Abstract

About one-fifth of people on earth lack the access to safe drinking water, a
condition that resulted in the death of 2.2 million people in 2004, as per the records
of United Nations. Clean water use being a prime concern in many communities of
developing countries. Contaminated water plays significant role in taking
numerous lives in these localities, for which a number of efforts are being made for
accessing safe purified drinking water. Fortunately, efficient and cheap water
purification systems are being utilized and being tried to be accessed worldwide
for easy access to clean water.
In the following project we had tried to develop a “Low Cost Water Purification
Technique” using the basic ideas of Slow Sand Filter, some locally available filter
material like charcoal, bone char, sand, manganese modified sand, clay, rice husk,
banana residue ash, anthracite and try to improve the methodology using the UV
Filter, RO Filter, and Activated Carbon Filter mechanism. Main focus was removal
of iron from surface water by adsorption and oxidation followed by precipitation
technique. Among all the adsorption media used, manganese modified sand proved
to be a good adsorbent in removal of iron. For oxidation followed by precipitation,
the ash produced from banana residue was used which proved to give the best
result in removal of iron and also was having the cheapest material cost. A ceramic
membrane with locally collected clay and rice husk was prepared which also
proved to be effective for removal of turbidity, but may be due to rigorous use of
the filter or any manufacturing defect, there were cracks developed on its surface
and was discarded for any further use.

1
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

Purified water is essential for living a healthy life as such everyone should have access
to it. Drinking water conditions have great impacts on people’s everyday life, especially
in the rural and remote areas where access to safe drinking water is very crucial. Surface
water often is the only source, thus water contaminations are difficult to avoid due to
rigorous and reckless use of surface water. Unsafe drinking water may result in fatal
diseases. Statistics shows that these diseases resulted in ninety percent of all deaths of
children under five years old in developing countries, due to low immunization of
children to infections.
Despite of fulfillment of requirement of drinking water standards, the municipal
water in used in developing countries is being improved and cost efficient water
filtration techniques are being developed commonly used to improve taste or to
eliminate any undesired matters. Various types of filters have been designed to be
more suitable for the rural areas of the countries, but the cost as well as the filter
effectiveness is still not satisfactory and further improvement is still required.
Drinking water is being the biggest issue nowadays in India. Most of the people in
the rural areas are not able enough to use water filters or buy mineral water bottles.
To overcome this problem many efforts have been done due to which cleaning
water may become an affordable commodity. Every house hold should be able to
develop its own drinking water purification system; this should be the aim of
development of any low cost water purification technique.
In this context a number of contributions that has been made where the filter media
varies from a layer of simple cotton cloth to composite nano materials. Some of the
typically used water filtration methods in India have been discussed here.
In some of the rural areas of Karnataka, women use cotton cloth layers for water
filtration. This method is very cheap, cost effective in removal of sediments or any
suspended solids, but may be not completely suitable for drinking purpose. Some
places people are using simple plastic bottles with open end, inside which a layer
of bone char followed by a layer of sand and a layer of pebble on both sides of the
bone char layer is being used through which water will be passed for filtration. This
kind of filtration process is capable of removing sediment and microbes effectively
from water.
Solar distillation and solar sterilization are the recent but convenient technologies
developed as a low cost water filtration process. In this process water filled clean
plastic bottles are left in sun for several hours so that the UV radiation and the heat
generated will be able to kill the microbes present in water causing many water
borne diseases. Now these methods are improvised by using thermal indicators
inside the bottle letting the users know when it will be safe to drink the water. But
despite of being cheap and effective, this method is a function of availability of
solar light. So maybe not abundantly used in water purification process. In
comparison with solar sterilization, the solar distillation technique is even capable
of purifying muddy water or salty water through the process of evaporation and
condensation.
Among widely used naturally occurring adsorption media, bamboo charcoal
provided with base gravel layer also is very effective in purifying water with the
advantages of being low coat, environment friendly and requires minimum
maintenance. Activated carbon, silver beds, charcoal, sand is being widely used in
portable filters for disinfection and filtration of water.
Bone char is proved to be very efficient in removing heavy metal ion s from water,
the excess amount of which can cause many fatal renal and cardiac diseases and
high blood pressure.
Ceramic filters provided with saw dust or rice husk in the shape of pots are very
much efficient in microfiltration which removes suspended solids and microbes to
great extents. The main disadvantage is for small house hold purpose where
pressure filtration is not an option; it has to be used for gravity filtration and thus
the rate of filtration will be very much less and the filter requires continuous
maintenance.
Recently IIT M has developed an effective low cost water filtration model
specifically meant for rural areas which uses a cheap plastic mesh which is capable
of removing 98 percent of impurities from water including pathogens. The cost of
the filter is somewhat Rs 700 to 800 and very easy for reuse. Another recent
development of IIT M is development of composite nano material used as a filter
media which capable of removing toxic metal ions as well as killing the pathogens.
The filter is worth rupees Rs 500 excluding the cartridge. Another attractive feature
of this filter media is that the cartridge can be reused by simply boiling in water or
rubbing with lemon juice which is easily available in common households.
India’s largest company Tata Group has developed a very cheap water filter known
as “Swach”, cost of which is less than Rs1000. It uses nano-technology for
filtration and silver particles for eradicating bacterial contamination.
Ultimately the aim of development of any low cost water filtration model should
be to operate with minimum energy, minimum maintenance, cost effective,
environment friendly, implementable with ease and can be developed from local
artisans. This will subsequently inspire the people to put hygiene in to habit and of
course will help in the social and economic growth of the country.

1.1 Objectives
The scope of this project is to study the existing water filtration methods, and use
the knowledge to design a Low cost water filtration technique. This water
filtration system will focus on cutting down the cost while maintaining filter
effectiveness. By providing affordable water filters for the rural and remote areas,
will greatly improve people’s quality of living, and reduce the risk of any
waterborne diseases therefore saving lives.
The basic objectives of the project are as follows.
 Removal of iron from water by using different adsorption media which are
locally available at a low cost
 Development of a ceramic filter with clay and rice husk and studying the
efficiency of removal of turbidity
 Designing a simple household setup for water filtration focusing on removal of
iron and turbidity
 Cost estimation of all the adsorption media used as well as the ceramic filter
 Analysis of filtration effectiveness in removal of iron for different filter media
 Chapter 2

L i t e r a t u r e Review

• William, et al. in 1992 studied the impact of dissolved organic carbon on the
removal of iron during water treatment. He used the iron removal process by
oxidation and coagulation method. Humic and fulvic acids, tannic acid and
oxalic acid were estimated in the organic content. Potassium permanganate,
chlorine dioxide and free chlorine were used as oxidizing agent.

• Hasan in 1990 studied the contact aeration for iron removal method. The iron
removal process utilized the catalytic effect of ferric iron. Again in this
experiment it was theoretically demonstrated that by keeping high
concentration of ferric iron, the volume of the aeration tank can be
significantly reduced and it was according to the oxygenation rate equation.
Ferric iron is very much effective in decreasing the reactor volumes at lower
pH values. It is proposed to recycle the ferric sludge to maintain the high ferric
iron concentrations in the reactor.

• Catherine in 1988 studied the control of biological iron removal from drinking
water using oxidation-reduction potential. In this study a pilot plant was used
for treating raw water with pH 5.7 for biological removal of iron to produce
drinking water. Here oxidation- reduction potential was used as a tool for
evaluation and determination of relationship with dissolved oxygen and
residual iron concentration in the infiltrate by using a biological filter.

• Tomotada studied the Current bioremediation practice and perspective in 2001.

In the method he used in-situ fluorescence hybridization (FISH), in situ PCR,
and quantitative PCR for removal of contamination by bioremediation .In this
method the detection and reorganization of bacteria and pathogens is very
vivid and these are being directly related to the rate of degradation of
 contaminants.

• Wang, et al. in 2003 studied the removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous
solutions using various adsorbents with minimal cost. He used various low cost
adsorbents like Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeS, steel wool, Magnesium pallets, Copper
pallets, Zinc pallets, Aluminum pallets, Iron pallets, coal, GAC for removal of
heavy metal ions like cobalt and zinc from ground water.

• Choo, et al. studied in 2005 the removal of iron and manganese in ultra
filtration and also the process of membrane fouling. He also examined to
remove the residual chlorine due to pre-chlorination which is opted as a
convenient option for safe drinking water. The membrane fouling was caused
due to the oxidation of iron and manganese which was also visualized
thoroughly at microscopic level and the steps for eradicating the degradation of
membrane were proposed.

• Takerlekkopoulou, et al. studied in 2006 the physio-chemical and biological

iron removal from potable water. He used the technique of trickling filter and
constructed a model for it including the pilot-testing. The main mechanism was
physio-chemical and biological oxidation of iron. The detailed chemical
reaction and extent of each oxidation was studied. Experimentation was done
with specified temperature, optimum feed iron concentration and volumetric
flow rate. First order kinetics and Monod-type kinetics was observed in physio-
chemical and biological oxidations respectively.

• Gupta studied in 2006 the non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye

removal. He studied an extensive number of adsorbent for filtration and in the
review he showed the critical analysis of these materials, characteristics,
advantages, limitations and mechanisms of adsorption. He used activated
carbon of agricultural solid waste, industrial by product, clay and materials
containing silica.
 • Bordoloi, et al. in 2007 studied the removal of iron from water using the ash

produced from banana residue [14, 15, and 16].Ashes from different
materials i.e. dry banana leaf, pseudo stem, rind, bamboo, rice husk were
produced by controlled combustion. The mechanism of removal includes
oxidation of iron at high pH or alkaline medium produced by potassium
present in banana due to subsequent formation of potassium hydroxide. The
study included analysis of chemical composition of banana ash and its
efficiency in removal of iron from prefabricated water. Further it has been
used in a low cost household water purification model in which after treated
with ash, the water is being filtered with a cotton cloth and being used for
drinking.

• Chaturvedi in 2012 studied the removal of iron for safe drinking water. He

used the methods of iron removal from drinking water such as electro
coagulation; oxidation filtration, ion exchange, lime softening, adsorption by
activated carbon, BIRM media, Anthracite [1], green sand, pebble and sand
mixture, ultra filtration etc have been discussed.
• Ganvir, et al. in 2011 studied the removal of fluoride from groundwater by
aluminum hydroxide coated Rice husk ash [12, 13]. Activated aluminum
hydroxide has been used for activating the RHA surface which forms a
complex with fluoride ion in water and accelerates the process of
removal.RHA was obtained by controlled burning of dry and crushed rice husk
and treating with hydrochloric acid before activation.
• Simonis in 2012 studied the manufacturing a low-cost ceramic water filter [19]
and filter system for the elimination of common pathogenic bacteria and
suspended solids. A micro- porous ceramic water filter in which clay was
mixed with rice husk in a ration 2:1 by weight and a cylindrical shaped filter
was manufactured by tradition oven drying and then burning in kiln at
specified sintering temperature. After being coated with silver nitrate solution
for preventing the growth of microbes, the filter was tested for removal of
suspended solids and pathogens.
 CHAPTER 3

MODEL AND MATERIALS USED

Main components of solar water purifier are solar panel, battery, heating coil,
filtering column, double layer condenser and several water vessels. Some auxiliary
components are inverter, controller, water tap, wheels for mobility etc. SolidWorks
design of filtering column is showed in figure 2. The first layer consists of gravel to
filter out impurities which are visible, the second layer consists of sand which filters
out smaller impurities and the third which is the last layer consists of activated
charcoal which has a huge internal surface area, packed with nooks and crannies that
attract and trap chemical impurities through a process called absorption

3.1 Filtration Model Development

Here we have manufactured a simple cylindrical filtration tube.

 From the base, a conical portion is extended to collect water with a to regulate
filtered water.

 Top of the cylinder was covered with a perpex sheet.

 A hole of 2 cm diameter was made to connect with the inlet pipe.

In the proposed design of the model, the prefabricated water of known iron
concentration was passed through the inlet pipe above. Inside the cylinder,
different adsorption media of specified thickness were placed with proper gravel
support. Then after filtration, the filtered water was collected through the conical
part in a beaker and the final iron concentration was measured in the Atomic
Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). The rate of filtration was noted and for each
adsorption media, three samples were tested and average iron concentration was
considered for analyzing filter effectiveness.
3.1 Materials used and Preparation of Adsorption Media
As per the two methods explained in 4.1 and 4.2, in the first method for removal of
iron by adsorption technique, different adsorption media were used for iron
removal are listed below which are locally collected at a very cheap cost. In the
second methodology, ash obtained from banana residue was used for removal of
iron by oxidation followed by precipitation as per 4.2.

3.21 Plane sand

Fine sand and gravel are naturally occurring glacial deposits high in silica content
and low in soluble calcium, magnesium and iron compounds are very useful in
sedimentation removal. But here the media is used for iron removal from drinking
water [4]. Here for the experimentation plane sand passing through 425 micron and
600 Micron IS sieve were used.
3.22 Activated Carbon

Activated carbon [5, 6, and 7] of a used aqua guard carbon filter crushed to the size
of 2mm and down was used for removal of iron from water.

Fig. 3.2 Activated Carbon of Aqua Guard crushed into size of 2mm and
down

3.23 Wood Charcoal

Bituminous coal [3] has been used before as an adsorbent and proved to be very
effective in removal of iron. Due to non-availability of bituminous coal, we used
wood coal as an adsorbent media for experimentation. Locally collected wood
charcoal crushed to size 10mm and down was used for removal of iron from water.

Fig 3.3 Crushed Wood charcoal of size 10mm and down

20
3.24 Wood charcoal and Rice husk mixture

Mixture of wood charcoal and raw rice husk in the ratio 3:2 by weight was taken
for removal of iron from water as a trial without any prior evidence of being used
as an adsorbent.

3.25 Manganese modified Sand

Sand passing through IS 850 micron sieve was collected as specified in 2.25 and
cleaned with distilled water, dried in oven at 373K for 12 hours, soaked with 0.01N
KMnO4 for 24 hours and then washed thoroughly by distilled water and dried at
373k for 12 hours and cooled to room temperature. This was used as adsorbent
media [10, 11].

a b c

Fig 3.4(a) 0.01N KMnO4, (b) sand soaked in 0.01N KMnO4, (c) oven dry
manganese modified sand

3.26 Anthracite

Crushed anthracite is an excellent medium density filtration media. Due to high

carbon content, low specific gravity, cost effectiveness, this media has been used
for simple filtration. It can compare with equivalent sand filter for better filtration
efficiency and longer filter run [1]. But here well graded anthracite grains i.e., of
size 625 micron and down have been used as an adsorption media for removal of
iron.
21
 Fig 3.5 Crushed anthracite of size 625 micron and down

3.27 Aluminum hydroxide coated Rise husk Ash

RHA (rice husk ash) was prepared by controlled burning process in muffle furnace
at a temperature of 500 degree Celsius for 4 hours. The RHA was first soaked with
0.01 N HCl. Dry RHA of 100 gm, 0.6 M of aluminum salt (Aluminum Sulphate
salt) solution and 3M sodium hydroxide was added and stirred for one hour and
then the filtered RHA was kept in oven for 3 hours at 373 K [12, 13]. This was
used as an adsorbent along with sand as a base material.

a b c

Fig 3.6 (a) Rice husk ash prepared after controlled heating at 500 degrees, (b) RHA
soaked with 0.01N HCl, (c) Al(OH)3 coated RHA
22
3.28 Ash of banana leaf, Rind and stem

For this method dried plant material of banana tree i.e. leaves, rind, pseudo stem
were collected and ash was prepared by heating at 500 degrees for 4 hours in oven
[18].

Fig 3.7 Sun-dried banana leaf, pseudo stem and rind

For this method dried plant material of banana tree i.e. leaves, rind, pseudo stem
were collected and ash was prepared by heating at 500 degrees for 4 hours in oven
[18].

a b c

Fig 3.8(a) Ash obtained from dry banana leaf, (b) ash from dry banana rind, (c)
ash from dry banana stem

23
3.29 Preparation of ceramic filter

Locally collected clay of size 75 micron and down was used for fabrication of a
ceramic filter with rise husk. A mixture of clay and rice husk of size 425 micron
and down with ratio 2:1 was made with admixtures boric acid, sodium meta silicate
and sodium carbonate. The amount of materials taken was given below in the table
where the cost of ceramic filter has been stimated.. After hand mixing the
components for about 15 min, water was added in the amount of 1.25 lit/kg of rice
husk. Then mixing was done properly for about 30 min. The mixture was then
transferred to a cylindrical mould and dried at room temperature for about 48
hours. Then the mix took the shape of the mould and then dehydrated at 100
degree Celsius in oven for about 6 hours. Then the mould was kept in the muffle
furnace for about 8 hours at a sintering temperature of 866 degree Celsius for
complete bonding of the clay particles [19].

a b c d

Fig 3.9(a) mixture of clay rice husk and admixtures, (b) cylindrical Mould, (c)
filter after oven drying, (d) Ceramic filter after sintering at 866 degree Celsius

24
Chapter 4

Methodology

25
For removal of iron broadly two phenomena had been used in the experiments i.e.
adsorption, oxidation followed by precipitation and for removal of turbidity
microfiltration by ceramic filter has been adopted.

4.1 Adsorption

Basically the adsorptive filtration is operated under anoxic conditions for removal
of iron where oxidation of ferrous iron is suppressed i.e. in case of filtration of
ground water [1]. Here we have taken aerobic conditions for filtration in the
adsorption media. Among some well known adsorption media like anthracite,
olivine, magnetite, zeolite, sand, pumice, bituminous coal [2], carbonaceous shale
[3] etc. The following adsorption media had been experimented here for removal
of iron from drinking water.

Sand

Fine sand and gravel are naturally occurring glacial deposits high in silica content
and low in soluble calcium, magnesium and iron compounds are very useful in
sedimentation removal. But here the media is used for iron (Fe) removal from
drinking water [4].

As per mentioned in 3.21, specified sand was taken and cleaned with distilled
water and dried in oven for 6 hours at 373 k. After being cooled to room
temperature, the sand was used in the filtration model previously developed with a
gravel base of specified size to support the sand bed. Known concentration of
1000ml of iron solution was passed through the sand and the filtrate was collected
in a beaker. The rate of filtration was calculated and final iron concentration was
measured with AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrometer).

26
Activated carbon

The micro contaminates present in water cannot be effectively removed by

traditional method where as the activated carbon proved to be very useful for
removal of organic as well as inorganic contaminants [5,6,7].

As specified in 3.22, crushed activated carbon was obtained and used above sand
bed of specified thickness in the filtration model for removal of water. For
experimentation 1000 ml of iron solution of known concentration was taken and
the filtered water was collected after filtration and the rate of filtration was noted.

27
Wood Charcoal

Due to non-availability of bituminous coal [3] wood charcoal has been adopted as specified
in
3.23 for using as an adsorption media. Wood charcoal of specified thickness was
used as an adsorption media in the filtration media. For experimentation 1000 ml
of iron solution of known concentration was taken and the filtered water was
collected after filtration and the rate of filtration was noted.

28
Wood charcoal and Rice husk mixture

Raw rice husk and charcoal was taken in a ratio 2:3 by weight and used as a filter
media with sand as a base material of specified in 3.24 in the filtration model. For
experimentation 1000 ml of iron solution of known concentration was taken and
the filtered water was collected after filtration and the rate of filtration was noted.

Manganese modified sand

For removal of heavy metal ions, use of activated unsaturated sand filter (AUSF)
being the most common technique [8]. Naturally occurring manganese oxide tend
to attenuate some heavy metals, silt, sediment, due to its good sorptive capacity
towards the ions such that copper, iron, arsenic etc due to high specific surface,
micro pores available on its surface, possession of –OH functional group which
leads to strong chemical bonding with some metal ions [9].

29
,

Aluminum hydroxide coated Rice husk ash

This adsorption media has been previously used for defluoridation of drinking
water where the hydrolysis of aluminum sulphate in alkaline medium produces
polyhydroxy aluminum precipitate which forms a complex with fluoride ions in
water [12, 13]. Here without making any change to the active surface of RHA
coated with Al(OH)3, the adsorption media has been tested for efficiency in
removal of iron instead of fluoride. For experimentation 1000 ml of iron solution
of known concentration was taken and the filtered water was collected after
filtration and the rate of filtration was noted.

30
Here well graded anthracite grains as per mentioned in 3.26 i.e., of size 625 micron
and down have been used as an adsorption media for removing iron. 15cm
thickness of well compacted material was taken inside the filtration model and then
1000ml of iron solution of known concentration was passed through it and the
filtered water was collected in a beaker whose iron concentration was measured by
AAS. The time taken for filtration was noted.

4.2 Oxidation and Precipitation

Before filtration of iron, it is needed to be oxidized to a state in which it can form
insoluble iron complexes. By use of oxidizing agents, Fe2+ can be converted to
insoluble Fe3+ which forms insoluble iron hydroxide complex Fe(OH)3 [14].
Potassium permanganate, chlorine are the most abundantly used oxidizing agents.
Here ash produced from banana leaf, stem and rind are being used as an oxidizing
agent.

Ash obtained from banana rind, pseudo-stem and leaf are rich in potassium.
Usually in ground water which is deprived of oxygen, the iron remains in soluble
state. When ash is added to the water, it forms KOH from K2O and K2CO3 present
in the banana ash. So the medium becomes alkaline and at high pH, the soluble
Fe2+ is converted to insoluble geothite (FeOOH) or ferrihydrite (Fe(OH)3) [15, 16,
17]. And the precipitate can be filtered using any convenient filter media.

31
The material is the mixed with sample water of 5 PPM iron solution in presence of
air and the floc of ferric hydroxide was precipitated. The water was filtered by a
filter paper after 30 min of addition.

4.3 Microfiltration
Here the ceramic filter as mentioned in 3.29 was inserted inside the mould and the
mould was kept inside a glass jar in which filtered water will be stored. Ceramic
filter was tested for removal of turbidity and for experimentation 1000ml of
solution of known turbidity was passed through the filter and then the filtered water
through the pores of ceramic filter was collected in the mould having porous base
and finally inside the glass jar. Then the filtered water was collected by the tap in a
beaker and tested for final turbidity and the time taken for filtration was noted for
calculation of rate of filtration.

Fig 4.8 filtration of turbid water by ceramic filter

32
Chapter 5

C O N C L USI O N S

33
This product is totally ecofriendly. In addition to having no carbon dioxide emissions, the Solar
Water Purifier doesn’t produce any noise. Proper safety steps should be taken as heat and
electricity are involved. Proper selection of materials and components will prevent electrical
components from overheating and causing potential burn hazards. Insufficiency of pure
drinking water leads thousands of our people to danger every day. This product expected to
mitigate drinking water crisis both in urban and rural area in Bangladesh. In rural areas, it can be
done in big scale for better feasibility.

34
 Chapter 7

References

35
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39