The Curriculum Advisory Services (CAS) section of the Ministry of Education

owns the copyright to this Year 13 Mathematics Textbook.

Schools may reproduce this in part or in full for classroom purposes only.

Acknowledgement of the CAS Section of the Ministry of Education copyright

must be included on any reproductions.

Any other use of this textbook must be referred to the Permanent Secretary for
Education through the Director Curriculum Advisory Services.

Issued free to schools by the Ministry of Education.

First Edition 2018

Trial Version

© Ministry of Education, Fiji, 2018

Published by
Curriculum Development Unit
Ministry of Education
Waisomo House
Private Mail bag
Suva
Fiji

Tel: (+679) 3313050

Website: www.education.gov.fj

i
 PREFACE

The development of this Textbook was entirely based on the Year 13 Syllabus.

It has a total of nine strands: Complex Numbers, Vectors, Algebra, Trigonometry,

Probability & Inferential Statistics, Functions, Limits Continuity &
Differentiability, Differentiation and Integration.

The contents of this book have been simplified so that it can be used by all
students with different capabilities. It contains very useful materials to help
students and teachers alike to prepare for the Year 13 external examination.

It is confidently believed that it will furnish Year 13 students with the necessary
number and variety of exercises essential to successful instructions in
mathematics.

The step – by – step instructions in the methods and examples will make it
suitable for both direct one – to – one tutoring and as well as regular classroom
use. Moreover, there are inclusions of external examination [Fiji Seventh Form
Certificate or Fiji Year 13 Certificate Examination] questions and illustrations that
will help students a great deal.

All examples that have been introduced can even be attempted by an average
pupil without assistance. They have been carefully graded to suit the slow
learners as well, while there are some problems that are provided for advance
learners.

Teachers and students are also advised to use other resources for enhancing of
teaching and learning. This textbook is just a guide to accomplish the learning
outcomes.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Throughout the process in writing this textbook, a number of people have
sacrificed their valuable time to assist the Ministry of Education. They are
acknowledged for their active participation and without their insights, guidance
and continued support; this book may not have been possible.

The Ministry of Education, therefore, hereby acknowledges the following people

for their valuable contributions to this book:

Pauliani Nene Research Officer Mathematics, CDU

Jyotishna D. Chaudhary Research Officer Mathematics, CDU
Dharmendra Prasad Mathematics Advisor (SEO), CDU
Rajend Lal Mathematics Advisor (SEO), CDU
Vipal Khatri University of the South Pacific
Kellan K. Chand University of the South Pacific
Rita Whippy St Joseph’s Secondary School
Aten Lal Marist Brothers High School
Naisale Boletakanakadavu Ballantine Memorial School
Nirmala W. P. Lal Ahmadiyya Muslim College
Elvis Sidal Nasinu Secondary School
Arvind Kumar Nasinu Secondary School
Bimleshwar Prasad Nabua Secondary School
Ralifo Tevita Nasario Suva Grammar School
Nazmin N. Khalil Nasinu Muslim College
Vimlesh A. Kumar Suva Muslim College
Amitesh Chand John Wesley College
Rozina Razim Sacred Heart College
Muneshni R. M. Vilash Suva Sangam College
Harmesh Sharma Jai Narayan College
Maisea Ledua Tuicoro Gospel High School
Anjana Lata DAV College, Suva
Renuka Pratap MGM High School
Finau L. Qaraniqio DAV Girls College
Riteshni Karan AOG High School
Mosese Tawake Lami High School

iii
 INTRODUCTION
This textbook takes students and teachers into pleasant journey ahead in
Mathematics lessons. But before we begin, let’s just look at the brief history of
Mathematics.

The history of mathematics is nearly as old as humanity itself. Since the ancient
times, mathematics has been fundamental to advances in science, engineering,
and philosophy. It has evolved from simple counting, measurement and
calculation, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical
objects, through the application of abstraction, imagination and logic, to the
broad, complex and often abstract discipline we know today.
(http://www.storyofmathematics.com/)

A high-quality mathematics education therefore provides a foundation for

understanding the world, the ability to reason mathematically, an appreciation
of the beauty and power of mathematics, and a sense of enjoyment and curiosity
about the subject. (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-
curriculum-in-england-mathematics-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-
england-mathematics-programmes-of-study#key-stage-4)

However, the teacher is to take the role of a facilitator rather than the teacher –
centered teaching and incorporate more of technology driven lessons. Yet, it’s
harder to encourage students to learn and study due to the technology impact,
then why not use technology to help students get motivated in Mathematics
education.

In the book there are a variety of style types being used to help the teacher’s
guide students to a thorough understanding of the concepts. The style type is
indicated by an icon as shown below:

Note for the teachers and students to elaborate a concept.

2 Pay attention to the examples. Listen to your teacher for any key ideas.
" The answers given to each example. Understand and follow through the
steps. If finding difficulty to follow, do not hesitate to ask your teacher.

~ Exercises based on the related concept learnt.

Did you know? These are some of the facts on the related concept or
general ideas involving in Mathematics.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 Algebra of Complex Numbers .......................... 1

The number i .......................................................... 2
Solving Quadratic Equations.................................... 3
STRAND ONE Parts of complex numbers....................................... 4

COMPLEX NUMBERS Equality rule............................................................. 5

1.2 Manipulation of Complex Numbers ................. 8

Working with i ........................................................ 9
Addition and Subtraction ........................................ 9
Multiplication ....................................................... 10
Division .................................................................. 11

1.3 Geometrical representation and Properties .. 14

Polar or Trigonometric Form ............................... 19
Converting Polar to rectangular & vice versa ....... 20
Argand diagram of polar form .............................. 21
Argand diagram of polar form .............................. 21
Multiplication and Division in polar form .............. 22

1.4 Powers and Roots ........................................... 25

Raising Complex Numbers to Powers .................. 26
Finding nth roots .................................................... 28

1.5 Curves and Regions ......................................... 31

Lines ...................................................................... 32
Rays ....................................................................... 33
Circles ................................................................... 34
Inequality .............................................................. 34

Review Exercise 1 ................................................. 36

v
 2.1 Arithmetic Operations on Vectors ................ 37
Arithmetic Operations on Vectors ........................ 38

STRAND TWO
2.2 Norm of a Vector and Unit Vectors ............... 42
VECTORS
Norm and Unit Vectors ......................................... 43

2.3 Dot Product and its application...................... 46

Dot Product ........................................................... 47
Angle between the vectors ................................... 47
Angle Properties .................................................... 49

2.4 Equation of a line ............................................ 51

Equation of a line .................................................. 52

2.5 Division of a Line Segment ............................. 56

Ratio Formula ....................................................... 57

Review Exercise 2 ................................................. 61

STRAND THREE 3.1 Operations on Functions ................................ 62

1 New Functions from old ..................................... 63
FUNCTIONS
2 Domain and range ............................................. 64

3.2 Graphs of Functions ........................................ 68

1 Graphs of Polynomials ....................................... 69
2 Graphs of Rational functions ............................. 73

Review Exercise 3 ................................................. 78

vi
 4.1 Trigonometry ................................................. 79
Trigonometric Identities ........................................ 80
Exact Values .......................................................... 83
STRAND FOUR
TRIGONOMETRY 4.2 Trigonometric Graphs ..................................... 87
Trigonometric Graphs ........................................... 88
4.3 Trigonometric Equations ................................ 91
Solving Trigonometric Equations .......................... 92

4.4 Application of Addition Formulae .................. 96

1 Transformation of A Cos T േ B SinT ......... 97

4.5 Inverse Trig Functions ................................... 102

Graphs ................................................................ 103
Identities ............................................................. 105
Inverse of Reciprocal .......................................... 106

Review Exercise 4 ............................................... 107

5.1 Limits of Functions ........................................ 108

Computing Limits................................................. 109
Limits of Trigonometric Function ....................... 113
STRAND FIVE Limits at infinity ................................................... 115

LIMITS, CONTINUITY &

DIFFERENTIABILITY 5.2 Piecewise Functions ...................................... 117
Graphs ................................................................ 118

5.3 Limits, continuity & differentiability from

graphs ................................................................. 121
Interpretation of graphs ..................................... 122
Review Exercise 5 ............................................... 126

vii
 6.1 Sequence ...................................................... 127
Sequences ........................................................... 128

STRAND SIX
6.2 Mathematical Induction .............................. 132
ALGEBRA Prove by Mathematical Induction ...................... 133

6.3 Binomial Theorem ........................................ 137

Binomial Theorem .............................................. 138
Finding particular terms, coefficients and the
independent term .............................................. 141

6.4 Partial Fractions ............................................ 144

Denominator with distinct linear factors ........... 145
Repeated linear factors ...................................... 147
Quadratics which cannot be factorised .............. 149

Review Exercise 6 ............................................... 152

7.1 Probability ..................................................... 153

Types of events .................................................. 154

STRAND SEVEN 7.2 Inverse Normal Distribution ......................... 157

Inverse Normal problems ................................... 158
PROBABILITY &
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 7.3 Binomial Distribution ................................... 163
Binomial Probabilities ......................................... 164
Table of Binomial Probabilities ........................... 165
Table of Cumulative Binomial Distribution ......... 168

7.4 Estimation ..................................................... 173

Estimation............................................................ 174
Confidence Interval ............................................. 175
Sample Size for estimation ................................. 177

viii
 7.5 Hypothesis Testing ........................................ 179

Hypothesis Testing .............................................. 180

One & Two – tailed test ....................................... 181
Steps in hypothesis testing ................................. 182

Review Exercise 7 ............................................... 186

8.1 Derivative of Functions ................................. 187

Common derivatives............................................ 188
Product and Quotient rules ................................ 190
STRAND EIGHT Chain rule ............................................................ 192
Logarithmic differentiation ................................. 196
DIFFERENTIATION
Implicit differentiation ........................................ 198

8.2 Applications of Differentiation ..................... 201

Concavity, inflections and turning points ............ 202
Maxima and Minima ........................................... 205
Related rates ....................................................... 209
Kinematics using differentiation ......................... 213

Review Exercise 8 ............................................... 215

ix
 9.1 Anti – derivatives of Function ...................... 216
Algebraic Substitution ........................................ 217

STRAND NINE Use of partial fractions ...................................... 227

Use of trig identities ............................................ 229
INTEGRATION

9.2 Applications of Integration ........................... 231

Area between two graphs .................................. 232
Kinematics using integration ............................... 235

Review Exercise 9 ............................................... 237

x
 STRAND COMPLEX
ONE NUMBERS

SUB – STRAND 1.1 Introduction to

Complex Numbers

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.1.1 Define imaginary number i

Find square roots of negative
numbers.
1.1.2 Solve quadratic equations
with discriminant < 0.
1.1.3 Give parts of complex
numbers.
1.1.4 Solve equations using equality
rule.

1
 1.1.1 The number i

x The inadequacy of real numbers in solving quadratic equation of the type

x 2 + 1 = 0 gave rise to a new type of numbers called the complex numbers.

By letting i 2 = – 1, in other words i = 1 , we are now able to work with a whole

new range of equations. While i is called an imaginary unit, it is essential to some
real world fields such as electrical engineering, quantum mechanics, cartography,
and many others.

Recall one of the rules of surds: ab a b which is handy in finding square

root of negative numbers.

With the help of i, square roots of negative numbers can be interpreted in the
following way:

a) 4 b)  16 c) 9

1 u 4  1 u 16 1 u 9
1 u 4  1 u 16 1 u 9
i u 2 i u 4 i u 3
2i 4i 3i

~ Exercise 1.1.1

Evaluate the following:

a)  25 b) 100

c)  49 d)  81

2
1.1.2 Quadratic Equations, where discriminant < 0

Quadratic equations have the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Just identify and substitute the values of a, b and c in the quadratic formula:

 b r b 2  4 ac
x
2a
You have to use imaginary numbers for square root of negative numbers.

2 Example 1 Solve x 2  2 x  5 0

" Answers Using the quadratic formula,

b r b 2  4ac
x where a 1, b 2 and c 5
2a
2 r 22  4 1 5  2 r 16
x
2 1 2
2 r 4i
x 1  2i,  1  2i ? x  {1  2i,  1  2i}
2

2 Example 2 Solve the equation 4 x2  2 x  1 0 .

" Answers a 4 , b 2 and c 1

1 3 1 3
Therefore x   i or x   i.
4 4 4 4

3
 ~ Exercise 1.1.2
Solve the following equations and express the answers in rectangular form:

1. 4 x 2  9 0 2. 4 x  13 8x 2

3. 3x 2  10 4 x 4. 2 x 2  8 0

5. x 2  2 x  2 0 6. x 2  25 0

7. x 2  x  1 0 8. 3x 2  4 x  2 0

5 x2
9. x  3 10. 5 x  17
x 2

1.1.3 Parts of Complex Numbers

Complex number (z) can be written in the form z = x + yi where x and y are real
numbers and i is the imaginary unit, satisfying the equation i2 = – 1. This is called
rectangular form.
x The Complex number, z , is a single value number although it is made up of
two parts ‘x’ and ‘yi’.
x The ‘x – term’ is called the real part, denoted by Re(z).
x The ‘y– term’ is called the imaginary part (i.e. to the part attached to ‘i’),
denoted by Im(z).
x This means that the Complex number can also be written as
z = Re(z) + Im(z)i

2 For example, given the complex number w = – 3.5 + 2i, the Re(w) and Im(w)
are:
" Re(w) = – 3.5
Im(w) = 2

4
~ Exercise 1.1.3
1. State the real and imaginary parts of each of the complex numbers shown below:
3 i
a) z = 3 – 2i b) z = – ½ + 3i c) z =
2
d) z = – 1 – 3 i e) z = – 2 i f) z = 6

g) 3z = 3 – 2i- z h) 2z + 2i = 3 – i i) z = – 3

1
2. Re(z) is 5 and Im(z) is . Write z in rectangular form.
2

1
3. Re(w) is – 1 and Im(w) is . Write w in rectangular form.
3

1.1.4 Solving Equations using Equality rule

Two complex numbers are equal only if their real and imaginary parts are equal.
For example, consider z1 = a + bi and z2 = x + yi.
If z1 = z2 then it can be said that x = a and y = b.

To solve the equations, take into account the equality rule.

2 Example 1 Solve 3 – 4i = x + yi

" Answers 3 + –4i

x + yi
Re Im
? x = 3 and y = – 4

5
2 Example 2 Find the values of x and y if 2  i x  ( y  1)i .

" Answers 2i x  ( y  1)i

2 + 1 i

x  ( y  1) i
Re Im

x = 2 and y – 1 = 1 , solve
y = 1+1

? x = 2 and y = 2

2 Example 3 Find the values of x and y such that  2  i  x  1  3i  y 7.

" Answers Expand and simplify

 2  i  x  1  3i  y 7 Ÿ 2 x  xi  y  3 yi 7 Ÿ  2 x  y     x  3 y  i 7  0i

Equate the imaginary and real parts.

2x  y 7 1
x  3y 0  2

Solve Simultaneously:

Note: Solving Simultaneous Equations

Two common approaches are
x Substitution Method: Substitute one equation into another
equation, then solve.
x Elimination Method: One of the variables to have same
coefficient, then either add/subtract to solve.

6
Using the Substitution method:

Using equation 1 , we have  2 x  y  7 Ÿ y 7  2x  3

Substitute equation  3 into  2  , we have

 x  3 7  2x  0 Ÿ  x  21  6 x 0 Ÿ 7 x 21 Ÿx 3

Finally, substitute x 3 into equation  3 , to get y 1 .

Therefore, x 3 and y 1

~ Exercise 1.1.4

Find x and y such that

1. x  2i 4  yi 2. x  2i 1  yi

3. ( x  yi )(i) 3 4. ( x  y)  3i 4  yi

5. ( x  2 y)  ( x  y)i 3  2i 6. (3  4i)( x  yi ) 13  10i

Most modern technology, from electric lighting to digital cameras could not have been
invented without them." Imaginary numbers allow for complex analysis, which allows
engineers to solve practical problems working in the plane.~ Stewart
(http://www.slideshare.net/malikanaa/complex-number-45848431)

7
 Manipulation of
SUB – STRAND 1.2
Complex Numbers

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.2.1 Simplify powers of i.

1.2.2 Add and subtract complex numbers.
1.2.3 Multiply complex numbers.
1.2.4 Divide complex numbers.

8
 1.2.1 Working with ‘i’

Since i2 = −1 so i = 1 .
i 3 i 2 ui i 5 i 2 ui 2 ui i 4 i 2 ui 2
1u i 1u 1u i 1u 1
i i 1

1.2.2 Addition and Subtraction

Given two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = x + yi, the following holds true

for Addition and Subtraction.

Recall in algebra, you can add or subtract like terms. Similarly you can add or
subtract the real parts and the imaginary parts.
i.e. z1 r z2
= (a + bi) +(x + yi)
= a + bi + x + yi
Collecting Real and Imaginary parts yields:
a+b i
+ x+y i
( a  x ) + (b  y )i

?z1  z 2 ( a  x )  ( b  y ) i

2 Example 1 If v = 1 – 5i and w = – 1 + 3i. Find:

1. v + w 2. w – v
" Answers
1. v + w 2. w–v
= (1 – 5i) + (– 1 + 3i) = (– 1 + 3i) – (1 – 5i)
= 1 – 5 i = –1 + 3 i
+ –1 + 3 i – 1 – 5 i
0 – 2i –2+8i
? v + w = – 2i ?w–v=–2+8i

9
1.2.3 Multiplication

Given two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = x + yi, the following holds true
for Multiplication.

Recall in algebra, we use distributive law to expand the brackets. We will also use
the fact that i 2 = – 1 when simplifying the result.
i.e. z1 u z2

= (a + bi) u (x + yi)

= (a + bi) (x + yi)
= a u x + a u yi + bi u x + bi u yi
= a x + a yi + bi x + bi yi
= a x + a yi + bi x + by i 2 2
i =–1
= a x + a yi + bi x + by(– 1)
= a x + a yi + bi x – by Collect real parts and imaginary parts
? z1 u z 2 (ax  by)  (ay  bx)i

2 Example 2 If v = 1 – 5i and w = – 1 + 3i. Find

1. v u w 2. w 2
" Answers
1. v u w

= (1 – 5i) u (– 1 + 3i)

= 1 u – 1 + 1 u 3i – 5i u – 1 + – 5i u 3i

= –1 + 3i + 5i – 15 i 2
= –1 + 3i + 5i – 15 (– 1)
=–1 + 3i + 5i + 15 Add the real and imaginary parts
= – 1 + 15 + 3i + 5i
? v u w = 14 + 8 i

2. w 2 = w u w
= (– 1 + 3i) 2
= (– 1)2 + 2 u – 1 u 3 i + (3i)2 Shortcut
=1–6i+9i2 (a + b) 2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
= 1 – 6 i + 9 (– 1)
=1–6i–9
=1–9–6i
=–8–6i

10
 1.2.4 Division

Conjugate
Conjugate is found by changing the sign of the coefficient of i. The complex
conjugate is denoted by a line on top, i.e. z
The complex roots of quadratics occur in conjugate pairs. This means if a + bi is a
root then a  bi is also a root.

Given two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = x + yi, then

z1 a  bi and z2 x  yi

Complex Conjugate properties:

1) z z

2) z1 r z2 z1 r z2

3) z1 ˜ z2 z1 ˜ z2

§ ·
4) ¨ z1 ¸ z1
¨z ¸ z2
© 2¹

Division
When dividing two complex numbers, multiply the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator.

z1 a  bi
i.e. = multiply by conjugate of the denominator
z 2 x  yi
a  bi x  yi  a  bi  x  yi 
= u = 2
a b
2
( a  b )( a  b )
x  yi x  yi  x  yi  x  yi 
ax  ayi  bxi  byi 2
=
x 2  ( yi ) 2
ax  ayi  bxi  by (1)
=
x 2  y 2 (1)
ax  by  bxi  ayi
=
x2  y2
ax  by  bx  ay i
=
x2  y2
In rectangular form:
z1 ax  by  bx  ay 
?  i
z2 x2  y2 x2  y2

11
2 Example 3 If a = 1 – 5i and b = –1 + 3i, show that ab a ˜b
" Answer
LHS = ab RHS a ˜b

(1  5i )(1  3i ) (1  5i ) ˜ (1  3i )

(1  5i )(1  3i ) (1  5i )(1  3i )

 1  3i  5i  15i 2 1  3i  5i  15i 2

 1  3i  5i  15 1 1  3i  5i  15(1)

 1  3i  5i  15 14  8i
14  8i
14  8i
? LHS RHS

4  3i
2 Example 4 Simplify and express  3 in the form a  bi .
3  2i
" Answer
4  3i 3 4  3i 33  2i 
 
3  2i 1 3  2i 13  2i 
4  3i  9  6i
3  2i
13  3i
3  2i
Next, multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.

2 2
a b ( a  b )( a  b )

12
~ Exercise 1.2
1. Evaluate
1
a) i 5 b) i 7 c) d) 3i 2 u 4i 3
i6

2. Given that z = 3 + i and w = – 1 + 2 i, evaluate the following:

a) z + w b) z – w c) z + 2 w
d) 2 z – 3 w e) z + z f) w – w

3. Simplify
a) (– 1 – 3 i) (1 + i) b) (1 – i) 2
c) 8i 4 (9i9  3i 6 ) d) ( 1 + 2 i) 2

4. Two complex numbers, D and E are given as: D 2  i and E 3  2i .

a) Show that D  E D E .
b) Find D
E in the form a  bi .

5. Simplify
1 1  2i 2i 3 2i
a) b) c) 1 d)
1 i i 3 1 i

6. Two complex numbers are given as: z 1 3i and w 1  i .

a) Show that z  z 2Re( z )
b) Show that w w
w
c) Find
z
w
d) Simplify and express in the form a  bi
z

e) Show that §¨ ·¸
w w
©z¹ z

Imaginary numbers were originally posited by famed gambler/mathematician Girolamo

Cardano and then expanded by Rafael Bombelli and John Wallis. They still existed as a
peculiar, but essential problem in math until William Hamilton described the definition ~
Andy Kiersz (http://www.slideshare.net/malikanaa/complex-number-45848431)

13
 Geometrical
SUB – STRAND 1.3 Representation and
Properties

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.3.1 Represent rectangular form on the

complex plane.
Find modulus and argument.
1.3.2 Convert rectangular to polar form.
1.3.3 Convert polar to rectangular form.
1.3.3 Represent polar form on an argand
diagram.
1.3.4 Multiply and divide in polar form.

14
 1.3.1 Geometric Representation of z = a + bi

1.3.1.1 Argand Diagram

A complex number z is viewed as point in a two – dimensional Cartesian

coordinate system called the complex plane or Argand diagram.

The x – axis shows the real part (a) and y – axis shows the imaginary part (b).
Graphically, z a  bi is drawn below:
Im(z)

b z a  bi

a Re(z)

2 Example If z 1 3i , plot the points z and z on an Argand diagram.

" Answer Im(z)

3 z 1 3i

1 Re(z)

 3 z 1 3i

15
 1.3.1.2 Modulus of z

The Modulus (magnitude or Absolute value) of a complex number is the length of

the vector from the origin to the position of the complex number in the Argand
diagram.
If z a  bi , the modulus (using Pythagoras theorem) is defined as

z a 2  b2 .

Graphically, modulus is shown below:

Im(z)

z or r

a Re(z)

Properties of modulus:
2 n
1. z z 2. zz z 3. zn z
v v
4. vuw vuw 5.
w w

2 Example If z 1 3i
2
Show that z z z

" Answer
2 2
zz z : Let LHS zz , RHS z

LHS zz RHS z
2

1  3i 1  3i  § 2 2 ·
 
2

¨ 1   3 ¸
1   3i  © ¹
2 2

22
1  3i 2
4
1  3(1)
4
LHS = RHS

16
 1.3.1.3 Argument of z [arg(z)]

The angle from the positive x – axis to the line segment joining the origin is called
the argument of z . If z = x + yi lies in the first or the fourth quadrant then
y
arg( z ) tan 1 §¨ ·¸
©x¹

Graphically:
Im(z) Recall, to find the angle use TOA, i.e.
b
§O·
oT tan 1 ¨ ¸
© A¹

T arg( z )
a Re(z)

Arguments have positive values if measured anticlockwise from the positive

x – axis and negative if measured clockwise.

Principle argument – Arg(z) lies in the interval S T d S or 180q T d 180q

Note capital A for principle argument.

Properties of argument:
z1
1. arg( z1 z2 ) arg( z1 )  arg( z2 ) 2. arg( ) arg( z1 )  arg( z2 )
z2
3. arg( z n ) n arg( z )

2 Example A complex number is given as z 1 3i .

a) Plot the point on an argand diagram.
b) Find z .
c) Find arg( z ).
" Answers
a) Im(z) b)
arg( z )
z a2  b2

1 Re(z) (1) 2  ( 3 ) 2
z or abs( z ) or r a 2  b2 . 1 3
 3
2

17
c) Im(z)

1 Re(z)
T arg( z )

 3

Consider the right – angle triangle

1
T arg( z ) tan T
3
3 1 § 1 ·
T tan ¨ ¸ 30 o
© 3¹
1
?Arg ( z )  ( 90 o  30 o ) 120 o
This is the principle argument.

We could also say arg(z) = 270 – 30

240q

~ Exercise 1.3.1
Use the complex numbers shown below to answer questions 1 – 4.
1  3i
i. z1 1  i ii. z2 1  2i iii. z3
2
3 1
iv. z4 4i v. z5 3 vi. z6  i
4 3

1. Represent the complex numbers on complex planes.

2. Find the magnitude and argument of each of the above complex numbers.

3. Verify the following properties:

z2 z2
i. z6 z6 ii. z1 u z 2 z1 u z 2 iii .
z1 z1
4. Verify the following properties:
z4
i. arg( z1 z2 ) arg( z1 )  arg( z2 ) ii. arg( ) arg( z4 )  arg( z2 )
z2

18
 1.3.2 Polar or Trigonometric Form

Recall the rectangular form is written as z = a + bi.

x The polar coordinates is (r, θ)
where r is modulus (position of a point in terms of its distance from the
origin) and θ is the argument (angle θ from the positive x - axis).

x Using Casio fx-82 MS calculator (to be in degree mode) we can find r and θ

¾ To find r: Press Pol( a , b ) =

¾ To find θ: Press
RCL tan

x Writing as polar form

The polar representation of z is z = r [cos θ + i sin θ]

Short cut form to remember is z = r cis θ

2 Example A complex number is given as z 1 3i . Write z in polar form.

z a bi
" Answers ?a 1 & b  3
z 1  3i

Press Pol( 1 ,  3 ) = ?r 2

RCL tan ?T 120o

In polar form

z 2 >cos 120 isin 120 @

o o

o
2 cis ( 120 )

19
 1.3.3 Converting polar to rectangular form and vice versa

Recall that we have already converted rectangular form to polar form.

The polar form is written as z = r cis θ or z = r [cos θ + i sin θ].

To convert polar form to rectangular form z = x + yi, you will use distributive
law to expand.

Using Casio fx-82 MS calculator (to be in degree mode) find x and y

¾ To find x: Press Shift Pol( r , θ ) =

¾ To find y: Press
RCL tan

2 Example 1 A polar form of a complex number is given as

z 3 cis 60 o .
Write z in rectangular form.

" Answer Using distributive law

z 3 cos 60 o  i sin 60 o 
3
3cos 60 o  i u 3sin 60 o Press Shift Pol( 3 , 60 ) = ?x
2
1 3
3u  i u 3u
2 2 Press RCL tan ?y 2.60
3 3 3
 i
2 2

2 Example 2 The polar form of a complex number is given as


z 2 cos 45o  i sin 45o 
Write z in rectangular form.

" Answer
z 2u cos 45 o  isin 45 o 
z 2 u cos 45o  2 u i sin 45o
2 cos 45o  2 sin 45o i
2  2i

20
 1.3.4 Argand Diagram representing polar form

Recall Argand diagram of a complex number z a  bi . The same point can be

plotted using polar form z = r [cos θ + i sin θ].

Convert z = r [cos θ + i sin θ] to rectangular form z a  bi and plot.

Im(z)

b z = r [cos θ + i sin θ] a  bi

a Re(z)

Also note that the rectangular and polar forms of any given complex number
represent the same point.

§ S S·
2 Example 3 A complex number is given as z 5 ¨ cos  i sin ¸ .
© 3 3¹
a) Express z in rectangular form
b) Graph the complex number z on an Argand diagram.

" Answers
a)

b)

21
~ Exercise 1.3.4

1. For each of the complex numbers given below, write z in polar form:
1  3i
i. z1 1  i ii. z2 1  2i iii. z3
2
3 1
iv. z4 4i v. z5 3 vi. z6  i
4 3

2. Represent the following complex numbers on complex planes:

i. v 2 cos 60 o  isin 60 o  ii. w 3cos 30 o  i sin 30 o 

§ S S· § S S·
iii. z 5 ¨ cos  i sin ¸ iv. z 2 ¨ cos  i sin ¸
© 3 3¹ © 6 6¹

1.3.5 Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

If z1 = r1 [cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ] and z2 = r2 [cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ] then

Multiplication: z1 z 2 r1r2 [cos(T1  T 2 )  i sin(T1  T 2 )

z1 r1
Division: >cos(T1  T 2 )  i sin(T1  T 2 )@
z2 r2

2 Example 4 Given two complex numbers: v 

2 cos 60 o  i sin 60 o  ,
 
w 3 cos 30 o  i sin 30 o . Find in rectangular form

a) v u w
v
b)
w

22
" Answers

a) vuw
Using the property z1 z2 r1r2[cos(T1  T2 )  i sin(T1  T2 )

v˜w 2u3 >cos(60 o

 30 o )  i sin(60 o  30 o ) @

6 cos 90 o  i sin 90 o 
Use Distributive Law


v x w 6 cos 90 o  i sin 90 o 
6 u cos 90 o  6 u i sin 90 o
6 cos 90 o  6 sin 90 o i
0  6i
6i

v
b)
w

z1 r1
Using the property >cos(T1  T 2 )  i sin(T1  T 2 )@
z2 r2

v
w
2
3
>cos( 60 o
 30 )  i sin( 60  30 ) @
o o o

2
cos30 o i sin30 o 
3
2§ 3 1 ·
¨  i ¸¸
3 ¨© 2 2 ¹

3 1
 i
3 3

23
~ Exercise 1.3
1. Write each complex number in rectangular form:
a) z 2  cos300  i sin 300 
b) z 7  cos 40.9q  i sin 40.9q 
§ S S·
c) z 2 ¨ cos  i sin ¸
© 6 6¹

2. Given p 5  cos90  i sin 90  and q 2  cos 30  i sin  30 

a) Represent p on an Argand diagram.
b) Find p
c) Find q

d) Find pq and express your answer in rectangular form.

p
e) Find and express your answer in rectangular form.
q

§ 2S 2S · § S S·
3. Two complex numbers are given as D 3 ¨ cos  i sin ¸ and E 2 ¨ cos  i sin ¸
© 3 3 ¹ © 2 2¹
Find:
a) DE in the form a  bi

b) DE
§D ·
c) arg ¨ ¸
©E ¹

S
4. Given p 2 cis and q 2 cis S
2
a) Represent q on an Argand diagram.
b) Find p
c) Find pq in rectangular form.
p
d) Find in rectangular form.
q

Imaginary numbers are a fine and wonderful refuge of the divine spirit almost an amphibian
between being and non-being. (1702) The Divine Spirit found a sublime outlet in that wonder
of analysis, that portent of the ideal world, that amphibian between being and not-being,
which we call the imaginary root of negative unity. ~ Gottfried Wilhelm L

24
 SUB – TOPIC 1.4 Powers and Roots
Of Complex Numbers

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.4.1 Find any integer power of

complex numbers using De
Moivre’s Theorem.
1.4.2 Find nth roots.

25
1.4.1 Raising Complex Numbers to Powers Using De Moivre’s
theorem

De Moivre’s theorem, named after Abraham de Moivre, states that

zn = ª¬r  cos T  i sin T º¼

n
r n  cos nT  i sin nT 

2 Example A rectangular form of a complex number z is given as z 1  3 i .

a) Express z in polar form.
b) Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find z 5 .
[Give your answer in rectangular form.]
5
c) Show that z5 z

" Answers
z a bi
a) ?a 1& b  3
z 1  3i

Press Pol( 1 ,  3 ) = ?r 2

RCL tan ?T 60o

Thus in polar form: z 2>cos  60 o  isin  60 o @

b) Using formula z n r n  cos nT  isin nT 

z5 r5 cos 5T  i sin 5T 
25 >cos 5 u 60   i sin 5 u 60 @
o o

Calculator
32 >cos 300   i sin  300 @
o o
Press
Shift Pol( 32 , -300 ) =
Distributi ve law
? x 16
 
32 cos  300 o  i u 32 sin  300 o   Press ?y 27.71
3 RCL tan
16  i u 32 u
2
16  16 3i

26
c)
5
LHS z5 RHS z
5
1  3i
16 16 3i
5
§¨ 12  ( 3 ) 2 ·¸
© ¹
16 2  (16 3 ) 2 25
32
32

? LHS RHS

~ Exercise 1.4.1

1. A complex number is given as z 2  3i .

a) Express z in polar form.
b) Find z 6 using De Moivre’s theorem.

2. A complex number is given by z 2 3  i .

a) Write z in polar form.
b) Find z 4 using De Moivre’s theorem and express the answer in rectangular form.

3. A complex number z is given as z 3  i .

a) Express z in polar form.
b) Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find (3  i) 3 and express in rectangular form.

Electrical engineers use complex numbers frequently in their careers. Calculating AC circuits,
instead of direct current circuits, is a more complex process made simpler by utilizing
complex numbers. Sales analysts may utilize complex numbers in order to make predictions
and better understand the sales process. Economists use complex numbers in order to make
profit predictions. When analyzing business cycles, complex numbers can also come into play
~ Stephanie Dube Dwilson

27
 1.4.2 Finding nth roots

1
n
De Moivre’s theorem can be used to find roots, w z n
z .
Let z [r , T ]

Thus,
1 1 ª § 2Sk  T · § 2Sk  T ·º
z n
r n «cos¨ ¸  i sin ¨ ¸», if T is in radians
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
or
1 1ª § 360 o k  T · § 360 o k  T ·º
z n
r «cos¨¨
n ¸¸  i sin ¨¨ ¸¸», if T is in deg
¬ © n ¹ © n ¹¼
where k = 0, 1, 2, …. till the number of solution

Spacing of n-th roots

x For square roots there are two solutions 180o apart.

x For cube root there are three solutions 120o apart.
x For fourth root there are four solutions 90o apart.
360o 2S
x Therefore, for nth root there are n solutions or apart.
n n

2 Example Solve z 3 8  cos 270  i sin 270  .[Leave the answers in polar form.]

" Answers
Method 1

Given z 3 8  cos 270  i sin 270  , the roots are given by

ª § 270  360 k · § 270  360 k · º

¸  i sin ¨
3
Wk 8 «cos ¨ ¸» ,
¬ © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹¼
where k ^0,1, 2` , n 3 and r z 3
8.

28
Hence, the three distinct roots (in polar form) are:
ª § 270  360  0  · § 270  360  0  · º
W0 3 8 «cos ¨ ¸  i sin ¨ ¸» 2  cos 90  i sin 90 
¬« © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹ ¼» ,

ª § 270  360 1 · § 270  360 1 · º

W1 3
8 «cos ¨ ¸  i sin ¨ ¸» 2  cos 210  i sin 210 
«¬ © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹ »¼ ,
ª § 270  360  2  · § 270  360  2  · º
W2 3
8 «cos ¨ ¸  i sin ¨ ¸» 2  cos 330  i sin 330 
¬« © 3 ¹ © 3 ¹ »¼

Method 2
360
Note: There are 3 solutions. 120q so add 120q to the smallest angle 90q which is
3
270q
obtained from where 270q is the argument of z and 3 refers to the number of roots.
3
So the angles are :
90q ,
90q 120q 210q [this confirms with above angles]
210q 120q 330q

Roots in polar form are {2 cis 90q , 2cis 210q , 2cis 330q }

2 Example 2 The polar form of a complex number is given as z 16 cis S

Find the fourth roots of z.

" Answers
Using Method 2
First Root

1 1
z1 16 4  cis S  4

1 S
16 4 cis
4
S
2 cis
4

2S 1
For fourth root we expect four solutions which are S radians apart.
4 2

29
Second root Third root 4th root
1 1 1
Add S to the first root. Add S to the second root. Add S to the third root.
2 2 2
S S 3S S 5S S
z 2 2 cis (  ) z 2 2 cis (  ) z 2 2 cis (  )
4 2 4 2 4 2
3S 5S 7S
2 cis ( ) 2 cis ( ) 2 cis ( )
4 4 4

S 3S 5S 7S
Roots in polar form are {2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis }
4 4 4 4

Roots in rectangular form are: ^ 2  2i,  2  2i,  2  2i, 2  2i `

~ Exercise 1.4.2
§ § 3S · § 3S ··
1. A complex number z given in polar form is 8 ¨ cos ¨  ¸  i sin ¨  ¸ ¸ . Find the
© © 2 ¹ © 2 ¹¹
fourth roots of z . (Give your answer in polar form.)

2. A complex number z is given as z 3 i .

a) Express z in polar form.

b) Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find z 4 .
c) Find all the cube roots of z 3 i .

3. A complex number z is given as z = 1  i .

a) Plot z on an argand diagram.

b) Find the modulus and argument.
c) Express z in polar form.
d) Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find z 4 .
e) Find the square roots of z = 1  i .

4. Solve
a) z 3 8i b) z 4 i 1 c) z 3 i 0 d) z 4 81

5. Solve
a) z 3 27 (cos 90q  i sin 90q ) b) z 2 4 (cos 60q  i sin 60q )

Adam and Eve are like an imaginary number, the square root of minus one. You can never
see any concrete proof that it exists, but if you include it in your equations, you can calculate
all manner of things that couldn't be imagined without it ~ — Philip Pullman

30
 SUB – TOPIC 1.5 Curves and regions

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

1.5.1 Sketch lines parallel to x and y axis.

1.5.2 Sketch rays.
1.5.3 Sketch circles given the equation z k
1.5.4 Sketch regions associated with above
lines and curves.

31
1.5.1 Horizontal and vertical lines

Re(z) refers to the real part which is shown as vertical line on the x – axis.
For instance, sketch Re(z) = c
This means the set of all complex numbers with a real part of c, thus a
vertical line will be drawn at point c on the x – axis
Im(z)

c Re(z)

Im(z)refers to the imaginary part which is shown as the horizontal line on the
y – axis.
For instance, sketch Im(z) = d
This means the set of all complex numbers with a real part of d, thus a
horizontal line will be drawn at point d on the y – axis
Im(z)

Re(z)

2 Example 1 Sketch Re(z) = 4

" Answer
Im(z)

4 Re(z)

32
 2 Example 2 Sketch Im(z)= 4

" Answer
Im(z)

Re (z)

1.5.2 Rays

The Arg(z) = T represents a ray from the origin making an angle T with the
positive x – axis. Note that the origin is excluded.
Im(z)

T
Re(z)

S
2Example 3 Sketch Arg(z)=
6

" Answer
S
This is a ray from the origin making an angle of radians with the positive x-axis.
6
Im(z)

S
6
Re(z)

33
1.5.3 Circles

In general, the Graphs of Modulus Function, z k corresponds to the points on

a circle with radius k and centre (0,0).

Im(z)

–k k Re(z)

–k

2Example 4 Sketch z 3

" Answer
Im(z)

-3 0 3 Re(z)

-3

1.5.4 Regions given as inequality

Recall the sketching of graphs using the inequality signs like <, >, ≤, or ≥ .
A solid line for ≤ or ≥, and a dashed line for < or >.
Shade above or right of the line or outside the circle for > or ≥
Shade below or left of the line or inside the circle for < or ≤.

34
2Example 5 Sketch z d3

" Answer
This contains all the points on and inside the circle with radius = 3
Im(z)

-3 0 3 Re(z)

-3

2Example 6 Sketch -1<Re(z) d 4

" Answer
Im(z)

-1 4 Re(z)

~ Exercise 1.5.1
On argand diagrams, sketch the following graphs

1. z 3. 2. z  2. 3. z t 1.

4. Re(z) = 4 5.  3  Re( z ) d 2 6. 0 d Re( z )  1

7. Im(z)= -5 8. -1< Im(z) d 2 9. 1 d Im(z) < 5

S S
10. Arg(z)= 11. Arg(z)= 30o 12. Arg(z)= 
3 2

35
~ Review Exercise 1

1. A complex number has Re  z  2 and Im  z  3 . Find:

a) z , the conjugate of z , in rectangular form.
b) z u z
1
c) in the form a  bi.
z

2. Solve for x and y in (2  3i)( x  yi ) 3  2i

3. Solve the equation x 2  2 x  4 0 .

4. A complex number z is given as z 1 2i .

a) Express z in polar form.
b) Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find z 4 .
c) Find all the fourth roots of z 1  2i .

5. Sketch the following graphs:

a) Re(z)= -3
b) z 4
S
c) Arg(z)= 
3
d) 1d Re(z) d 1

The complex numbers are used broadly in electrical engineering, quantum mechanics and
complex mathematical theory ~ anonymous

36
 STRAND VECTORS
TWO

Arithmetic Operations on
SUB – STRAND 2.1 vectors

LEARNING OUTCOME

x Apply arithmetic operations on

vectors.

37
 2.1.1 Three – Dimensional Vectors

A vector has both magnitude (length, or size) and direction. Recall Vectors in 2-
dimensions. It is denoted by a skew symbol (~) at the bottom of the letter that is

. It can be drawn on the x – y plane where the first element on the top
represent the x – value and the second element at the bottom represents the y –
value.

+ x: shift x units to the right side – x: shift x units to the left side
+ y: shift y units upwards – y: shift y units downwards

2 Example Draw vector

" Answers

Extend this idea to represent 3-dimensional vectors. Three dimensional vectors

comprises of x , y and z components, which are rightെangles to each other.

2 Example

Draw vector

38
 2.1.2 Arithmetic Operations on Vector

2.1.2.1 Scalar Multiplication

The scalar is multiplied with each element of the vector.

Given that the vector and k is a scalar, then

§ ·
¨ 3¸
¨ ¸
2Example 1 Evaluate  2 ¨ 2 ¸
¨ 1 ¸¸
¨
© 2¹
" Answer
§ ·
¨ 3 ¸ § 6 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
 2¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 4 ¸
¨ 1 ¸¸ ¨© 1 ¸¹
¨
© 2¹

§ 2· § 5 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2Example 2 Given vector p ¨ 2 ¸ and vector q ¨ 2 ¸ .
¨ 3¸ ¨ 4¸
© ¹ © ¹
§ 20 ·
¨ ¸
Find the constant k such that 5p  kq ¨ 14 ¸
¨ 7¸
© ¹
" Answer
§ 20 · § 2· § 5 · § 20 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ Multiply the scalar by each
5p  kq ¨ 14 ¸ Ÿ 5 ¨ 2 ¸  k ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 14 ¸ element of the vector.
¨ 7¸ ¨ 3¸ ¨ 4¸ ¨ 7¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹
10  5k 20 Ÿ k 2
10  2k 14 Ÿ k 2 Solve any one of the equations
15  4k 7 Ÿ k 2 to obtain the value of k.
? k 2

39
 2.1.2.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction

While adding or subtracting vectors, just add or subtract the respective

components

Given Vector and , then

2 Example 3

§ 2· § 3·
a ¨ 3 ¸ and b ¨ 1 ¸ , find
~ ¨5 ¸ ~ ¨ ¸
© ¹ © 2¹

1. a b 2. b a
~ ~ ~ ~

" Answers
a b b  a b  ( a )
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
§ 2· § 3 · § 3· § 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨3 ¸  ¨ 1 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸  ¨3 ¸
¨5 ¸ ¨ 2¸ ¨ ¸ ¨5 ¸
© ¹ © ¹ © 2¹ © ¹
§5 · § 1·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
¨ 2¸ ¨  4¸
¨7¸ ¨ ¸
© ¹ ¨ 3¸
© ¹

2.1.3 Finding Vector given two points

If two points
is found by
and are known, the vector from to ,

40
2Example 4 Point P1 = ( 1, -3, 4) and P2 = ( 1, 3, -1)
o
Find the vector P1 P2 .
o
" Answer P1 P2 P2  P1
§ 1 · §¨ 1 ·¸ § 1  1 ·
¨ 3 ¸  3 ¨ ¸
¨ 1 ¸ ¨¨ ¸ ¨ 3  3 ¸
© ¹ © 4¹ © ¸ 1  4 ¹

§ 0·
o ¨ ¸
P1 P2 ¨ 6¸
¨ 5 ¸
© ¹

~ Exercise 2.1
ʹ Ͳ ͳ
1. Vectors are given as x ൭െ͵൱, y ൭ ͵ ൱and z ൭ െͳ ൱ .
~ ~
ͳ ~ െͳ ͵
Evaluate the following:
a) x  y  z b) 2 x z c) x  (3) y  z
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

§  1· §  2·
2. Given vectors c ¨ 2 ¸ and d ¨ 4 ¸ , find the constant k such that
~ ¨ 4¸ ~ ¨ 3 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
§ 1·
3 c k d ¨  2¸
~ ~ ¨ 6¸
© ¹

3. Point P1 = ( 0, -3, 4) and P2 = ( -1, 2, -1)

o
Find the vector P1 P2 .

4. Point P1 = ( 0, -3, 4) and P2 = ( -1, 2, -1)

o
Find the vector P1 P2 .

Vectors are used in everyday life to locate individuals and objects. They are also
used to describe objects acting under the influence of an external force ~
Reference An IAC Publishing Labs Company

41
 SUB – STRAND 2.2 Norm of a Vector and
Unit vectors

LEARNING OUTCOMES

2.2.1 Find norm and unit vectors.

42
 2.2.1 Norm and Unit Vectors

2.2.1.1 Norm of a vector

Norm of a vector is the length of the vector. It is also known as modulus or
magnitude. The symbol is and is found using Pythagoras theorem:

§ 1·
¨ ¸
2Example 1 Find the magnitude of a ¨ 3 ¸
~ ¨ ¸
© 4¹
" Answer
12   3  42
2
a 26 or 5.10

2.2.1.2 Unit Vectors

A unit vector is any vector which is of 1 unit length.

Unit vectors in the direction of x, y, and z െ axis are denoted by i, j and k.

x i , j and k in column vector can be represented as , and .

x Normalizing a vector which is finding a unit vector in the same direction

݀
 ՜ ‫݀ݎ݋ݐܿ݁ݒ݂݋݊݋݅ݐܿ݁ݎ݄݅݀݁ݐ݊݅ݎ݋ݐܿ݁ݒݐ݅݊ݑ‬
ȁ݀ȁ

43
2Example 2 Point P1 = ( 3, 0, -1) and P2 = ( -2, 1, 4)

o
Find the vector P1 P2 in terms of the unit vectors i , j and k .

" Answers
§ 2 · § 3 · § 5 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
AB b  a ¨ 1 ¸  ¨ 0 ¸ ¨ 1¸ .
¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸ ¨ 5¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹
·
¸
¸ 5i  j  5k
¸
¹

2Example 2 The vectors ~a and b are defined by:

~
1
§ · § ·1
a ¨ 2 ¸ and b ¨ 3 ¸
~ ¨ ¸ ~ ¨ ¸
©3¹ © 1 ¹

a) Express a and b in terms of unit vectors i , j and k .

~ ~
b) Find a  2 b and express in terms of unit vectors i , j and k .
~ ~

" Answers
a) a i 2j 3k and b i 3 jk .
~ ~

b)
a 2 b
~ ~

i  2 j  3 k  2( i  3 j  k )

i  2 j 3k  2 i  6 j 2k

 i 4j  5 k

2Example 4 A vector is given as p 4i  4 j  7k

a) Find the modulus of p 4i  4 j  7k
b) Find the unit vector in the direction of p 4i  4 j  7k .

44
" Answers
42   4   72
2
a) p 81 9.

b) Normalize
p 1 4 4 7
 4i  4 j  7k  i  j k
p 9 9 9 9

~ Exercise 2.2.1
§ 3 ·
1. A vector is given as v ¨ 2 ¸ .
~ ¨ ¸
© 1¹
a) Express in terms of unit vectors i , j and k
b) Find the modulus of v .
~
c) Find the unit vector in the direction of v .
~

ʹ Ͳ ͳ

2. Vectors are given as x ൭ െ͵ ൱, y ൭ ͵ ൱and z ൭െͳ൱.
~ ~
ͳ ~ െͳ ͵
a) Find 2 x – 3 y
~ ~
b) Find the x , y and z .
~ ~ ~
c) Express the three vectors in terms of unit vectors i , j and k

o
3. Point P1 = ( -2, 0, -1) and P2 = ( -2, -5, 4). Find the vector P1 P2 in terms of
the unit vectors i , j and k .

ʹ Ͳ ͳ

4. Vectors are given as x ൭െ͵൱, y ൭ ͵ ൱and z ൭െͳ൱.
~ ~
ͳ ~ െͳ ͵

a) Express x , y and z in terms of unit vectors i , j and k

~ ~ ~
b) Find the unit vector in the direction of z .
~

45
 SUB – STRAND 2.3 Dot product and its
application

LEARNING OUTCOMES

2.3.1 Compute scalar or dot

product.
2.3.2 Calculate the angle between
two vectors.
2.3.3 Identify parallel and
perpendicular vectors.

46
 2.3.1 Scalar product or Dot product

The result obtained will always be scalar.

Given and , then ‘a dot b’ is defined as

݈ܵܿܽܽ‫ݎ‬ሺ‫ݐ݋ܦ‬ሻܲ‫ ׷ ݐܿݑ݀݋ݎ‬

§ 1· § 2 ·
2Example 1 Points A and B have position vectors ~a ¨  2 ¸ and ~b ¨¨ 1 ¸¸
¨ ¸
© 2 ¹ © 3¹
Determine the scalar product of vectors a and b .
~ ~

" Answer
a.b a b  a b  a b
~~ 11 2 2 3 3
1u 2  2 u 1  2 u 3
2  2  6
10

2.3.2 Angle between two vectors

To find the angle between the two vectors, use formula

ܽ ή ܾ ൌ ȁܽȁȁܾȁ …‘• ߠ

Rearrange to get the angle:

47
 § 1· § 2 ·
2Example Points A and B have position vectors a  2 and b ¨ 1 ¸ .
¨ ¸
~ ¨ ¸ ~ ¨ ¸
© 2 ¹ © 3¹
i. Determine the scalar product of a and b .
~ ~
ii. Find a and b .
iii. Find the angle between a and b .
~ ~

" Answers

i. a.b a b  a b  a b
~~ 11 2 2 3 3
1u 2  2 u 1  2 u 3
2  2  6
10

ii. a x2  y2  z 2 b x2  y2  z 2

12  (2) 2  (2) 2
(2) 2  12  32
1 4  4
4 1 9
9
14
3

§ a.b ·
iii. T cos 1 ¨¨ ¸
¸
© a b ¹
§  10 ·
cos 1 ¨ ¸
© 3 u 14 ¹
152 . 98 o

48
 2.3.3 Properties of Angle

Properties of Angle between two vectors

1. If two vectors and are parallel, then the angle between them is
either zero or 1800, that is

One vector will be scalar multiple of the other.

2. If two vectors and are perpendicular to each other, the angle will be
90o. This means that their dot product is zero. This is also known as
Orthogonal Vectors.

§ 1·
¨ ¸ §1 ·
2Example If a ¨  3 ¸ and ~
b ¨3¸
~ ¨ 2¸
¨ 4¸ © ¹
© ¹
Show that the two vectors a and b are orthogonal.
~ ~

" Answer
a.b a1b1  a2 b2  a3b3
~ ~
1u 1  3 u 3  4 u 2
1 9  8
0

Hence, it is orthogonal.

49
~ Exercise 2.3
§  3· §  6·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
1. Given a = ¨ 1 ¸ and b = ¨ 2 ¸
~ ~
¨ 4¸ ¨ 8¸
© ¹ © ¹
a) Find the scalar product.
b) Find the angle between the vectors.
c) Are the vectors parallel or orthogonal? Explain.

ʹ Ͳ ͳ

2. Vectors are given as x ൭െ͵൱, y ൭ ͵ ൱and z ൭െͳ൱. Find the scalar
~ ~
ͳ ~ െͳ ͵
product of:

a) x and y .
~ ~
b) x and z .
~ ~

§ 2· §1 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
3. Given vector p = ¨  4 ¸ and q = ¨  3 ¸ . Find the angle between p and q.
¨ 3¸ ¨  2¸
© ¹ © ¹

§ 3· § 2·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
4. Given vectors a ¨  2 ¸ and b ¨ 1 ¸ . Show that the two vectors a and b
~ ¨ ¸ ~ ¨ ¸
© 4¹ © 2 ¹
are orthogonal.

§ 1 · § 3·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
5. Given vectors c ¨ 2 ¸ and d ¨ y ¸ , find the value of y if c and d are
¨ 4¸ ¨ 2 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
orthogonal.

A great example would be how airplane pilots receive instructions to land at

airports. During a visual approach, the Air Traffic Control instructs pilots to fly a
particular heading (direction) for a certain distance (magnitude). This is exactly
what a vector quantity is- something that has a magnitude and direction. This is
why the Air Traffic Controllers might sometimes use the phrase “expect vectors
for the visual approach..." when the plane nears the airport.~ Krishnaprasad
Bindumadhavan

50
 SUB – TOPIC 2.4 Equation of lines

LEARNING OUTCOME

2.4.1 Determine equation of lines:

vector, parametric and
symmetric equations.

51
 2.4.1 Equation of Lines

A line which passes through a point and is parallel to the vector

‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬଴ ܽ
‫ܖܗܑܜ܉ܝܙ܍ܚܗܜ܋܍܄ܛ܉ܐ‬ǣ ‫ݕ‬
ቆ‫ݕ‬ቇ ൌ ൭ ଴ ൱ ൅ ‫ ݐ‬ቆܾቇ
‫ݖ‬ ‫ݖ‬଴ ܿ

Parametric equation:

Symmetric Equation: 

Symmetric Equation is also known as Cartesian Equation of line. This form of

equation does not include parameter, t.

Finding Symmetric Equation from Parametric Equation :

௫ି௫బ ௬ି௬బ ௭ି௭బ

Making t the subject of each equation: ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ൌ ൌ
௔ ௕ ௖

Hence, Symmetric or Cartesian Form of an equation of a line which passes

through a point and is parallel to the vector is

‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬଴ ‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݕ‬଴ ‫ ݖ‬െ ‫ݖ‬଴

ൌ ൌ
ܽ ܾ ܿ

2Example 1 Find the equation of the line passing through ( 0, 3, -1) and
parallel to the vector i െ j + 3k

" Answers
‫ݔ‬ Ͳ ͳ
Vector equation ‫ݕ‬
ቆ ቇ ൌ ൭ ͵ ൱ ൅ ‫ ݐ‬൭െͳ൱
‫ݖ‬ െͳ ͵

Parametric Equation x = t, y =3െ t, z = െ1+3t

52
 ௫ି଴ ௬ିଷ ௭ାଵ
Make t the subject for each equation: ଵ
ൌ ିଵ
ൌ ଷ

௭ାଵ
Simplifying gives: ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͵െ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ଷ

௭ାଵ
Thus, the equation of the line in symmetric form is ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͵െ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ଷ

2Example 2 Find the equation of a line passing through the points

P1 = (3, 0, -1) and P2 = (-2, 1, 4) .

" Answers
Find the vector from P1 to P2 .
§ 2 · § 3 · § 5 ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
AB b  a ¨ 1 ¸  ¨ 0 ¸ ¨ 1¸ .
¨ 4 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸ ¨ 5¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

P1 = (3, 0, -1) is the point on the line so the vector equation is

‫ݔ‬ ͵ െͷ
ቆ‫ݕ‬ቇ ൌ ൭ Ͳ ൱ ൅ ‫ ݐ‬൭ ͳ ൱
‫ݖ‬ െͳ ͷ

The parametric equation is x = 3 – 5t, y = t, z = -1+5t

[Note: We can also use point P2 ]

‫ݔ‬ Ͳ ͳ

2Example 3: The equation of a line is given as ቆ‫ݕ‬ቇ ൌ ൭ ͵ ൱ ൅ ‫ ݐ‬൭ െͳ ൱
‫ݖ‬ െͳ ͵

a) Give the coordinates of a point that lies on the line.

b) Give a vector which is parallel to the line.

" Answers
a) (0, 3, -1)

ͳ
b) ൭െͳ൱
͵

53
 3 x 4z  8
2Example 3 The symmetric equation of a line is given as y 1
2 4
Write the parametric and vector equation of this line.

" Answers
The general form of symmetric equation of the line is

‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬଴ ‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݕ‬଴ ‫ ݖ‬െ ‫ݖ‬଴
ൌ ൌ
ܽ ܾ ܿ
The given equation can be rewritten as

  x  3 y 1 4  z  2 x 3 y 1 z2 x 3 y   1 z2
Ÿ Ÿ
2 1 4 2 1 1 2 1 1

ʹ
The point on the line is ( 3, -1, 2) and the vector is ൭ ͳ ൱
െͳ

§ x· § 3· § 2·
Thus, the vector equation of the line is ¨ y ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸.
¨ ¸ ¨ 1 ¸  t ¨ 1 ¸
¨z¸ ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

Make x, y and z the subject to get the parametric equation

x 3  2t
y 1  t
z 2  (t )

~ Exercise 2.4.1
1. Find the vector, parametric and symmetric equations of the line passing
through P1 = (-2, 3, 5) and P2 = (3, -1, -2).

2. Write down the vector ,parametric and symmetric equations of the line
§ 3·
passing through (2, -1, 3) in the direction of ¨ 1 ¸
¨ 1 ¸
© ¹
x2 4 y
3. For the line 2z  4
3 2
a) State the coordinates of a point that lies on this line.
b) State the direction vector.
c) Write the vector and parametric equation of the line.

54
4. Write down the vector equation of the line parallel to

‫ݔ‬ ͵ െͳ
‫ݕ‬
ቆ ቇ ൌ ൭ͳ൱ ൅ ‫ ݐ‬൭ Ͷ ൱ǡand passing through the point (1, 4, -2)
‫ݖ‬ െʹ ͳ

5. Find the parametric equation of a line through ( -2, 0, 5) that is parallel to the
line x = 3 + 2t, y = 4 - t, z = 6 + 2t

§ x· § 3· § 2·
6. For the line ¨ y ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸,
¨ ¸ ¨ 1 ¸  t ¨ 1 ¸
¨z¸ ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

a) State the coordinates of a point that lies on this line.

b) State the direction vector.
c) Write the equation of the line in parametric form.

7. The vector equations of two lines L1 and L2 are given as

L1 : L2 :

a) Give the direction vector for L1 .

b) Write the coordinates of a point on L2 .
c) Express L1 in symmetric form.

8. The parametric equation of a line is x = 3 – 5t, y = 2െ t, z = t

a) State the coordinates of a point that lies on this line.

b) State the direction vector.
c) Write the equation of the line in vector form.

Vectors are important in modeling and solving real – life problems. For example
in an airplane, a dot product would give the combined effect of the coordinates in
different dimensions on each other. It would actually be the product with cosine
of their mutual angle. ~ Ahmad Bokhari

55
 SUB – TOPIC 2.5 Division of a Line
Segment

Theory:
(a) Internal division of a line segment: (b) External division of a line segment:

When point P lies between points A and B, When point P lies outside of the line
it divides AB internally. segment AB, it can divide AB
externally.

LEARNING OUTCOME

2.5.1 Find the coordinates of the

point which divides a line
segment in a given ratio.

56
 2.5.1 Ratio Formula

2.5.1.1 Dividing a line segment in the ratio m : n

x Finding a point which divides the interval internally in the ratio of m : n

 m n
A P B

Let’s divide interval AB in (m + n) parts and denote point P as the point where it is
m sub-intervals away from point A and n sub-intervals from point B.

Consider first point A = and the second point B =

The position vectors of points A and B are A = B=

If point P divides the line segment in the ratio m : n , then

x Finding the point which divides the line segment externally

The division of the interval AB externally in the ratio of m : n would be given as

Note that point P is not on interval AB but an extension of interval AB. Point P is
formed as it is moved back from B by a ratio of n sections.

In this case n would be negative.

57
2Example 1 Point A has the coordinate (6, 1, 5) and point B has the
coordinate (-1, 4, 3). Point P divides the line AB such that
AP: AB = 2 : 5. Find the coordinates of point P.

" Answer
n=3 B
m=2
A P

Note the ratio carefully: AP= 2 , AB = 5 so PB =3

Finding the point:

mB  n A
P
mn
§  1· § 6 ·
2¨ 4 ¸  3¨¨1 ¸¸
¨ 3¸
© ¹ ©5¹
23
§  2 · § 18 ·
¨ 8 ¸  ¨ 3¸
¨ 6 ¸ ¨ 15 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
23
§16 ·
¨11 ¸ y 5
¨ 21¸
© ¹
1 §16 ·
¨11 ¸
5 ¨© 21¸¹
§ 3 .2 ·
¨ 2 .2 ¸
¨ 4 .2 ¸
© ¹
? P (3.2 , 2.2 , 4.2)

2Example 2 A and B are the points  2,1,3 and  2,5, 4  , respectively.

Find the coordinates of point X on the line AB such that
1
AX XB .
3

58
" Answer
AX m 1
We are given , that is, m 1 and n 3 . ՜
XB n 3

B
m=1 n=3
X

2Example 3 A and B are the points (-1, 2, 4) and (3, 0, -2), respectively.
Find the coordinates of point P on the line AB such that
AP 1
.
PB 3

" Answer

59
~ Exercise 2.5.1

1. If P is the point (1, 1, 0) and R is the point (1, 6, -5) , find the coordinates of a
point Q on the line PR given that PQ: QR = 3:2.

2. If R and S are the points  3, 4,1 and  5, 0, 1 , respectively, find the
coordinates of point P such that RP : RS 1: 4 .

3. A and B are the points (-3, 5, 10) and (12, -5, -15), respectively. Find the
AP 2
coordinates of point P on the line AB such that .
AB 5

4. If Q is the point (-2, 1, 1) and R is the point (-2, 4, -5) , find the coordinates of
a point P on the line QR given that QR = 2PR .

5. Point A has the coordinate  3, 5, 2  and point B has the coordinate
 6, 5, 1 . Point P divides the line AB such that AP : PB 2 : 5 . Find the
coordinates of point P.

6. A is the point ( 1, 5, -4) and B is the point ( 7, -3, -1) on a line AB. Find the
coordinates of P on this line such that AP : PB = 6 : െ1.

7. A is the point ( -3, 4, -2) and B is the point ( 1, 2, -3) on a line AB. Find the
coordinates of P on this line such that AP : PB = 5 : െ1.

60
~ Review Exercise 2

§  1· § 1·
1. Given vectors c ¨ 2 ¸ and d ¨ 2 ¸ , find the constant k such that
¨ 4¸ ¨ ¸
© ¹ © 3¹
§ 7 ·
¨ ¸
3c + k d = ¨ 14 ¸ .
¨ 0 ¸¹
©

§ 2· § 4·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
2. Given vector p ¨ 3 ¸ and q ¨ 2 ¸ , find the scalar product of p and q .
¨ 1¸ ¨1¸
© ¹ © ¹

§ 1 · § 1·
¨ 2 ¸ and ¨ ¸
3. Are the vectors c
¨ ¸
d ¨  2 ¸ Orthogonal ?
© 4¹ ¨ 3¸
© ¹

1
4. Find the unit vector in the direction of p 2 i  j k.
~ ~ ~ 2~

5. Given a 3 j  k and b i 2 j  2 k
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

find
a) 2a – 3b
b) a and b
~ ~
c) the scalar product
d) the angle between a and b .
~ ~

6. Find the parametric equation of a line through the origin that is parallel to
the line x = t, y = -1 + t, z = 6 + 2t

61
 STRAND FUNCTIONS
THREE

Operations on Functions
SUB – STRAND 3.1

LEARNING OUTCOMES

3.1.1 Apply arithmetic operations and

operation of composition on
various functions.
3.1.2 Give domain and range of
combined functions.

62
 3.1.1 New Functions from Old

¾ Combining functions
If and are the two functions, there are many ways we can combine
them:

1. Addition 2. Subtraction

3. Multiplication 4. Division

¾ A composite function, denoted by ‘o’ , is defined by

f o g ( x ) = f (g ( x ))

2Example If f ( x ) = x2 and g ( x ) = x + 4, then

fog(x)=f(x+4)=(x+4)2
g o f ( x ) = g (x 2) = x 2 + 4

2Example 1 Functions f and g are given as f ( x ) = 3x 2 + 2 and

g ( x ) = 5x Ȃ 2.
Find the following:
a) (f + g) (x) b) (f െ g) (x)

§f·
c) ( f x g ) ( x) d) ¨¨ g ¸¸ (x)
© ¹

e) f o g ( x ) f) g o f ( x )

" Answers
a) ( f  g )( x) f ( x)  g ( x) b)
= (3x 2 + 2) + (5x Ȃ 2) = (3x 2 + 2) Ȃ (5x Ȃ 2)
= 3x 2 + 5x + 2 Ȃ 2 = 3x 2 Ȃ 5x + 2 ൅ 2
= 3x 2 + 5x = 3x 2 Ȃ 5x + 4

63
 c) d)
( f x g )( x) f ( x) x g ( x)

= (3x 2 + 2) x (5x Ȃ 2) ଷ௫ మ ାଶ

=
ହ௫ିଶ
= 3x 2 x 5x Ȃ 2 x 3x 2 + 2 x 5x + 2 x Ȃ2
= 15x 3 Ȃ 6 x 2 + 10 x Ȃ4

e) f o g ( x ) = f [5x Ȃ 2]
A Short-cut way
= 3 (5x Ȃ 2) 2 + 2
(5x Ȃ 2) 2
= 3 (25x 2 Ȃ 20 x + 4) + 2 = (5x) 2 Ȃ 2 2 5x + (Ȃ 2) 2
= 75x 2 Ȃ 60 x + 12 + 2 = 25x 2 Ȃ 20 x + 4
= 75x 2 Ȃ 60 x + 14

f) g o f ( x ) = g[3x 2 + 2]

= 5(3x 2 + 2) െ 2
= 15x 2 + 10 Ȃ 2
= 15x 2 + 8

3.1.2 Domain and Range of Combined Functions

¾ The domain of addition, subtraction and multiplication of two functions

is the intersection of the domains of f and g.

and

¾ The domain of has an additional restriction that

¾ The domain of f o g ( x ) = domain of the inside function,

f o g ( x ) exists if the Range of is a subset of the Domain of .

64
2Example 2 Functions f and g are as follows
f ( x) x  3 and g ( x) 2 x .
Give the domain of (f + g) ( x )

The diagram below shows the

" Answer
graph of f (x) = and
df {x : x t 3} dg {x : x d 2} g (x) =
d f g d f ˆ dg g(x)
{x : 3 d x d 2}

common intersection
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

2Example 3 If f (x) = x + 4 and g (x) = x

a) Find f o g ( x ).

b) State the domain f o g ( x ).

" Answers
a) fog(x)=f( x )= x +4
b) The domain of  fog  x  will be given
by the domain of the inside function, g .

The diagram below shows the

graph of g (x) =
g(x)

0 x

domain of g is x t 0

‫׵‬domain of  fog  x  is { x: x t 0, x  R }

65
2Example 4 Functions f and g are defined by
f : x o x 1 2

g:xo x2

Find:
b) f o g ( x ).
c) the domain of f o g ( x ).
d) the range of f o g ( x ).

" Answers
a)
f  g  x   
2
 fog  x  x2 1  x  2 1 x 1 The diagram below shows the
graph of
b) The domain of f o g ( x ) = domain of g g(x)
domain of g is x t 2

Therefore, domain of f o g is x t 2
-2 -1 0 2 x

c) Since domain is x t 2 , substitute x = -2

in the expression for f o g ( x ) which is the smallest domain of f o g ( x )
fog(x)=x+1
= (  2) + 1
=  1.

( If we substitute any number bigger than -2, we will get answer more than -1)
So the range is y t 1

~ Exercise 3.1

1. f and g are defined as f : x → x2 + 1 and g: x → x5

Find and state its domain:
a) (f + g) (x) b) (f െ g) (x)

§f·
c) ( f x g ) ( x) d) ¨¨ ¸¸ (x)
©g¹

66
 1
2. f and g are defined as f : x → x2 + 1 and g : x →
x4
State :
a) the domain of f.
b) the range of g.
c) f o g ( x ).

3. f and g are defined f : x → x 2 + 1 and g : x → x2

a) State the domain of g.

b) Find f o g ( x ).
c) State the domain of f o g ( x ).
d) State the range of f o g ( x ).

4. The function f and g are defined by f : x → x2 and g : x → x – 3

Find:
(a) g o f ( x ).
(b) the domain and range of g o f ( x ).

1
5. The function f and g are defined by f ( x ) = and g ( x )= x2 + 3
1 x
Find:
a) the domain of f ( x ).
b) the range of f ( x ).
c) the domain of g ( x ).
d) the range of g ( x ).
e) g o f ( x ).

Some of the real life applications of rational functions are

(i) fields and forces in physics
(ii) spectroscopy in analytical chemistry
(iii) kinetics in biochemistry
(iv) electronic circuitry
(v) aerodynamics
(vi) medicine >concentrations in vivo
(vii) wave functions for atoms and molecules
(viii) optics and >photography to improve image resolution
(ix) acoustics and sound. ~ Wikipedia
(https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/900576/real-world-applications-of-
rational-functions)

67
 SUB – STRAND 3.2 Graphs of Functions

LEARNING OUTCOMES

3.2.1 Draw graphs of polynomials.

3.2.2 Draw graphs of rational
functions.

68
3.2.1 Graphs of Polynomials

¾ What is concave upward / downward?

Concave upward Concave downward
all the tangents on the interval are all tangents are above
below the curve the curve

¾ An Inflection Point is where a curve changes from Concave upward to

Concave downward (or vice versa).

Point of Inflection

¾ Factored Polynomial
The graph of polynomials are smooth, unbroken curve, with no sharp corners.

Let a polynomial function be of degree n. To sketch its graph, follow these steps.
Step 1 Find y-intercepts.
Step 2 Find x-intercept.
Step 3 Determine turning point and inflection
For a factor ,
if n is odd then there is an inflection at = a and
if n is even there is a turning point at = a.

Step 4 Sketch the graph.

The degree of in the expansion of the polynomial is odd, the end behavior of
will be similar to the graph of .
i.e. tails pointing opposite direction
i.e.

The degree of in the expansion of the polynomial is even, the end behavior
of will be similar to the graph of .

i.e.
i.e.

Note:
You may also use test points within the intervals formed by the x-intercepts to
determine the sign of f (x) in the interval. This will determine whether the graph
is above or below the x-axis in that interval.
When the values of f (x) is negative, the graph is below the x-axis, and when
f (x) has positive value, the graph is above the x-axis.

69
2Example 1 The graph of the polynomial is given by the equation:
f  x   x  1  x  2  .
2 3

a) Find x and y-intercepts

b) Identify the coordinates of turning point on the x-axis
c) Identify the coordinates of an inflexion point on the x-axis
d) Sketch the graph

" Answers
a) x-intercepts, let y = 0 y-intercepts, let x = 0
y ( x  1) 2 ( x  2)3
f ( x) ( x  1) 2 ( x  2)3
0 ( x  1) 2 ( x  2)3
y (0  1) 2 (0  2)3
either ( x  1) 2 0 or ( x  2)3 0
8
x 1 and x 2
the coordinates of x-intercepts are the coordinate of y-intercept is
(െ1,0) and (2,0) (0,െ 8)

b) At x 1 , there is a turning point ‫( ׵‬െ1,0)

c) At x 2 there is an inflection‫( ׵‬2,0)

d) Sketch the graph

Sign of f ( x ) in each interval separated by x-intercepts.
Choose -2, 0 and 3 as test points for intervals shown below
f(-2) is negative f(0) is negative f(3) is positive

Below Below Above x

-1 2

x
-1 0 2

-8

70
2Example 2 Sketch the graph of y x 3 ( x  2) 2 ( x  1) [Clearly show all the intercepts,
the turning points and point of inflection.]

" Answer

x-intercepts, let y = 0 y-intercepts, let x = 0

y x 3 ( x  2) 2 ( x  1)
y x 3 ( x  2) 2 ( x  1)
0 x ( x  2) ( x  1)
3 2

y 03 (0  2) 2 (0  1)
0 3
x ,0 ( x  2) , 0
2
x 1
y 0
x 0, x 2, x 1
the coordinates of x-intercepts are the coordinate of y-intercept is
(0,0): inflection point (0,0)
(2,0): turning point
(െ1,0): cuts at x - axis

Sketch the graph:

y

x
-1 0 2

2Example 3 Write the equation of the polynomial shown.

y

x
-1 0 2

71
" Answer
x-intercepts: x 1, x 2
y-intercept = 4
inflection point at x = -1 and turning point at x = 2
‫ ׵‬y ( x  1)3 ( x  2) 2

~ Exercise 3.2.1
1. Write the equation of the polynomial shown.

zz

x
-3 0 3

2. A polynomial function is given by f (x) = x2 (x + 3)3 (2െ x)

a) Find x and y intercepts of f (x)
b) Sketch the graph of the function f (x) clearly showing the behaviour of the graph
around the x-intercepts.

3. A polynomial function is given as y f  x  . Given that the function satisfies

f  0 f  2
f  5 0 and f  3 24 ,
a) state the x and y intercepts of the function.
b) find the equation of the function.
c) sketch the graph of the function.

4. Sketch the following graphs by clearly showing all the intercepts, the turning points
and point of inflection.
a) y x 3 ( x  2) 2 (1  x)
b) y ( x  2) 2 (1  x)3

72
3.2.2 Graph of Rational functions

¾ Rational functions are quotients of polynomial functions. This means that

rational functions can be expressed as

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions.

¾ The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers except the
x-values that make the denominator zero.

To sketch its graph, follow these steps.

Step 1 Find x-intercepts by letting p (x) = 0, i.e. the numerator equal to 0
Step 2 Find y-intercept, by letting x = 0 that is find g(0).
Step 3 Find the asymptotes using the following procedures:

1. Vertical Asymptotes
Find any vertical asymptotes by setting the denominator equal to 0
and solving for x. If a is a zero of the denominator, then the line x = a
is a vertical asymptote.

2. Other Asymptotes
Determine any other asymptotes. Consider three possibilities:

(a) If the denominator has a higher degree than numerator i.e. a bottom
heavy function, then there is a horizontal asymptote y = 0 (the x-axis).

(b) If the numerator and denominator have the same degree i.e. a
balanced function,
where a, b ≠ 0,

then the horizontal asymptote has equation

(c) If the numerator is of degree exactly one more than the denominator
(top heavy function) , then there will be an oblique (slanted)
asymptote.
To find it, divide the numerator by the denominator and disregard the
remainder. Set the rest of the quotient equal to y to obtain the equation
of the asymptote.

Step 4 Sketch the graph

73
 x3
2Example 1 A rational function is given as f ( x)
( x  3)( x  2)
a) Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of f (x) .
b) Identify the asymptote(s) and find their equations
c) Sketch the graph of the function f (x) clearly showing the intercepts
and asymptotes.

" Answers

a) x intercept y intercept: let x = 0:

let numerator = 0 : f (0)
0  3 
1
(0  3)(0  2) 2
x+3=0
x = –3 y-intercept = ( 0,– 0.5)
x- intercept = ( –3,0 )

b) vertical asymptote
let denominator = 0 :
x –3 = 0 and x+2=0
x=3 and x = –2 are the equations

Since it’s a bottom heavy function, the horizontal asymptote is y = 0

c) Do a sign analysis in each interval separated by vertical asymptotes or x-

intercepts. This tells you where each section of the graph appears!
Show asymptotes as dashed lines. The graph must approach the asymptotes.
y

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

Ȃ ͲǤͷ

74
2Example 2 A rational function is given as f ( x)
x  3x  1
( x  1)( x  2)

a) Sketch the graph of f (x)

b) Complete the following, using your graph:

As x o + f, f (x) o

" Answers
a)

x-int o let y = 0: y-int o let x = 0: f ( x)

0  30  1
(0  1)(0  2)
x െ 3 = 0, x+1 =0 y-intercept = (0, 1.5)
x- intercepts: (3, 0) and (  1, 0)

Vertical Asymptote: Horizontal Asymptote:

let denominator = 0 It’s a balanced function. Consider the
x െ 1 = 0, x+2 =0 ratio of the coefficients of the variable
x = 1 and x = െ2 with the highest power:
y=

1.5

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3

b) As x o + f, f (x) o 1

75
 x2
2Example 3 Sketch the graph of y=
x 1
" Answer
x intercept y intercept: let x = 0:
02
let numerator = 0 : f (0) 0
(0  1)
x2=0
x =0
Both x- intercept and y-intercept = ( 0,0 )

Vertical Asymptote let denominator = 0 :

x 1 = 0
x=1

Since it’s a top heavy function, carry out the long division
x+1
x – 1 x2 + 0 ? y = x + 1 is the Oblique/slanting Asymptote
-( x2 – x ) [recall it’s a straight line graph with x-int (-1,0)
x+ 0 and y-int (0,1)]
-( x - 1)
1
y Vertical asymptote
Oblique Asymptote

-1 0 1 x

76
~ Exercise 3.2.2
For the following functions:

a) Find x and y intercepts.

b) Identify the asymptotes and give their equations.

c) Sketch the graph, clearly showing the intercepts and the asymptote.

1. f ( x)
x  3 2. f ( x)
2  x 
(2 x  1)( x  2) ( x 2  1)

3. g ( x )
1 x  x2 
4. g ( x)
x  42  x 
( x1) (2 x  1)( x  1)

x2  x  6
6. h (x) = x  4 x  3
2
5. h (x) =
x 1 x 1

7. y
x  1x  2 8. y
x  13  2 x 
( x  1)( x  3) ( x  1)( x  2)

The length of a shadow is a function of its height and the time of day. Shadows can be
used to find the height of large objects such as trees or buildings; the same function rule
(ratio) by which we compare the length of an upright ruler to its shadow will help us find
the unknown input (the height of the large object) when we measure its shadow. ~
Wendy Petti (http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/mathchat/mathchat010.shtml )

77
 ~ Review Exercise 3

1. Two functions are defined as

f : x o x2  4 g : x o x3

a) State the domain and range of the two functions

b) Find  fog  x  .
c) What are the domain and range of  fog  x  ?

1
2. The functions f and g are defined as: f ( x) and g ( x) x2  2
3 x
a) State the domain and range of f ( x ).
b) State the range of g ( x ).
c) Find g o f ( x ).
d) Find the range of g o f ( x ).

3. Sketch the polynomial functions shown below:

a) y x( x  2) 2 (1  x)3
b) y 1 ( x  4) 2 (2  x)3
2
c) y ( x  3) 2 (2  x)3

2 x
4. A rational function is given as h( x) .
( x  3)( x  1)
a) Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of h  x  .
b) Identify the asymptote(s) and give their equations.
c) Sketch the graph.
d) Complete the following statement:
As x o f, h( x) o

78
 STRAND TRIGONOMETRY
FOUR

SUB – STRAND 4.1 Trigonometric Identities

and Exact Values

LEARNING OUTCOMES

4.1.1 Prove identities.

4.1.2 Find exact values of
trigonometric functions.

79
 4.1.1 Identities

¾ Basic identities/formulae

¾ Addition Formulae

¾ Product to sum

¾ Sum to product

¾ Double angle

¾ Half angle

*The sign depends on which quadrant the angle is in.

80
Derivation of Half angle formulae from double angle formula

Consider cos 2A 2 cos 2 A 1

θ
Let A =
2 Let A =
§θ· §θ·
cos 2¨ ¸ 2 cos 2 ¨ ¸  1
©2¹ ©2¹
§θ·
cos θ 2 cos 2 ¨ ¸  1
©2¹
§θ·
cos θ  1 2 cos 2 ¨ ¸
©2¹
§θ· cos θ  1
cos 2 ¨ ¸
©2¹ 2

Proving Identities

2Example 1 Show that sin 60 o  sin 40 o = 2cos50 o sin10 o

" Answer
Sum to product Identity that can be used:
x sin C  sin D 2cos(half sum) sin(half difference )

LHS = sin 600  sin 400

§ 60q  40q · § 60q  40q ·
2 cos¨ ¸ sin ¨ ¸
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
2 cos 50q sin 10q
RHS

2 Example 2 Prove that tan T cosec T = sec T

" Answer
Use basic identities
LHS = tan T ൈcosec T
SinT 1
= ൈ
CosT Sin T
1
=
CosT
= Sec T
= RHS

81
 1 1
2 Example 3 Prove that  1
1  sin T 1  csc 2 T
2

" Answer
1
Identity that can be used: csc 2 T
sin 2 T

1 1 Simplify:
 1
1  sin T ª
2
1 º
«¬1  sin 2 T »¼

1 § ª sin 2 T  1º ·
LHS  ¨ 1 y « sin 2 T » ¸¸
1  sin 2 T ¨© ¬ ¼¹
1 sin 2 T
 1 u
1  sin 2 T sin 2 T  1
1  sin 2 T
sin 2 T  1
1
RHS

Sin 5 x  Sin 3 x
2Example 4 Prove: tan x .
Cos 5 x  Cos 3 x
" Answer
Identity that can be used: Sum to product
x sin C  sin D 2cos(half sum) sin(half difference )
x cos C  cos D 2cos(half sum) cos (half difference )

Sin 5 x  Sin 3 x
LHS =
Cos 5 x  Cos 3 x
§ 5 x  3x · § 5 x  3x ·
2Cos¨ ¸ Sin¨ ¸
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
§ 5 x  3x · § 5 x  3x ·
2Cos¨ ¸Cos¨ ¸
© 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
2Cos 4 xSinx
2Cos 4 xCosx
tan x
RHS

82
 ~ Exercise 4.1.1

Prove these identities:

1. sin 2 x  cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x  1 2. csc 2ࣂ െ cot 2ࣂ= tanࣂ

cscT sin T cosT

3. cos T 4.  secT cos ecT
cot T  tan T cosT sin T

૚ି૛ࢉ࢕࢙૛ ࣂ
5. tanࣂ െ cot ࣂ= ‫ࣂ ܛܗ܋ ࣂ ܖܑܛ‬ 6. SinT = 1 െ Cos T
Co secT  CotT

1 1 Sin 2T  Sin 5T 3x
7.  2sec2 x 8. cot
1  sin x 1  sin x Cos 2T  Cos 5T 2

4.1.2 Exact Values

¾ You may use special triangle ratios where applicable.

Trig Function Angles

SOH / CAH / TOA 30o 45o 60o

Sin T

Cos T

Tan T 1

83
2Example 1 Find the exact value of Sin 75o

" Answer
Break down angle preferably as 30 o, 45 o or 60 o as their exact values are known.

Sin 75o = Sin ( 30 o + 45 o )

Use Addition Formulae sin(A r B) sin A cos B r cos A sin B

= Sin 30 o ή Cos 45 o + Cos 30 o ή Sin 45 o

1 1 3 1
= u  u
2 2 2 2
1 3
= 
2 2 2 2

1 3
=
2 2

2Example 2 Find the exact value of sin 15q

" Answer
30q
sin 15q sin Use half angle formula
2
§θ· 1  cos θ
sin ¨ ¸
©2¹ 2
§ 30 · 1  cos 30
sin ¨ ¸ Take only positive square root as
© 2 ¹ 2 falls in the first quadrant
3
1
sin 15q 2
2
2 3
y2
2
2 3 2
y
2 1
2 3 1
u
2 2
2 3
4
2 3
? sin 15q
2

84
 1
2Example 3 If sin T  , find sec ࣂ, if T is in quadrant III.
3

" Answer
opposite 1
Using SOH/CAH/TOA, the expression for sin θ hypotenuse  3
Consider a right-angled triangle,
By Pythagoras
theorem
Quadrant II Quadrant I
Sine + All +

െ 2

ߠ
െ1 3

Tangent + Cosine +

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

1
Use identity sec ࣂ =
cos T
First, get the expression for cos θ
adjacent
cos θ
hypotenuse

 2
3

cosine is negative in quadrant III

1
sec ࣂ =
cos T
1
 2
3
2
1y 
3
3

2

85
~ Exercise 4.1.2

1. Find the values of the following in simplest surd form:

1
a ) cos 15q b ) sin 22 q
2
c) tan 75 o d) sin 105 o

e) cos 105 o f) tan 15 o

2. Find the exact value of R where, R 8cos 75º .

3. Find the exact value of R where, R 4cos 75|  4cos15| .

24 9
4. Suppose tan A , tan B with A and B as acute angles, find the
7 40
exact value of sin ( A  B) .

9 24
5. Suppose sin A and cos B , find the exact value of cos( A  B).
41 25

1
6. If cos T  and T is in the second quadrant, find the following:
2

a) cos 2T b) sec ߠ
c) tan ߠ d) cosec θ

5
7. Suppose sin T and T is in the second quadrant, find the exact value of
3
sin 2T .
20
8. Suppose T is an angle in the fourth quadrant and cos T . Find the exact
29
value of sin 2T and cos 2T

Trigonometry is used by astronomers to calculate the distance to the stars.

Trigonometry to measure distances between universe objects are at greater distances.
~ anonymous (http://math.tutorvista.com/trigonometry/applications-of-
trigonometry.html )

86
 SUB – STRAND 4.2 Trigonometric Graphs

LEARNING OUTCOME

4.2.1 Draw trigonometric graphs.

87
 4.2.1 Trigonometric Graphs

The general form is defined as

y = A Sin (Bx C) k or y = A Cos (Bx C) k

y= A (B x C) k

k shifts the x-
Amplitude: Shape: Period: C shifts the y-
axis or the
The height / + A Sin B helps axis or the graph
graph by k
distance determine by units. units.
the period of + k shifts the
+ A means – A Sin the graph x-axis down
+ shifts the y-
the graph is (the length of by k units or
oriented as the interval axis to the right the graph
usual + A Cos needed for or the graph moves up by
– A means the graph of k units
moves by
that the the function െ࢑ shifts the
graph is to start units to the left. x-axis up by k
inverted – A Cos repeating units or the
െ shifts the y- graph moves
itself).
axis to the left or down by k
the graph moves units

by units to

the right

గ
2Example 1 A trigonometric function is defined as f(x) = 3 sin ( x + ସ )
(i) Write the period of the function f(x).
ii) What is the amplitude of f(x)?
గ
iii) Sketch f(x) = 3 sin ( x + ) for 0 d x d 2S
ସ
iv) Write down the coordinates of the maximum point of f(x)
for 0 d x d 2S

88
" Answers
Compare with the general form
y = A Sin (Bx r C) r k
గ
f(x) = 3 sin ( 1x + ସ )
2S 2S
i. period 2S
B 1

ii. amplitude: A = 3

గ గ
iii. C: Shift the graph ସ
units to the left or Shift the y - axis by ସ
units to the
right

గ గ
iv. maximum point: reading from the graph, it turns at x = and y = 3 ‫ ׵‬ሺ ǡ ͵ሻ
ସ ସ

గ
2Example 2 Sketch y = 3 sin ( x + ଶ ) + 3 for 0 d x d 2S

" Answer
Method 1 – Sifting the axes
First sketch the basic graph y = 3 sin x,
y
3

x
-3

89
 గ గ
Then shift y axis to right by ଶ to get y = 3 sin (x + ଶ ).
y-axis shifts to the right
y

x
S
2 0 S 2S 3S
-3
గ
Graph of y = 3 sin ( x + ଶ ).
3
x
S 3S 5S
0
-3
2 2 2

Finally shift x - axis down by 3 unit.

గ
‫ ׵‬graph of y = 3 sin ( x + ଶ )+3
y
6

~ Exercise 4.2.1

1. Sketch the following graphs for 0 d x d 2S .

a) y 3 sin x  2 b) y 3 sin x 1

గ గ
c) f ( x) 3 sin ( x + ସ ) + 1 d) f ( x) 3 sin ( 2 x + ସ ) – 1

గ గ
e) f ( x) 3 sin ( x + ସ ) + 3 f) f ( x) 3 sin ( x + ସ ) – 1

2. Sketch the following graphs for 00 d x d 3600.

a) y = 2 cos x+1 b) y = ½ cos x – 1

c) y = 2 cos (x + 300) + 1 d) y = 2 cos (x + 900) – 2

e) y = 2 cos (x + 450)െ 2 f) y = 2 cos (x െ 450) + 2

90
 SUB – STRAND 4.3
Trigonometric
Equations

LEARNING OUTCOME

4.3.1 Solve trigonometric equations.

91
 4.3.1 Solving Trigonometric Equations

When solving any trigonometric equation, emphasis must be given to the

quadrants.

Quadrant II
Sine +
Quadrant I
All +
Mnemonic

All Science Teachers Cry

Tangent + Cosine + or
Add Sugar To Coffee
Quadrant III Quadrant IV

x If you look at the quadrants, the designated trig expressions will be

positive, the others will be negative. Further simplifying,

ଵ
90° or ଶ Ɏ Sine +
Sine + Sine All Cosine +
Cosine െ + + Tangent +
Tangent െ
0°, 360°
180° or Ɏ
or 2π

Tangent + Tangent + + Cosine Cosine +

Sine െ Sine െ
ଷ
Cosine െ 270° or ଶ
Ɏ Tangent

Note: for complex equations, you may use the identities.

2Example 1 Find the solution set for 2CosT  3 0,0o d T d 3600

" Answer
The angle to be between 0 – 360o
2CosT  3 0, 0o d T d 3600
Last

2CosT  3  3 0 3

2CosT  3 We reached at the trig expression: Consider the

2 2 two quadrants. But before that, find the acute
angle by ignoring the negative sign (െ). Note that
 3
CosT calculator Mode to be in degrees.
2

92
x Acute angle:
When dealing with surds,
§ 3·
T Cos ¨¨ ¸
1
¸ 30 o

© 2 ¹ press the division sign ሺൊሻ, that is Press

D 30 o

Shift cos ( ൊ 2 ) =

x Use quadrants to find the angles T1 and T 2 . Consider negative sign (െ) of Cos, that is
in Q II / III
T1 180  30 150o

T2 180  30 210o

3 3
2Example 2 Solve the equation 3sin  x  45  for 0 d x d 360 .
2
" Answer
3 3
3sin  x  45  0 d x d 360
2

3 3
sin ( x  45o )
3u 2

§ 3· We reached at the trig expression: Consider the

( x  45o ) sin 1 ¨¨ ¸
¸ two quadrants. But before that, find the acute
© 2 ¹ angle. Note that calculator Mode to be in degrees.
x Acute angle:

§ 3· When dealing with surds,

T sin 1 ¨¨ ¸
© 2 ¸¹ press the division sign ሺൊሻ, that is Press
60 o

Shift sin ( ൊ 2 ) =

93
 Sine is positive, the angle lies in the 1st and 2nd quadrants of the xy  plane .
x T1 60o T 2 180  60 120o
§ 3· ( x  45o ) T 2
( x  45o ) sin 1 ¨¨ ¸
¸
© 2 ¹ ( x  45o ) 120 o
( x  45o ) 60 o

x 120 o  45o 165o

x 60 o  45o 105o

2Example 3 Solve cos 2 x  cos x 0 .

" Answer
Using identity: x cos 2A 2 cos 2 A 1

cos 2 x  cos x 0
{ factorise trinomial }
2 cos 2 x  1  cos x 0 A Short-cut Method
(2 cos x – 1) ( cos x + 1) = 0 Let k be
Either Or 2k 2 + k – 1
 2 cos x  1 0  cos x  1 0 factors
2k –1 Cross multiply to give
cos x 1 2 cos x 1 k 1 middle term k
S cos 1  1 S
x cos 1 1 2  x = (2k – 1) (k + 1)
3 =(2 – 1) ( + 1)

From case 1 , it can be seen that cosine is positive and hence it lies in the first and the
fourth quadrant.

x Acute angle:

§1· Press
T cos 1 ¨ ¸
©2¹ Shift cos ( 1 ൊ 2 ) =
S
3

94
x Cos is positive, the angle lies in the 1st and 4th quadrants of the xy  plane .
S S 6S  S 5S
T1 T 2 2S 
3 3 3 3

S
T1
3
S
T 2 2S 
3

2Example 4 Solve tan 2 T tan T for 0q d θ d 180q .

" Answer
Rearranging and factorizing
tan 2 T tan T
tan 2 T  tan T 0
tan T (tan T  1) 0
Either Or
tan T 0 tan T  1 0
T tan 1 0 tan T 1
T 0 T tan 1 (1) 45o
or

~ Exercise 4.3.1
Solve the following trigonometric equations:
1. cos 2T  sinT 0 for 0൑ ߠ ൑ 2ߨ.

2. cos2θ  cosθ 1 0 for 0൑ ߠ ൑ 2ߨ.

3. 3cos 2T sinT 2 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

4. cos θ(2cos θ  3 ) 0 for 0q d θ d 180q .

5. 3sin 2 x  2 sin x 0,00 d x d 3600 .

6. sin 2T sinT for 0൑ ߠ ൑ 2ߨ.

7. tan2ߠ sec2ߠ = 9 + tan2ߠfor 0൑ ߠ ൑ 2ߨ.

8. 2cos 2 T sin 2T for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

95
 SUB – STRAND 4.4 Application of addition
formulae

LEARNING OUTCOMES

4.4.1 Use addition formulae to

write a sum of sine and
cosine as either a sine or
cosine function.
4.4.2 Find maximum and minimum
points on a given interval.

96
 4.4.1 Transformation of trigonometric expressions of the form
A Cos T േ B SinT

Often trig expressions involve the sum of sine and cosine terms. It is more
convenient to write such expressions using one single term by applying the

addition formula:
(i) a Cos T േ b SinT = r Cos (T േ D )

(ii) a Cos T േ b SinT = r Sin (T േ D )

whereD is an angle to be found and ‫ ݎ‬is the modulus i.e. ‫ ݎ‬ൌ ξܽଶ ൅ ܾଶ
and ܽ and ܾ are coefficients of Cos T and Sin T respectively.

This also enables us to solve certain types of trigonometric equations and find
maximum and minimum points of complex trigonometric functions.

You will notice that this is very similar to converting rectangular to polar form in
Complex Numbers. We can get α and r using calculator, similar to the way we did
it in the complex numbers section.

2Example 1 Express 2 Cos T + 3 Sin T in terms of r Sin (T + D ).

" Answer
ܽ ൌ ʹǡ ܾ ൌ ͵ ‫ ݎ ׵‬ൌ ξʹଶ ൅ ͵ଶ
‫ ݎ‬ൌ  ξͳ͵

Apply Addition law: x sin(A r B) sin A cos B r cos A sin B

Sin (T + D ) = [ Sin T Cos D +Cos T Sin D]
r Sin (T + D ) = r Sin T Cos D + r Cos T Sin D

substituting r yields: ξͳ͵ Sin T Cos D + ξͳ͵ Cos T Sin D

Thus in general form, 2 Cos T + 3 SinT

= ξͳ͵ Sin D Cos T + ξͳ͵ Cos D Sin T

97
 2 = ξͳ͵ Sin D 3 = ξͳ͵ Cos D
2 3
sin D cos D
13 13
§ 2 · § 3 ·
D sin 1 ¨ ¸ D cos 1 ¨ ¸
© 13 ¹ © 13 ¹
D 33.69 o D 33.69 o

Since both give the same value for D ,

? 2 Cos T + 3 Sin T = ξͳ͵ Sin (T + 33.69o)

2Example 2 Express 2 Cos T + 3 Sin T in terms of r cos (T + D ).

" Answer
‫ ݎ‬ൌ  ξͳ͵
Apply Addition law: x cos(A r B) cos A cos B # sin A sin B
cos (T + D ) = [cos T Cos D + Sin T Sin D]
r cos (T + D ) = r cos T Cos D + r Sin T Sin D

substituting r yields: ξͳ͵ cos T Cos D + ξͳ͵ Sin T Sin D

Thus in general form, 2 Cos T + 3 SinT

= ξͳ͵ Cos D cos T + ξͳ͵ Sin D Sin T

2 = ξͳ͵ Cos D 3 = ξͳ͵ Sin D

2 3
cos D sin D
13 13
§ 2 · § 3 ·
D cos 1 ¨ ¸ D sin 1 ¨ ¸
© 13 ¹ © 13 ¹
D 56.31o D 56.31o

Since both give the same value for D ,

? 2 Cos T + 3 Sin T = ξͳ͵ cos (T + 56.31o)

98
2Example 3 Express y 2cos T  2 sin T in the form R cos T  D  .

" Answer
ଶ
a ൌ ʹǡ ܾ ൌ ξʹ  ‫ ݎ ׵‬ൌ ටξʹ ൅ ʹଶ
‫ ݎ‬ൌ  ξ͸
Apply Addition law: x cos(A r B) cos A cos B # sin A sin B
And substituting r yields: ξ͸ cos T Cos D െ ξ͸ Sin T Sin D

Thus in general form, 2 Cos T + ξʹ SinT

= ξ͸ Cos D cos T + െ ξ͸ Sin D Sin T

2 = ξ͸ Cos D ξʹ = െξ͸ Sin D

2 2
cos D sin D
6  6
§ 2 · § 2·
D cos 1 ¨ ¸ D sin 1 ¨¨  ¸
¸
© 6¹ © 6 ¹
D 35.26 o D 35.26 o

As cosD is positive and sin D is negative, the angle lies in the 4th quadrant

Anticlockwise Anticlockwise angle is positive

Clockwise Clockwise angle is negative

D 360  35.26
324.74q or  35.26q
? 2 Cos T + ξʹ SinT = ξ͸ cos (T െ 35.26o)

2Example 4 Using the previous example,

a) Give the coordinates of the maximum and minimum point on
y 2cos T  2 sin T for 0 d T d 360q
b) Find the x and y – intercepts.
c) Sketch the graph of y 2cos T  2 sin T for 0 d T d 360q

99
" Answers
Since it was reduced to a single trig function i.e.
2 Cos T + ξʹ SinT = ξ͸ cos (T െ 35.26o), so it is easier to analyze
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ξ͸ cos (T െ 35.26o)

a) Coordinates of the maximum and minimum point for 0 d T d 360q

Cosine is maximum at 0q Cosine is minimum at 180q
2cosT  2 sinT 6 cos T 35.26q  2cosT  2 sinT 6 cos T 35.26q 
T 35.26q = 0 T 35.26q 180q
T 35.26q T 215.26q
The maximum occurs at The minimum occurs at
( 35.26q , 6 ) ( 215.26q ,  6 )

b) Intercepts:
Let’s find the y-intercept, Let’s find the x-intercept
By letting T = 0 By letting y = 0
y 6 cos T  35.26q
6 cos 0  35.26q y 6 cos T  35.26q 
6 cos 35.26q 0 6 cos T  35.26q 
?y 2
Cosine is 0 at 90q and 270q
T 35.26q 90q
T 125.26q
T 35.26q 270q
T 305.26q
? x 125.26q, 305.26q
c) Graph of y 2cos T  2 sin T for 0 d T d 2S is shown below
y
maximum

x-int
y-int

minimum

100
~ Exercise 4.4.1

1. Express y 2sinT  cosT in the form R sin(T  D ) .

2. Express y 3cosT  sinT in the form R sin(T  D ) .

3. Express y 3cosT  sinT in the form R cos(T  D ) .

4. Express y 2 sin T  cos T in the form R cos(T  D ) and find the coordinates of
the minimum and maximum points on the function for 0 d T d 360q

5. Express y sin T  3 cos T in the form R sin(T  D ) and find the coordinates of
the minimum and maximum points on the function for 0 d T d 360q .

6. A function is given by f ( x) 7 sin x  8 cos x

a) Express the function f (x) in the form R cos( x  D ) where D is an
acute angle.
b) Hence, sketch the graph of f ( x) 7 sin x  8 cos x for 0 d T d 360q
c) Solve the equation 7 sin x  8 cos x 6 for 0 d T d 360q

7. A function is given by f ( x) 7cos x  6sin x.

a) Express the function f ( x) in the form f ( x) R cos ( x  T ), where T
is an acute angle.
b) Hence, sketch the graph of f ( x) 7cos x  6sin x for 0 d T d 360q
c) Solve the equation 7cos x  6sin x 5 for 0 d T d 360q

8. A function is given by f ( x) 4cos x  7sin x.

a) Express the function f ( x) in the form f ( x) R sin ( x  T ), where T is
an acute angle.
b) Hence, sketch the graph of f ( x) 4cos x  7sin x
for 0 d T d 360q
c) Solve the equation 4cos x  7sin x  5 for 0 d T d 360q

Trigonometry is the relationships between the sides and angles of triangles. Such
relationships are involved in a wide range of engineering problems. Engineers of various
types use the fundamentals of trigonometry to design bridges, build structures and
solve scientific problems. Trigonometry is very important with engineers who deal with
waves, magnetic and electric fields. ~ anonymous
(http://math.tutorvista.com/trigonometry/applications-of-trigonometry.html )

101
 SUB – STRAND 4.5 Inverse Trigonometric
Functions

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

4.5.1 Sketch graphs of inverse

trigonometric functions.
4.5.2 Prove inverse trigonometric
identities.
4.5.3 Evaluate inverses for the
reciprocal trigonometric
functions.

102
 4.5.1 Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

x The graph of inverse trig function is obtained by reflecting the graph in the line y=x.
x For example, the graph of y= is obtained by reflecting the graph of y =sin x in
the line y=x.
y
y=x
1

0 x

-1

y=

It can be seen that the graph of y= is not a function. To make it a function

we can restrict the range in the interval .

x Similarly the graph of y= is not a function. To make it a function we can

restrict the range in the interval

x Likewise the graph of y= is not a function. To make it a function we can

restrict the range in the interval

103
 Summary

The inverse Trig graphs are shown below:

Equation Shape Domain Range

y = tan -1 x

104
 4.5.2 Inverse Trigonometric Identities

S
2Example 1 Prove that sin 1 x  cos 1 x
2
" Answer
Let θ 1 sin 1 x Ÿ sin θ 1 x Let θ 2 cos 1 x Ÿ cos θ 2 x
x opp x adj
1 hyp 1 hyp

Consider a right-angled triangle

x
By Pythagoras
theorem this side is 1  x 2

S S
From the triangle θ 1  θ 2 ? sin 1 x  cos 1 x
2 2

2Example 2 Prove that cos(sin 1 x ) 1 x 2

" Answer
Let θ sin 1 x
then sin θ x
x opposite
sin θ
1 hypotenuse
Consider a right-angled triangle, with one side of length 1, and another side of
length x

By Pythagoras
theorem

105
 4.5.3 Inverse for the reciprocal trig Functions

The inverse reciprocal functions are , and

Let’s consider

Similarly,

2Example 2 Evaluate csc 1   2 

" Answer
1
csc 1   2  sin 1 §¨  ·¸
© 2¹
30q

~ Exercise 4.4

1. Evaluate
a) sec 1  2 b) cot 1   3.903 

2. Prove that

a ) sin(cos 1 3 x ) 1 9 x 2

2x
b ) tan(sin 1 2 x )
1 4 x 2

c ) cos(sin 1 5 x ) 1 25 x 2

106
~ Review Exercise 4

2 tan T
1. Prove that sin 2T
1  tan 2 T

2. Solve cos 2 x  cos x  2 0 for 0q d x d 360q

3. Sketch the graph of y 2 sin ( x  30o )  1 for 0q d x d 360q

4. Find the exact value of cos 22.5o

5. A function is given by f ( x) 6 sin x  8 cos x

a) Express the function f (x) in the form R sin ( x  D ) where D is an

acute.

b) Give the coordinates of the maximum and minimum values of the

function f ( x) 6 sin x  8 cos x for 0q d x d 360q

c) Hence, sketch the graph of f ( x) 6 sin x  8 cos x for 0q d x d 360q ,

showing all the intercepts.

d) Solve the equation 6 sin x  8 cos x 4 for 0q d x d 360q

6. Sketch the graph of the function y sin 1 x

7. Prove that sin( 2sin 1 x ) 2 x 1 x 2

107
 LIMITS, CONTINUITY
STRAND AND
FIVE DIFFERENTIABILITY

SUB – STRAND 5.1 Limits of a Function

CONTENT LEARNING
OUTCOMES

5.1.1 Calculate limits.

108
 5.1.1 Computing Limits

¾ To find limits of rational algebraic expressions, directly

substitute in the expression.

If upon substitution you get:

x , then this is the limit.
x , then the limit is 0.

x , then the limit does not exist.

x , then the limit may exist.

To find this limit,
Use Tables: take values closest to a and substitute it in place of the
variables in the algebraic expression.
Algebraic Simplification such as factorizing by common factors,
factorize trinomials ( ) or difference of squares
( ).
L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule:
A useful technique of computing limits is using L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule
which involves the following steps:
x Step 1: Check that limit of is an indeterminate
form of the type .
x Step 2: Differentiate and separately.
x Step 3: Find the limit of .
If this limit is finite, , or , then it is equal to
the limit of .

2 Example 1 Find lim sin x

xo0
" Answer
Directly substitute 0,
lim sin x
xo0
sin 0
0

109
 lim x3
2 Example 2 Find
x o 3 x  2
" Answer
Directly substitute െ3,
lim x3
x o 3 x  2

(3)  3 0
(3)  2 5
0

lim x2  4x  3
2 Example 3 Evaluate
xo2 x2
" Answer
Directly substitute 2,

lim
x o 2 x  4x  3
2

x2
2  4( 2) 3
2

22
483
15 0
0
In this case, limit does not exist.

lim 1  x2
2 Example 4 Evaluate
x o1 1  x
" Answer
lim 1  x2 0
Directly substitute 1,
x o1 1  x 0
In this case, the limit may exist.

Method 1 L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule

1 x 2 2 x
lim = lim
x o1 1 x x o1 1
 2u1
=
1
= 2

110
Method 2: Using Tables
Let’s see what happens when we take values close to 1 and substitute it in place
1  x2
of x in the expression
1 x

x 1  x2
1 x
0.97 1.97
0.98 1.98
0.99 1.99
The values get closer and closer
1 undefined to 2 as x approaches 1.
1.01 2.01
1.02 2.02
1.03 2.03

It turns out that as x approaches 1, f (x) approaches 2.

lim 1 x
2
Thus, 2
x o 1 1 x

Method 3: Algebraic Manipulation

Factorize , simplify then substitute x = 1,
lim 1  x
2
using difference of 2 squares to factorise the numerator
x o1 1 x
lim (1  x)(1  x)
x o1 1 x

lim 1  x
x o1

11
2

2 x
2 Example 5 Evaluate lim
x o4 4  x

" Answer
lim 2 x 0
Directly substitute the value 4,
xo4 4 x 0

111
Using L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule: Differentiate
1 1
1 2
f ( x) 2  x2 , f ' ( x)  x
2
g ( x) 4  x , g ' ( x) 1
Find limit of f '  x  g '  x  :
1
1 
 x 2
lim 2
xo4 1
1
1 2
lim x
xo4 2
1
lim
xo4 2 x

1
2 4
1
4

~ Exercise 5.1.1
1. Evaluate the following limits:

2x 2  5x  3
a. lim b. lim x 2  10 c. lim cos x
xo3 x 3 x o10 xo0

lim x 1 e. lim ex lim ௫ మ ିଶ௫ି଼

d. xo2 xo0 x
f.
xo4 ௫ିସ

4 x 3x  5
g. lim h. lim i. lim
x oS tan x
xo4 x xo3 x 3

1  x 
2
e2 x  1 1 lim 3x 2  3
j. lim x k. lim l.
x o0 e  1 xo 0 x x o 1 x  1

2 x  bx 2
2. Find b if lim 2
x o1 x  3 x 3

Real-life limits are used any time you have some type of real-world application approach
a steady-state solution. As an example, we could have a chemical reaction in a beaker
start with two chemicals that form a new compound over time. The amount of the new
compound is the limit of a function as time approaches infinity.~ Ifryerda

112
5.1.2 Limits of Trigonometric Functions

¾ For the Indeterminate Form in trig functions, you probably have to use
some Trig Identities to compute limits:
ƒ cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
ƒ sin 2x = 2 sin x. cos x
ƒ tan x =

x L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule where applicable.

Some derivatives are given below:

2 Example 1 Evaluate lim sin 2 x  cos 2 x

x oS x

" Answer
Use identity cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
lim sin 2 x  cos 2 x
x oS x
lim 1
x oS x
Directly substitute S ,
lim 1 1
x oS x S

sin T
2 Example 2 Evaluate lim
T oS sin 2T

" Answer
Directly substitute S ,
sin T 0
lim
T oS sin 2T 0
The limit may exist.

113
Method 1: Using Trig Identities
Use identity , cancel then substitute:
lim sinT
T o S sin 2T Use identity:
sin T
sin 2x = 2 sin x. cos x
lim
T o S 2 sin T cos T
lim 1
T o S 2 cos T
?lim 1
T o S 2 cos S
1

2

Method 2: ෝpital’s rule

L’ H࢕
Differentiate:
f ( x ) sinT Ÿ f '( x ) cosT

g ( x ) sin 2T Ÿ g '( x ) 2cos 2T

f '( x )
Find limit lim
T oS g '( x )
lim cos T
T o S 2 cos 2T
cos S
2 cos 2S
1

2

lim sin x
2 Example 3 Show that 1
xo0 x
0
" Answers Directly substitute x = 0 we get so we can use L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule
0
f ( x ) sin x Ÿ f '( x ) cos x

g ( x) x Ÿ g '( x ) 1

f '( x )
lim
xo0 g '( x )
lim cos x
x o0 1
cos 0
1
1

114
 ~ Exercise 5.1.2
1. Find the following limits using identities:

a) cos T b) lim ଵି௖௢௦మ ௫

c) lim ୱ୧୬ ଶ௫
lim xo0 ௫మ x oS
T oS sin 2T ୲ୟ୬ ௫
2

2. Evaluate the following limits using L’ H‫݋‬ොpital’s rule:

lim
3sin 2 x lim
ୡ୭ୱ௫ିଵ
a) b)
xo0 5x xo0 ଶ௫

5.1.3 Limits at Infinity

Limits as :
x If r is a positive rational number and c is any real number, then
Division by a very large number gives a very small result.

x To use the above property, divide the numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x in the denominator.

Short Cut: cover up rule

x If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ‫ ݔ‬௡ ൅ ܾ‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ܿ is a polynomial of degree n, where
coefficient ܽ ് Ͳ, and ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ݁‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ݂
௡
is also a
polynomial of degree n, where coefficient ݀ ് Ͳ, then
௙ሺ௫ሻ
௚ሺ௫ሻ

௔௫ ೙ ା௕௫ ೙షభ ା‫ڮ‬ ௔

ௗ௫ ೙ ା௘௫ ೙షభ ା‫ڮ‬
ൌ௕

In other words, use the cover up rule

ଵ଴଴
2 Example 1 Find lim
xof ௫మ

" Answer Using:

ଵ଴଴
lim ൌͲ
xof ௫మ

115
 8 x 3
2 Example 2 Find lim
x of x 2 9
" Answer
8x 3

lim
8 x 3
= lim x2 x 2 o Dividing by the highest power of x in denominator
x of x 2 9 x of x 2 9

x2 x2
8 3

x x2
= lim
x o f 1 9
x2
8 3 Division by a very large number gives a very

= f f small result .
9
1
f
00
=
1 0
= 0

§ 3 ·
2 Example 3 Find lim ¨ 4  ¸
x of
© x 1 ¹
" Answer
ଷ
lim Ͷ െ lim
x o f x o f ௫ାଵ
Dividing by the highest power of x
Using: ଷൗ
ൌ Ͷ െ lim ௫
x o f ௫Τ ାଵൗ
௫ ௫

ଷൗ
ൌ Ͷ െ lim ௫
x o f ଵାଵൗ௫
଴
ൌ Ͷ െ ቀଵା଴ቁ

=Ͷ

~ Exercise 5.1.3
Evaluate the following limits:
5 x3 x5  2x 4 x2  1
a) lim b) lim c) lim
 
x of x 1  x 2 x of x7 x o f x3  4

d) lim
x  4 x  3  7  5 x 
e) lim

x 3  2 x x  3  f) lim
ହ௫ మ ାଷ௫ାଵ

x o f 6 x 2 1 8 x  3   
x of 4x 2  1 7 x  2x 2  x of ସ௫ మ

116
 SUB – STRAND 5.2
Piece-wise Functions

LEARNING OUTCOME

5.2.1 Sketch piecewise-defined

functions.

117
 5.2.1 Piecewise Functions

Piecewise Function is a function which is defined by multiple sub-functions, each

sub-function applying to a certain interval.
Consider the function f (x) defined below.

The graph representing the function is

Unshaded circle means that the point is not included

Shaded circle means the point is included.

2 Example 1 Sketch the graph of g (x) defined below

­
° x5, x d2
°
°1 , 2 x 1
g ( x) ®
° 2
° x , 1 d x 1
°
¯ 3  x, x t 1

118
" Answer
Let’s look at different x intervals:
x d 2  2  x  1 1 d x  1 x t1
g ( x) x  5 g ( x) 1 g ( x) x 2 g ( x) 3  x
Linear graph Linear quadratic Linear graph
(horizontal line)
y

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x

2 Example 2 The graph of f (x) is given below. Write the equation.

f (x)

x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x

-1

" Answer

° 4 , x  2
­
f ( x) ®
°̄ x 2 , 2  x d2

119
~ Exercise 5.2.1
a) Sketch the following Functions:

1. ­ x  1, x ! 2
g ( x) ®
¯ x  1, x d 2

2.
­2 , x d  2
°°
f ( x) ® x 2 ,  2  x d 2
°
1 , x t 2
¯°

3.  2( x  4) , x d 3
f (x)  x2 , 3 x d 2
4 , xt2

b) Give the equation of the function shown below

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x

120
 SUB – STRAND 5.3 Limits, Continuity and
Differentiability from
Graphs

LEARNING OUTCOME

5.3.1 Find limits, points of

discontinuity and points of non-
differentiability from graphs.

121
 5.3.1 Limits, continuity and differentiability of Piecewise-
defined Functions
If we are interested in what is happening to the function f (x) as x gets close to some
value c from the right, we write . This is called the right handed limit.

Similarly, if we are interested in what is happening to the function f (x) as x gets close
to some value c from the left, we write . This is called the left handed limit.

x Discontinuity- A function is discontinuous if it has a jump or has a hole in the graph or

has asymptotes. Otherwise, the function is continuous.

x A function is Non-differentiable if it is discontinuous or has a sharp corner or has end

points.

Continuity: Continuity: Continuity:

Continuous graph since there Discontinuous at x = 2, since Discontinuous at x = 4, since
is no jump or hole in the there is a hole in the graph. there is a jump.
graph.
Not differentiable at Not differentiable at
Not differentiable at x = 2(discontinuous) x = 4(discontinuous)
x = 1(sharp corner)
Limits: Limits:
Limits: Evaluate f (x): Evaluate f (x):
Evaluate f (x):
Look for the value that ‫ ݕ‬gets Look for the value that ‫ݕ‬
Look for the value that ‫ ݕ‬gets close to as x approaches 2 gets close to as x approaches
close to as x approaches 1 from left and right side 4 from left and right side
from left and right side f (x) =3്
f (x) = f (x)= 4
f (x)= f (x)= 2
f (x) = 4 f (x)= 5
f (x) = 2
f (x) does not exist.

122
2 Example 1 Given below is the graph of y f (x)
y

1
x
0 2

Find:

a) lim f (x) b) lim f (x)

xo0 xo2

" Answers
Look for the value that ‫ ݕ‬gets f (x)= f (x)= + λ
close to as x approaches 0 from
left and right
y becomes very large as x approaches 2
f (x) = f (x) = 1
f (x) = + λ
f (x) = 1

2 Example 2 The graph of g  x  is given below. Use the graph to answer the
questions that follow.
y

x
-8 -6 -4 -2 -0.5 0.5 2 4 6 7.55 8

123
a) Find the following limits:
i. lim  g (x) ii. lim g (x) iii. lim g (x)
x o 2 x o 2  x o 2

b) For what values of x is

i. g(x) discontinuous?
ii. g(x) not differentiable?
iii. g ( x) 1 ?
iv. g ( x) 3?

" Answers
a) i. lim g (x) 4 ii. lim g ( x) 3
x o 2  x o 2 

iii. Limit does not exist

b)
i. g(x) discontinuous: ‫ א ݔ‬ሼെʹǡʹሽ
ii. g(x) not differentiable: ‫ א ݔ‬ሼെʹǡ Ͳǡ ʹሽ
iii. g(x)= 1 i.e y = 1
Make a straight horizontal line and look at the places it cuts
x ‫ א‬ሼെͲǤͷǡͲǤͷǡ ͹Ǥͷሽ
iv. x=6

~ Exercise 5.3.1
1. The graph of g  x  is given below. Use the graph to answer the questions that
follow. g  x

1
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-1

lim
a) Find g (x)
x of
b) For what values of x is the function discontinuous?

124
2. The graph of f (x) is given below.
f (x)

x
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8

-1

For what value(s) of x is f (x):

a) discontinuous
b) not differentiable
c) equal to zero

3. The graph of a function is shown below.

f (x)

x
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10

Use the graph to give the value(s) of x for which f (x)

a) is continuous but not differentiable.

b) does not have a limit.
c) is equal to 6.

If you drop an ice cube in a glass of warm water and measure the temperature with
time, the temperature eventually approaches the room temperature where the glass is
stored. Measuring the temperature is a limit again as time approaches infinity. ~
Ifryerda

125
~ Review Exercise 5

1. Evaluate the following limits:

x2  3 5 x( x  2) a 9 4 x3  x
a) lim b) lim c) lim d) lim
x of 2 x  x
x o f 3x 2  2 x  4 3
xo2 x2 a o9 a 3

2. The graph of the function f (x) is given below.

x
-6 -5 -4 -2 0 3

a) Use the graph to find the value (s) of x for which f (x) is:
i. Discontinuous;
ii. Not differentiable;
iii. Equal to zero.

b) Evaluate lim f (x) c) Evaluate lim f (x)

xo4 x o3

4. The graph of a piece-wise function, g (x) is given below. Use the graph to answer
the questions that follow.
g (x)

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x

-1

a) For what values of x is g(x) discontinuous?

b) For what values of x is g(x) not differentiable?
c) For what values of x is g ( x) 1 ?
d) Find g ( 3)

126
 STRAND ALGEBRA
SIX

SUB – TOPIC 6.1 Sequences

LEARNING OUTCOMES

6.1.1 List terms of sequences.

6.1.2 List sequence of partial sum.
6.1.3 Find limits of a sequence.
6.1.4 Determine convergence and
divergence.

127
 6.1.1 Sequences

(i) Sequence : is an ordered list of numbers.

(ii) Series : obtained by adding terms in a sequence.

Partial Sum,
The partial sum of a sequence is the sum of a finite number of consecutive terms beginning
with the first term. The first four partial sums are computed below, where represents the
sum of the first n terms of the sequence.

‫ڭ‬

Convergence and Divergence

Sequences which approach a definite value are said to converge. If a sequence converges we
call the value it approaches the limit.
If a sequence has a limit, we say the sequence is convergent and that the sequence
converges to the limit. Otherwise, the sequence is divergent.

2 Example 1 A sequence is defined by Tn 2n .

a) Find the first four terms of this sequence.
b) Write as partial sum.
" Answers
a) Tn 2n b) S 1 2
T1 2(1) 2
T2 2( 2) 4
T3 2(3) 6
T4 2( 4) 8
The terms of the sequence are The sequence of partial sum
< 2, 4, 6, 8, ……. >. are < 2, 6, 12, 20, ……. >.

128
 1
2 Example 2 A sequence is defined as an .
n
a) List the first six terms.
1
b) What is the lim ?
nofn
" Answers
1
a) The terms of the sequence {1, 0.5, 0.33, 0.25, 0.2, 0.17....}
n
1
b) lim 0
n ofn

7n  3
2 Example 3 Determine whether the sequence a n converge or diverge, and
n9
if it converges, give the value to which it converges to.

" Answers
Let’s find the limit:

Method 1: Method 2:
Divide each term by variable with the ෝpital’s Rule or Cover Up Rule to
L’ H࢕
highest power in the denominator find the horizontal asymptote of the
hyperbola
7n 3

7n  3 n n
lim = lim
nof n  9 nof n  9
n n
3
7
n =
= lim
n o f1  9
n
3 =7
7
= f
9
1
f

7 0
10
7

This is clearly a converging sequence. It converges to 7.

129
2 Example 4 A sequence < a n > is defined by an 2n  1
a) List the first six terms.
b) What is the limit of this sequence?
c) Determine whether the sequence converge or diverge.

" Answers
a) The terms of the sequence 2n  1 {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13....}
b)
lim 2n  1 2u f 1
nof
f
c) The terms of the sequence increase without bounds (goes to infinity) so the
sequence diverges.

Note: If the limit is infinity (positive or negative) the sequence diverges

n2
2 Example 5 A sequence < a n > is defined by a n
2n  1
a) List the first three terms of the sequence.
b) List the first two terms of the sequence of partial sums.
n2
c) Show that a n is divergent.
2n  1
" Answers
a)
12 22 32
a1 a2 a2
2(1)  1 2(2)  1 2(3)  1
1 4 9
3 5 7
1 4 9
Hence the sequence is < a n > =  , , , .......... !
3 5 7
b)
S2 T1  T2
1 4

3 5
17
15

1 17
Hence the sequence of partial sum is < S n > =  , , .......... !
3 15

130
c) Find the limit: ෝpital’s Rule
Apply L’ H࢕
2
n 2n
lim = lim
n o f 2n  1 n o f 2

lim n f
n of

This is clearly a diverging sequence since the limit is infinity.

~ Exercise 6.1.1

7n  3
1. A sequence < a n > is defined by a n =
n  9
a) Find the first four terms of the sequence.
b) Find the first three terms of the sequence of partial sums.
7n  3
c) Find lim
nof n  9
d) Explain why the sequence converges.

n2
2. A sequence < a n > is defined by a n =
4 n 1
a) Find the first four terms of the sequence.
b) Determine whether a sequence converges or diverges, and if it
converges, give the value to which it converges to.

n 2
3. A sequence < a n > is defined by a n =
n2
a) Find the first two terms of the sequence of partial sums.
b) Determine whether a sequence converges or diverges, and if it
converges, give the value to which it converges to.

12 n 1
4. A sequence < a n > is defined by a n =
3n  2
a) How many terms of the sequence are less than 3.99?
b) State the limit of the sequence.
c) Does it converge or diverge. Explain

5. A sequence < a n > is defined by a n = 3 n  4

Does it converge or diverge. Explain

131
SUB – STRAND 6.2
Mathematical Induction

LEARNING OUTCOME

6.2.1 Prove by mathematical

induction.

132
 6.2.1 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is a method of proving statements that involves a variable

which takes on the values of the Natural numbers, N.
Also note that

Basically there are 4 steps involved in proving a statement:

Step 1: Prove that it is true for

Step 2: Assume that it is true for

Step 3: Prove that it is true for

Step 4: Conclusion

1
2Example 1 Prove that 1 2  3... n n ( n 1) for n t 1.
2
" An
Answer
n wer
nsw

Step 1: Prove that the statement is true for n 1 .

LHS= n RHS= ½ n ( n + 1)
=1 = ½ ൈ 1 ൈ (1 + 1)
=½ൈ2
=1
‫׵‬LHS = RHS

Step 2: Assume that the statement is true for n k.

1
1 2  3... k k ( k 1)
2

133
Step 3 : Prove that it is true for n = k + 1
LHS RHS
1
1 2  3  ...  k  ( k 1) ( k 1)( k 11)
2

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . + k + ( k + 1 ) = ½ (k + 1) (k + 2)

LHS = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . + k + ( k + 1 )

From step 2
1
= k (k  1) + (k + 1)
2

= (k + 1) [ ½ k + 1 ] factorise ( k + 1)

= ½ (k + 1) (k + 2)

= RHS

Step 4: Conclusion
Thus by mathematical induction the formula is valid for all n  N.

n 1
2Example 2 Prove that ¦5 r  3 n ( 5 n 1) .
r 1 2
" Answer
1
2+7+…………+ 5n െ 3 = n ( 5 n 1)
2

Step 1: Prove that the statement is true for n 1 .

LHS = (5n – 3) RHS= ½ n (5n – 1)

= 5ൈ1 –3 = ½ ൈ1 (5ൈ1 – 1)
=5–3 = ½ (5 – 1)
=2 =2

‫ ׵‬LHS = RHS

Step 2: Assume that the statement is true for n k .

1
2+7+…………+ 5k-3 = k ( 5 k 1)
2

134
Step 3 : Prove that it is true for n = k + 1

1
2 + 7 +…………+ 5k - 3  5( k 1)  3 = ( k 1[ 5 ( k 1) 1]
2
LHS
RHS = ½ (k ൅ 1) [ 5(k ൅ 1) – 1]
2 + 7 + …………+ 5k - 3  5(k  1)  3
1 = ½ (k ൅ 1) (5k ൅ 4)
k ( 5 k 1) ൅ [ 5(k ൅ 1) –3 ]
2

1
k ( 5 k 1) ൅5k൅5–3
2
1
= k (5k  1) ൅ 5k ൅ 2
2
1 ହ௞ାଶ ൈଶ
= k (5k  1) ൅ ଵ  ൈଶ
2
1 1
= k ( 5 k 1) ൅ ሺͳͲ݇ ൅ Ͷሻ
2 2 A Short-cut Method
5k 2 + 9k + 4
= ½ (5k 2 ൅ 9k ൅ 4) factors
5k 4 Cross multiply to give
=½ (k ൅ 1) (5 k ൅ 4) k 1 middle term

= RHS =½ (k + 1) (5k + 4)

Step 4: Conclusion

Thus by mathematical induction the formula is valid for all n  N.

135
~ Exercise 6.2

Prove by mathematical induction that:

1. 3 + 7 + 11 ….+ (4n െ 1) = n(2n  1) is true for n  N.

n(n  1)(2n  1)
2. 12 + 22 + 32 + ….+ n2 = is true for n  N.
6

n(n  1)(n  2)
3. 1ή2 + 2ή3 + ….+ n ( n + 1 ) = is true for n  N.
3

2
4. 1 + 3 + 5 ….+ (2 n െ 1) = n is true for n  N.

n
5. ¦2 r 1
22  2n  1 is true for n  N.
r 1

n
1
6.
2
¦2
r 1
r
2
n
1 is true for n  N.

n
7. ¦ 3r
r 1
2
r n(n  1) 2 is true for n  N.

A truly real-life example of mathematical induction is the sinking of the Titanic:

The crew of the Titanic realized that the ship was doomed when they realized
that the bulkhead that was being flooded would be completely flooded, and that
when a given bulkhead was completely flooded, the next bulkhead would
undergo the same fate, thus sinking the whole ship. ~ S. Shenoy
(https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-use-of-Mathematical-Induction-in-real-
life)

136
 Binomial Theorem
SUB – STRAND 6.3

LEARNING OUTCOMES

6.3.1 Expand using Binomial Theorem.

6.3.2 Find particular terms, coefficients
and the independent term.

137
 6.3.1 Binomial Theorem

¾ Factorial !
The factorial of a number (symbol n!) is defined as:

n! = n ൈ (n െ1)ൈ ( n െ2)ൈ ( n െ3)….3 ൈ 2 ൈ 1, n ‫ܰ א‬

2Example 5 ! = 5 ൈ 4 ൈ 3 ൈ 2 ൈ1 = 120
This can be directly found using the calculator which has the key !
Press 5 ! = _______

¾ Combinations
A combination is a selection of a certain number of elements from a set where the
order of elements is not taken into account. The number of possible combinations
of “r” elements from “n” things is denoted by:

2Example =

This can also be found using the key on the calculator.

Press 5 2 = _______

¾ The Binomial Theorem

The binomial theorem provides a useful method for raising any binomial to a
nonnegative integral power:

Note:
x The power of x decreases from n to 0 while the power of a increases from 0 to n.
x The number of terms in the expansion is one greater than the power
x The sum of the powers of x and a (first and second term) always equals the power
of the binomial n.

x The (r +1)th term which is the general term is given by

and is the binomial coefficient.

138
2Example 1 Evaluate the following using calculator or otherwise:
଻Ǩ
a) b) 10C
ସǨ 6

" Answers
଻Ǩ ଻ή଺ήହήସǨ 10 !
a) ൌ ൌ ʹͳͲ b) 10C = 210
ସǨ ସǨ 6 10  6! 6 !

2Example 2 Expand ( x  a)3 using the binomial theorem.

" Answer
§ 3 · 3 0 0 § 3 · 3  1 1 § 3 · 3  2 2 § 3 · 3 3 3
( x  a) 3 ¨¨ ¸¸ x a  ¨¨ ¸¸ x a  ¨¨ ¸¸ x a  ¨¨ ¸¸ x a
0
© ¹ 1
© ¹ 2
© ¹ 3
© ¹
1u x3 u1  3u x2 u a  3 u x1 u a 2  1 u 1 u a 3
x 3  3 x 2 a  3 xa 2  a 3

1 3
2Example 3 Expand (2 x  ) using binomial theorem
x2
" Answer

(2 x 
1 3
x2
) 30(2x) ( x1 )  13(2x) ( x1 )  32(2x) ( x1 )  33(2x) ( x1 )
3
2
0 2
2
1 1
2
2 0
2
3

1 1 1
1.8 x 3 .1  3.(4 x 2 )( 2
)  3.(2 x).( 4 )  ( )
x x x6
6 1
8 x 3  12  
x3 x6

139
 5
§ p· 3§ 2·
 a  b is ¨ ¸  x 2  ¨  ¸ .
n
2Example 4 A term in an expansion of
©k ¹ © x¹
Find a, b, n, p and k
" Answer
§n·
The general term in the expansion of  a  b  is ¨ ¸ a n k b k .
n

©k ¹
5
§ p· 2 3 § 2 ·
Now, comparing with the term ¨ ¸ x  ¨  ¸
©k ¹ © x¹

2
we have a x2 , b  , k 5 and
x

~ Exercise 6.3.1
fy ( x + y ) 4
1. Use the binomial theorem to expand and simplify
4
§ 1·
2. Expand and simplifyy ¨ 2 x  ¸
© 2¹
5
§ 3x3 2 ·
3. Use the binomial theorem to find the first three terms of ¨  2¸
© 4 x ¹
3
§ 1 ·
4. Use the binomial theorem to expand and simplify
fy ¨ 2x  2 ¸
© x ¹
§n· 2 4
5. A term in an expansion of (a  b) is ¨ ¸ (3x )   2 y  .
c 3

©k ¹
a) Give the values of a, b, c, n and k.
b) Write out the given term in simplified form.

Binomial theorem is used in forecast services. The disaster forecast also depends
upon the use of binomial theorems. Moreover, it allows engineers, to calculate
the magnitudes of the projects and thus delivering accurate estimates of not
only the costs but also time required to construct them. For contractors, it is a
very important tool to help ensuring the costing projects is competent enough to
deliver profits.~ Y. Bhalgat (https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-real-world-
examples-of-the-use-of-the-binomial-theorem)

140
 6.3.2 Finding particular terms, coefficients and the
independent term

¾ To find a particular term in , use the general formula and substitute the
values of power (n) , r, a and b.

¾ To Find the coefficient of variables with desired power or independent term

x Use the general formula mentioned above and simplify
x Equate power of the variable, with the desired power. In case of constant /
independent term, equate power of variable to zero.
x Solve for r
x Go back and substitute in the original formula the value of r to find the answer

Finding a particular term

2Example 1 a  3)10 ?
What is the third term of ((a

" Answer
§n· n  r r
The general term in the expansion of ( x  a) n is given by Tr 1 ¨ ¸x a
©r¹
For the third term r = 2,
§10 ·
T21 ¨ ¸a10  2 (3) 2
©2¹
T3 45 u a 8 u 9

405 a 8

141
 Finding the coefficient

2Example 2 Use the binomial theorem to find coefficient of x 4 in the

expansion of ( x  1)10 .
" Answer
Use the general formula mentioned above and simplify
§10 · 10  r r
T ¨ ¸x
r  1 ¨© r ¸¹
1

Equate power of the variable x, with the desired power.

x10  r = x 4
10 െ r = 4

Solve for r, the term

10 െ r + r = 4 + r
r = 10 െ 4
r=6

Go back and substitute into the original formula the value of r

§10 · 10  6 6
The required term is T ¨ ¸x
6  1 ¨© 6 ¸¹
1

ͳͲ
= ቀ ቁ(x)4(1)6
͸
= (210) x4(1)
‫ ׵‬Coefficient is 210

Finding Constant Term (term independent of x)

2Example 3 Finding the term independent of x in the expansion of

12
§ 2 1·
¨ 3x  ¸
© x¹
" Answer
Use the general formula mentioned above and simplify
§12 · 2 12  r § 1 · r
T ¨ ¸(3x ) u¨ ¸
r  1 ¨© r ¸¹ © x¹
§12 · 12  r 24  2r (1) r
¨¨ ¸¸ x 3 xx x
©r¹ xr

142
 §12 · 12  r 24  2r r r
T ¨¨ ¸¸ x 3 xx xx x ( 1)
r 1 ©r¹
§12 · 12  r 24  2r  r r
¨¨ ¸¸ x 3 xx x ( 1)
©r¹
§12 · 12  r 24  3r r
¨¨ ¸¸ x 3 xx x ( 1)
©r¹

Equate power of the variable x to zero.

x 24  3r x 0
24  3r 0

Solve for r, the term

24  3r 0
24 3r
3r 24
3 3
r 8
Go back and substitute in the original formula the value of r
§12 · 12  8 24  3 u 8 8
T ¨ ¸ x3 xx x ( 1)
8  1 ¨© 8 ¸¹
495 x 81
40 095

~ Exercise 6.3.2
6
§ 1·
1. Find the constant term in the expansion of ¨ x 2  ¸
© x¹

2. Use the binomial theorem to find the coefficient of x 2 in the expansion

8
§ 1·
of ¨ x 2  ¸
© x¹
15
§ 1·
3. Find the 15th term of ¨ 3x 2  ¸
© x¹

4. Find the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of (2 x  3x 2 )7 .

143
 Partial Fractions
SUB – STRAND 6.4

LEARNING OUTCOMES

6.4.1 Write fractions with distinct linear

factors in the denominator as
partial fractions.
6.4.2 Write fractions with repeated
linear factors in the denominator
as partial fractions.
6.4.3 Write fractions with irreducible
quadratic factors in the
denominator as partial fractions.

144
 6.4.1 Denominator with distinct linear factors

If we add , we get

The reverse process i.e. splitting as is known as

decomposition into partial fractions.

If the denominator of the terms in the partial fraction is linear, we make the
numerator a constant.

Follow the following steps while decomposing into partial fraction with distinct
linear factors:
1. Factorize the denominator so that you get the distinct linear factors
2. Separate the factors in denominator. Let their constant to be A, B, C, etc
3. Make denominators same.
4. Equate the numerators.
5. Solve for the variables.

3x  5
2Example 1 Express as a sum of partial fractions.
x  x  12
2

" Answer
3x  5 3x  5 Factorize the denominator
x  x  12
2
( x  4)( x  3)

3x  5 A B Separate the factors in denominator.


( x  4)( x  3) ( x  4) ( x  3) Let their constant to be A and B

3x  5 A( x  3)  B( x  4 Make denominators same

( x  4)( x  3) ( x  3)( x  4)
Since the denominator on both sides is
3x  5 A( x  3)  B( x  4)
same, we can equate the numerators
Let x = 3 as it will eliminate A ; Let x = - 4 as this will eliminate B;
3 x  5 A( x  3)  B( x  4) 3x  5 A( x  3)  B( x  4)
3(3)  5 A(3  3)  B(3  4) 3(4)  5 A(4  3)  B(4  4)
14 7 B  7 7 A
B 2 A 1

3 x 5 1 2
? 
x  x 12 ( x  4 ) ( x  3)
2

145
Method 2: Equating Coefficients
3x  5 A( x  3)  B( x  4)
3 x  5 Ax  3 A  Bx  4 B

Consider coefficients of x : 3= A + B .
Consider constants : 5= -3A + 4B

Solve simultaneously:
3=A + B o A=3–B [for first equation, Make A the subject
5= -3A + 4B and substitute in second equation]
5= -3(3–B)+4B
5= -9+7B
B=2

A=3–B [go back and substitute in any equation]

A= 3–2
=1

3 x 5 1 2
? 
x  x 12 ( x  4 ) ( x  3)
2

2  x 2  4 x  7 
2Example 2 Express as a sum of partial fractions.
( x 2  1)( x  3)
" Answer
2  x 2  4 x  7  A B C
 
( x  1)( x  3)
2
x 1 x 1 x3
A  x  1 x  3  B  x  1  x  3  C  x  1 ( x  1)
.
( x 2  1)( x  3)

Since the denominator on both sides is the same, we can equate the numerators
2  x2  4 x  7  A  x  1 x  3  B  x  1 x  3  C  x  1 ( x  1)

Let x 1 ,
2 12  4 1  7  A 1  11  3  B 1  1 1  3  C 1  1 (1  1)
 24 8B ŸB 3
Let x 3 ,


2  3  4  3  7
2
 A  3  1 3  3  B  3  1  3  3  C  3  1 (3  1)

 8 8C ŸC 1

146
 Now substitute any other value for x to solve for A.

let x 0 ,

2  x 2  4 x  7  2 3 1
Therefore,  
( x  1)( x  3)
2
x 1 x 1 x3

6.4.2 Repeated linear factors

Repeated linear factors refer to a factor in the denominator that occurs more

than once.
The process for repeated factors is slightly different from the process for distinct
linear. For each non-repeated factor in the denominator, follow the process for
distinct linear factors.

Given

ƒ Where polynomial P(x) has degree < n

then f (x) can be decomposed into

147
 3x  2
2Example 3 Express as a sum of partial fractions.
( x  1)( x  1) 2

" Answer
3x  2 A B C
 
( x  1)( x  1) 2 ( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1) 2

3x  2 A( x  1) 2  B( x  1)( x  1)  C ( x  1)
( x  1)( x  1) 2 ( x  1)( x  1) 2

Since the denominator on both sides is same, we can equate the numerators:
3x  2 A( x  1) 2  B( x  1)( x  1)  C ( x  1)

Carefully select x values to obtain the values of the coefficients that makes the
expression zero.
3x  2 A( x  1) 2  B( x  1)( x  1)  C ( x  1)
Let x = 1, Let x = -1,
3(1)  2 A(1  1) 2  B(1  1)(1  1)  C (1  1)
5 2C
5
C
2

Let x = 0,
3x  2 A( x  1) 2  B( x  1)( x  1)  C ( x  1)
3(0)  2 A(0  1) 2  B (0  1)(0  1)  C (0  1)
2 A BC
1 5
2   B
4 2
1
B
4

3x  2 1 1 5
Therefore   
( x  1)( x  1) 2 4( x  1) 4( x  1) 2( x  1) 2

148
 2Example 4 Express as a sum of partial fractions.

" Answer
6 x2  x  2 A B C
 2
x 2  x  1 x x x 1

Make denominators same

6 x 2  x  2 Ax  x  1  B  x  1  Cx
2

.
x 2  x  1 x 2  x  1

Since the denominator on both sides is same, we can equate the numerators:
6 x2  x  2 Ax  x  1  B  x  1  Cx 2

Let x = 0, then Let x 1 , then

6  02   0  2 B  0  1 6  1   1  2 C  1
2 2

ŸB 2 ŸC 5

Let x 1 , then
6 12   1  2 A 11  1  B 1  1  C 12  Ÿ 3 2 A  2B  C
Ÿ 3 2 A  2  2   5  recall that B 2 and C 5 ŸA 2 1
2

6 x2  x  2 1 2 5
Therefore,  2
x 2  x  1 x x x 1

6.4.3 Quadratics which cannot be factorised

Quadratics which cannot be factorized refers to a quadratic that is in the
denominator that cannot be factored.
When setting up the partial fraction decomposition, the numerator should have a
linear term Ax + B.
This is because the degree of the denominator is 2, so the degree of the
numerator should be 1 (linear term).

149
 x2 1
2Example 5 Express as a sum of partial fractions.
( x 2  1)( x  2)

" Answer
x2  1 Ax  B C

( x 2  1)( x  2) ( x  1) ( x  2)
2

x2 1 ( x  2)( Ax  B)  C ( x 2  1)
( x  2)( x 2  1) ( x  2)( x 2  1)

Since the denominator on both sides is same, we can equate the numerators.
x 2  1 ( x  2)( Ax  B)  C ( x 2  1)

Let x = 2, Let x = 0,
2  1 (2  2)( A u 2  B)  C (2  1)
2 2

3 5C
3
C
5

Let x = 1,
(1) 2  1 (1  2)( A  B)  C (12  1)
4 §3·
0 1( A  )  2¨ ¸
5 ©5¹
4 6
A 

5 5
2
0 A 
5
2
A
5

x 2 1 2x4 3
Hence 
( x 1)( x  2 ) 5 ( x 1) 5 ( x  2 )
2 2

150
 2x 1
2Example 6 Express as a sum of partial fractions.
( x  2)( x 2  1)
" Answer
Make denominators same
2x 1 A

Bx  C  
A x 2  1   Bx  C   x  2 
( x  2)( x 2  1) x2  x2  1 ( x  2)( x 2  1)

Since the denominator on both sides is same, we can equate the numerators
2 x  1 A  x 2  1   Bx  C  x  2 

Let x 2 , Let x = 0,
 
2  2  1 A  2  1   B  2  C   2  2
2

5 5A ŸA 1

Let x = 1,
 
2 1  1 A 1  1   B 1  C  1  2 
2

Ÿ 3 2A  B  C Ÿ 3 2 1  B  0 (recall that A 1 and C 0)

3 2 B ŸB 1

Therefore
2x 1 1 x
 2
( x  2)( x 2  1) x2  x  1

~ Exercise 6.4
Express as a sum of partial fractions.
 4 x 2 11 x  6 15  4 x  x 2
1. 2.
x 2 ( x  3) ( x  1)( x  2) 2

3x2 8 x  11
3. 4.
( x 1)( x 1) 2 x2  x  2

3  x2
6.
5.

( x  1) x  2 x  1
2
 x  x 2 1

10 x  24 x2
8.
7.

( x  3) x 2  9  
x x2  4 

151
~ Review Exercise 6

1. Use mathematical induction to prove that the following formula is valid for
all positive integers, n.
n 1 n
8  72  .......................................  8 u 9 9 1

5n(n  1)
2. Prove by induction that 5  10  15  20  ......  5n
2

3. Express the following as a sum of partial fractions:

2x
a)
( x  3)( x  5)

2x
b)
( x  3) 2 ( x  5)

2x
c)
( x  9) ( x  5)
2

4. Find the values of the constants A and B in the expression

5x A 2x  B

( x  2)( x 2  1) x2 x2  1

12
§ 1·
5. An expression is given as ¨ 3x 2  ¸
© x¹
12
§ 1·
a) Find the term independent of x in the expansion of ¨ 3x 2  ¸
© x¹

b) Use the binomial theorem to find the coefficient of x 2 in the expansion

12
§ 1·
of ¨ 3x 2  ¸
© x¹

§ 1 ·12
c) Find the 5th term of ¨ 3x 2  ¸
© x¹

152
 STRAND PROBABILITY AND
INFERRENTIAL
SEVEN STATISTICS

Probability
SUB – STRAND 7.1

LEARNING OUTCOMES

7.1.1 Identify types of events.

Calculate probabilities associated with
these events.
7.1.2 Calculate probabilities using the
addition rule.

153
 7.1.1 Types of Events

7.1.1.1 Complementary events

x The complement of event A (symbol ) means every outcome which is not

in event A.
2 Example If event A is getting a pass in a test, then is getting a fail
in a test.

x Two events are complementary if their probabilities add up to one.

P(A) + P( )=1

P(A) P( )

7.1.1.2 Mutually exclusive events

Mutually Exclusive Events have no outcomes in common.

P(A) P(B)

x Intersection
Since no outcome is common, then there will not be any intersection, i.e.

A‫ ܤ ת‬ൌ ‫ݎ݋׎‬ሼሽ null set ܲሺ‫ܤ ת ܣ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ

x Union

ࡼሺ࡭ࢁ࡮ሻ ൌ ࡼሺ࡭ሻ ൅ ࡼሺ࡮ሻ

154
 2 Example 1 Given P(A) = 0.15 and P(B) = 0.43. Find ܲሺ‫ܤܣ‬ሻgiven
events A and B are mutually exclusive?
" Answer
ࡼሺ࡭‫࡮܃‬ሻ ൌ ࡼሺ࡭ሻ ൅ ࡼሺ࡮ሻ

ൌ 0.15 + 0.43
ൌ0.58

7.1.1.3 Independent events

Events A and B are independent if their occurrence do not affect each other.
ŸCan happen together

x Probability of A and B occurring together

P(A ˆ B) = P(A). P(B)

2 Example 2 Given P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.4 and P(Aˆ B) = 0.12.

Are events A and B independent?
" Answer
P(A ˆ B) = P(A). P(B)
= 0.3 ൈ0.4
= 0.12
Since P(A ˆ B) = P(A). P(B) , the events A and B are Independent.

7.1.2 Addition rule

If A and B are not disjoint then

A B

ࡼሺ࡭ࢁ࡮ሻ ൌ ࡼሺ࡭ሻ ൅ ࡼሺ࡮ሻ െ ࡼሺ࡭ ‫࡮ ת‬ሻ

155
2 Example 3 ܲሺ‫ܣ‬ሻ = 0.2 , ܲሺ‫ܤ‬ሻ = 0.3 and P( A ˆ B) 0.06 .
Find:

a) ܲሺ‫ܣ‬Ԣሻ
b) P( A ‰ B)

" Answers
a) ܲሺ‫ܣ‬Ԣሻ b) P( A ‰ B)
= 1 െ ܲሺ‫ܣ‬ሻ ൌ ܲሺ‫ܣ‬ሻ ൅ ܲሺ‫ܤ‬ሻ െ ܲሺ‫ܤ ת ܣ‬ሻ
= 1 – 0.2 0.2  0.3 0.06
= 0.8 0.44

~ Exercise 7.1.1

1. The probability that event A occurs is 0.60 while the probability that
event B occurs is 0.25. The probability that both A and B occur is 0.12.
a) Explain why events A and B are not independent.
b) Find the probability of neither A nor B occurring.

2. The National Bank has 2 computers. The probability that Computer A will
break down once in a month is 0.05. The probability that Computer B will
break down once in a month is 0.1. In a given month and assuming that
the events are independent,
a) what is the probability that either Computer A or Computer B will
break down?
b) what is the probability that neither Computer A nor Computer B will
break down?

3. An experiment consists of rolling 2 fair dice. Event A is “the number on

the first die is 5” and event B is “the sum of the numbers is 10”.
a) Explain why events A and B are not mutually exclusive.
b) What is the probability that event A or B occurs?

4. Box A and Box B contain identical items. Box A has 10 items while Box B
has 8. Three items from each box are defective.
If an item is drawn from each box, find the probability that:
a) both items are good.
b) only one of the items is defective.

156
 SUB – STRAND 7.2 Inverse Normal
Problems

LEARNING OUTCOME

7.2.1 Solve applied inverse normal

distribution problems.

157
7.2.1 Inverse Normal Distribution

¾ Table to be used:

¾ Conversion formula
Z=

¾ P is between 0 and z

0 z

158
2 Example 1 X has a normal distribution with mean = 70.
Given P( X ! 80) 0.11 , find the standard deviation.
" Answer

0.5-.11
0.39
0.11
μ = 70 x=80
(positive)

P( X ! 80) 0.11
௫ିఓ
P ( z > ఙ ) = ͳǤʹʹ͸ͷ
z = ͳǤʹʹ͸ͷ, substituting values
଼଴ି଻଴
ͳǤʹʹ͸ͷ ൌ ఙ Solve ߪ

ͳǤʹʹ͸ͷ ൈ ߪ = ͺͲ െ ͹Ͳ

ଵ଴
ߪ = ଵǤଶଶ଺ହ

ߪ = 8.15

2 Example 2 Intelligence quotient (IQ) scores of people are normally

distributed with standard deviation of 10. The probability
that a person, selected at random, has an IQ greater than
95 is 0.69. Calculate the mean IQ score.
" Answer
Normal Curve
P ( X > 95) = 0.69
P ( z > x – μ) = 0.69
V 0.5
P ( z > 95 – μ ) = 0.69
10 0.19
95 μ
(negative)

159
Look for P= 0.19 in the inverse table

z = െ 0.4959, substituting values

ଽହିఓ
െ 0.4959 ൌ ଵ଴ Solve μ

െ 0.4959 ൈ 10 = ͻͷ െ ߤ
μ = ͻͷ + 4.959
μ= 99.96

Not all P values are given in the inverse normal table, so we have to use the
normal distribution table as shown below.

160
2EXAMPLE 3: Fifteen thousand students sat an exam and their marks were
normally distributed with a mean of 64 % and a standard deviation of 12 .

If one in eight students failed, what was the minimum mark required for a pass?

" Answer
ଵ
p (students failed) = ଼ ‫Ͳݎ݋‬Ǥͳʹͷ , x= ?

The closest entry below 0.375 is 0.3749 which corresponds to z value of 1.15.
This differs from 0.375 by 0.0001. The closest value to 0.0001 in the difference
column on the right is ‘2’ in the column headed ‘1’.
z = 1.151

Thus z = -1.151, use formula to find the minimum mark, x

xP
z
V
x  64
1.151
12
x 50.19
Therefore, the minimum mark required for a pass is 50.19%

161
~ Exercise 7.2.1

1. The final exam marks of a class of 500 students are normally distributed
with a mean of 62 marks & standard deviation of 15 marks.

a) What is the cut – off mark for A grade if the top 16.6% of the
students in the class are awarded an A grade?
b) The E grade is the lowest grade in the examination. What is the
cut – off mark for E grade if 2.55% of the students in the class are
awarded an E grade?

2. Find k if P ( 0  z  k ) 0.12

3. A normal random variable X has mean of 70. Given that

P( X ! 80) 0.05 , find the standard deviation.

4. A normal random variable X has mean of 50. Given that

P ( X  80 ) 0.75 , find the standard deviation.

5. A normal random variable X has standard deviation of 50. Given that

P ( X  50 ) 0.01 , find the mean.

6. A normal distribution, X, has a standard deviation of 4. Given that

P (X < 70) = 0.7, calculate the mean.

7. The marks for a college examination are normally distributed with a

mean of 56. If 6% of all the students who sat for the examination had
marks greater than 80, find the standard deviation for the distribution.

Probabilities are based on long-term percentages (over thousands of trials), so

when you apply them to a group, the group has to be large enough (the larger
the better, but at least 1,500 or so items or individuals) for the probabilities to
really apply. Here’s an example where long-term interpretation makes sense in
place of short-term interpretation.~ anonymous
(http://catalogimages.wiley.com/images/db/pdf/0471751413.excerpt.pdf )

162
 SUB – STRAND 7.3 Binomial Distribution

LEARNING OUTCOMES

7.3.1 Define binomial experiments.

Calculate binomial probabilities
using formulae and tables.

163
 7.3.1 Binomial probabilities

The binomial distribution has two possible outcomes (the prefix “bi” means two).

2 Example: A coin has only two possible outcomes: heads or tails and taking a
test has two possible outcomes: pass or fail.
The two outcomes are called success or failure.

¾ Properties of Binomial Experiment:

1. The experiment consists of ‘n’ repeated trials
2. Only two possible outcomes (Success or Failure)
3. Probability of success is the same for each trial.
4. Each trial is independent of each other

¾ The binomial distribution formula is:

, x = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……….. n

where:
P = binomial probability
x = total number of “successes”
p = probability of success
q = probability of failure ( q = 1െ p)
n = number of trials

2 Example 1 If 20% of the bulbs produced by a factory are faulty, determine

the probability that out of sample of 12 randomly chosen bulbs,
one will be faulty.
" Answer
Given : n = 12, p = 20% = 0.20, q = 1 – 0.20 = 0.80,
x = 1 (one will be faulty)

§ n·
Probability = ¨¨ ¸¸ p x q n  x
© x¹

§12 ·
= ¨¨ ¸¸0.2 0.8
1 121

©1¹

= 0.2062

164
 7.3.2 Table of Binomial probabilities for Individual terms

¾ You may use the Binomial distribution table for individual terms:

165


166
2 Example 1 For the previous example, use the table to find the probability.
" Answer
Given : n = 12, p or π = 20% = 0.20, q = 1 – 0.20 = 0.80, x = 1

n x 0.20

12 0

1 0.2062

.
.
.
11
12

‫׵‬Probability = 0.2062

2 Example 2 If 20% of the bulbs produced by a factory are faulty, determine

the probability that out of sample of 12 randomly chosen bulbs, at
least 8 will be faulty.

" Answer
Given : n = 12, p = 20% = 0.20, x = (8, 9, 10, 11, 12)
Reading Probability from the table of individual terms and add up the
probability values corresponding to x = 8 to x = 12.

n x 0.20 Probability = 0.0005 + 0.0001

12 . . = 0.0006

. .
. .
8 0.0005

9 0.0001

10
11
12

167
 7.3.3 Table of Cumulative Binomial Distribution

¾ You may also use the Cumulative Binomial distribution table:

168


169
2 Example 1 For the previous example 2, use the Cumulative Binomial
distribution table to find the probability.

" Answer
π

n x

0.20

12 . .
. .
. .

8 0.0006

9
10
11
12

2 Example 2
There are 12 equivalent units in the Lagoon Motel. The manager knows that the
probability that a unit will be occupied on any one night is 0.40. Find the
probability that at most 10 units will be occupied on any one night.

" Answer
Let X be the number of units occupied on
any one night. Using the binomial distribution
p 0.4 , q 1  0.4 0.6 and n 12 .
individual terms
π

P  X d 10  1  P  X ! 10  n x 0.40
1  ª¬ P  X 11  P  X 12 º¼ .
12 . .
= 1 – [0.0003 + 0.0000]
= 0.9997 . .
. .
11 0.0003
12

170
2 Example 3
A shop owner has found out that 85% of the people who come to this shop on
any day buy something. If in one day 15 people go to this shop, find the
probability that 11 of them will be buying something.

" Answer
Method 1
n = 15 p = 0.85, x = 11

0.85 is not in the tables, so using the formula

§ n · x n x
x P (X x) ¨ ¸p q
© x¹

§ 15 ·
¨ ¸ 0.8511 0.1515 11
© 11 ¹

= 0.1156

Method 2:

n = 15 p = 0.85, x = 11

0.85 is not in the tables, so instead we find the probability that 4 do not buy
something (which is exactly the same as 11 buying something) with
probability 0.15

n = 15, p = 0.15, X=4

P(X = 4) = 0.1156 from the tables

2 Example 4
The probability that Roy scores a goal in a soccer game is 0.30. What is the
probability that Roy scores a goal in at least 3 of the next 5 soccer games?

171
" Answer
Using the binomial distribution individual terms
to derive the probability.
Since p = 0.3 and n 5 , we have:
P  X t 3 P  X 3   P  X 4   P  X 5 
0.1323  0.0283  0.0024 0.163
Note this can be directly obtained from cumulative distribution table.

~ Exercise 7.3

1. A maths teacher sets up study groups in her maths class. Each study group
has 3 students. If 20 % of the maths students in her class are females, what
is the probability that at least one member of a group is a female?

2. A hospital with a heart transplant unit finds that the probability that a
patient is still alive after 3 years is 30%. Find the probability that if the unit
operates on 10 patients in a year, more than seven patients will not live up to
3 years after the operation.

3. A survey in a country shows that 95% of the people love listening to music.
What is the probability that from 12 people interviewed on the streets, at
least 11 will be found to have love for music?

4. A shop owner has found out that 80% of the people who come to this shop
on any day buy something. If in one day 20 people go to this shop, find the
probability that at least 75% of them will be buying something.

5. A primary student is going to guess the answers to all the questions in a 10

question multiple choice test where there are 5 choices for each answer.
What is the probability of getting at least 8 correct answers?

6. A survey on the streets of Suva on a sunny day showed that 80% of the
people wore sunglasses. What is the probability that exactly 10 out of 15
people will be wearing sunglasses on a particular sunny day?

7. A student is going to guess the answers to all the questions on a 5 question -

multiple-choice test where there are four choices for each answer. What is
the probability of getting at least four correct answers?

8. It is found that 20% of light bulbs produced in a factory are faulty. In a

random sample of 10 bulbs, what is the probability that less than four bulbs
are faulty?

172
 SUB – STRAND 7.4 Estimation

LEARNING OUTCOMES

7.4.1 Explain central limit theorem.

7.4.2 Find confidence intervals.
7.4.3 Determine sample size for
estimating the population
mean.

173
 7.4.1 Estimation

¾ Central limit theorem

If a random sample of size n is drawn from a large or infinite population with

mean, and standard deviation, , then the distribution of sample mean, , is

approximately normally distributed with and .

Hence

One very important application of central limit theorem is the determination of

the reasonable values of the population mean.
Hypothesis testing and estimation will use the central limit theorem.

¾ Interval Estimate for the population mean

Since we know something about the distribution of sample mean and

, we can make statements about how confident we are that the true
mean is within a given interval about our sample mean.

Statisticians use to represent the probability that does not lie between the
upper and the lower limits in the interval. The probability that the lies
between the upper and the lower limits is then

Suppose k and m are the lower and upper limits respectively of the interval:
then
So we have a probability of that the population mean lies between k and
m. This is the confidence interval

is the z-value leaving an area of to the right

174
 7.4.2 Confidence Interval

¾ To calculate the Confidence Interval, use the formula

where:
: sample mean
V : standard deviation
n : sample size
: z-value leaving an area of to the right in a standard normal distribution

¾ lf D = 0.05 we have 95% confidence interval for P ( population mean)

¾ In summary,

99% Confidence Interval for μ is

95% Confidence Interval for μ is

90% Confidence Interval for μ is

2 Example 1 A sample of 500 Year 13 students showed that the average

time they spent studying math is 35 minutes with a standard
deviation of 12 minutes. Find a 90% confidence interval for
estimating the average time a student will spent studying math.
Assume the sample is taken from a normal population.
" Answer
x = 35 ; V = 12 ; n = 500 , D = 10 % (0.1), α = 0.05
2

0.05 0.05
0.9

175
Look for P= 0.45 in the inverse normal table to get zV = 1.6449
2
V V
x  zα u  P  x  zα u
2 n 2 n

12 12
35 – 1.6449ൈ < P < 35 + 1.6449 ൈ
500 500

34.12 < P < 35.88

There is a probability of 0.90 that the population mean would fall between 34.12
and 35.88.
Note:
When the population standard deviation V is not known we can use the
sample standard deviation s if the sample size is t 30

2 Example 2 When a sample of 500 coconuts is graded, a mean weight of 200 g

is recorded. The standard deviation of the weight of these
coconuts is known to be 12 g. Find a 95% confidence interval for
the mean of coconuts. [Give your answer to 1 decimal place.]

" Answer
n 500 x 200 s 12

0.025 0.025
0.95

D 0.05 ŸD 0.025 and zD 1.96

2 2

V V
x  zα u  P  x  zα u
2 n 2 n
12 12
200  1.96 u  P  200  1.96 u
500 500

Ÿ 198.9 g  P  201.1 g

176
 7.4.3 Choosing a sample size for estimating the
population mean

¾ How large a sample should we take to obtain a reliable estimate of the

population mean?

The sample size can be calculated by the formula:

where
V = standard deviation
n = sample size
e = error
= the z - value leaving an area of to the right

The sample size in the formula is the smallest sample size that will satisfy
the accuracy requirement. Any larger sample size will also satisfy the
requirements.

When finding the sample size, n, all fractional values are rounded up to
the next whole number. This will reduce the error.

2 Example 3 A population has a standard deviation of 16. What minimum

sample size should be taken to estimate the mean within 2 units
of true value with 95% confidence?
" Answer
D
V= 4; e = 2; 95% = 0.95 Ÿ D =0.05; 0.025
2
D
Using the inverse normal table with P = 0.475 (1- ) Ÿ zV = 1.960
2 2
2
§ zD V ·
¨ ¸
n ¨ 2 ¸
¨ e ¸
© ¹ 2
§ 1.96 u 4 ·
¨ ¸ 15.37
© 2 ¹
16 rounded up to the next whole number

177
~ Exercise 7.4

1. A sample of 100 students took a mean time of 40 minutes with a standard

deviation of 10 minutes to travel to school. Determine the 95 % confidence
interval for the mean time taken by the students to travel to school.

2. A sample of size 120 items is taken from a population with an unknown mean
mass, P, and standard deviation 7.7g. The sample mean mass is found to be
562g. Construct a 99% confidence interval for the population mean mass, P.

3. A sample of 225 students of Lomavata High school took a mean time of 30

minutes, with a standard deviation of 6 minutes, to travel to school.
Determine the 98% confidence interval for the mean time taken by the
students to travel to school.

4. A car reaches a speed of 100 km/h on a straight narrow road and then
suddenly it had to stop. If the standard deviation of the length taken to stop
is 15m, find how large a sample is required to be 95% confident that the
error in the estimated mean will not exceed 2m.

5. A population of adult height has a normal distribution with a standard

deviation of 3.6cm. Determine the sample size that is required to allow the
mean of population to be estimated within 0.3cm with 98% confidence.

6. Determine the sample size that is required to estimate the mean weight of
boys in Class 2, with a standard deviation of 3 kg, if we want the estimate to
be accurate to within 1kg, with 95% confidence.

7. Determine the sample size that is required from a population of light bulbs
with a bulb life that has a standard deviation of 20 hours, to estimate the
mean bulb life to within 5 hours with 98% confidence.

8. Determine the sample size required to estimate weight of Form Seven Boys
to within 1.0 kg with 95% confidence. Assume that the standard deviation of
such weights is 3.0 kg.

178
 SUB – STRAND 7.5 Hypothesis Testing

LEARNING OUTCOMES

7.5.1 Define terms used in

hypothesis testing.
7.5.3 Perform hypothesis testing.

179
 7.5.1 Hypothesis Testing

¾ A hypothesis test is a statistical test where a sample data is used to decide

whether statements made about population parameters are true or false.
2 Examples of the type of statements to be tested are
x The average price of a school bag in Fiji is $10.90
x The mean wage of workers in Fiji is $42 per week.
These statements are examples of hypothesis.

¾ An assumption about the existing situation or value of a population parameter is

called the null hypothesis ( ). This is expressed in the form
, if the assumption is that the mean wage of workers is $42.

¾ The alternative hypothesis ( ) is a new belief about the population

parameter which one will have to accept if there is a significant difference
between the sample results and the expected results. This is expressed in either
of the forms shown below
or or

¾ Significance level of the test

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact correct is the
significance level of the test. The significance level of the test is denoted by .
x Type I Error
Rejecting a null hypothesis when in fact it is true
The probability of Type I Error is D
It is also called level of significance of the test
x Type II Error
Accepting a null hypothesis when in fact it is false

180
 7.5.2 One-tailed and two-tailed test

¾ CASE 1: One – tailed test

x When a ‘ < ’ sign appears in the alternative hypothesis, the test is called a

left-tailed test, i.e.

One – Tail (HA : P< Po)

Rejection Region
Acceptance Region

x When a ‘ > ‘ sign appears in the alternative hypothesis, the test is called a
right-tailed test, i.e.

One – Tail (HA : P>Po)

Rejection Region
Acceptance Region

¾ CASE 2: Two– tailed test

An alternate hypothesis with a ‘ ≠ ’ sign is called a two-tailed test.

Two– tail (HA :P ≠ Po)

Rejection Region Rejection Region

Acceptance Region

181
 7.5.3 Steps in hypothesis Testing

¾ Steps for Hypothesis testing:

x List down all given variables
x Set up the acceptance and rejection regions. Check the alternative hypothesis
(HA) and decide on the type of graph to sketch.
x Use the inverse normal table to find the z-score. (If P>Po or P<Po find ‘ ’
else if P ≠ Po find )

x Calculate the value of z:

where
: sample mean
P : population mean
V : standard deviation
n : sample size

x State the conclusion.

2 Example 1 A manufacturer of sports equipment has developed a new

fishing line that he claims has a mean breaking strength of 10kg
with a standard deviation of 0.6kg.
Test the null hypothesis H 0 : P 10kg against the alternative
hypothesis H a : P ! 10kg if a random sample of 100 lines is
tested and found to have a mean breaking strength of 10.2kg. Use
0.01 level of significance and state your conclusion clearly.

" Answer
ഥ = 10.2kg ; V =0.6 ; n = 100 ; D = 0.01;
‫ݔ‬
Ho: ߤ = 10kg
Ha: ߤ > 10kg

Rejection Region
Acceptance Region

ܼ‫ = ן‬2.͵ʹ͸͵

182
Critical region: Reject Ho if z > 2.3263

xP 10.2  10
z= 3.33
V 0.6
n 100

Since z value of 3.33 falls on the rejection region we ,therefore, reject the null
hypothesis.

2 Example 2 A researcher claims that Fijian families use an average of 20

coconuts per month with standard deviation of 6. Test the null
hypothesis H 0 : μ 20 against the alternative hypothesis
H a : μ  20 if a random sample of 64 Fijian families is found to
consume an average of 19 coconuts per month. Use a 0.05 level
of significance and state your conclusion.
" Answer
ഥ = 19 coconuts ; V =6 ; n = 64 ; D = 0.05;
‫ݔ‬
H 0 : μ 20
H a : μ  20

Rejection Region Acceptance Region

 zD (negative)
ܼ‫ = ן‬െ1.6449

Critical region: Reject Ho if z < െ1.6449

xμ
Z
σ
n
19  20
6
64
 1.33

Since z value of -1.33 falls on the acceptance region we therefore, accept

the null hypothesis

183
2 Example 3 The mean lifetime of a sample of 150 torch bulbs produced by a
company is computed to be 400 hours with a standard deviation
of 80 hours. If P is the mean lifetime of all the bulbs produced by
the company, test the hypothesis P = 450 hours against P ≠ 450
hours at 5% level of significance.

" Answer

ഥ = 400 hours ; V =80 ; n = 150 ; D = 5% = 0.05; D

‫ݔ‬ 0.025
2
Ho : P = 450;
HA : P ≠ 450;

Rejection Region Rejection Region

Acceptance Region
-1.96 1.96

D
Using the table zV = 1.96 (Using the inverse normal table with P= 0.475 (1െ )
2 2

Critical region: Reject H 0 if z  1.96 or z ! 1.96

xP 400  450

z = = - 7.65
V 80 150
n

Since z value of - 7.65 falls in the rejection region hence we reject Ho .

~ Exercise 7.5

1. Sometime ago, surveys of very large tuna fish caught showed a mean weight
of 40 kg with a standard deviation of 2.1 kg. Fishermen claimed that because
of pollution, the net weight of tuna caught has decreased. A sample of 80
tuna fish were weighed.
Construct a test in terms of the weight (kg) at a 1% level of significance to
determine whether the null hypothesis H 0 : P 40 kg can be accepted given
the alternative hypothesis, H A : P  40 kg. What conclusion would be
reached if the sample mean is 32 kg?

184
2. A farmer claims that each bundle of dalo has an average weight of 8kg with a
standard deviation of 0.5kg. A sample of 50 bundles is chosen. It is found that
the average weight is 7.8kg.

Construct a hypothesis test at a 5% level of significance to confirm whether

the mean is less than 8kg ( H 0 : μ 8, H a : μ  8 ).

3. A researcher claims that Fijian families use an average of 20 coconuts per

month with standard deviation of 7.
Test the null hypothesis H 0 : μ 20 against the alternative hypothesis
H a : μ ! 20 if a random sample of 64 Fijian families is found to consume an
average of 21 coconuts per month. Use a 0.03 level of significance and state
your conclusion clearly.

4. A farmer supplies 500 bundles of long beans to the market every week. He
claims that each bundle has an average of 20 long beans with a standard
deviation of 4 long beans. A sample of 50 bundles is chosen and the beans
counted. It is found that the average number of long bean is 21.
Test the null hypothesis, H 0 : P 20 long beans against the alternative
hypothesis, H A : P ! 20 long beans at a 1% significance level and state your
conclusion.

5. A company has developed a fishing line that it claims has a mean breaking
strength of 9 kg with a standard deviation of 0.6 kg. A random sample of 50
lines is tested and found to have a mean breaking strength of 8.9 kg.
Construct a hypothesis test at 5% level of significance to determine whether
the null hypothesis H 0 : P 9 kg can be accepted given the alternative
hypothesis, H A : P z 9 kg and state your conclusion.

6. A chicken farmer weighed a random sample of 55 chicken from his farm. He

wanted to test the claim that the mean weight of chicken at 6 weeks of age
in a chicken farm is 1.95 kg with a standard deviation of 0.4 kg.

Construct a test at 1% significance level to determine whether the null

hypothesis H 0 : P 1.95 kg can be accepted given the alternative hypothesis
H A : P z 1.95 kg. If the sample mean is 2.3 kg, what is your conclusion?

As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far
as they are certain, they do not refer to reality . ~ Einstein
(https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~aldous/Real-World/cover.html )

185
~ Review Exercise 7

1. Calculate the minimum sample size that is required to estimate the mean
weight of a population, with standard deviation of 0.9kg, if we want the
estimate to be within 0.2kg of its true value with 99% confidence.

2. The probability of Ruci winning a game is 0.45. If she plays 12 games,

what is the probability that she wins 10 games?

3. An experiment consists of rolling 2 fair dice. Event A is “the number on

the first die is 5” and event B is “the sum of the numbers is 9”.

a) Are events A and B mutually exclusive? Give a reason for your

answer.

b) What is the probability that event A or B occurs?

4. A normal random variable X has standard deviation of 4.

Given that P(X ! 150) 0.025, find the mean.

5. A manufacturer of sports equipment has developed a new fishing line

that has an average breaking strength of 8 kg with a standard deviation of
0.6kg.
Test the null hypothesis, H 0 : P 8 kg against the alternative hypothesis,
H A : P 8 kg if a random sample of 100 lines is tested and found to have
a mean breaking strength of 7.8 kg. Use 2% significance level and state
your conclusion clearly.

186
 STRAND DIFFERENTIATION
EIGHT

SUB – STRAND 8.1 Derivatives of Functions

LEARNING OUTCOMES

8.1.1 Find derivatives using

Product rule.
Quotient rule.
Chain rule.
Logarithms.
Implicit differentiation.

187
 8.1.1 Common Derivatives

¾ To differentiate, , multiply the coefficient k by the power n and then

reduce the power by one.

or

¾ Derivative of a constant is equal to zero.

¾ has a special property that its derivative is the function itself.

¾ Derivatives of trigonometric and logarithmic functions

dy
or f ' (x)
y f ( x) dx

1
ln x x

sin x cos x

cos x  sin x

tan x 2
sec x

2 Example 1 Find the derivative of f ( x) x2  1

" Answer
f ( x) x2  1
f ' ( x) 2 x 21  0
=2x

188
2 Example 2 Differentiate g (x) = 3x 2 + 3
x
" Answer
1
g (x) = 3x 2 + x 3
1
1 3 1
g ' ( x) = 3ൈ2 x 2-1 + x
3
2
1 
=6x + x 3
3

2 Example 3 Find the derivative of y 4 x 2  3e x

" Answer
Differentiate term by term

Power rule exponential

y 4 x 2  3e x
y ' 4 u 2 x 21  3e x
8x  3e x

2 Example 4 Find the derivative of y sin x  ln x

" Answer
Differentiate term by term
y sin x  ln x
1
y ' cos x 
x

~ Exercise 8.1.1
Find the derivative of the following:
1 1
a) y  3 x  20 b) g ( x)  5 cos x
x2 3x 3

c) f ( x) 3x 2  e x  42 d) h( x) tan x  ln x

Many aspects of civil engineering require calculus. Derivation of the basic fluid
mechanics equations. All hydraulic analysis program that aids in the design of
storm drain and open channel systems, uses calculus numerical methods to
obtain the results ~ Michael Ocampo

189
 8.1.2 Product and Quotient Rule

x Product rule:

x Quotient rule:

2 Example 1 Differentiate

a) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ( x 2  1)( x  2) b)‫ ݕ‬ൌ ( x  1)( x 2  4)

" Answers
Use the product rule
y ( x 2  1)( x  2)

y f ug

Compute the derivatives of f and g Compute the derivatives of and

f x2 1 g x2
f ' 2x g' 1
Substitute in the formula:
dy Substitute in the formula:
f ' g  g' f
dx
2 x( x  2)  1( x 2  1)
2x2  4x  x2  1
3x 2  4 x  1

190
 3 x  2
2 Example 2 Differentiate f ( x )
x 1
" Answer
3 x  2 f
f ( x)
x 1 g
Compute the derivatives of f and g
f 3 x  2 g x 1
f ' 3 g' 1
Substitute in the formula:
dy gf '  fg '
dx g2
( x 1)( 3)  ( 3 x  2 )(1)
f '( x )
( x 1) 2

5
f '( x )
( x 1) 2

~ Exercise 8.1.2

1. Differentiate the following:

a) y = x 2 (4x + 1) b) g (x) = 2x . x 1

c) f (x) = 3x 2 . 3
x d) y = 3e x . x

e) f (x) = sin x cos x f) y = ln x sin x .

2. Find the derivative of the following:

2x  7 x 1
a) y b) g ( x)
3x  5 3x 3

ex sin x
c) f (x) = d) y =
x cos x

ex ex
e) f (x) = f) y =
ln x cos x

191
 8.1.3 Chain rule

This method is used only for composite functions. Suppose that y is the function
consisting of variable u and u is the function consisting of variable x, then

Left side is exactly what results if we cancel

the du’s on the right side

The following steps can be used to find the derivative:

ƒ Let inside function be u and differentiate to get

ƒ Write y in terms of u and differentiate to get

ƒ Multiply with to get

ƒ Rewrite back in terms of x.

x Short Cut method

Find the derivative of the outside function

evaluated at the inside function times the
derivative of the inside function.

2 Example 1 Find the derivative of y ( x 2  2 x) 4

" Answer
Let function inside the bracket to be u and differentiate
u ( x 2  2 x)
du
2x  2
dx
Write y in terms of u and differentiate
y u4
dy
4u 3
du
Multiply and write back in terms of x.
dy dy du
u 4u 3 u 2 x  2
dx du dx
4( x 2  2 x) 3 u (2 x  2)

192
 2
2 Example 2 Differentiate y e 2 x 1
" Answer
dy 2
1
e2 x u 4x
dx
2
1
4 xe 2 x

2 Example 3 Differentiate y cos( 2 x 2 )

" Answer
dy
sin( 2 x 2 )u 4 x Derivative of outer function (cos) derivative of inner
dx
 4 x sin ( 2 x 2 )

Finding Derivatives Using Combination of Rules

2 Example 1 Find the derivative of y x ln 2 x
" Answer Product rule
y f xg

y x ln 2 x
Compute the derivatives of f and g
f x g ln 2 x
1
f' 1 g' u2
2x
1
x
Substitute in the formula:
dy
f ' g  g' f
dx
1
1 u ln 2 x  u x
x
ln 2 x  1

193
2 Example 2 Find the derivative of y x 2e 2 x
" Answer Product rule
y f xg

y x2 e 2 x
Compute the derivatives of f and g
f x2 g e 2 x
f ' 2x g ' e 2 x u 2
2e 2 x
Substitute in the formula:
dy
f ' g  g' f
dx

2 xe 2 x  x 2  2e 2 x or 
2 xe 2 x 1  x 

4e 2 x
2 Example 3 Differentiate y
cos 2 x
" Answer using quotient rule:
4e 2 x f
y
cos 2 x g

Compute the derivatives of f and g

f 4e 2 x g cos 2 x
2 x
f ' 4e u 2 g '  sin 2 x u 2
8e 2 x 2 sin 2 x

Substitute in the formula:

dy gf ' fg '
dx g2
 8 e 2 x  cos 2 x   8 e 2 x sin 2 x
f '( x )
 cos 2 x  2

194
~ Exercise 8.1.3
1. Differentiate the following:
3
a) y = (2 െ 3x) 1 b) y = 3  4 x 2

c) y = 43  2 x 2 
d) y = 3 x 2  5 x 
2

2. Differentiate the following with respect to x.

x
a) y 3 cos b) f (x) = ln x sin2 (x – 3)
2

cos 2 x
c) g ( x) tan x d) y
sin x 3

x 1
e) y f) y sin 2 (e 2 x )
e3 x

dy
3. Given that y e x sin x 2  1 , find .
dx

sin x dy 1
4. Given that y , use the quotient rule to show that .
cos x dx cos 2 x

5. Differentiate the following with respect to x.

3 1 x2
a) f ( x) e x  5x b) g ( x) ex  c) y
5x e2 x

6. Differentiate the following with respect to x.

2
a) y x ln x b) f ( x) e 3 x ln x

In business, Calculus can help by providing an accurate and measurable way to

record changes in variables using numbers and mathematics. Derivatives are
used to determine the maximum profit, minimum cost, rate of change of cost and
how to maximize profit or minimize cost and production. ~ Michael Ocampo

195
 8.1.4 Logarithmic differentiation

¾ Logarithmic function is the inverse function of . Note that y = loge x is

often written as y = ln x.
If

¾ Logarithmic differentiation: differentiation by taking logarithms is a method

used to differentiate functions by employing the logarithmic derivative of a
function f, the technique is often performed in cases where it is easier to
differentiate the logarithm of a function rather than the function itself.

2 Example 1 Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate

( x  1)
y
( x  3) 2
" Answer
( x  1)
y
( x  3) 2
( x 1)
ln y ln Using
( x  3) 2

ln y ln ( x 1)  ln( x  3 ) 2

ln y ln ( x 1)  2ln( x  3) Using

1 dy 1 1
 2u
y dx x 1 x3
dy § 1 2 ·
¨  ¸ u y Ÿ substitute y Simplify
dx © x 1 x  3 ¹
dy § 1 2 · ( x  1)
¨  ¸u
© x  1 x  3 ¹ ( x  3)
2
dx

dy  x5 ( x  1)
u
dx ( x  1)( x  3) ( x  3) 2
dy  x  5
dx ( x  3)3

196
2 Example 2 Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate
y ( x  1) 3 ( x  3) 2

" Answer
y ( x  1) 3 ( x  3) 2
ln y ln > ( x 1) 3 ( x  3) 2 @
ln y ln ( x 1) 3  ln( x  3) 2 Using ln ab ln a  ln b

ln y 3 ln ( x  1)  2 ln( x  3) Using ln a n nln a

1 dy 1 1
3u  2u
y dx x 1 x3
Simplify
dy § 3 2 ·
¨  ¸ u y Ÿ substitute y
dx © x 1 x  3 ¹

dy § 3 2 ·
¨  ¸ u ( x  1) ( x  3)
3 2

dx © x 1 x  3 ¹

dy 5x  7
u ( x  1) 3 ( x  3) 2
dx ( x  1)( x  3)

dy
5 x  7 ( x  1) 31 ( x  3) 21
dx

dy
5 x  7 ( x  1) 2 ( x  3)
dx

2 Example 4 Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate y x  1sin x

" Answer
y  x  1
sin x

ln y ln  x  1
sin x
Ÿ take ln on both sides
ln y sin x ln ( x  1) Ÿ ln a n n ln a
Use the product rule on right hand side
f sin x ln ( x  1)
g
1
f ' cos x g'
x 1
1 dy 1
cos x ln ( x  1)  sin x u
y dx x 1
dy § 1 ·
¨ cos x ln ( x  1)  sin x u ¸ u y Ÿ substitute y
dx © x 1¹
dy § sin x ·
¸ u x  1
sin x
¨ cos x ln ( x  1) 
dx © x 1¹

197
2 Example 5 Differentiate y log 3 x
" Answer
y log 3 x

y
3 x [Write in base index form]

y
ln 3 ln x [Take ln on both sides]

y ln 3 ln x

dy 1
ln 3
dx x

dy 1
dx (ln 3) x

~ Exercise 8.1.4

Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivatives of the following.

a) y ( x 1) ( x  3) 2 b) y 3 x

( x 1) 2
c) y d) y x x
( x  3)

e) y ( x 3  2 x) ln x f) y S sin xy

g) y (cos x) x h) y 2 x

i) y log 3 x j) y log x

k) y log 2 x l) y log 2 x

198
 8.1.5 Implicit differentiation
This type of questions will include both x and y on both or one side of the equation.
x When differentiating with respect to the variable y attach

x Make the subject by collecting all on one side of the equation.

dy
2 Example 1 Use implicit differentiation to find given that 3x 2  5 y 4 x
dx
" Answer
When differentiating the
3x 2  5y4 x variable y, attach .

dy
6x  20 y 3 1
dx
dy
20 y 3 1  6x
dx
dy 1  6x
dx 20 y 3
dy
2Example 2 Use implicit differentiation to find given that x 2  y 2 xy
dx
" Answer
For each term:
2
x + y2 = xy

When differentiating the To differentiate xy

use the product rule:
variable y, attach .
f = x and g = y

dy dy
2x + 2 y = yx
dx dx

dy dy
2x  2 y yx
dx dx

199
 dy
2 Example 3 Find if sin y  y 2e x x3 .
dx
" Answer
For each term:
sin y + y 2e x = x3

When differentiating the use the product rule:

variable y, attach . f= and g =
= and =

dy dy
cos y + ex 2 y  y 2 e x = 3x 2
dx dx

dy dy
cos y  y 2 e x  2 ye x 3x 2
dx dx

Make dy the subject:

dx
dy dy
cos y  2 ye x 3x 2  y 2 e x
dx dx
dy
dx

cos y  2 ye x  3x 2  y 2 e x

dy 3x 2  y 2 e x
dx cos y  2 ye x

~ Exercise 8.1.5
dy
Find for the following:
dx

1. y 3  3x 12 5. sin( xy ) 5 x 1

2. sin y  x  1 y 6. ln y  3 xy 2 e x

3. x 2e y  3x 20 7. xln y 2  xe x 12 y

4. xy  5 cos y 8. x 2 e y  3 y  cos x 2
x

Isaac Newton developed the use of calculus in his laws of motion and gravitation.
Astronomical Science and space technology deeply depend on calculus. Also,
calculus is used in building tracks ~ Michael Ocampo

200
 SUB – STRAND 8.2 Applications of
Differentiation

LEARNING OUTCOMES

8.2.1 Find intervals of concavity.

Determine inflection and turning points.
8.2.2 Solve applied maximum and minimum
problems.
8.2.3 Solve related rate problems.
8.2.4 Solve kinematics problems.

201
 8.2.1 Concavity, Points of inflection and Turning Points

A piece of the graph of f is concave upward if all the tangents on the interval are

below the curve. The curve is bent upward, like an upright bowl or cup.

Or

A piece of the graph of f is concave downward if all the tangents on the interval are
above the curve. The curve is bent down, like an upside down bowl.

Or

A point at which the graph changes from being concave up to concave down,
or vice versa, is called a point of inflection.

The concavity of a graph and the points of inflections can be determined by using the
second derivative.

(a) If f ʹ ʹ (x) > 0 for all x of an interval, then the graph of f is concave upward
on the interval.
(b) If f ʹ ʹ (x) < 0 for all x of an interval, then the graph of f is concave
downward on the interval.
(c) If f ʹ ʹ (x) = 0 and the concavity changes, there is a point of inflection.

To find Turning Points:

x Find f '(x).
x Put f '(x) = 0 and solve for x.
x Find the yെvalues by substituting the xെvalues you got from solving f '(x) = 0
into y = f(x).
For cubic polynomials, the turning point with a bigger y -value is the local maximum
point

202
2Example 1: Find intervals of concavity and inflection points if any of
2
y 3x  9 x  9

" Answer

First, the second derivative is just f ʹʹ (x) = 6

Since this is never zero, there are no points of inflection. And the value of
f ʹʹ (x) is always 6, so is always > 0 so the curve is entirely concave upward.
Since concavity does not change, there is no point of inflection.

2Example 2: Find turning points, intervals of concavity , inflection points

of f ( x ) x 3 1.5 x 2  6 x5 and sketch its graph.

" Answer
To find turning points
f c ( x ) 3 x 3 x 6
2

At turning point

f c( x) 0
3x 2  3x  6 0
3( x 2  x  2) 0
( x 2  x  2) 0
x  1x  2 0
x  1, 2
3 2
Substitute x values in f ( x ) x 1.5 x  6 x5 to get y values.
The coordinates of the turning points are (-1, 8.5) and (2, -5)

Concave upward
f ʹʹ (x) = 6 x െ 3
Solving f ʹ ʹ (x) > 0
6 x – 3> 0
6x>3
x > 0.5
Thus it is concave upward in the interval x > 0.5

203
 Concave Downwards
Solving f ʹʹ (x) < 0
6x–3<0
6x<3
x < 0.5
Thus it is concave downward in the interval x < 0.5.

Point of inflection
The graph has an inflection point at x = 0.5 since the concavity changes at this
point.
3 2
f ( 0.5 ) 0.5 1.5u0.5  6u0.55
= 1.75
The coordinates of point of inflection = (0.5, 1.75)

Graph showing key features

y Concave up
Local maximum
(-1, 8.5)
(0.5, 1.75)

(2,-5) Local Minimum

Concave down

~ Exercise 8.2.1
1. Find turning points, intervals of concavity, coordinates of point of inflection,
y-intercept and sketch the graph of the curves:

a) y x3  6 x 2  15x  20 b) y x3  9
c) f ( x) x 3  3x 2 d) f ( x) x  13  2

2. Find the x value of the point of inflection of the graph with the equation
y 2 x 1  2 x 2 .

3. Find c and d so that f ( x ) cx 3 dx 2  1 has a point of inflection at (-1, 2).

204
 8.2.2 Applied Maximum and Minimum problems

Applied problems in which we have to find the maximum or minimum are

sometimes called optimization problems.
Steps to solve optimization problems :
x List the information: Read the question carefully and extract the relevant
information.
x Develop a function that describes the situation algebraically: These are
usually the quantities asked for in the problem. Draw appropriate diagrams
where applicable.
x Find the derivative of the function, equate to zero and solve for the quantity.
x Determine whether it is a maximum or minimum and answer the question
that has been asked.

3
2 Example 1 A closed cylindrical container with volume 1000 cm is to be
made out of a rectangular piece of aluminum sheet. What
should the dimensions of the cylinder be (radius and height)
such that minimum amount of aluminum is used?
" Answer
3
volume 1000 cm
Volume Sr 2 h
1000 Sr 2 h
1000
h
Sr 2

Surface Area 2(Sr 2 )  2Srh

§ 1000 ·
S 2(Sr 2 )  2Sr ¨ 2 ¸
© Sr ¹
S 2Sr 2  2000r 1

Find the derivative, equate to zero and solve for r:

S' 0
S 2Sr 2  2000r 1
S ' 4Sr  2000r 2 0
4Sr 2000r 2

205
 2000
4Sr
r2
4Sr 3 2000
r 5.42

1000
h 10.84
Sr 2
Thus, radius and height are 5.42cm and 10.84cm

2 Example 2 A rectangular field is to be fenced for the storage area of a

company. The field is to have an area of 2000m2. The material
for the front side costs $3 per metre while the material for the
other three sides costs $2 per metre.

MAIN ROAD
x ($3 per metre)
y ($2 per metre) y ($2 per metre)

x ($2 per metre)

Find the dimensions for the field that will minimize the cost of fencing.

" Answer
Area of 2000
Area l u w
2000 xy
2000
y
x
The cost of material

C 3x  2 y  2 y  2 x
C 5x  4 y
§ 2000 ·
C 5 x  4¨ ¸
© x ¹
C 5 x  8000 x 1

206
Find the derivative, equate to zero and solve for x:

C ' ( x) 0
C ( x) 5 x  8000 x 1
C ' ( x) 5  8000 x 2 0
8000
5
x2
8000
x2
5
1600
x 40m

2000 2000
y 50m
x 40

Thus, length and width are 40m and 50m respectively.

~ Exercise 6.3.2
1. A closed rectangular container with square base is to have a volume of
2000cm3. The material for the top and bottom will cost $2 per cm 2 and the
material for the side will cost $3 per cm2. Find the dimensions of the
container of least cost.

2. A box in the shape of a cuboid with a square base is to be made so that the
sum of its dimensions is 20 cm. Find the maximum volume.
3. A field is shown below. It is to be divided into three paddocks and fenced
using 1200 m of fence. Find the length and width of the field that will give a
maximum area.

207
4. A farmer wishes to fence off a rectangular enclosure. Two existing hedges at
right angles to each other will form two sides of the enclosure, so that he has
to fence the other two sides. What is the maximum area that he can enclose
using 100 m of fencing.

5. A packaging firm is designing boxes modeled by a cuboid. The cross-section of

the box is to be a rectangle with length twice the width. If the volume of the
box is to be 8 m 3 ,determine the minimum Surface Area.

6. A rectangular lot is bounded at the back by a river. No fence is needed along

the river . If the fence along the front costs $1.50 per foot, along the sides $1
per foot, find the dimensions of the largest lot which can be fenced in for
$300.

7. Find the maximum volume of a cone if the sum of its height and radius is 10
cm.

In medicine, calculus can be used to find the amount of blood pumped through
the heart per unit time. Doctors often use calculus in the estimation of the
progression of the illness. In biology, it is utilized to formulate rates such as
birthand death rates. Also, calculus is used to find out the rate of change of the
surface area for a rapidly growing adolescent. ~ Michael Ocampo

208
 8.2.3 Related Rate problems

The usual context for rates of change is with respect to t. [time]

Steps
1. Identify the known rate of change and the rate of change to be found.
2. Write an equation that relates the quantities in step 1.
To develop your equation, you will probably use:
i. a simple geometric fact (like the relation between a circle’s area and
its radius, or the relation between the volume of a cone and its base-
radius and height); or
ii. a trigonometric function (like tan θ = opposite/adjacent); or
iii. the Pythagoras theorem; or
iv. similar triangles.
3. Take the derivative with respect to time of both sides of your equation.
4. Solve for unknown

2 Example 1 A stone is dropped into a pool of water. The radius of the

circular ripple formed increases at 3 m/s. Calculate the rate
at which the area of the ripple is increasing when radius is
8m.

" Answer
dr
Radius increases at 3 m / s Ÿ 3m / s
dt
dA
?, when r 8
dt

A Sr 2
Find the derivative of the function with respect to t
dA dr
2Sr
dt dt
2Sr  u 3
6Sr Substitute r = 8m
6S (8)
48S m 2 / s

209
2 Example 2 The radius of a conical filter is 4 cm and its height is 16 cm.
Initially it is full of liquid.

4 cm

16 cm

dV
As the liquid flows out, the volume decreases at a constant rate, = െ 2 cm3
dt
per second. At what rate will the depth of the liquid change when h = 8 cm
deep?

" Answer
dV
= െ 2 cm 3 / s
dt
dh
?, when h 8
dt
Finding the expression for r using similar triangles.
r 4 4
Ÿr h
h 16 16
h
r
4

Substitute r =
1 2
V πr h
3
2
1 §h·
V π¨ ¸ uh
3 ©4¹
π h3
V
48

210
Find the derivative with respect to h.
π 3
V h
48
dV
dh
π
48
 
3h 2
3πh 2
48

dh
?, when h 8
dt
dh dh dV
u
dt dV d t
dh 48
u 2
dt h 8 3πh 2
48
3π 82  u 2
1 Substitute h = 8cm
cm / s
2π

Negative sign indicates that h is decreasing.

~ Exercise 8.2.3
1. A 5m long ladder is learning against a wall, making an angle Ɵ with the
ground.

wall
05

If the top of the ladder slides down the wall at a rate of 0.5 m/s , at what
rate:
a) will the angle between the ladder and the ground change when the top
is 4m above the ground?

211
 b) will the foot of the ladder move along the ground when the top of the
ladder is 3m above the ground?

2. The surface area of a large spherical balloon is increasing at a constant rate

of S m 2 s . At what rate is the diameter increasing when radius is 2.0 m?

3. A manufacturer finds that the profit (in dollars) received from making and
selling x quantities of her product is given by P  x  x  x  . If the rate of
2 2

production is kept at 5 units per month, what is the rate of change of profit
when 20 units have been made?

4. An object is dropped in water and generates a circular wave. If the area

enclosed by the wave increases at a rate of 5 m2 per second, find the rate of
change of the radius of the wave when the area is 15 m2.

5. Sand is poured onto the ground and forms a conical pile whose altitude is
twice the radius of the base. If sand is being poured at a 2m3/minute, find
the rate at which the radius is increasing when the radius is 1m.

6. The radius of the base of an inverted cone is 10cm and its altitude is 20 cm. if
water is poured into the cone at a rate of 100 cm3 per second, find the rate
at which the water is rising when it is 15 cm deep.

7. A boy who is 1.25m tall is walking away from a lamp post which is 3m high at
a speed of 1.6m/s. At what speed is the tip of his shadow moving when he is
10m from the pole.

In Economics, calculus can be used when working on concepts like margins.

Calculus are used to determine the most opportune time to buy or sell goods or
when considering the effects of price on how much consumers purchase.
Economic research uses calculus functional relationships, relation of income,
market prediction and so on. Differentiation is used to find optimum solutions of
economics. Credit card companies use calculus for monthly payments ~ Michael
Ocampo

212
 8.2.4 Kinematics using Differentiation

¾ Displacement(s) refers to straight line distance in a particular direction.

¾ Velocity(v) is the rate of change of displacement. It is a speed in a specified
direction.
¾ Acceleration(a) describes the rate of change of velocity.

s = displacement measured in m
v = velocity measured in m/s
a = acceleration measured in m/s2
t = time measured in s

differentiate differentiate
displacement velocity acceleration

¾ Common terms
The term initially means when the time t = 0
If the velocity v = 0 the object is stationary or at rest. It is not moving.

2 Example 1 The displacement in meters of a particle after t seconds is

given by s 3t 2  6 t  7 .

a) Find the expression for velocity.

b) Find the initial velocity.
c) Calculate the velocity after 3s.
d) When is the particle at rest?
e) Find the acceleration.

" Answer
a) Expression for the velocity: Differentiate displacement equation
s 3t 2 6 t 7
ds
 3u2 t 21  6u1t 11 0
dt
v 6t  6

b) Initial velocity means velocity at t = 0

Ÿ v 6u0  6
v =  6 m/s

c) Velocity after 3s:

At t = 3 Ÿ v 6t  6
v 6u3 6
= 12 m/s

213
 d) At rest means the particle is not moving so velocity = 0
v 6t  6
6t  6 0
t 1s

e) Find the acceleration: differentiate velocity expression

Ÿ v 6t  6
a 6 m / s2

~ Exercise 8.2.4
1. The displacement, s , in meters of a particle is given by s 80t  12t 2 .
a) Find the expression for velocity.
b) Find the initial velocity.
c) When is the particle stationary?

2. The velocity, v , in m/s of a particle after t seconds is given by

v 7  3t 2  6 t 3 .
a) What is the initial velocity?
b) Calculate the velocity after 5s.
c) Find an expression for acceleration.
d) Calculate the acceleration after 3s.

3. The displacement, s , in meters of a particle after t seconds is given by

3
s 3  6t 2  7 .
t
a) Find an expression for velocity.
b) Find an expression for acceleration.
c) Calculate the acceleration after 3s.

4. Complete:
Initially means when _______ = 0.
“At rest” means _______ = 0.

In business, Calculus can help by providing an accurate and measurable way to

record changes in variables using numbers and mathematics. Derivatives are
used to determine the maximum profit, minimum cost, rate of change of cost and
how to maximize profit or minimize cost and production. ~ Michael Ocampo

214
~ Review Exercise 8

dy 2e3 x
1. Find given y
dx 3 sin x

dy
2. Given y 2 x ln x  1  7e3 , find
dx

dy
3. Use implicit differentiation to find :
dx
a) 3x 2  5 y 4 x3 b) 2x4 െ x 2 cos y + 3y2 = െ 4

4. The slant edge of a right circular cone is 6 cm in length. Find the height of the
cone when the volume is a maximum.

5. A triangle has hypotenuse of fixed length 61 cm. The length of the base and
height is variable.

hypotenuse height

θ
base

The angle, θ, between the hypotenuse and the base is increasing at a constant
rate. Initially θ is 0.09 radians. After 5 seconds, θ increases to 0.14 radians.

Find the rate at which the height of the triangle is increasing after 10 seconds.
Assume that at this instant the triangle is right-angled.

215
 STRAND INTEGRATION
NINE

SUB – STRAND 9.1 Anti - derivatives of

Functions

LEARNING OUTCOMES

9.1.1 Evaluate integrals using u-

substitution.
9.1.2 Evaluate integrals using partial
fractions.
9.1.3 Evaluate integrals using
trigonometric identities.

216
 9.1.1 Algebraic Substitution
9.1.1.1 Type I and Type II

¾ Integration by u Substitution: an u substitution transforms the given integrals

into easier ones.

Steps:

1. Make an appropriate choice for u. Usually we take u to be an expression

whose derivative appears as a factor of the integrand.

2. Compute .

3. Make dx the subject.

4. Substitute u and dx from 3 . Check that the integral is now in terms of u.

This new integral should be easier than the initial one.
If not, then your u Substitution is incorrect. Go back to step 2 and come up
with another substitution.

5. Evaluate the resulting integral.

6. Do not forget that the answer is a function of x. You should substitute back
the initial variable x.

For some special cases (Type II), there is a need to convert the integrand to an
expression that can be easily integrated.

All the steps are similar to u Substitution but with one change:

x Need to make x the subject from the “u” equation

Also, note if ,

The definite integral of f(x) between a (lower limit) and b (upper limit) can be
defined as follows:

217
 2x
2 Example 1 Find ³x 2
3
dx

" Answer: Type I Substitution

Take u to be the denominator since its derivative appears in the numerator.
Let u= x 2  3
du
2x
dx
du 2 xdx
du
dx
2x
Write integral in terms of u.

2x 2 x du
³x 2
3
dx ³ u 2x
1
³ u du
Evaluate the resulting integral
Substitute u =
1
³ u du ln u  C

2x
? ³x 2
3
dx ln x 2  3  C

Short cut: If the derivative of the denominator = numerator then take the
ln of the absolute value of denominator.

For example

x2
2 Example 2 Find ³ x3  9
dx

" Answer: Type I Substitution

Take u to be x 3  9 since its derivative appears in the numerator.
u x3  9
du
3x 2
dx
du
du 3x 2 dx Ÿ dx
3x2

218
 Write integral in terms of u.
x2 x 2 du
³ x3  9 dx ³ u 3x 2
du
³3 u
1 1
3³ u
du

Evaluate the resulting integral.

1 1
3³ u
du

1
1 2
3³
u du Simplify

§  1 1 · § 1 ·
1¨u 2 ¸ 1¨u2 ¸
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸C
3 ¨  12 1 ¸ 3¨ 1 ¸
© ¹ ¨ ¸
© 2 ¹
2 substitute for u
u C
3
x2 2 3
? ³ x 9
3
dx
3
x 9 C

Find ³ x3x  1 dx
9
2 Example 3
" Answer: Type II Substitution
Take u to be the expression in the brackets.
u 3x  1
du
3
dx
du Make “dx” the subject.
dx
3
Substitute
du
³ x  3 x 1 dx ³ xu In this case x do not cancel as
9 9

3 in examples 1 and 2.
1
3³
9
xu du
To remove x, make x the subject from the “u” equation
u 1
x
3

219
 Substitute x to write integral in terms of u.
Simplify

u 1 9 1
³ x3x  1 .dx ³
9
.u du
3 3
u10  u 9
= ³ du
9
1
=
9 ³ u10  u 9 .du
Evaluate the resulting integral

1 10 9 1 § u11 u10 ·
9³
u  u .du = ¨  ¸ +C
9 ¨© 11 10 ¸¹
u11 u10
=  C Substitute for u
99 90

?³ x  3 x1 dx
9 3x  111  3x  110  C
99 90

³ xx 
3
2 Example 4 Evaluate
2
 1 dx
0

" Answer
2
Let u x 1
du
2x
dx
du
Ÿ dx
2x

³  1 dx ³ x u
2 3 3 du
x x
2x

3
u
³ du
2
4
u
C
8

220
Method 1: Find the limits of integration in terms of u
When x = 0 When x = 2
2
u = x 1 u=
2
u= 0 1 u=
=1 = 5

5 4 4
ªu4 º 5 1
«8» 
¬ ¼1 8 8

78

Method 2: Evaluate in terms of x

u
4
x 2
1 
4

8 8

ª  x 2 14 º 2 1  0  1 
2 4 4
2 2

« » 
«¬ 8 »¼ 0 8 8

78

~ Exercise 9.1.1.1
1. Evaluate the following:

3
10
1 1
a)³
2 x1
dx b) ³
2
x2
dx c) ³ 2 x 1dx

3x 3x 2  2 2
2x
d) ³ x 2  2dx e) ³ x3  2 x dx f) ³x
1
2
1
dx

2. Evaluate the following:

x  2  dx c) ³ x 2
9

³x x 1 dx
5 2
³ x 3 1dx
2 5 6
a) b) 18 x
1

x x
d) ³ dx e ) ³x x 4dx f )³ dx
5 x  x 3  5

Calculus was initially developed for better navigation system. Engineers use
calculus for building skyscrapers and bridges. In robotics, calculus is used on how
robotic parts will work on given commands. Also, calculus is used to improve
safety of vehicles. ~ Michael Ocampo

221
 9.1.1.2 Trigonometric, Exponential and Hyperbolic
Function

¾ The derivative and integration are opposite process.

x Hyperbola

x The exponential function

x Trigonometric function

1
2 Example 1 Find ³ 5x dx
" Answer
1§1· 1 1
³ 5 ¨© x ¸¹ dx
5³ x
dx

1
ln x  C
5

222
2 Example 2 Find ³ sin 3x dx
" Answer
du du
u 3x, 3, dx
dx 3

du
³sin 3 x dx ³sin u 3
1
3³
sin u du
1 Substitute for u
  cos u   C Short cut: integrate the
3
 cos 3x 1 outer function (evaluated at
? ³ sin 3x dx  C or  cos 3x  C inner) divide by the
3 3
derivative of inner linear
function

³e
2 x 1
2Example 3 Find dx
" Answer
Method 1: Integration by u Substitution Method 2: integrate the outer
function (evaluated at inner) divide
Take u to be the power (exponent) by the derivative of inner linear
Let u = 2x +1 function.
du
2
dx
du 2dx
du
dx
2

Write integral in terms of u.

u du
³ e dx ³ e 2
2 x 1

Evaluate the resulting integral.

1 u 1 u
2 ³ e du
2
e C Substitute for u

e 2 x1
? ³ e 2 x1dx C
2

223
 e1
1
2 Example 4 Evaluate ³
1
x 1
dx

" Answer
e1 e1 Short cut: If the derivative of the
1 ª º
³1
x1
dx « ln x1
¬
»
¼1
denominator = numerator then take the ln
of the absolute value of denominator.
ln e11 ln 1

ln eln1

³ cos x.e
sin x
2 Example 5 Find .dx
" Answer
Take u to be the power.
u sin x
du
cos x
dx
du
Ÿ dx
cos x
Write integral in terms of u.
du
³ cos x.e ³ cos x e
sin x u
.dx
cos x
³ e du
u

Evaluate the resulting integral.

Substitute for u
³ e du e  C
u u

? ³ cos x.esin x dx esin x  C

ln 2
2 Example 6 Evaluate ³ 3 e x dx
0

" Answer
ln 2 ln 2
x ª3e x º
³ 3e dx
0
«¬ »¼ 0

3e ln 2  3e 0
3u 2  3
3

224
 S
2
2
2 Example 7 Evaluate ³cos x sin
0
x dx

" Answer
Let u = sin x
du
cos x
dx
du
Ÿ dx
cos x

2 2 du
³cosx sin x. dx ³cos x u
cos x

2
³u du
3
u
C
3

Method 1: Find the limits of integration in terms of u

When x = 0 When x =
u = sin x
u= sin 0
u = sin x u = sin
=0
=1

1 3
ªu3 º 1
« » 0
¬ 3 ¼0 3
1
3

Method 2: Evaluate in terms of x

3 3
u sin x
3 3
3 S
3
S
sin §¨ ·¸ 3
ª sin x º 2
© 2 ¹  sin 0
« »
¬ 3 ¼0 3 3

1
3

225
~ Exercise 9.1.1.2

1. Evaluate the following:

³ sin 5x dx ³e
2 x
a) b) dx

c ) ³cos3 xdx d) ³ sin(3x  2) dx

2. Find the anti-derivatives of the following:

ex  2
³ 2x ³ ex  2x
x2
³ xe
2 x3
a) dx b) e dx c) dx

ex lnx cosx
d) ³ e x  1 dx e) ³ dx f )³ sinx
dx
2x e

3. Evaluate the following:

S 1 3
1
³ cos(2 x) ³e ³1  x
5x
a) dx b) dx c) dx
0 0 1

S 2
e 2 e
1 ln x
d ) ³ dx
1
x ³0
e) sin x e cosx dx f) ³
e x
dx

226
 9.1.2 Use of Partial Fractions

If the integrand (the expression after the integral sign) is in the form of an

algebraic fraction and the integral cannot be evaluated by simple methods, the
fraction needs to be expressed in partial fractions before integration takes place.

3x  3
2 Example 1 Find ³x 2
 x2
dx

" Answer
Step 1: Write as partial fractions

3 x3 3 x3
x  x2 ( x2 )( x1)
2

A B

( x2 ) ( x1)

A ( x1) B ( x2 )
( x2 )( x1)

3 x3 A ( x1) B ( x2 )

Let x =1 Let x = -2

3 +3 =3B B= 2 3(-2) +3 = -3A A=1

3 x 3 1 2
? 
x  x  2 ( x  2 ) ( x 1)
2

Step 2: Integrate

3x  3 1 2
³x 2
 x2
dx ³ ( x  2) dx  ³ ( x  1) dx
ln x  2  ln x  1  C

227
 x4
2 Example 2 Find ³ x  2 x  3 dx
2

x4 1 1 2
given  
x  22 x  3 ( x  3) ( x  2) x  22
" Answer
x4 1 1 2
³ x  2 x  3 dx ³ ( x  3) dx  ³ ( x  2) dx  ³ x  2
2 2
dx

Let u =x + 2

Integrate each term separately:

x4 2
?³ dx = ln x  3  ln x  2  C
x  2 x  3
2
x2

x3  2 x  4
2 Example 3 Find ³ x3  4 x dx
x3 2 x4 1 2 1
given 1  
x 4 x
3
x ( x  2) ( x  2)

" Answer
Integrate each term separately:
x3  2 x  4 1 2 1
³ x3  4 x dx = ³ 1 dx  ³ x dx  ³ ( x  2) dx  ³ ( x  2) dx
x  ln x  2 ln x  2  ln x  2  C

~ Exercise 9.1.2
Evaluate the following:

2 x1 3
2 8
4
a) ³ 2
dx b) ³ dx c) ³ dx
x  x2 2
2
x 1 4
2
x 2 x3

15  4 x  x 2 3 x5 10 x24
d) ³ ( x  1)( x  2) 2 dx e) ³ 2
x  x12
dx f )³ 2
( x3 )( x 9 )
dx

228
 9.1.3 Integrating using trigonometric identities

¾ Integrating product of sine and cosine: The following formulae will be used to
simplify the integration.

¾ The following identities can be used to integrate cos2x and sin2x

2 Example 1 Find ³sin 5 x cos 2 x dx

" Answer
Divide each side by 2 in the first formula
1
x 2sin Acos B sin(A  B)  sin(A  B) Ÿ sin Acos B [sin(A  B)  sin(A  B)]
2

1
³ sin 5x cos 2 x dx ³ 2 [sin(5x  2 x)  sin(5 x  2 x)] dx

1
2³
[sin 7 x  sin 3x] dx
Short cut: integrate the outer
1 ª  cos 7 x cos 3x º function (evaluated at inner) and
 C
2 «¬ 7 3 »¼ divide by the derivative of inner
linear function.
 cos 7 x cos 3 x
  C
14 6

229
 S
2
2 Example 2 Find ³sin 2 x dx
0

" Answer
We have to use the identity
x cos 2A 1 2sin 2 A

Change the subject

Ÿ 2sin 2 A 1 cos 2A

1 cos 2A
sin 2 A
2
S S
2 2
1 cos 2 x
³sin ³
2
x dx dx
0 0
2
S
12
2 ³0
1 cos 2 x dx

S
1 ª sin 2 x º 2
x
2 «¬ 2 »¼ 0
1 ª S sinS sin0 º
«   (0  )
2¬ 2 2 2 »¼
S
4

~ Exercise 9.1.3
1. Find the anti-derivatives of the following:

a) ³ 2 cos 4x cos x dx b) ³ sin 3x sin 2 x dx

S
S 2
c) ³sin10 x cos4 x dx d ) ³2cos3 x cos   x  dx
0 S

2. Find the anti-derivatives of the following:

a ) ³ cos 2 x dx ³4sin x  3  dx c ) ³3sin 2 x dx

2
b)

230
 SUB – STRAND 9.2
Applications of Integration

LEARNING OUTCOMES

9.2.1 Calculate the area between

two graphs.
9.2.2 Solve kinematics problems.

231
 9.2.1 Area Between Two Graphs

If the upper curve or line on the top is f (x) and the lower curve or line at the

bottom is g (x) , then the area between two curves or lines from a to b is given by:

Consider the diagram given below:

y
f (x)

g (x)

where and are x coordinates of the points of intersection

2 Example The diagram given below shows the sketches of the functions
y = x – 3 and y = x 2 – 3x

y y = x 2 – 3x

y=x–3

3 x

െ3 P

a) Show that the x – coordinate of point P is 1.

b) Find the area of the shaded region.

232
" Answers
a) Point of intersection:
y1 y2
x 2  3x x3
x2  4x  3 0
( x  3)( x  1) 0
x 1, 3
? x - coordinate of point P 1

b) Area of the shaded region:

b
Area ³  f ( x)  g ( x)dx
a3

³ x  3  x 
 3 x dx
2

1
3

³ x  3  x 
 3 x dx
2

1
3

³  x  4 x  3 dx 
2

1
3
ª x3 º
« 3  2 x  3x »
2

¬ ¼1
ª§ 33 · § 13 ·º
¨
Ǭ   2 (3 2
)  3(3) ¸¸  ¨¨   2(12 )  3(1) ¸¸»
¬© 3 ¹ © 3 ¹¼
4
square units
3

~ Exercise 9.2.1

1. Two functions are shown below.

y
2
y=x y = 2x + 3

Calculate the area of the shaded region.

233
2. The diagram below shows the graph of the quadratic function y x2  4
and the straight line y = 4x Ȃ 8. Find the area of the shaded region.

െ2 2 x

െ4

െ8

3. The figure shown below shows the curve y x 2  3 and the straight line
y=xെ1 y
y x2  3 y=xെ1

a) Calculate the x Ȃ coordinates of the point of intersection of the two

graphs.

b) Calculate the area of the shaded region.

4. Find the area bounded by the functions y x, y x 2  2 x and x =2.

2
5. Find the area bounded by the curve y x  2 x3 and the line y = 2x +1.

1
6. Find the area bounded by y , y  8 , x = 2 and x = 5.
x

1
7. Find the area bounded by y ex , y  and the lines x = 1 and x = 2.
x

234
 9.2.2 Kinematics using Integration

x Displacement(s) refers to straight line distance in a particular direction.

x Velocity(v) is the rate of change of displacement. It is a speed in a specified

x
direction.
Acceleration(a) is the rate of change of velocity.

s = displacement measured in m
v = velocity measured in m/s
a = acceleration measured in m/s2
t = time measured in s

differentiate differentiate

displacement velocity acceleration

integrate integrate

¾ Common terms
The term initially means when the time t = 0
If the velocity v = 0 the object is stationary or at rest. It is not moving.

2 Example A particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration after t

seconds is given by a 2t  7 .
a) Find a formula for the velocity of the particle at time t given
that initial velocity = 0.
b) Calculate the velocity at t = 3 s.
c) Find a formula for the displacement of the particle at time t
given that initial displacement = 0.
d) Calculate the displacement after 9 seconds.

" Answers
a) Acceleration is given we want the formula for velocity, v. So we need to
integrate.
v ³ 2t  7 dt
2t 2
=  7t  c
2
= t  7t  c
2

Find c by noting that when t =0, v = 0 Ÿ c =0

Thus, the formula for the velocity of the particle at time t is v t 2  7t

235
 b) Substitute t =3
v t 2  7t
32  7(3)
30 m / s

c) Integrate velocity
s ³ t 2  7 t dt
t 3 7t 2
 c
3 2
Find c by noting that when t =0, v = 0 Ÿ c =0
t 3 7t 2
?s 
3 2

d) Substitute t = 9
9 3 7u9 2
s 
3 2
1
526 m
2

~ Exercise 9.2.2
1. A body moves with a velocity of 5t  2 m/s, where t is the time in seconds.
Find the distance the body moves in the first 5 seconds.

2. The acceleration of a body from a fixed point P is given by a 4t 11 . The

body is initially 2m from P and has the velocity of 11m/s after 6s.
a) Find the formula for velocity.
b) Find the velocity of the body after 5 seconds.
c) When is the body at rest?
d) Find the formula for distance travelled from point P.
e) How far from P is the body after 10s?

3. A rock is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 40m/s from a

point 5 m above the ground level. The velocity of the rock after t seconds is
given by v 40  10t .
a) Find a formula for the height of the rock above the ground at time t.
b) Find the maximum height reached by the rock.
c) Calculate the distance travelled in the third second.

The Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur experience high forces due to

winds. Integration was used to design the building for strength. ~
Chayan Sengar

236
~ Review Exercise 9

1. Using the substitution u = x 2, find ³ 2 xe x dx

2

2. Evaluate the following:

a) ³ 4x
2

Sin x 3  1  dx b ) ³sin 3 x cos x dx

³x 2 x  1dx
2
3. Find
10 x  30
4. Find ³ ( x  2)( x 2
 9)
dx

S
5. Evaluate ³ 2 sin 3x sin x 
0
dx

6. The functions y x and y x  6 and the straight line x =3 are shown

below. Find the shaded area.
y x =3
y x6

y x

-6 0 3 6 x

7. The acceleration of a body (in square metres per second) is defined by

a = 6t + 15. Find the velocity after 2 seconds if it has an initial velocity of
2m/s.

The Sydney Opera House is a very unusual design based on slices

out of a ball. Many differential equations (one type of integration)
were solved in the design of this building.~ Chayan Sengar

237
Bibliography
Sigma Mathematics by David Barton.

Delta Mathematics by David Barton, Wynnis Johnson and Stuart Laird.

Advanced Mathematics by J.R.Sealy and A.W.Agnew.

Theta Mathematics by David Barton.

www.khanacademy.org

Mathematics Higher Level by Fabio Cirrito.

238
Bibliography
Sigma Mathematics by David Barton.

Delta Mathematics by David Barton, Wynnis Johnson and Stuart Laird.

Advanced Mathematics by J.R.Sealy and A.W.Agnew.

Theta Mathematics by David Barton.

www.khanacademy.org

Mathematics Higher Level by Fabio Cirrito.

Cover Page Sources:

www.au.ixl.com
www.vecteezy.com

238