) i) 120 ii) 60480 3) r=4
iii) 30240 iv) 5040 4) a) n = 10, r = 3 b) n = 10, r = 4
v) 302400
5) r=8 6) 126
2) 1260
7) 39200 8) 120
3) a) 70 b) 37
9) 12 10) 190
13!
4) 11) nC2 − n; a) 35 b) 90 c) 54 d) 20
5! 4 ! 4 !
12 ! 12) 190
5)
2 !3!2 ! 13) a) 45 b) 40
11! 8! 14) a) 220 b) 216
6) a) 405720 b)
4!2!2! 2!2!
15) 151200
7) 210 8) 60
16) i) n = 20 ii) n = 4, 3
10 !
9) 10) 1260, 1230 iii) n = 1, 2 iv) n = r
2 !3!2 !
11) 180 12) 144 v) n = 6

13) 36, 84 14) 180, 60 17) x = r! 18) r = 7

15) a) 1800 b) 72 19) 14161
20) a) 2508 b) 1646 c) 5973

EXERCISE 3.5 21) 16 22) 2275

23) 36873 ; 6885 24) 425
1) 7! = 5040 2) 20!, 2.18! 25) 51051
3) a) 2.23! b) 21.22!
26) a) 84 b) 126

202
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 3 30 !
7) 15 8)
7 ! 10 ! 13!
(I) 9) 127 10) 9C3 + 9C4 + 9C5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11) 4095 12) 48
C A B D C B D B C D
13) 1680 14) 63
(II) 20 !
15) 16) 896
8! 7 ! 5!
1) 45 2) 120
17) 60
3) 720 ; AINMRE 4) 990
18) i) 66 ii) 11 iii) 220 iv) 55
5) 360 6) 5541965

4. METHOD OF INDUCTION AND BINOMIAL THEOREM

6) i) 970.299 ii) 0.6561

EXERCISE 4.1
7) i) 16 ii) 16
Hints :
8) 1.1262
2) p(n) = 3 + 7 + 11 + ... + (4n − 1) = n (2n + 1) 9) 1.051
5) p(n) = 13 + 33 + 53 + ... + (2n − 1)3 = 10) 0.5314
n2 (2n2 − 1)
7) p(n) = 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 + ... + (2n −1) (2n + 1) EXERCISE 4.3
n
(4n2 + 6n − 1)
=
3 1) i) 4032x10 ii) 84480x2
1 1 1 1
9) p(n) =    ...   10500 55a16
3.5 5.7 7.9 (2n  1)(2n  3) iii) iv)
n x3 9
=
3(2n + 3)
13
C .34 .49
9
v)
a5
EXERCISE 4.2 2) i) 122472 2 ii) 700000
5
iii) 48620 iv)
1) i) 49 + 20 6 ii) 145 5 − 229 2 16
-105
v)
2) i) 16x8 + 96x6 + 216x4 + 216x2 + 81 8192
60 12 1 1792
ii) 64x6 − 192x4 + 240x2 − 160 +   3) i) ii) −96096
x2 x4 x6 9
3) i) 32 3 ii) 1364 iii) 405 iv) 84

5) i) 108243216 ii) 1.61051 v) 10500000

203
4) i) 924 ii) 35x5, 35x2   
1
2 x 6 x2
iv) 5 2 1    ... 
iii) 1120x4 iv) −252  5 25 
v) −462x9 and 462x2  
1
x 2x2 
v) 5 3 1    ... 
5) k = 5  5 25 

6) 91854 4) i) 9.9499 ii) 5.0133

7) m = 8 iii) 2.0025 iv) 0.9057
v) 1.0625
EXERCISE 4.4

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 4
1) i) 1  4 x  10 x  20 x  ...
2 3

x x 2 5 x3 (I)
ii) 1 - - - - ...
3 9 81 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
iii) 1 + 3 x 2 + 6 x 4 + 10 x 6 + ... B C C A A D D D B D

x 3 x 2 11x 3 (II)
iv) 1     ...
5 25 125
4) 243x10 + 810x8y + 1080x6y2 + 720x4y3 +
v) 1  x 2  x 4  x 6  ... 240x2y4 + 32y5

 3b 6b 2 10b3  16 x 4 16 x 2 9 81
3 5)  6 2 
2) i) a 1   2  3  ... 81 9 x 16 x 4
 a a a 
27 4 6 1760
 4b 10b 2 20b3  6) x y 7)
ii) a 4 1   2  3  ... 2 x3
 a a a  -63 x5
8) i) −20 ii)
1
 b 3b 2 7b3  8 y5
iii) a 4 1     ...
 4a 32a 128a
2 3
 iii) 280x8y6 and 560x6y8
189 6 21
−
1
 b 5b 2 15b3  iv) x and - x 3
iv) a 4
1 4a 2
+ 3
+ ... 16 8
 32a 128a 
9) i) 378 ii) 153

1
 b 2b 14b 2 3
 10) i) 2268 ii) 7920
v) a 3
1  3a  9a 2  81a 3  ...
  12) ± 2 13) 2
9
3) i) 1  8 x  40 x 2  ... 14) 15) 2
7
3 x 27 x 2 x x 2 5 x3
ii) 1    ... 18) 1 + + + + ...
2 8 3 6 54
 x x2 
1
19) 1 + x + 5 x + 15 x + ...
2 3
iii) 2 1   ... 
3

 2 4  4 32 128

204
  2 x 6 x2
1
 22) 0.2451 23) −80
20) 5 1 
2
  ... 24) a = 3, b = −2, c = 57 25) n = 9
 5 25 
26) n = 6 ; k = −2
21) 9.9833

5. SETS AND RELATIONS

13) 9
EXERCISE 5.1
14) i) (−8, 6] ii) (−∞, −4) ∪ (5,∞)
1) i) A = {M, O, V, E, N, T}  20 ,  1 1 
iii) (−∞, 4) ∪  ∞  iv)  , 
ii) B {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}  3  3 2
iii) C = {3, 5, 7, ...} 15) i) (−7, 6] ii) [2, 9]
2) i) {x | x ∈ W, x ∉ N} iii) (−7, 3] ∪ [4, 9] iv) [2, 3]
ii) {x | −3 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ∈ Z} v) [4, 6] vi) { }
n
iii) {x | x = 2 , n ∈ N and n ≤ 7} vii) (3, 6] viii) (−∞, 2) ∪ (9, ∞)
n +1
iv) {x | x = (−1)n−1 × (n−1), n ∈ N} ix) [2, 4) iv) (−7, 2)
-5 -1 3
3) A∪B∪C = { , -1, , , 3}
3 2 2
EXERCISE 5.2
4) A∩B∩C = { }
6) i) 45 ii) 10 iii) 10 iv) 25
1) x = 2 , y = −2
7) i) 132 ii) 63 1 15
2) x = ,y=
8) i) 1750 ii) 250 iii) 1100 6 2
9) 42 3) A×B = {(a,x), (b,x), (c,x), (a,y), (b,y), (c,y)}
10) i) 114 ii) 38 iii) 188 B×A = {(x,a), (x,b), (x,c), (y,a), (y,b), (y,c)

11) P(A) = {φ, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {2,3},{1,3}, A×A = {(a,a), (a,b), (a,c), (b,a), (b,b), (b,c),
{1,2,3}} (c,a) (c,b), (c,c)}
B×B = {(x,x), (x,y), (y,x), (y,y)}
12) i) {x | x ∈ R, −3<x<0}
ii) {x | x ∈ R, 6≤x≤12} 4) P×Q = {(1,1), (1,4), (2,1), (2,4),(3,1), (3,4)}

iii) {x | x ∈ R, x<6} Q×P = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (4,1),(4,2), (4,3)}

iv) {x | x ∈ R, x≤5} 6) {(0,10), (6,8), (8,6), (10,0)}

v) {x | x ∈ R, 2<x≤5}
vi) {x | x ∈ R, −3≤x<4}

205
8) i) R1 = {(2,4), (3,9), (5,25), (7,49), (11,121),
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 5
(13,169)}
Domain R1 = {2,3,5,7,11,13} I)
Range R1 = {4,9,25,49,121,169} 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 1 1 C D D C A D C D D D
ii) R2 = {(1,1), (2, ), (3, ), (4, ), (5, )
2 3 4 5
II)
Domain R2 = {1,2,3,4,5}
1) i) A = {x / x = 10n, n ∈ N, n ≤ 5}
1 1 1 1
Range R2 = {1, , , , } ii) B = {x / x is the vowel of English alphabet}
2 3 4 5
iii) C ={x / x is a day of a week}
iii) R3 = {(1,3), (2,6), (3,9)}
2) i) {1,2,4,6,7,9,11} ii) { }
Domain R3 = {1,2,3}
iii) {1,10} iv) {2,4,6,7,11}
Range R3 = {3,6,9} v) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}
vi) {4,7}
iv) R4 = {(1,4), (1,6), (2,4), (2,6)}
3) 230 4) 12
Domain R4 = {1,2}

5) i) A  A  
Range R4 = {4,6} (1,1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2,1), (2, 2), 

 ( 2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2 ), (3, 3) 
v) R5 = {(0,3), (1,2), (2,1), (3,0)} A×B = {(1,2),(1,4),(2,2),(2,4),(3,2),(3,4)}
Domain R5 = {0,1,2,3} B×A = {(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(4,1),(4,2),(4,4)}
Range R5 = {3,2,1,0} B×B = {(2,2),(2,4),(4,2),(4,4)}
(A×B)∩(B×A) = {(2,2)}
vi) R6 = {(1,4), (2,4), (3,4), (4,4), (5,4)}
ii) (1, 1, 1), (1, 1,1), (1,1, 1, 
Domain R6 = {1,2,3,4,5}
 
A  A  A  (1,1,1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1,1), 
Range R6 = {4} (1,1, 1), (1,1,1) 
 
vii) R7 = {(1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)} 6) i) Yes; D = {1}, R = {4,5,6}
Domain R7 = {1,2,3,4,5} ii) Yes; D = {1,2,3}, R = {4,5,6}
Range R7 = {5,4,3,2,1} iii) Yes; D = {1,2,3}, R = {4,5,6}
iv) No.
viii) R8 = {(1,3), (2,4), (3,5), (4,6)}
7. i) D = {1,2,3,4}, R = {4}
Domain R8 = {1,2,3,4}
ii) D = {-2,-1,0,1,2}, R = {0,1,2,3}
Range R8 = {3,4,5,6}
8. i) { } ii) A×A
9) reflexive, not symmetric and not transitive.
10) Yes

206
 6. FUNCTION

e) injective and surjective

EXERCISE 6.1 3
16)
16
1) a) Yes b) No 17) a) 5 = log2 32 b) 0 = log54 1
c) No
3
c) 1 = log23 23 d) = log9 27
2) a) No b) Yes 2
c) No d) Yes 1
e) −4 = log3   f) −2 = log10 0.01
 81 
3) a) Yes b) No 1
g) ln 7.3890 = 2 h) ln 1.6487 =
2
c) Yes d) Yes
e) No i) ln 6 = −x
1 1
4) a) 1 b)19 c) - d) x2 − x − l 18) a) 26 = 64 b) = 5-2 c) 0.001 = 10−3
4 25
e) x2 + 3x + 1 f) h + 1 3
1 1
6 1 2 d) 8 =   e) e0 = 1 f) e1 = e g) = e−0.693
5) a) b) ± 3 c) , - d) 1,−2,3 2 2
5 2 3
19) a) (5,∞) b) (−∞,2) ∪ (3,∞)
17 ± 33
6) a) 0, ± 3 b) 20) a) log p + log q − log r − log s
2
7) 1) a = −2, b = 2 1 1
b) log x + log y
2 3
 11  1
8) a) R;   ,   b) R − {2}; R − {1} c) 3 ln a + 2 ln (a − 2)− ln (b2 + 5)
 7  2
3  1 1 
c) (−5, ∞); R+ d) R; R e) [2,5] ; [0, ] d) 2  ln( x  2)  4ln(2 x  1)  ln( x  4)  ln(2 x  4) 
2 3 2 
f) [3,7) ; [0,∞] g) [−4,4] ; [0,4]
 x5 y 7 
p 2 21) a) log 
 z 
 b) log ( 3
x−1 x )
9) a) A = s2 b) A =
16
pd 2 c2  x2  4 
10) a) A = pr2 b) A = 4 c) A = 4p c) ln  3
 ( x  5) 
11) x(30 − 2x)2 ; (0,15) 5a + b 15
22) 24) a = ,b=9
12) Not a function; f (0) has 2 values. 2 4
13) a) Injective but not surjective 25) a) 3 b) 11, c) 8 d) 1
b) neither injective nor surjective
c) neither injective nor surjective
d) injective but not surjective

207
 B B B C C A A B C B
EXERCISE 6.2
(II)
1) a) 9x +4 b) 0 c)238 1) i) Function ; {2,4,6,8,10,12,14};
3x  5 1  {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
d) ; R −  
6x 1 6 ii) Not a function
2) {(2,4), (4,2), (5,4)} iii) Function ; {2,3,5}; {1,2}
3) a) 50x2 − 40x +11 b) 10x2 + 13 2) i) not one one ii) one one
c) 8x4 + 24x2 + 21 3) i) not onto 1 ii) not onto
d) 25x − 12  x  8 3
4) f (x) = 
−1

 5 
5) a) f−1 does not exist
5( x - 2)
b) f−1 doesn not exist 5) f−1 (x) =
3
3x + 7
c) f−1 (x) = 6) 1,−3, does not exist
6
d) f−1 does not exist 7) i) 2 ii) 0
x -8 8) 3x4 − 12x3 + 13x2 − 2x + 5
e) f−1 = 3
9 9) a = 4, f(4) = 16
f) f−1 does not exist 10) a = 3, b = −2

6) a) 22 b) 7 c) 3 11) i) g°f = {(1,6),(2,8),(3,10),(4,12)}

ii) g°f = {(1,1),(2,64),(3,64),(4,27)}
7) a) −18 b) −14 c) 5 d) 25
12) i) f°g = x2 − 16x +69, gof = x2 − 3
8) a) 10 b) −5
ii) f°g = 3x2 − 2, gog = 9x2 − 12x +4
9) a) 25 b) −3 c) −15 d) 21
iii) f°g = 256x2 , gof = 16x2
10) a) −5 b) 1.75 c) −4.4. d) −30
15) f ≠ g
11) a) (−∞,−9], [1,∞) b) 1.5, 4.5 19) 8 22) log4
c) { } d) [−3,3] 23) log105
f) 3 + r ; 0≤r<1 g) { }
3 1
h) N, Z i) n + 0.5 , n ∈Z 26) , 33) 2
2 2
j) x = 0 34) 3 37) −8
39) a) (−3,0)∪(2,5) b) {−2,2,4}
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 6
c) [−3,−2]∪[2,3] d) (−2,8)
(I) 13 9
e) [ ,7) f) [ ,5)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5 2

208
 g) x = 0 h) x = 6k , k∈Z e) (1,∞)

40) a) R−{2,−3} 42) a) fog(x) = x = gof(x)

b) [3,4) ∪ (4,5) b) fog(x) = x = gof (x)
c) [−1,1] d) W 43) a) f(x) = 2x − 3 or − 2x + 2
e) {1,2,3} f) [0,1] b) f(x) = x2 + 2
g) (−∞,3− 3 ) ∪ (3+ 3 ,∞) x
44) a) b) x
1 1 1 + 2x2
41) a) [0,∞) b) [ - -, ]
6 6
c) (0,1] d) (−1,0]
7. LIMITS

EXERCISE 7.1 2 1 1 2
II) 1) 2) –8 3) 4) 5) –
3 3 8 3 2a 3
1 1 7 1 1
I) 1) – 2) 15 3) – III) 1) 2) 1 3) 24 4) – 5)
3 25 2 3 18

2 3 3 3 2
II) 1) 2) – 3) 4) ±
3 16 125 3 EXERCISE 7.4

n(n +1) 2
III) 1) 2) 3 3) 4 4) 4 m 1
2 3 7 I) 1) 2) 2 3) 2 4)
n 2

1 3 a+2 n2 1 1
5) – 6) 24 7) II) 1) 2) – 3)
6 2 m2 4 2
8) 294 7 9) n2 a 2 - b2 1
III) 1) 2) – 3) 2 2 4) –3
c 2
4 2
EXERCISE 7.2

EXERCISE 7.5
1 1 1 1
I) 1) – 2) – 3) – 4) – 5) 8
4 2 2 2
4 1 4
1
II) 1) 2) 0 3) 0 4) 2x – 2 5) –3 I) 1) 2) 5a 5 .cos a 3)
3 2 8
1 2
6) Does not exist 4) 5)
3 π
1 3
III) 1) 3 2) –2 3) 4) 0 5) –
2 a2 1 1 1
II) 1) – 2) 3)
2 3 16 2 36
EXERCISE 7.3
cos a 1
4) 5) –
2 a 2
1 1
I) 1) 2) – 3) –1 4)
2 6 18

209
 EXERCISE 7.6
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 7

9 I)
log  
5 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
I) 1) 2) log 3) log(abc)
log 4 2 C B A D C C C C A D B D C B B

40
4) log ( ) 5) log 2. II)
9
5
2 1) 2) Does not exist 3) 2πr
2 3
II) 1) (log 3) 2
2) e 3
3) e 14/3
4) –
3 1
2 4) Does not exist 5) 3 6) 21 7) 8) 1
2
5) e8 6) e 3

–1 1
9) log2 10) 2(log a)2 11) cos a (12)
(log 2) 3 10 2
1 a
III) 1) log 2) 3) log 3.log 5
2 b log 3 ab b (log 5) 2
13) log 14)
1   7 
2
2 a log 2
4) (log 5)2 5) log  
2   5  
(2) 2 (7)3 1372
15) = 16) a sin a + cos a
(5)5 3125
EXERCISE 7.8
1
17) 2 2 18) (log 2)2 19) (log 2)2 20)
a 7 2
I) 1) 2) 1 3)
e 8 n(n  1)(4n  1)
21) Does not exist 22)
II) 1) 7 2) 2 3) 2 6
256 1  3  30 1
III) 1) 15 2) 3) 4)   5) 4 23) 24) 2
81 2 2 256

8. CONTINUITY

5) (i) Discontinuous. (ii) Continuous.

EXERCISE 8.1
(iii) Continuous (iv) Continuous
1) (i) Continuous at x = - 2 (ii) Continuous (v) Discontinuous at x = 2
p
at x = (iii) Discontinuous at x = 3 6) (i) Removable (ii) Jump
4
(iii) Jump (iv) Removable
2) (i) Discontinuous. (ii) Continuous.
(iii) Continuous 7) (i) Extension = 0 i.e. f(0) = 0
7
(ii) Extension = 7/2, i.e. f(0) =
3) Discontinuous at x = – 2, x = -1, x = 0, 2
2
(iii) Extension = -2/3, i.e. f(−1) = −
x = 1. 3
8) (i) Discontinuous (ii) Discontinuous
4) Continuous.
(iii) Continuous

210
9) (i) Removable, f(0) = 3/2 (3) Discontinuous at x = 0
(ii) Removable, f(0) = 5/3 (4) Continuous at x = 1
(iii) Removable, f(0) = e−2 (5) Discontinuous
(iv) Irremovable (6) Discontinuous at x = −1, 0, 1.
(v) Irremovable (7) Continuous on R, except at x = 5.
1 4
10) (i) − (ii) − (iii) 4(log2)2 (III) (1) Removable.
4 3 3
(2) Jump
3
11) (i) (ii) (log5)2 (iii) a = -18/5, b = 7. (3) Continuous.
2
(iv) a = 2, b = -4.
(IV) (1) Removable
(v) a = 1/2 and b = 1/2
( x  3)( x 2  6 x  8)
f(x) =
12) Continuous x 2  x  12
13) Continuous = −5 for x = −3
[Clue : (sin x + cos x)3 = [(sin x + cos x)2]3/2 = 2 for x = 4
= (1 + sin 2x)3/2, Let (1 + sin 2x) = t] (2) Irremovable

14) p = −3 and q = 4 (V) (1) e6 (2) 125

(VI) (1) a = 2 b = 4
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 8 4 27
(2) a = - , b =
(I) 5 5
p 49
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (VII) (1) f (1) = (2) f (p) = 10
2
A D D B A B A B C C
(VIII) (1) f(1) < 0 and f(2)>0
(II) (1) Continuous on its domain except at (2) f(z) = 0; f(3)<0 and f(4)>0
x=5
(2) Continuous on its domain except at
x=5
9. DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISE 9.1 5) i) Continuous and differentiable

1) (a) 2x + 3 b) 3 cos(3x) c) 2e2x+1 d) 3x log 3 ii) Continuous and differentiable
2
e) f) 2 sec2 (2x + 3) 6) Neither continuous nor differentiable at x =2
2x + 5
g) 5 sec (5x – 2) tan (5x – 2) h) 3 x 7) Continuous but not differentiable
2
8) Continuous but not differentiable
2) a) 1 b) 2 c) 384 log 2 d) 2
3 5
9) Continuous and differentiable
1
e) 3e2 f)
2

211
 EXERCISE 9.2 16 x
(IV) (1) -
( x 2 - 5) 2
4 13
(I) (1) x  e x  cos x
3 5
(2) 
 
2
1 x x 5
(2)  sec x  3 x
2 2

2 x
ex ( x2 + ex )
(3)
1 9 ( x + e x )2
(3) + cos ecx.cot x + 5 x log 5 + 5
x
2x 2 x + (log x) 2
7 43 4 2 (4)
x + 1+ 7 ( x + log x) 2
(4)
3
x5 x5 x 2 (1 + sin x + x cos x) + x sin 2 x
(5)
(5) 7 x log 7  7 x 6  x  1 ( x + cos x) 2
x 2e x
(6)
3 3 x
(3e x - 2) 2
(6) 3 cos ec x  5e   7
2

x
x4
(V) (1) f ( x)  5 x 2  18 x  3
(II) (1) x 4 ( x sec 2 x + 5 tan x)
(2) f ( x)  ( 3  1) sin x  ( 3  1) cos x
(2) x 2 (1 + 3 log x)
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE - 9
(3) ( x 2 + 2)[( x 2 + 2) cos x + 4 x sin x]

x1  I. (1) C (2) D (3) C (4) B

(4) e   log x 
x  (5) B (6) D (7) A (8) C
(5) 3
xe [1 + x log x + log x]
x

2 II. (1) Differentiable

(6) 3 x (1 + 3 log x)
2
(2) p = -3 , q = 5
(III) (3) p = 1/3 , q = -4/3
3
5
(1) x + x 3 (1 + 4 log x)
2
(4) p =π /2 , q= (2 - π ) / 2
2 2
(2) e x sec x(tan x  1)  x 3 (1  5 log x) (5) Not Differentiable
3
3
3 (6) Not Differentiable
(3) 4 x3  x 2 sin x  x cos x  xe x ( x  2)
2 (7) Not Differentiable.

(4) ( x3  2) sec 2 x  3 x 2 tan x  x sin x  cos.x  x 6 .7 x (7  x log 7) (8) Differentiable
sin x  1 2x  (9) 2. Hint : Add and subtract 2f(2) in
(5)  cos x log x  e x ( sin x  cos x)  e x   numerator.
x  2 x 
(10) e
(6) e x (sec 2 x  tan x)  cos x  sin x log x  5x  2 x log 5  1  2
x  2 x 

v v v
212
 Practical Notebook for Standard XI
Practical Notebook Cum Journal - Mathematics
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