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Food emulsifier fundamentals

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DOI: 10.21748/inform.11.2016.10

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 10 • inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10)

Food emulsifier
fundamentals
Laura Cassiday

In simplest terms, an emulsifier is a substance that enables oil and water to mix. Many people
would recognize the need for an emulsifier in foods that are obvious emulsions, like mayonnaise
and salad dressings. However, many do not realize that emulsifiers are used in almost every pro-
cessed food, from bakery products to confectionary to ice cream, where they perform vital func-
tions in addition to their well-recognized role in mixing. “In many people’s minds, emulsifiers are
just related to forming water and oil emulsions,” says Rosa Regalado, general manager at Palsgaard,
Inc., an emulsifier manufacturer with global headquarters in Juelsminde, Denmark. “Actually, emul-
sifiers have very broad applications.” These include improving aeration, texture, and slicing of
bakery products; preventing chocolate bloom; making ice cream creamier and more resistant to
melting; and increasing shelf life and reducing fat content in a variety of foods.
Like many food additives, emulsifiers are increasingly
• Emulsifiers are amphiphilic molecules used to under attack, led by health bloggers who fear any ingredients
they cannot pronounce. As a result, many food manufactur-
form and stabilize emulsions. ers are trying to reduce or eliminate synthetic emulsifi-
ers from their products. In addition, the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) has mandated the removal of par-
• Found in a broad range of foods, emulsifiers
tially hydrogenated oils (PHOs) from foods by June 18, 2018.
affect many food qualities such as appearance, Because a popular class of emulsifiers (mono- and diglycerides)
texture, and shelf life. is often synthesized from PHO raw materials, emulsifier man-
ufacturers have been forced to identify non-PHO alternatives.
The changing emulsifier landscape presents challenges for
• Natural and non-partially hydrogenated maintaining food quality and affordability.
oil emulsifiers are experiencing increased
demand, but taste and cost are still of primary
EMULSIFIER BASICS
Simple emulsions consist of either oil droplets suspended in
importance to consumers. an aqueous phase (o/w), or water droplets suspended in oil
(w/o). Although emulsions can be formed fairly easily by whisk-
ing or shaking two immiscible liquids, they are thermodynami-
inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10) • 11
EDIBLE APPLICATIONS
cally unstable. Without an emulsifier, emulsions typically break
down in a matter of minutes, forming distinct layers of oil and 4
water. Lecithin
Emulsifiers are amphiphilic molecules that contain Saponins
both hydrophilic (water-loving, or polar) and hydrophobic

Mean Particle Diameter ( m)

3 Gum Arabic
(water-hating, or nonpolar) regions (Cassiday, L., Inform, http://
Whey Protein
tinyurl.com/Inform-emulsions, 2014). In an o/w emulsion, the
nonpolar portion of the emulsifier interacts with the oil drop-
let, while the polar component faces the surrounding aque-
ous solution. In w/o emulsions, the emulsifier’s orientation is 2
reversed: polar groups project into the water droplet, while
nonpolar regions extend into the oily solution. These interac-
tions at the droplet interface reduce the interfacial tension
between the two immiscible liquids, stabilizing the droplets 1
and preventing them from coalescing.
Emulsifiers have two fundamental roles: formation and
stabilization of emulsions (Fig. 1). To produce an o/w emul-
sion, an emulsifier is typically dissolved within the aqueous 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
phase, and then the oil and aqueous phases are combined
using a high-shear mixer or homogenizer (McClements, D. J., Emulsifier Concentration (%)
and Gumus, C. E., http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2016.03.002,
2016). To promote emulsion formation, an emulsifier must FIG. 2. Emulsifiers can be compared by plotting mean particle
adsorb rapidly onto droplets at the oil/water interface. The diameter versus emulsifier concentration. Data from Otzurk et al.
initial emulsion contains relatively large droplets (diame- (2015). Reprinted from Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 234: 3–26, 2016, McClements, D. J.,
and Gumus, C. E.,“Natural emulsifiers—biosurfactants, phospholipids, biopolymers,
ter greater than 1 mm) coated with emulsifier. The emulsifier and colloidal particles: molecular and physicochemical basis of functional perfor-
mance,” with permission from Elsevier.

Emulsion Formation lowers interfacial tension such that, upon continued homog-
Requirements: enization, the large droplets break up into smaller ones. The
• Adsorb rapidly emulsifier then coats the smaller droplets, forming a layer that
• Lower interfacial helps prevent droplet aggregation. Droplets are repelled from
tension each other by either steric or electrostatic forces. Nonionic
• Facilitate droplet emulsifiers typically have bulky groups that clash with those
breakup on other droplets, preventing them from coalescing. Cationic
or anionic emulsifiers cover droplets with positive or negative
charges, respectively, causing electrostatic repulsion between
droplets.
In general, the smaller the droplets formed, the more sta-
ble the emulsion. Increasing the concentration of an emulsi-
fier decreases the droplet diameter until a minimum size is
Emulsion Stabilization reached (McClements, D. J., and Gumus, C. E., http://dx.doi.
Requirements: org/10.1016/j.cis.2016.03.002, 2016). By plotting the mean
• Generate strong particle diameter versus emulsifier concentration, the effec-
repulsive forces tiveness of different emulsifiers can be compared (Fig. 2).
• Form resistant Smaller emulsifiers, such as synthetic or natural small mole-
interfacial layer cule surfactants (e.g., saponins), typically form smaller droplets
• Prevent droplet (and thus more stable emulsions) at lower concentrations than
aggregation larger emulsifiers, such as proteins or polysaccharides (e.g.,
caseinates or gum arabic).
The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) is a measure of
an emulsifier’s relative water and lipid solubility (Cassiday, L.,
Inform, http://tinyurl.com/Inform-emulsions, 2014). The HLB
scale ranges form 0 to 20. An emulsifier with an HLB of 10 is
FIG. 1. Emulsifiers help form (top) and stabilize (bottom) emulsions. equally attracted to oil and water. HLB values greater than 10
Reprinted from Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 234: 3–26, 2016, McClements, D. J., and Gumus,
C. E.,“Natural emulsifiers—biosurfactants, phospholipids, biopolymers, and colloidal
indicate hydrophilic emulsifiers (better at stabilizing o/w emul-
particles: molecular and physicochemical basis of functional performance,” with per- sions), whereas HLB values less than 10 correspond to hydro-
mission from Elsevier. phobic emulsifiers (better at stabilizing w/o emulsions). The
 12 • inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10)

TABLE 1. Common food emulsifiers

Food Additives
Direct Food Permitted for Direct
Common Label Substances Addition to Food for
Name Declaration Origin Applications Functionality Affirmed as GRAS Human Consumption
Lecithin Lecithin Natural • Chocolate/ • Rheology 21CFR184.1400
(phospho-lipids coatings/ modification
from egg yolk, confectionery • Dough conditioner/
soybean oil) • Baked goods strengthener
• Margarines/ • Increased shelf life
spreads
• Beverages
• Ice cream
Mono-Di Mono- and Synthetic • Baked goods/ • Fat dispersion 21CFR184.1505
Diglycerides cakes • Aeration
• Icings • Emulsion stability
• Margarines
• Shortenings
Distilled Monoglycerides Synthetic • Breads/rolls • Crumb softener 21CFR184.1505
Mono • Batters • Fat dispersion
• Cakes • Emulsion stability
• Cake Mixes
Hydrated Monoglycerides Synthetic • Breads/rolls • Instant functionality 21CFR184.1505
Mono • Batters • Higher efficacy
• Cakes
LACTEM Glyceryl-Lacto Synthetic • Fillings/icings • Aeration 21CFR172.852 GMP
Esters of Fatty • Fat dispersion
Acids • Foam stabilization
Ethoxylated Ethoxylated Synthetic • Breads/rolls • Dough conditioner/ 21CFR172.834
Mono Mono- and strengthener
Diglycerides • Improves crumb
softness
DATEM DATEM Synthetic • Breads/rolls • Dough conditioner/ 21CFR184.1101
• Biscuits/cookies strengthener
• Improves crumb
softness
SSL Sodium Stearoyl Synthetic • Breads/rolls • Dough conditioner/ 21CFR172.846
Lactylate • Batters • strengthener
• Biscuits/cookies • Improves crumb
• Fillings/icings softness
• Dairy • Tightens cell
structure
• Fat reduction
• Emulsion stabilization
PGME Propylene Synthetic • Bakery • Aeration/emulsion 21CFR172.856 GMP
Glycol Mono- ingredients/ stabilization
and Diesters of mixes • Fat reduction
Fats and Fatty • Cakes/pastries/ • Moisture retention
Acids sweet goods • Increased shelf life
• Snack cakes
• Frozen dairy
Whey Whey Protein Natural (milk • Salad dressings • Emulsion stabilization 21CFR184.1979
Protein proteins) • Baked goods • Increased shelf life
• Beverages • Enhanced flavor/
• Ice creams texture/processing
• Infant formula stability
Casein Casein Natural (milk • Dairy • Emulsion stabilization N/A (food N/A (food ingredient,
proteins) • Coffee creamers • Thickening/ ingredient, not not additive)
• Infant formula texturizing additive)
Gum Gum Arabic Natural (glyco- • Confectionery • Emulsion stabilization 21CFR184.1330
Arabic proteins/ • Icings/fillings • Thickening/
poly-saccharides • Ice cream texturizing
from acacia tree) • Baked goods
• Beverages
inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10) • 13

HLB system, which works primarily for non-ionic emulsifiers, homemade recipes for bakery products, salad dressings, and
can be used to find an emulsifier appropriate for a particu- mayonnaise.
lar oil. However, just because an emulsifier has an appropriate Mono- and diglycerides are emulsifiers that are
HLB does not guarantee its suitability for a specific application. commercially manufactured by combining vegetable oil with
“I think there is a misconception that you can choose an emul- vegetable-based glycerin. They are also found at low levels in
sifier based solely on the HLB,” says Regalado. “It’s more com- some vegetable oils. Mono- and diglycerides are extremely
plex than that. You need to focus on the specific functionality versatile in their functionality, and for this reason they are
necessary for your final application.” found in a broad range of products. The emulsifiers are
mixtures of mono- and diglycerides, consisting of either one or
EMULSIFIER SELECTION two fatty acids attached to glycerol. Although made through
Given the wide variety of emulsifiers on the market, choos- a manufacturing process for commercial use, mono- and
ing the best emulsifier for a particular food application can diglycerides are also produced naturally in the human body
be daunting (Table 1). According to Jim Robertson, global upon digestion of triglycerides. “So they’re not foreign to the
portfolio manager of emulsifiers at Corbion (headquartered body like some chemical substances may be,” says Robertson.
in Amsterdam, the Netherlands), the most commonly used In addition to conventional mono- and diglyceride powders,
food emulsifier in the United States is lecithin, followed by Corbion offers hydrated monoglycerides, says Robertson. In
mono- and diglycerides, and then stearoyl lactylates. “From the form of a paste, hydrated monoglycerides structure water
a volume standpoint, lecithin is the number one emulsifier,” between a lipid bilayer. This “instant” functionality reduces
says Robertson. “But from a value standpoint, mono- and the amount of mechanical energy and heat needed in the food
diglycerides comprise by far the largest portion of the US production process.
market.” Some emulsifiers can facilitate the replacement of solid
Lecithin is a mixture of phospholipids typically isolated fats, such as shortening, with liquid vegetable oils. “By using
from soybean oil. The emulsifier is used in a variety of prod- the emulsifier PGME [propylene glycol monoesters] in a cake,
ucts, including confectionary, bakery, ice cream, salad dress- you can actually lower the saturated fat content, but still
ings, and margarine. Originally isolated from egg yolk, lecithin get the proper aeration,” says Robertson. Corbion recently
underlies the natural emulsification properties of eggs in expanded its manufacturing plant in Dolton, Illinois, USA,

AOCS LAB PROFICIENCY PROGRAM

Karen Letourneau has worked at POS Bio-
Sciences for 26 years and POS Analytical
Services has had an AOCS Approved Chemist
on staff since 2011. “Being
part of the
AOCS Lab Proficiency Program
really improves the quality of
our testing.” Letourneau explains that
although POS Bio-Sciences had been per-
forming marine oil lab testing for years, the
laboratory was striving for greater accuracy and
consistency. “Comparing our data to other labs’
data helped us improve, and we used the check
samples obtained through AOCS to train our tech-

Improving
nicians,” she says. “Our efforts paid off and we
placed first in 2014 in the AOCS Marine Oil series.”
KAREN LETOURNEAU
Technical Programs Manager, POS Bio-Sciences,

Quality
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada

Next enrollment: November 20

aocs.org/LPP | [email protected]

2016 LPP Testimonial-KarenPOS-NovDec16iHalf.indd 1 9/22/16 1:06 PM

 14 • inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10)

to enable the production of PGME emulsifiers, which are

expected to be added to the company’s portfolio in the second
quarter of 2017.
To help customers select an emulsifier, Palsgaard’s web- Biosurfactants
site displays emulsifiers suitable for different food categories. (Saponins)
“Our website has been designed as a user-friendly tool to help
our customers identify the right emulsifier for their particu-
lar application, whether it is bakery, confectionary, dairy, ice
cream, or fats and oils,” says Regalado. She notes that custom-
ers can contact different Palsgaard subsidiaries through the
Phospholipids
website to be guided on appropriate emulsifier selection for
(Lecithin)
their particular application.
“Currently, there’s not a comprehensive resource where
you can go to really compare the advantages and disadvan-
tages of different emulsifiers,” says D. Julian McClements, pro- -
fessor of food science at the University of Massachusetts, in - - Random Coil
Amherst. “The things you have to think about are cost, label- - -
Biopolymers
ing issues, regulations, and then all of the physicochemical
(Polysaccharides &
aspects—how much emulsifier do you need, what’s the small-
Flexible Proteins)
est droplet size you can produce, and under what range of
environmental conditions will the emulsifier be stable. A lot
of our research is aimed at being able to provide that kind of
information.” - - - - -

EVALUATING EMULSIFIERS Compact

Food scientists like McClements hope to reduce the trial and Biopolymers
error associated with emulsifier selection by characterizing var- (Globular Proteins)
ious emulsion parameters under conditions that simulate com-
mercial applications. For example, food scientists can evaluate
the surface activity of an emulsifier by measuring the interfa-
cial tension versus emulsifier concentration profile. “We also Colloidal
measure particle size versus emulsifier concentration, which Particles
tells you the minimum amount of emulsifier needed to stabi- (Starch Granules,
lize the system and the smallest droplet size you can get,” says Chitin Crystals)
McClements. The researchers use light scattering to measure
particle size and electrophoresis to evaluate particle charge. FIG. 3. Examples of natural emulsifiers. Reprinted from Adv. Colloid
Environmental stress tests are also important for charac- Interface Sci. 234: 3–26, 2016, McClements, D. J., and Gumus, C. E.,“Natural emulsifiers—
terizing emulsifiers. “We’ll expose the emulsion to different biosurfactants, phospholipids, biopolymers, and colloidal particles: molecular and
physicochemical basis of functional performance,” with permission from Elsevier.
pH, ionic strength, or temperature extremes, or to shearing,
freezing, thawing, or dehydration, and then we see if the emul-
sion is stable after we’ve stressed it,” says McClements. Based EMULSIFIERS UNDER FIRE
on these experiments, the researchers make a stability map to The current trend for “natural” and “pronounceable” food
identify suitable conditions for a particular emulsifier. Usually, ingredients has placed many food additives, including emul-
nonionic emulsifiers are more stable than ionic emulsifiers sifiers, under attack. Food bloggers with little or no scien-
over a wide range of conditions because they are less sensitive tific background attract thousands of followers, and criticisms
to the effects of pH and salt. of food ingredients quickly go viral. “I think the concerns
Lipid oxidation is another important consideration when about emulsifiers really stem from an unscientific place,” says
evaluating an emulsifier. Negatively charged emulsifiers may Robertson. He cites the example of the dough conditioner azo-
reduce shelf life in an o/w emulsion because they can attract dicarbonamide (ADA), an approved food additive. “Because
positively charged transition metals, such as iron, that promote ADA has also been approved for use in plastics, it was demon-
lipid oxidation. In contrast, positively charged emulsifiers repel ized by social media, and the industry responded by remov-
like-charged transition metals, potentially reducing lipid oxida- ing it almost across the board from all foods,” says Robertson.
tion. Thick interfacial layers of nonionic emulsifiers can reduce “Ironically, ADA was used in foods for decades before it was
the diffusion of pro-oxidants into lipid droplets. To lengthen used in non-food applications.”
shelf life, negatively charged emulsifiers may require the addi- Regalado notes that some supermarkets and restaurants
tion of antioxidants, especially those targeted to the lipid inter- now have a “no-no” list of disallowed ingredients. “Some
face, says McClements. emulsifiers, such as SSL [sodium stearoyl lactylate], are
inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10) • 15

under scrutiny,” she says. “We don’t have any evidence from
toxicological studies showing that SSL can be harmful, and
we don’t know what the basis is for disallowing this type of
ingredient.” Even natural emulsifiers, such as lecithin, are
not safe from attack if they are deemed “unpronounceable”
or “chemical-sounding,” or are isolated from genetically
modified organisms (GMOs). “Being in the food industry right
now is challenging,” says Regalado. “We have to educate
our customers about the functionality and safety of our
ingredients so they can make an informed decision, rather
than just believing something they read on the Internet.”
Critics of emulsifiers often cite studies of rodents that are
fed unrealistic amounts of the ingredients and then develop
tumors, obesity, or other health problems. A 2015 paper in
Nature garnered much media attention after it linked two food
emulsifiers (carboxymethylcellulose and polysorbate-80) to
disturbances in gut microbiota, intestinal inflammation, and
metabolic syndrome in mice (Chassaing, B., et al., http://dx.doi.
org/10.1038/nature14232). However, experts have pointed
out that the very high intake of the emulsifiers by the rodents
(comparable to 150 g of emulsifier for a 60-kg human adult per
day) vastly exceeds the minute amounts of emulsifiers present
in foods (Gray, N., http://tinyurl.com/emulsifier-study, 2015).
The source of raw materials used to isolate or synthe-
size an emulsifier can also make it unpopular in the public eye.
As mentioned above, GMO-derived ingredients can cause
consumer concern, despite the fact that scientific evidence
supports their safety. Emulsifiers synthesized from palm oil
worry environmentalists because of deforestation in Malaysia

Information
Cassiday, L. (2014) “Emulsions: making oil and
water mix.” Inform 25, 200–208. http://tinyurl.com/
Inform-emulsions
Chaissang, B., et al. (2015) “Dietary emulsifiers impact
the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and
metabolic syndrome.” Nature 519, 92–96. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature14232
Gray, N. (2015) “Food emulsifiers linked to gut
bacteria changes and obesity.” Foodnavigator.com,
February 28, 2015. http://tinyurl.com/emulsifier-study
McClements, D. J., and Gumus, C. E. (2016) “Natural
emulsifiers—biosurfactants, phospholipids,
biopolymers, and colloidal particles: molecular and
physicochemical basis of functional performance.”
Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 234, 3–26. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.cis.2016.03.002
Otzurk, B., et al. (2015) “Formation and stabilization
of nanoemulsion-based vitamin E delivery systems
using natural biopolymers: whey protein isolate and
gum arabic.” Food Chem. 188, 256–263. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.05.005
 16 • inform November/December 2016, Vol. 27 (10)

and Indonesia linked to palm oil production. And mono- and LEAN LABEL
diglycerides are sometimes synthesized from PHOs, which Although synthetic emulsifiers may never qualify for a
could introduce tiny amounts of trans fats into foods that con- “clean” label, they could at least contribute to a “lean” label,
tain the emulsifiers. says Regalado. “At Palsgaard, we try to work with the least
Whether or not any criticisms of emulsifiers are well- possible amount of emulsifiers,” she says. Regalado has
founded, recent trends in the food industry indicate that man- observed that some labels, especially for bakery products,
ufacturers are taking consumer concerns seriously. contain multiple emulsifiers. “In the past, different emulsifi-
ers were added to solve individual problems in a formulation
GOING NATURAL instead of looking at the recipe as a whole, resulting in a long
Natural emulsifiers include biosurfactants (e.g., saponins), list of ingredients,” she says. “By substituting multiple emulsi-
phospholipids (lecithin), biopolymers (proteins and polysac- fiers with a single one that is more functional, the ingredients
charides), and colloidal particles (starch, chitin) (Fig. 3, page list can be reduced.”
14). Saponins are small-molecule surfactants isolated from “There have been a lot of trends in the food industry in
the bark of the tree Quillaja saponaria (McClements, D. J., recent years, but I think clean and lean labels are having a
and Gumus, C. E., http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2016.03.002, definite impact,” says Regalado. “Our upper management has
2016). These biosurfactants have regions that are hydrophilic taken that into consideration, and we are working on the next
(e.g., sugar groups) and others that are hydrophobic (e.g., phe- generation of emulsifiers. We have to be proactive and bring
nolic groups). Saponins are capable of forming emulsions con- new ingredients to the table.” She notes that new emulsifiers
taining small droplets (diameter less than 200 nm) that, unlike are not going to be available overnight because, once devel-
those formed by many other natural emulsifiers, are stable oped, they must undergo rigorous testing to ensure functional-
over a broad range of pH, ionic strength, and temperature ity and safety.
conditions. A saponin extract called Q-Naturale® (Ingredion,
Bridgewater, New Jersey, USA) is commercially available. NON-PHO MONO- AND DIGLYCERIDES
Protein emulsifiers can have either flexible, random coil Historically, many emulsifier manufacturers synthesized mono-
structures (casein, gelatin) or compact, globular conformations and diglycerides using PHOs as raw materials. However, on
(whey, soy, egg, and plant proteins). Charged groups (typically June 17, 2015, the US FDA revoked the GRAS status of PHOs for
negative) on proteins electrostatically repel emulsion droplets food use, requiring PHOs to be removed from the food supply
to keep them from coalescing. “Proteins can form small emul- by July 18, 2018. Whether the FDA will allow continued use of
sion droplets, but the challenge is that they’re very sensitive PHOs at low levels as food additives is currently unclear. In any
to pH, ionic strength, and temperature, so they don’t perform case, the reduced supply and increased cost of PHOs as a result
as well as a lot of the synthetic emulsifiers in food products,” of the ruling makes their use as raw materials for emulsifiers
says McClements. “What we’re doing now is looking at a whole untenable, says Robertson.
series of different types of protein sources—pea proteins, lentil One month after the FDA ruling, Corbion launched the
proteins, even insect proteins, as well as traditional dairy pro- ENSEMBLE™ line of non-PHO emulsifiers. Made from a propri-
teins like whey and casein—just to establish the range of con- etary blend of non-PHO oils, these emulsifiers are a “drop-in”
ditions under which they work and don’t work as emulsifiers.” solution for PHO-based mono- and diglycerides. Because the
McClements notes that protein emulsifiers must be carefully non-PHO emulsifiers have very similar properties to the PHO-
tested for allergenicity, which is usually not a problem for syn- based versions, food manufacturers can in most cases avoid
thetic emulsifiers. product reformulation. Other emulsifier suppliers, such as
Unlike protein emulsifiers, polysaccharide emulsifiers are Palsgaard, likewise offer non-PHO emulsifier solutions.
stable over a wide range of conditions. However, because of
their larger size, they do not readily form small droplets during
homogenization. “Often what you’re trying to do is blend dif- TASTE IS STILL KING
ferent types of natural emulsifiers together to get improved Although consumers have expressed increased interest in nat-
functionality,” says McClements. “You might have one emul- ural ingredients and clean labels, market research shows that
sifier that absorbs quickly and forms small droplets (such as a consumers still buy products based primarily on taste and
protein), and then another emulsifier that absorbs more slowly price. “Taste is still king,” says Robertson. “So what you don’t
but forms a thicker, more electrically charged layer (such as a want to do is replace functional food additives with something
polysaccharide).” that has the potential to reduce the overall quality and raise
Colloidal natural emulsifiers, such as starch granules or the price.” Until natural emulsifiers are identified that can per-
chitin crystals, have also attracted attention in recent years. form the broad range of functions carried out by synthetics,
Although emulsions formed with colloidal emulsifiers are very reformulation efforts to generate clean labels may not ulti-
stable, they typically contain relatively large oil droplets (diam- mately drive increased sales.
eter greater than 2 mm) (McClements, D. J., and Gumus, C. E.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2016.03.002, 2016). Researchers Laura Cassiday is an associate editor of Inform at AOCS. She can
are currently trying to identify ultrafine colloidal particles from be contacted at [email protected].
natural sources that can form smaller oil droplets.

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