HCM 1965

.
87
HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD

Special Report 87 .:
HIGHWAY
CAPACITY
MA UAL
I9S5
National Academy of Sciences

National Research Council
:
Publication 1328
j -
Officeis and Members of the Executive Commiüée
1965
OFFICERS.
DONALD S. BERRY, Chairman J. B. MöMORRAN, First Vice Chairman
EDWARD G. WETZEL, Second Vice Chairman
GRANT MICKLE, . W. N. CAREY, JR., Deputy
Executive Director Executive Director
Executive Committee
REx M. WHITTON, Federal Highway Administrator, Bureau of Public Roads (ex officio)
A.. JOHNSON, Executive Secretary, American Association of State Highway Officials
(ex officio)
LouIs JORDAN, Executive Secretary, Division of Engineering and Industrial Research,
National Research. Council (ex officio)
C. D. CuRTIss, Special Assistant to the Executive Vice President, American Road
Builders' Association (ex officio, Past Chairman 1963)
WILBUR S. SMITH, Wilbur Snith and Associates, New Haven, Conn. (ex officio, Past
Chairman 1964)
W. BAUMAN, Managing Director, National Slag Association
DONALD S. BERRY, Chairman, Department of Civil Engineering, Northwestern
University
MASON A. BUTCHER, County Manager, Montgomery County, Md.
J. DOUGLAS CARROLL, JR., Exewtive Director, Tn-State Transportation Committee,
New York City
HARMER E. DAVIS, Director, Institute of Transport at and Traffic Engineering,
University of California
DUKE W. DTJNBAR, Attorney General of Colorado
JOHN T. HOWARD, Head, Department of City and Regional Planning, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
PYKE JOHNSON, Retired
LOUIS C. LUNDSTROM, Director, Automotive Safety Engineering, General Motors Tech-
nical Center
BURTON W. MARsH, Executive Director, Fóundation for Traffic Safety, American
Automobile Association
OSCAR T. MARZKE, Vice President, Fundamental Research, U. S. Steel Corporation
J. B. MCMORRAN, Superintendent of Public Works, New York State Department of
Public Works
CLIFFORD F. RASSWEILER, President, Rassweiler Consultants, Inc., Short Hills, N. J.
M. L.
SHADBURN, State Highway Engineer, Georgia State Highway Department
T. E. SHELBURNE, Director of Research, Virginia Department of Highways
DAVID H. STEVENS, Chairman, Maine State Highway Commission
JOHN H. SWANBERG, Chief Enginee, Minnesota Department of Highways
EDWARD G. WETZEL, The Port of New York Authority, New York City
C. WOMACK, State Highway Engineer, California Division of Highways
B. WOODS, Goss Professor of Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue
University
2101 Constitution Avenue Washington, D. C. 20418

Special Rport 87
HIGHWAY
CAPACITY
MANUAL
1965
E rra- fa

National Research Council
Publication 1 328
The 1965 Highway Capacity Manual .was reprinted for the eighth time.in September
1978. The number and the date of each of the eight printings are shown on the re-
verse side of the title page. This errata is being issued so that those who have earlier
printings, particularly the first, will be aware of corrections that have subsequently
been made. The number of the printing to which the correction applies is given in
the left column. All corrections given here have been incorporated in theleighth
printing.
The Transportation Research Board expresses its appreciation to members of the staff
at the Office of Traffic Operations, Federal Highway Administration, which has main-
tained the list of corrections to the Highway Capacity Manual.
Transportation Research Board

2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20418
Printing Correction
1,2,3, Page xiii, line 12

4,5,6 After Lateral, delete Consideration and add Clearance
Pages 49 and 50
Interchange line drawings but not titles of Figure 3.26 and Figure 3.28. (Suggestion:
Clip drawings, flip over, and tape in place.)
Page 54, Figure 3.31, title

After 1957. add It should be noted that in this study the median lane was designated as
Lane 1; the shoulder lane, as Lane 3.
Page 62, column 2, line 22

After highway, the delete space mean and insert operating
Page 66, Figure 3.44, title

After under, delete interrupted and insert uninterrupted

After of delete roadway and insert lane

After car delete equivalency factors and insert equivalents
1,2,3, Page 102, column 2, line 21

4,5,6 After determine the delete equivalency factor and insert passenger car equivalents
Page 102, column 2, line 35 -

Before contains delete Table 10.10 and insert Table 10.12

After give delete equivalency factors and insert equivalents
Page 126, column 2, lines 15 and 19

After green add per lane
1,2 Page 128, column 2, line 13

Delete last three sentences in paragraph beginning The safest and ending the intersection.
and insert Standard values for yellow interval have not been defined in the Manual; how-
ever, they are variable within limits which are established in the Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways. When additional time is required for
the motorist to clear a wide intersection, an all-red interval may be provided immedi-
ately following the yellow interval. If total time of the yellow and all-red periods is held
to the minimum necessary for safe operation, intersection capacity will be improved.
1,2,3, Page 138, column 2, lines 11 and 12

4,5,6 Delete used. It is recommended that a 3-sec yellow interval normally be allowed and
insert used, and the length should be as recommended in the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices.
Page 148, column 2, lines 11 and 15

After with parking add both sides
3
Printing Correction
1 Page 149, column 1, lines 11 and 37

After parking, at delete capacity and insert level of service C
1 Page 153, column 2, line 13

After 1,255x55/ delete 70 and insert 90
1,2,3, - Page 153, column 2, line 29

4,516 Before volume, delete Through and insert Total approach

After Adjustment for delete 3% and insert 4%
1,2 Page 155, column 1, line 2l

After = delete 1.035 and insert 1.030

After 0.72x delete 1.035 and insert 1.030

Before vph delete 1,220 and insert 1,215
1,2 Page l69, column 1, line l3

Delete For the better levels of service the and insert The

Delete paragraph beginning In determining and ending grades, etc. and insert These
values, after adjustment for prevailing roadway-and traffic conditions, should be used
as a check against the computed SV. The lower of the two values should be used in
determining N. Normally this procedure will affect values at levels D and E.

After = delete 3 and insert 2


- After 410)/ delete 0.89 and insert 0.94
1- Page l8O, column l, line 8

Before pcph delete 1,020 and insert 970

After is delete 1,400 and insert 1,300

After 1,375 delete (0.89) = 1,225 and insert (0.94) = 1,290
1 Page 180, column 2, line 9, denominator

Delete 1,225 and insert 1,290
4
Printing Correction

After is delete 550 and insert 500


After 1,375 delete (0.89) = 1,225 and insert (0.94) = 1,290

Delete 1,225 = 1.4 and insert 1,290 = 1.3

After 2,700/ delete 1,225 = 2.2 and insert 1,290 = 2.1

After of delete 1,400 and insert 1,300

After of delete 550 and insert 500
1 Page 187, column 1, paragraph 2, line 2

Delete entire line and insert tions and influences may be applied to all
1 Page 203, Table 8.2, column 2, row 4

Delete Fig. 8.5 and insert Fig. 8.4
1,2 Page 203, Table 8.2, column 6, row 7

After (Table 8.3and delete Fig. 24b) and insert Fig. 8.24a)
Page 208, Figure 8.7, Conditions for Use, line 8

4,5,6 After usage on delete p. 220 and insert p. 222
1,2 Page 209, Figure 8.7, title

After junction, delete 6-lane freeway, with adjacent off-ramps both upstream and down-
stream of stream off-ramp and insert 4-lane freeway, with auxiliary lane between on-
ramp and adjacentdownstream off-ramp
1,2,3, Page 2l2, Figure 8.10

4,5,6 On drawing in box on right side, label freeway through volume V, upstream on-ramp
volume V, and off-ramp volume Vr
1,2 Page 23O,column 2, line 10

After = delete 273 and insert 372
1,2 Page 231,column 1, line 29

After Figure delete 8.23 and insert 8.24

After Figure delete 8.23b and insert 8.24b
5
Printing Correction

After Figure delete 8.23b and insert 8.24b

After Three delete (as Fig. 3.23 and as Figs. 3.35, 3.38, and 3.41 and insert (as Fig.
3.26 and as Figs. 3.38, 3.41, and 3.44
.1 Page 252, Table 9.1, columns 4,5,6,7, and 8, rows 3 and 4

Delete xPHF and insert (PH F)
1,2 Page 256, column 1, line g

Delete entire line and insert the passenger car equivalents from Table 9.3a.

After in delete Figure 3.35 and insert Figure 3.38

4,5,6 After volume delete (total for one direction) and insert (mixed vehicles per hour, in one
direction)
1,2,3, Page 265, column 2, lines 30, 31, and 32

4,5,6 After lanes delete (mixed vehicles per hour, in one direction)

4,5,6 Before mph delete 55 and insert 50
1,2,3, Page 272, column 1, line 3S

4,5,6 Before indicates delete 0.60 and insert 0.78

4,5,6 Before mph delete 55 and insert 50

4,5,6 After = delete C and insert D

4,5,6,7 Before at-grade insert no significant

After as delete Figure 3.24 and Figures 3.36 and 3.39 and insert Figure 3.27and Figures
3.39 and 3.42


4,5,6 Before conditions delete ideal and insert prevailing

Printing Correction

After in delete Figures 3.37 and 3.40 and insert Figures 3.40 and 3.43

After reach delete 30 and insert 20

4,5,6 After rate delete truck factors and insert equivalents

4,5,6 Before for insert from Table 10.7

4,5,6,7 Before = delete T. and insert TL

4,5,6,7 Before = delete Bc and insert BL
1,2,3, Page 316, drawing, section 2

0 0
4,5,6 i
Before CURVE delete 3 and nsert 71/2
1,2,3, Page 316, drawing, section 4

0 0
4,5,6. Before CURVE delete 4 insert
nsert 5
1,2,3, Page 317, column 2

4,5,6 Deletelines 1 through 24 and insert thefollowing:
Base volume = 2,000 WLTL,
where:
WL, from Table 108, for 11-ft equivalent
lanes and adequate clearance, at Fevel
D = 0.87.
TL is derived as follows, using a weighted
ETvalue:
ET(UP): From Table 10.10, for level D,
given 3% trucks on 3% grade 1½ mi
long, ET(Up) 26.
ET(dOWfl): Given as RT(down) = 10.
UP)FT(UP) + ET(dOWfl )PT(dOWfl)
E T(overali) = ET(
T(total)
26x 3 + lOx 5
=16
From Table 10.12, for 8% trucks and

ET = 16, TL= 0.45.
Base volume = 2,000 x 0.87 x 0.45 = 783 vph.
v/c ratio = 500/783 = 0.64
From Table 10.7 or Fig. 10.2a, for AHS =
67 mph and 45% passing sight distance,
service is in level D (close to level C);
assumption was correct.
1,2,3, Page 323, Table 10.13, footnote a
4,5,6 Delete Operating speed and insert Average overall travel speed
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20418
7a
Li L±J_ tJ
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A"
ERRATA .
U
RO HRBSpecialReport87,"HighwayCapacityManual - 1965."
In IIRB Special Report 87, "Highway Capacity Manual -.1965,"

first printing (March 1966)*, the following changes should be noted:
Pages 11.9 and 50. Interchange Figs. 3.26 and 3.28. Captions
are correct as they are.
Page 511., Figure 3.31. To caption, add "It should be noted that
in this study the median lane was designated as Lane 1; the
shoulder lane, as Lane 3." S
Page 62., Col. 2, line 22. Change "space mean" to "operating."
Page 66, Figure 3.1114. In caption, change "interrupted" to
"uninterrupted."
Page 90, Col. 2, line 1. Change "roadway" to "lane."
Page 102, Col. 2, lines II and 1314. Change "passenger car
equivalency factors" to "passenger car equivalents."
Col. 2, line 35. Change "Table 10.10" to "Table 10.12."
Page 1011., Col. 1, lines 45_I16. Change "equivalency factors" to

"equivalents."
Page 126, Col. 2, lines 15 and 19. After "green" add "per lane."
Page 11.8, Col. 2, lines 1]. and 15. To "with parking" add
"both sides."
Page 1119, Col. 1, lines 11 and. 37-38. Change "capacity" to
"level of service C."
Page 153, Col. 2, line 13. Change "70" to "90."
Page 155, Col. 1, line 20. Change "3%" to "ii%."
line 26. Change "1.035" to "1.030."
line 27. Change "1,220" to "1,215."
5
Page 180, Col. 1, line II. Change "3" to "2."

Col. 1, lines 6 and 7. Change "0.89" to "0.911." (two places)
Col. 1, line 8. Change "1,020" to "970."
Col. 1, line 17. Change 111,11.00" to "1,300."
5
Col. 2, line .1.. Change "(0.89)=1,225" to "(0.911.)=1,290."
Col. 2, line 9. Change "1,225" to"1,290."
Col. 2, line 10. Change "3.5" to "3.3.11 '
Col. 2, line 16. Change "550" to "500." -
Col. 2, line 23. Change "(0.89)=1,225" to "(0.911)=1,290."
Col. 2, line 27. Change "1,225 = 1.11." to 111,290 = 1.3." S -
Col. 2, line 30. Change "1,225 = 2.2" to "1,290 = 2.1."
Col. 2, line hO. Change 111,400 to "1,300."
Col. 2, line Ill. Change "550" to "500."
. -'- -
Ad031 AdO3.
4 .iO
Page2
*W Page 187, Col. 1, 2nd Par. Delete line 2 (duplicate of line Ii.)
and.r.eplace with. "tions and influences may be applied to all:
Page 203, Table 8.2. Under 11-Lane Freeway On-Ramp, the entry
for the fourth arrangement should read "Fig. 8.5." Entry
for 0ff-Ramp is shown correctly as "Fig. 8.4."
Page 246, Col. 1, lines 37-38. Should read "(as Fig. 3.26 and
as Figs. 3.38, 3)1, and 3.1
Page 252, Table 9.1, Level of Service C and D. In seven entries

under Service Volume/Capacity, parentheses indicate multi-
plication of coefficient and PHF.
Page 264, Col. 1, line-15;- Should read "Fig. 3.38."
Page 282, Col. 2, lines 11.2 and 113. Should read "as Fig. 3.27 and
Figs. 3.39 and 3.112 .."
Page 293, Col. 2, line 111.. Should read "Fig. 3.39."

Page 299, cbi. 2, line 39. Should read "Fig. 3.28."
line 41. Should read "Figs. 3.110 and 3.113.."
Page 300, Col. 1, line 18. Change "30" to 1120."
* In the second printing (October 1966) the changes listed have

been made. ................. .. ........ -. :.. .. - -
This correction was made in 11,000 copies of the 10,000-copy

first printix2g.
/

Special Report 87
HIGHWAY. CAPACITY
MAN UAL
1965
Subject Classification
22 Highway Design
53 Traffic Control and Operations
54 Traffic Flow
55 Traffic Measurements

of the
Division of Engineering and Industrial Research
National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council
Washington, D. C.
1965
Copyright © 1966 by Highway Research Board
All rights reserved. This book or any parts

thereof may not be reproduced in any form,
by photostat, microfilm, or any other means,
or in any language, without the written permis-
sion of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:. 66.60030
Printed in the United States of America

DEPARTMENT OF TRAFFIC AND OPERATIONS
Harold L. Michael, Chairman
Associate Director, Joint Highway Research Project,
Purdue University
COMMITTEE ON HIGHWAY CAPACITY

Carl C. Saal, Chairman
Deputy Director, Office of Research and Development,
Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, D.C.
W. R. Bellis, Director of Research and Evaluation, New Jersey State Highway Department
Donald S. Berry, Chairman, Department of Civil Engineering, The Technological Institute,
Northwestern University
Robert C. Blumenthal, Partner, Bruce Campbell & Associates, Boston, Mass.
Arthur A. Carter, Jr., Secretary, Principal Research Engineer, Traffic Systems Division,
Office of Research and Development, Bureau of Public Roads
Robert R. Coleman, Assistant Director, Bureau of Traffic Engineering, Pennsylvania De-
partment of Highways
Kenneth W. Crowley, Senior Research Analyst, Tunnels and Bridges Department, The Port
of New York Authority
Laurence A. Dondanville, Assistant Chief Engineer, Transportation Division, DeLeuw,
Cather and Company, Chicago, Ill.
Robert S. Foote, Supervisor, Tunnel and Bridge Research Division, The Port of New York
Authority
Gordon K. Gravelle, Consulting Transportation Engineer, Bayside, N.Y.
Wolfgang S. Homburger, Associate Research Engineer, Institute of Transportation and
Traffic Engineering, University of California, Richmond
Matthew J. Huber, Bureau of Highway Traffic, Yale University
Donald C. Hyde, General Manager, Cleveland (Ohio) Transportation System
Louis E. Keefer, Transportation Planning Consultant, Milford, Conn.
Charles J. Keese, Executive Officer,. Civil Engineering Department, Texas Transporattion
Institute, Texas A & M University
James H. Kell, Consulting Traffic Engineer, Traffic Research Corp., San Francisco, Calif.
Jack E. Leisch, Vice President, DeLeuw, Cather and Company of Canada, Toronto
Adolf D. May, Jr., Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of Cali-
fornia, Richmond
Karl Moskowitz, Assistant Traffic Engineer, California Division of Highways
Charles M. Noble, Consulting Engineer, Princeton, N.J.
Walter S. Rainville, Jr., Director of Research, American Transit Association, Washington,
D.C.
Carlton C. Robinson, Director, Traffic Engineering Division, Automotive Safety Founda-
tion, Washington, D.C.
Richard I. Strickland, Engineer of Traffic Planning and Design, The Port of New York
Authority
S. S. Taylor, General Manager, Department of Traffic, Los Angeles, Calif.
Alan M. Voorhees, Consulting Engineer, Washington, D.C.
William P. Walker, Chief, Geometric Standards Branch, Office of Engineering and Opera-
tions, Bureau of Public Roads
Leo G. Wilkie, Engineer of Transportation Research, Cook County Highway Department,
Chicago, Ill.
FOREWORD
A rational and practical method for the determination of highway capacity is

essential in the sound economic and functional design of new highways and in the
adaptation to present or future needs of the many existing roads and streets which must
continue in use for extended periods of time. Basically, the subject concerns the effective-
ness of various facilities in the service of traffic, and involves the many elements of
highway design, vehicle and driver performance, and traffic control.
Highway capacity has been the subject of continuing study over a long period of
years, and extensive literature in the field has resulted. In recent years, due to the
development of refined traffic study methods, instrumentation, and equipment, substantial
amounts of reliable field data have been gathered.
The cooperative efforts of the • Highway Research Board's Committee TO-4 on
Highway Capacity, the Bureau of Public Roads, many state and city traffic engineering
organizations, universities, and consultants, have resulted in the assembly and analysis of
large amounts of these data, and their consolidation with other reported research results.
As in the original 1950 edition of this manual, the traffic-carrying capabilities of all
common types of highways and elements thereof are discussed. Because freeways are now
in widespread use, new emphasis is placed on freeways and their appurtenances, including
ramps and weaving sections. However, other types of highways, including ordinary rural
multilane and two-lane roads, urban arterials, and downtown streets, continue to receive
complete coverage, as do at-grade intersections.
This manual, like the original edition, is primarily a practical guide. It permits deter-
mination of the capacity, service volume, or level of service which will be provided by
either a new highway design or an existing highway, under specified conditions. Alter-
nately, given a certain traffic demand, the design necessary to accommodate that demand
at a given level of service can be determined.
Preparation of this manual was the responsibility of the Highway Research Board
Committee TO-4 on Highway Capacity, chaired by the late 0. K. Normann, Deputy
Director for Research, Office of Research and Development, Bureau of Public Roads,
until his death in 1964, then by Carl C. Saal, his successor as Deputy Director for Re-
search. The members of this committee are listed on the preceding page, together with
their affiliations. The committee was divided into eight subcommittees, each of which
was given the responsibility for a major topic area. Each member served on at least two
subcommittees.
Work on the assembly of new material for this revision began, in the Bureau of
Public Roads, as early as 1954, when a comprehensive nationwide intersection study
program was initiated. In 1957, the Committee began detailed planning for a new edition.
Progress was gradual until 1963, when a five-man task group was assigned by the Bureau
of Public Roads to full-time work on the manual for several months. This group, from
four BPR field offices, consisted of:
John B. Kemp, Chairman, then BPR Division Engineer, North Dakota (now
Division Engineer, Kentucky)
Steiner M. Silence, Highway Engineer (Traffic), Region 4 Office, Homewood, Ill.
Howard C. Hanna, Urban Transportation Planning Engineer, Region 4 Office,
Homewood, Ill.
I. Chester Jenkins, Geometric Design Engineer, Region 3 Office, Atlanta, Ga.
Robert E. Johnson, Planning and Research Engineer, Region 1 Office, Delmar, N. Y
iv
CONTENTS
Page
Highway Capacity Committee ............. ................................. .... .... iii

Foreword................ . ................................................... iv
0. K. Normann—A Tribute ......................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE—INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO—DEFINITIONS .................................................. 4

Introduction
..
1. 1 ..
Capacy Defined 1 I
..................... . . ................... ... .....
Prevailing Conditions ........................................................... 6
Level of Service ............................................................... 7
Service Volume ............................................................... 8
Other Definitions .............................................................. 8
Roadway Definitions ........................................................... 8
Traffic Control Device Definitions ................................................. 14
Traffic Definitions ............................................................. 15
Traffic Operations Definitions ........................ ............................ 15
Land Use and Development Definitions ...........................................
. 19
Endex of Definitions ............................................................ 20
CHAPTER THREE—TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS .................................. 22

Introduction.................................................................... 22
Maximum Observed Traffic Volumes .............................................. 22
Volume Characteristics ......................................................... 25
Spatial Variations in Traffic Flow ............................................... 25
Traffic Distributions by Routes .............................................. 25
Directional Distribution ..................................................... 29
Lane Distribution .......................................................... 29
Traffic Composition ........................................................ 29
Time Variations in Traffic Flow ................................................. 30
Seasonal Variations ........................................................ 30
Weekly Variations ......................................................... 30
Daily Variations .......................................................... 32
Variations Within the Hour (Peaking Characteristics) ............................ 32
Relating Hourly Volumes to Annual Averages and Peak Flows ....................... 36
Determination of Peak Hourly Volumes ........................................ 37
Relation of Hourly Volumes to Annual Average Daily Traffic ....................... 39
Trends in Highest Hour Relationships ...........................................40
Speed Characteristics ............................................................ 44
SpeedTrends ............................................................... 45
Daily Speed Variations ........................................................ 45
Average Speed by Lanes ........................................................ 46
Speed Distributions .......................................................... 47
Spacing and Headway Characteristics .............................................. 49
Mathematical Relationships ................................................... 49
Spacing as a Measure of Capacity ........................................... .... 51
Headway Distribution and Random Flow......................................... 52
Effects of Traffic Interruptions on Headways ...................................... 56
Density as a Measure of Conditions ............................ ............ .....58
Relationships of Speed, Flow, and Density.......................................... 59
Speed-Flow Relationships ..................................................... 60
Uninterrupted Flow ........................................................ 60
Interrupted Flow ........................................................... 65
Speed-Density Relationships .................................................... 67
Uninterrupted Flow ........................................................ 67
ix
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
I Interrupted Flow .
!'age
70
Flow-Density Relationships .................................................... 71
Summary.................................................................. 72
References................................................................... 73
CHAPTER FOUR—CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE............................ 75

Capacity for Uninterrupted Flow Conditions........................................ 75
Capacity for Interrupted Flow Conditions.......................................... 77
Nr Levels of Service .............................................................. 78
Operating Conditions for Levels of Service......................................... 80
Summary of Procedures ......................................................... 81
Results..................................................................... 87
CHAPTER FIVE—FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITY AND SERVICE VOLUMES ......... 88

Roadway Factors .............................................................. 88
LaneWidth ................................................................ 88
LateralClearance ............................................................ 89
Lane Width and Lateral Clearance (Combined) ................................... 90
Shoulders................................................................... 90
AuxiliaryLanes ............................................................. 91
ParkingLanes ............................................................. 91
Speed Change Lanes ....................................................... 92
Turning and Storage Lanes................................................... 92
Auxiliary Lanes in Weaving Section........................................... 93
Truck Climbing Lanes and Passing Bays ............................ ........... 93
Surface Condition ............................................................ 93
Alinement................................................................. 93
Grades..................................................................... 95
Effects of Grades.......................................................... 95
Truck Climbing Lanes and Passing Bays........................................ 100
Traffic Factors ................................................................ 101
Trucks..................................................................... 101
Two-Lane Highways ....................................................... 101
Multilane Highways ........................................................ 102
Buses............................................•. . ................ 104
Lane Distribution ............................................................ 105
Variations in Traffic Flow....................................................... 106
Traffic Interruptions ......................................................... 106
At-Grade Intersections ........................................................ 108
Other Interruptions ......................................................... 108
Application of Adjustment Procedures ............... ............................... 108
References.................................................................... 110
CHAPTER SIX—AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS ...................................... 111

Signalized Intersections—General ................................................ ill
Factors Affecting Signalized Intersection Capacity.................................... 112
Basic Physical and Operating Conditions......................................... 112
Width of Approach ......................................................... 113
Parking Conditions ......................................................... 114
One-Way or Two-Way Operation ............................................. 114
Environmental Conditions ....................................................... 115
LoadFactor .............................................................. 115
Peak-Hour Factor ........................................................ 117
Metropolitan Area Population ............................................... 120
Location Within Metropolitan Area........................................... 121
Traffic Characteristics ......................................................... 122
Turning Movements ........................................................ 122
CONTENTS . XI
I'age
Trucks and Through Buses 124
Local Transit Buses ........................................................ 124
Control Measures ............................................................ 126
Traffic Signals ............................................................. 126
Marking of Approach Lanes................................................. 128
Intersection Capacity, Service Volumes, and Levels of Service......................... 129
Procedures for Estimating Intersection Capacity, Service Volumes, and Levels of Service. . 131
Fundamental Capacity Charts and Adjustment Tables .... ......................... 133
Urban Conditions ........................................................... 133
RuralConditions .......................................................... 137
Additional Adjustment Factors ................................................. 138
G/C Ratio ................................................................ 138
TurningMovements ........................................................ 138
Trucks and Through Buses ................................................. .. 142
Local Transit Buses......................................................... 142
Interpretations and Applications of Procedures.................................... 143
Typical Problem Solutions—Signalized Intersections.............................. 146
Unsignalized Intersections ....................................................... 155
NoControl ................................................................. 155
YieldSign Control............................................................ 156
Stop Sign Control............................................................ 156
Two-Way Stop Control ....................................................... 157
Four-Way Stop Control ....................................................... 158
References.................................................................... 159
CHAPTER SEVEN—WEAVING .................................................. 160

Types of Weaving Sections...................................................... 162
Simple Weaving Sections ...................................................... 162
Multiple Weaving Sections ..................................................... 162
One-Sided and Two-Sided Weaving Sections...................................... 162
Operating Characteristics of Weaving Sections....................................... 164
Weaving Movements ......................................................... 165
Non-Weaving Movements (Outer Flows) ......................................... 165
Qualityof Flow .............................................................. 167
Length Requirements ......................................................... 167
Width Requirements ........................................................... 168
Speed-Weaving Volume-Length-Width Relationships ............................... 170
Sections out of Realm of Weaving.............................................. 171
Levels of Service and Capacity .................................................... 172
Procedures for Design and Operational Evaluation of Weaving Sections.................. 176
Simple Weaving Sections ...................................................... 176
General Considerations ..................................................... 176
Typical Problem Solutions—Simple Weaving.................................... 177
Multiple Weaving Sections ..................................................... 181
General Considerations ........................ ............................. 181
Typical Problem Solutions—Multiple Weaving .................................. 182
Weaving Under Other-Than-Freeway Conditions.................................. 185
General Considerations ..................................................... 185
Typical Problem Solution—Weaving Under Other-Than-Freeway Conditions .......... 186
References.................................................................... 186
CHAPTER EIGHT—RAMPS .....................................................187

Introduction..................................................................187
General Considerations ..........................................................188
Weaving Between Ramps .....................................................188
Consideration of Peak-Period Volumes...........................................188
Influence of Design ............................................................188
xii HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Page
Factors Controlling Ramp Capacity............................................. 189
General.................................................................. 189
Entrance Ramp Junctions .................. .................................. 190
Exit Ramp Junctions ....................................................... 190
Levels of Service at Ramp Terminals............................................... 191
Computation Procedures for Ramp Junctions........................................ 197
Calculation of Service Volumes, Levels A Through C............................... 198
General Procedures ........................................................ 198
Variables Considered ....................................................... 200
Computational Equations and Nomographs, Levels A Through C................... 201
Related Computational Devices ............................................... 202
Geometrics Not Represented by Equations and Nomographs....................... 224
Typical Problem Solutions—Ramp Junctions (Levels A Through C Method) ......... 228
Calculation of Service Volumes, Levels D and E (Capacity) ......................... 233
Differences from Better Levels............................................... 233
Computational Procedures—Level D .......................................... 234
Typical Problem Solutions—Ramp Junctions (Level D Method) ................... 239
Computational Procedures—Level E (Capacity) ................................ 242
Comparison of Level C and Level D Calculations.................................. 244
References.................................................................... 244
CHAPTER NINE—FREEWAYS AND OTHER EXPRESSWAYS......................... 245

Basic Levels of Service .......................................................... 245
Level of Service A ........................................................... 247
Level of Service B ........................................................... 248
Level of Service C ............................................................ 248
Level of Service D ........................................................... 250
Level of Service E ............................................................ 250
Level of Service F ............................................................. 251
Critical Elements Requiring Consideration.......................................... 251
Lane Width and Lateral Clearance.............................................. 255
Trucks, Buses, and Grades on Freeways.......................................... 255
WeavingAreas .............................................................. 260
Ramp Terminals ............................................................. 260
Alinement.................................................................. 262
Traffic Interruptions (Intersections at Grade) ..................................... 262
Computation Procedures for Freeways and Expressways.............................. 263
Basic Uniform Freeway and Expressway Sections.................................. 263
Capacity (Total for One Direction) Under Prevailing Conditions................... 265
Service Volumes (Total for One Direction) .................................... 265
Level of Service ........................................................... 266
Combined Analysi of Elements Composing Freeway and Expressway Sections.......... 267
Typical Problem Solutions—Freeways and Expressways......................... 270
CHAPTER TEN—STREETS AND HIGHWAYS WITHOUT ACCESS CONTROL........... 280

General Consideration of Levels of Service and Service Volumes....................... 280
MULTILANE RURAL HIGHWAYS .................................................... 282

Levels of Service .............................................................. 283
Lane Width and Lateral Clearance............................................... 285
Trucks, Buses, and Grades..................................................... 285
WeavingAreas .............................................................. 286
Ramp Entrances and Exits ...................................................... 289
Cloverleaf and Direct Connection Interchanges.................................. 289
Diamond Interchanges and Cross Connections................................... 291
Alinement.................................................................. 291
Traffic Interruptions and Tnterferences ........................................... 291
CONTENTS Xiii
Page
Compuiation Procedures for Multilane Highways Without Access Control...............293
Basic Uniform Multilane Subsections............................................293
Capacity (Total for One Direction) Under Prevailing Conditions...................294
Service Volumes (Total for One Direction) ......................................295
Level of Service ................................................. ........... 296
Combined Analysis of Subsections Composing Ordinary Multilane Highway Sections
Without Access Control .................................................296
Typical Problem Solutions—Ordinary Multilane Highways...........................298
TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS ........................................................... 299

Levels of Service ................................................................ 300
Lane Width and Lateral Consideration........................................... 301
Trucks, Buses, and Grades...................................................... 301
Ramp Entrances and Exits.................................................... 308
Alinement.................................................................. 308
Traffic Interruptions and Interferences........................................... 308
Computation Procedures for Two-Lane Highways.................................... 309
Basic Uniform Two-Lane Subsections............................................ 309
Capacity (Total in Both Directions) Under Prevailing Conditions .............. ..... 309
Service Volumes (Total in Both Directions) .................................... 309
Level of Service ............................................................ 314
Combined Analysis of Subsections Composing Two-Lane Highway Sections............ 314
Typical Problem Solutions—Two-Lane Highways ........................ . ......... 314
THREE-LANE HIGHWAYS ...........................................................317
URBAN AND SUBURBAN ARTERIALS .................................................. 318

Levels of Service ................................................................ 318
Signalization................................................................... 324
Signalization with Progression .................................................. 324
One-Way vs Two-Way Operation............................................... 325
Other Interruptions and Interferences............................................ 326
Computation Procedures for Urban Arterial Streets ................................... 327
Basic Components ............................................................ 327
Overall Analysis of Urban Arterial Streets......................................... 327
Capacity................................................................. 327
Service Volumes ........................................................... 328
Level of Service ........................................................... 328
Typical Problem Solutions—Urban Arterial Streets................................. 329
DOWNTOWN STREETS ............................................................. 332

General Considerations ........................................................ 332
Typical Problem Solutions—Downtown Streets .................................... 334
References .................................................................... 337
CHAPTER ELEVEN—BUS TRANSIT ............................................... 338

Introduction ................................................................... 338
Effect of Transit on Highway Capacity ................ . ............................ 340
Uninterrupted Flow .......................................................... 342
Uninterrupted Exclusive Lane Flow............................................. 345
Interrupted Flow (Intersection Capacity) ....................................... 345
Reserved Transit Lanes on City Streets .................. ........................ 345
Performance at Pick-Up/Discharge Points.......................................... 346
Bus Stops on City Streets....................................................... 346
Bus Stops on Freeways......................................................... 348
References................................................................... 348
xiv HIGHWAY CAPACITY
I'age
APPENDIX A—VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON ACTUAL HIGHWAYS IN THE UNITED
STATES........................................................349
APPENDIX B—SELECTED OBSERVATIONS FROM 1963 BPR URBAN WEAVING AREA

CAPACITY STUDY ................................................385
APPENDIX C—SUMMARY OF STATISTICAL DATA FOR EQUATIONS OF FIGURES 8.2-

8.19 ...........................................................389
APPENDIX D—AVERAGE VOLUME DISTRIBUTIONS, BY LANE, UPSTREAM OF ON-RAMP

JUNCTIONS .....................................................396
FIGURES Page
3.1 Percentage of surfaced mileage of state primary system in various volume groups,
1962 ................................................................ 29
3.2 Effect of traffic volume on lane use for six-lane facilities........................ 30
3.3 Traffic composition by time of day, Wisconsin highways, weekdays, 1961 ......... 30
3.4 Examples of monthly traffic volume variations............................... 31
3.5 Examples of weekly traffic variations....................................... 31
3.6 Hourly variations of traffic for average weekday .............................. 32
3.7 Hourly variations of daily traffic on Calumet Expressway, 1961 ................. 32
3.8 Distribution of (a) magnitude of 15-min peak flow rate and (b) 15-mm peak-hour
factors at 792 signalized urban intersections................................ 34
3.9 Peaking trends related to population and quality of traffic flow ...................34
3.10 Determination of rate of flow for highest 5-min interval from rate of flow for the
whole peak hour ...................................................... 35
3.11 Relationship between error in estimated rate of flow and observed rate of flow 36
3.12 Frequency distribution of percent difference between estimated and observed rates
offlow .............................................................. 36
3.13 Yearly variation of hourly traffic volumes in descending order of magnitude ....... 37
3.14 Amount and percentage of annual volume served at or above hourly volumes shown 37
3.15 Percentage of ADT recorded during all hours of the year on 113 selected urban and
rural roads, 1959-1960 ................................................. 38
3.16 ADT recorded during 100 highest hours of year on 113 selected urban and rural
roads, 1959-60 ....................................................... 39
3.17 Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on freeways .......... 41
3.18 Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on expressways ....... 41
3.19 Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on ordinary multilane
highways............................................................ 42
3.20 Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on two-lane highways. 42
3.21 Variation of flow and spee.d during 5-min intervals of morning peak period, Gulf
Freeway, Houston, Tex.................................................. 45
3.22 Variation in volume and speed by time of day, Ford Expressway, Detroit, 1959 46
3.23 Daytime and nighttime speed distribution, Davison Expressway, Detroit, 1959. . . 46
3.24 Distribution of normal passenger car speeds ....................... . .......... 48
3.25 Passenger vehicle velocity distribution in northbound and southbound middle lanes,
Lodge Expressway, Detroit, 1957 ........................................ 48
3.26 Typical distribution of passenger car speeds in one direction of travel under ideal
uninterrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways ................... 49
3.27 Typical distribution of passenger car speeds in one direction of travel under ideal
uninterrupted flow conditions on multilane rural highways..................... 50
3.28 Typical distribution of passenger car speeds for both directions of travel under ideal
uninterrupted flow conditions on two-lane rural highways ..................... 50
3.29 Frequency distribution of headways between successive vehicles traveling in the
same direction at various traffic volumes on typical two-lane rural highway 52
FIGURES xv
Page
3.30 Frequency distribution of headways between successive vehicles traveling in the same
direction at various traffic volumes on typical four-lane rural highway .......... 53
3.31 Lane headway distribution related to traffic flow, Ford Expressway, Detroit, 1957. 54
3.32 Computed and observed headways for, typical two-lane and four-lane highways
carrying 500 vph in one direction ........................................ 55
3.33 Computed and observed headways on a two-lane urban street ................... 56
3.34 Waiting time for selected intervals at various volumes with (a) probability of
95 percent and (b) probability of 50 percent .............................. 57
3.35 Percentage of total time occupied by various time spacings between vehicles travel-
ing in the same direction and percentage of total time that spacings are in excess
of certain values on (a) typical two-lane rural highways and (b) typical four-lane
ruralhighways ....................................................... 58
3.36 Frequency distributions of vehicle arrival times at five stations downstream from a
traffic signal, California ................................................ 59
3.37 Speed-flow relationships for three different highways ......................... 61
3.38 Typical relationships between volume per lane and operating speed in one direction
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways 62
3.39 Typical relationships between volume per lane and operating speed in one direction
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on multilane rural highways 63
3.40 Typical relationships between total volume for both directions of travel and operat-
ing speed under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on two-lane rural highways. 63
3.41 Typical relationships between volume per lane and average speed in one direction of
travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways. 64
3.42 Typical relationships between volume per lane and average speed in one direction
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow 'conditions on multilane rural highways. 64
3.43 Typical relationships between total volume for both directions of travel and average
speed under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on two-lane rural highways 65
3.44 Specific reported speed-volume relationships per lane in one direction of travel under
interrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways ..................... 66
3.45 Computed average speed and average delay at simulated urban si8nalized inter-
section.............................................................. 66
3.46 Speed-flow relationship for 37 test sections with parking and 7 test sections without
parking............................................................. 67
3.47 Travel time and average speed on signalized street in intermediate urban area 67
3.48 Speed-density relationship, Lincoln Tunnel, New York ......................... 68
3.49 Speed-density relationship, Eisenhower (Congress St.) Expressway, Chicago ....... 68
3.50 Speed-density relationship, Hollywood Freeway at Franklin West, Los Angeles,
April19, 1961 ........................................................ 68
3.51 Speed-density relationship, Merritt Parkway, Conn............................ 69
3.52 Speed-density relationship under uninterrupted flow conditions on two Australian
highways............................................................ 69
3.53 General speed-volume diagram ............................................ 70
3.54 Speed-density relationship under urban conditions............................. 71
3.55 Example of flow-density relationship in limited-access traffic flow (Holland Tunnel,
NewYork) .......................................................... 71
4.1 General concept of relationship of levels of service to operating speed and volume/
capacityratio ........................................................ 81
5.1 'Effect of length and steepness of grade on speed of average trucks on (a) two-lane
and (b) multilane highways............................................. 96
5.2 Types of vertical curves ................................................... 98
5.3 Cumulative frequency distributions of weight-power ratios for all commercial vehicles
weighed in 1963 studies on major multilane highways....................... 98
5.4 Cumulative frequency distributions of weight-power ratios for loaded trucks
weighed in 1963 studies on major multilane highways ...................... 99
5.5 -Average speed of typical truck over entire length of grade on two-lane highways.. 100
5.6 Passenger car equivalents for various average truck speeds on two-lane highways. . 102
5.7 Equivalent service volumes relating trucks (vehicles with six or more tires), grades,
and passenger cars on two-lane one-way roadways at level of service B .......... 103
XVI HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Page
6.1 Operation of traffic at a rural intersection (a) loaded to capacity and (b) at inter-
section service level D .................................................. 117
6.2 Traffic flow at intersection approach with (a) high peak-hour factor and (b) low
peak-hour factor ...................................................... 118
6.3 Effect of number of lanes on (a) two-way streets with no parking, (b) two-way
streets with parking, and (c) one-way streets ............................... 129
6.4 Range of approach volumes reported during BPR 1955-6 intersection studies ...... 132
6.5 Urban intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per hour of green signal
time, for one-way streets with no parking.................................. 134
time, for one-way streets with parking one side............................ 134
time, for one-way streets with parking both sides........................... 135
time, for two-way streets with no parking................................. 135
time, for two-way streets with parking.................................... 136
6.10 Rural intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per hour of green signal time,
for two-way highways with no parking on the traveled way ................... 136
6.11 Local bus factor for near-side bus stop on street with no parking................. 143
6.12 Local bus factor for near-side bus stop on street with parking................... 144
6.13 Local bus factor for far-side bus stop on street with no parking .................. 144
6.14 Local bus factor for far-side bus stop on street with parking.................... 145
7.1 Formation of weaving sections ............................................. 161
7.2 Simple weaving arrangements............................................. 163
7.3 Basic types of weaving sections............................................ 164
7.4 Operating characteristics of weaving sections ................................. 166
7.5 Method for measuring length of weaving sections ............................. 167
7.6 Types of multiple weaving sections......................................... 181
8.1 Critical points for volume determination in ramp junction analysis ............... 197
8.2 Nomograph for determination of lane I volume upstream of on-ramp junction,
4-lane freeway (not applicable to cloverleaf inner loop) ................... 204
8.3 Nomograph for determination of lane I volume upstream of off-ramp junction,
4-lane freeway (no upstream on-ramp within 3,200 ft of off-ramp) ............ 205
4-lane freeway, with upstream on-ramp within 3,200 ft of off-ramp (no auxiliary
lane) ............................................................... 206
8.5 Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction.
4-lane freeway, at cloverleaf inner loop (no auxiliary lane) ................... 207
4-lane freeway, at cloverleaf inner loop with auxiliary lane ................... 208
4-lane freeway, with auxiliary lane between on-ramp and adjacent downstream
off-ramp ............................................................ 209
4-lane freeway, at second of successive on-ramps ........................... 210
8.9 Nomograph for determination of lane I volume upstream of on-ramp junction.
6-lane freeway, with adjacent off-ramps both upstream and downstream of on-
ramp (no auxiliary lanes) .............................................. 211
6-lane freeway, with upstream on-ramp within 5.700 ft of off-ramp (no auxiliary
lane) ................................................................ 212
6-lane freeway, at cloverleaf inner loop with auxiliary lane ................... 213
8.12 Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction,
off-ramp ............................................................ 214
FIGURES . xvii
Page

6-lane freeway, at second of successive on-ramps.......................... 215
8-lane freeway (no downstream off-ramp within 3,000 ft; no auxiliary lane). . . . 216
8-lane freeway, with downstream off-ramp within 1,500 to 3,000 ft (no auxiliary
lane) ............................................................... 217
off-ramp ............................................................ 218
8.17 Nomograph for determination of lane volume distribution and merge, 6-lane free-
way, at 2-lane on-ramp with acceleration lane.............................. 219
8.18 Nomograph for determination of lane volume distribution, 6-lane freeway, upstream
of 2-lane off-ramp with deceleration lane. ................................. 220
8.19 Nomograph for determination of lane volume distribution, 6- lane freeway, at major
fork into two 4-lane freeways........................................... 221
8.20 Use of auxiliary lane between adjacent on- and off-ramps ........................ .222
8.21 Lane I volume upstream from off-ramp, related to freeway volume and percentage
of off-ramp vehicles in freeway stream upstream from off-ramp on 4-lane free-
ways (for use in conjunction with Fig. 8.3) ................................ 223
8.22 Percentage of total trucks in lane 1 of 4-, 6-, and 8-lane freeways immediately
upstream from on-ramp entrances, or at the diverge point upstream of off-ramps. . - 224
8.23 Percentage distribution of on- and off-ramp traffic in lane 1 and auxiliary lane. . . . 236
8.24 Percentage of ramp traffic in lane 1 (no auxiliary lane) ........................ 237
8.25 Percentage of on-ramp traffic leaving auxiliary lane at any point for a given length
of auxiliary lane, L .................................................... 238
9.1 Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, in one direction of travel, on
freeways and expressways, under uninterrupted flow conditions ................ 264
10.1 Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, in. one direction of travel, on
multilane rural highways, under uninterrupted flow conditions................ 294
10.2a Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
travel, on two-lane rural highways with average highway speed of 70 mph, under
uninterrupted flow conditions .......................................... ... 310
10.2b Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
uninterrupted flow conditions............................................ 310
10.2c Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
10.2d Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
10.2e Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
10.2f Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
10.3 Typical relationships between v/c ratio and average overall travel speed, in one
direction of travel, on urban and suburban arterial streets..................... 320
D.l Volume distribution on 4-lane freeways upstream from cloverleaf inner loop and
from all other types of on-ramps ...................................... 396
D.2 Volume distribution on 6-lane freeways upstream from all types of on-ramps (with-
out auxiliary lane at on-ramp entrance) except cloverleaf inner loops........... 397
D.3 Volume distribution on 8-lane freeways upstream from on-ramps................ 397
xviii HIGHWAY CAPACITY
TABLES I'age
3.1 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Two-Lane, Two-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 23
3.2 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Three-Lane, Two-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 23
3.3 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Four-Lane, Two-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 24
3.4 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Five-Lane, Two-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 25
3.5 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Six-Lane, Two-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 26
3.6 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Eight-Lane, Two-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 27
3.7 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Two-Lane, One-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 27
3.8 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Three-Lane, One-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 28
3.9 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes.on Four-Lane, One-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 28
3.10 Highest Reported Hourly Volumes on Five-Lane, One-Way Highways in the United
States, 1961 .......................................................... 28
3.11 Observed Hourly Traffic Volumes on Two Rural Highway Sections with Identical
Average Daily Traffic ................................................. 38
3.12 Percentage of AADT in Peak Hour for One Direction and Both Directions by Peak
Hour, 30th Highest Hour, and 200th Highest Hour, by Type of Facility........ 40
3.13 Average Speed, by Vehicle Type, 1946-1964 ..................... ........... 44
3.14 Mean Speeds by Lanes.............................. . 47
4.1 ........ ............
Uninterrupted-Flow Capacities Under Ideal Conditions........................ 76
4.2 Elements Used to Evaluate Level of Service .................... 80
5.1 Effect of Lane Width on Capacity for Uninterrupted Flow ..............
Conditions .......... 89
5.2 Effective Roadway Width Due to Restricted Lateral Clearances Under Uninterrupted
Flow Conditions ....................................................... 89
5.3 Apparent Effect of Quality of Alinement (as Represented by Average Highway
Speed) on Capacity ................................................... 95
5.4 Distance from Bottom of Grade at Which Speed of Trucks Is Reduced to 30 Mph. 97
5.5 Average Speed Capabilities of Intercity-Type Buses on Sustained Grades.......... 104
5.6 Summary of Adjustments to Ideal Uninterrupted Flow Values................... 109
6.1 Factors Affecting Intersection Capacity and Levels of Service................... 112
6.2 Optimum Number of Lanes for Various Approach Widths on Two-Way Streets with
NoParking .......................................................... 129
6.3 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Individual Isolated Intersec-
tion Approaches ...................................................... 131
6.4 Adjustment Factors for Right Turns on Two-Way Streets, Right Turns on One-Way
Streets, and Left Turns on One-Way Streets................................ 140
6.5 Adjustment Factors for Left Turns on Two-Way Streets........................ 141
6.6 Truck and Through Bus Adjustment Factors................................ 142
6.7 Examples of Capacities of Four-Way Stop Intersections with Balanced Demand
(50-50 Split of Traffic Between Intersecting Streets) ......................... 158
6.8 Examples of Capacities of a Two-Lane by Two-Lane Four-Way Stop Intersection
with Varying Traffic Demand Split....................................... 158
7.1 Relationship Between Quality of Flow and Maximum Lane Service Volumes in
Weaving Sections ..................................................... 170
7.2 Volume-Length Combinations Considered out of Realm of Weaving............ 172
7.3 Relationships Between Basic Roadway Levels of Service and Quality of Flow on
Weaving Sections ..................................................... 173
8.1 Service Volumes and Capacity in Vicinity of Ramp Terminals (Vph of Mixed Traffic
in One Direction, Assuming Level Terrain and Not Over 5% Trucks) .......... 196
8.2 Index to Geometric Combinations Discussed, for Levels of Service A Through C. 203
TABLES xix
Page
8.3 Approximate Percentage of Through Traffic Remaining in Lane 1 in the Vicinity of
Ramp Terminals at Level of Service D.................................... 235
8.4 Examples of Service Volumes, Levels C and D (Peak-Hour Factor = 0.83) ....... 243
9.1 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Freeways and Expressways
Under Uninterrupted Flow Conditions.................................... 252
9.2 Combined Effect of Lane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and
Service Volumes of Divided Freeways and Expressways with Uninterrupted Flow. 256
9.3a Average Generalized Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and Buses on Freeways
and Expressways, over Extended Section Lengths (Including Upgrades, Down-
grades, and Level Subsections) ........................................... 257
9.3b Average Generalized Adjustment Factors for Trucks on Freeways and Expressways,
over Extended Section Lengths........................................... 257
9.4 Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks on Freeways and Expressways, on Specific Indi-
vidual Subsections or Grades............................................ 258
9.5 Passenger Car Equivalents of Intercity Buses on Freeways and Expressways, on
Specific Individual Subsections or Grades.................................. 260
9.6 Adjustment Factors for Trucks and Buses on Individual Roadway Subsections or
Grades on Freeways and Expressways (Incorporating Passenger Car Equivalent
and Percentage of Trucks or Buses) ...................................... 261
10.1 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Multilane Highways, Undi-
vided and/or Without Access Control, Under Uninterrupted Flow Conditions
(Normally Representative of Rural Operation) .............................. 284
Service Volume of Undivided Multilane Highways with Uninterrupted Flow..... 286
10.3a Average Generalized Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and Buses on Ordinary
Multilane Highways, Over Extended Section Lengths........................ 287
10.3b Average Generalized Adjustment Factors for Trucks on Ordinary Multilane High-
ways, Over Extended Section Lengths ........................ ............. 287
10.4 Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks or Ordinary Multilane Highways, on Specific
Individual Subsections or Grades......................................... 288
10.5 Passenger Car Equivalents of Intercity Buses on Ordinary Multilane Highways, on
Specific Individual Subsections or Grades.................................. 289
10.6 Adjustment Factors for Trucks and Buses on Individual Highway Subsections or
Grades on Ordinary Multilane Highways (Incorporating Passenger Car Equivalent
and Percentage of Trucks or Buses) ....................................... 290
10.7 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes on Two-Lane Highways Under
Uninterrupted Flow Conditions (Normally Representative of Rural Operation). 302
Service Volumes of Two-Lane Highways with Uninterrupted Flow............. 303
10.9a Average Generalized Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and Buses on Two-Lane
Highways, Over Extended Section Lengths (Including Upgrades, Downgrades,
and Level Subsections) ................................................. 304
10.9b Average Generalized Adjustment Factors for Trucks on Two-Lane Highways, Over
Extended Lengths ..................................................... 304
10.10 Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks on Two-Lane Highways, on Specific Individual
Subsections or Grades ................................................. 305
10.11 Passenger Car Equivalents of Intercity Buses on Two-Lane Highways, on Specific
Individual Subsections or Grades.......................................... 306
10.12 Adjustment Factors for Trucks and Buses on Individual Roadway Subsections or
Grades on Two-Lane Highways (Incorporating Passenger Car Equivalent and
Percentage of Trucks or Buses) .......................................... 307
10.13 Levels of Service for Urban and Suburban Arterial Streets...................... 323
10.14 Levels of Service for Downtown Streets..................................... 334
11.1 Peak-Period Use of Public Transportation Entering Central Business District....... 338
11.2 Observed Peak-Hour Volumes of Local Buses on City Streets with Parking Pro-
hibited.............................................................. 340
11.3 Observed Peak-Hour Volumes of Local Buses on City Streets with Reserved Transit
Lanes............................................................... 340
xx F!IG}IWAY CAI'AclrY
Page
11.4 Observed Peak-Hour Volumes of Express Bus Service on City Streets ............ 341
11.5 Observed Peak-Hour Volumes of Express Bus Service on Expressways ............ 341
11.6 Observed Peak-Hour Volumes of Express Bus Service on Terminal Ramps, Tunnel
Approaches, Tunnels, and Bridges ........................................ 342
11.7 Passenger Interval (Service Time) on and off Buses ........................... 346
11.8 Minimum Desirable Lengths for Bus Curb Loading Zones ..................... 348
A.1 Variations in Traffic Flow on Rural Freeways ............................... . 350
A.2 Variations in Traffic Flow on Rural Expressways ........................... 356
A.3 Variations in Traffic Flow on Rural Highways with More Than Two Lanes ........ 358
A.4 Variations in Traffic Flow on Two-Lane Rural Highways ........................362
A.5 Variations in Traffic Flow on Urban Freeways .................................. 371
A.6 Variations in Traffic Flow on Urban Expressways ............................. 376
A.7 Variations in Traffic Flow on City Streets with More Than Two Lanes ......... 378
A.8 Variations in Traffic Flow on Two-Lane City Streets........................... 382
B.1 Selected Observations from 1963 BPR Urban Weaving Area. Capacity Study ....... 386
C.1 Statistical Background of Equations for Lane I Volume, 4-Lane Freeways...... 390
C.2 Statistical Background of Equations for Lane 1 Volume, 6-Lane Freeways......... 392
C.3 Statistical Background of Equations for Lane 1 Volume, 8-Lane Freeways ......... 394
C.4 Statistical Background of Equations for 2-Lane Ramp and Major Fork Volumes,
6-Lane Freeways ........................................................ 395
PHOTO CREDITS
The following organizations contributed the pho- 13; Michigan State Highway Department-199;
tographs appearing on the pages listed: Montana State Highway Department-.-93; New
American Road Builders' Association-193; Hampshire Department of Highways-247; New
American Transit Association-2 1, 344; Automo York State Department of Public Works-.--77
tive Safety Foundation-77 (left), 95; Bureau of (right), 84, 85, 90, 92, 115, 157, 174, 254, 297, 300;
Public Roads-4, 7, 9, 17, 18, 19, 31, 43, 113, 119, North Carolina State Highway Commission-il,
123, 125, 169, 171, 172, 174, 175, 191, 192, 251, 269, 36, 51, 71, 110; The Port of New York Authority-
278, 283, 293, 337, 339; California Division of High- 71, 82, 83, 185, 242; Rhode Island State Highway
ways-t, 5, 6, 107, 120, 189, 195, 347; Cleveland Department-328; South Carolina Highway Depart-
(Ohio) Transit System-333, 342, 343, 345; District ment-91; South Dakota Department of Highways
of Columbia Department of Highways and Traffic- -33; Texas Highway Department-249.
..--
- '
__;_-__• .,-.--....
. ..
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The ability to accommodate vehicular traf- in- highway capacities is essential for sound
tic is a primary consideration in the planning, economic and functional utilization of the
design, and operation of streets and high- highway transportation system.
ways. Highway capacity is, very broadly, Specifically. capacit y is here defined as
a measure of the effectiveness of various the maximum number of vehicles per unit
highways in accommodating traffic, and its of time that can he handled by a particular
application requires both a general knowl- roadway component under the prevailing
edge of traffic behavior and specific knowl- conditions.
edge of traffic volumes that can he accom- Where appropriately in context, however,
modated under a variety of roadway con- the entire broad subject area will he referred
figurations and operating conditions. A to simply as capacily" in this manual.
rational and practical method for deterniin- It is of little value to know the quantita-
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
tive measure alone, without knowing the ditions." Thus, "capacity" represents a posi-
prevailing conditions. Similarly, the over- tive quantity—the maximum traffic a given
all traffic-carrying capabilities of a roadway roadway can handle. Several "service vol-
cannot be treated without reference to umes" now replace the earlier "practical
other important considerations, such as the capacities," representing any of several spe-
quality of service provided and the duration cific volumes related to a group of desirable
of the time period considered, because operating conditions collectively termed
capacity is only one of many service levels "level of service." Level of service is a quali-
at which the roadway may operate. Differ- tative measure and the actual value used
ent roadways of a given type may have should be appropriate for the highway.
different capacities, depending on both the The time period considered should be
physical characteristics and the operating defined in evaluating capacity determina-
conditions. tions. For short time periods (one hour or
The original (1950) edition of this man- less), capacity is a maximum sustained rate
ual defined three levels of roadway capacity of flow for the specified time period. When
—basic capacity, possible capacity and considering longer time periods, such as a
practical capacity. Basic capacity was de- day or a year, capacity also depends on
fined as "the maximum number of passen- travel desires which create hourly, daily,
ger cars that can pass a point on a lane and seasonal fluctuations in an average traf-
or roadway during one hour under the most fic volume which will result in full utiliza-
nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions tion of the roadway for only a percentage
which can possibly be attained." Possible of the total time period, when demand is the
capacity was the "maximum number of heaviest.
vehicles that can pass a given point on a The original manual, which this edition
lane or roadway during one hour, under replaces, provided methods for measuring
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions," capacity and relating it to speed and spacing
whereas practical capacity was a lower vol- criteria. The procedures were based mainly
ume chosen "without the traffic density on the empirical approach where relation-
being so great as to cause unreasonable ships between two or more variables are
delay, hazard, or restriction to the drivers' developed from field observations. In this
freedom to maneuver under prevailing road- new edition, the same approach has been
way and traffic conditions." used, to a large degree. Many recent stud-
That edition of the manual "considered it ies have relied more on the theoretical or
to be of prime importance to relate traffic experimental methods of mathematically
volumes accurately to operating conditions expressing traffic flow. The results of these
so that individual agencies with a thorough methods, which represent a new approach
knowledge of the specific conditions could to the complexities of traffic flow, very likely
decide on the most practical volumes to will ultimately provide better answers to
expect a facility to handle." Though thus many highway capacity problems; they are
recognizing that "practical" capacity varies utilized in this manual to the extent possible.
considerably on the basis of a subjective At the present time, however, considera-
determination of the quality of service to be tion of many of the elements of the real
provided, the manual did suggest values for situation remain lacking in certain of the
practical capacities under various specific theoretical approaches, and reliance still
conditions based on the normal desires of must be placed largely on empirical data
typical drivers. and statistical analyses, coupled with good
The present Committee has elected, in this judgment.
new edition, to define only a single "capac- The purpose of this manual, then, is to
ity" for each type of highway. "Capacity," provide a condensed and authoritative source
as now defined, is the same as "possible of the present empirical and theoretical
capacity" in the 1950 edition. The former information on highway capacity. By pro-
"basic capacity" has now been replaced viding a standard set of terminology and
with the phrase "capacity under ideal con- methods of measurement and analysis, the
INTRODUCTION
manual will aid in the study and evaluation capacity of existing or proposed facilities.
of existing facilities. By its description of The bibliographies at the end of certain
traffic behavior found in field studies, it will chapters list additional selected references
aid in predicting the capacity and level of pertaining to highway capacity studies that
service of proposed improvements. From may be of benefit to the reader.
the initial planning stage to the correction Highway capacity has been the subject
of operating problems, this knowledge is of continuing study over a long period of
necessary to establish expected capacity val- time, but by no means is the research com-
ues for consideration in engineering and pleted. This summary of present informa-
economic comparisons. tion points out the need for extending the
The information given in this manual has quantity of data and breadth of analysis
been selected to represent typical or aver- beyond existing knowledge. Much has been
age conditions reported throughout the done, but much more study is necessary to
United States at the time of its preparation. accurately define and measure the factors
The user must appreciate the possibility that involved in determining the capacity of
individual locations or areas may differ from highways.
the average, and avail himself of additional
One objective of the Highway Capacity
information for specific problems. The man-
ual does not, therefore, provide rigid stand- Committee in preparing this manual is to
ards for capacity measurements, but instead encourage continued research in the field of
provides a guide in lieu of more detailed highway capacity. Practitioner, student, and
information. researcher alike, benefit from and çontrib-
The principal characteristics of traffic ute to this reservoir of knowledge. The
operation relating to capacity are discussed, Highway Research Board, through its com-
for the various highway elements. Field stud- mittees and individual members, extends
ies and research results are correlated with its assistance, encouragement and advice to
present highway design practice and rational persons interested in furthering research in
procedures are developed for analyzing the highway capacity.
-. $ I L.t,
3) i
Rural freeway in rolling terrain. Shoulders provided on bat/i sides of travel lanes. Aesthetic
features provided by natural plantings and rock outcrops. Edge stripping provides
delineation at edge of travel lane.
CHAPTER TWO
DEFINITIONS
INTRODUCTION used in traffic engineering practice. Most

of them are based on current usage or are
The confusion that has existed concerning definitions already adopted by various or-
the meaning and shades of meaning of ga ni zat ions.
many terms used in traffic engineering prac- There are, however, cases in which a defi-
tice has contributed, in some measure at nition represents a combination of, or com-
least, to the wide differences of opinion promise between, definitions appearing in
regarding the capacity of various highway previously published material. The Com-
facilities. In fact, the term which is perhaps mittee's primary attempt has been to ascribe
most widely misunderstood and improperly dctinite meanings to terms as they have
used in the field of highway capacity is the been used in this report, thus minimizing
word "capacity" itself. likelihood of misinterpretation of its cOfl-
The definitions given here are intended tent.
to be those most descriptive and most widely In general, only terms which are used in
4
DEFINITIONS 5
this manual are included. As an aid in locat- hourly volume. The capacity would not nor-
ing the definition of any term listed, an mally be exceeded without changing one or
alphabetical index of the terms is included more of the conditions that prevail. In ex-
at the end of the chapter. pressing capacity, it is essential to state the
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions
CAPACITY DEFINED under which the capacity is applicable.
The number of vehicles passing a point
Capacity is the maxinuim number of vehi- on a roadway during periods of heavy de-
cles which has a reasonable expectation of mand will be governed by one of the follow-
passing over a given section of a lane or a ing limiting measures:
roadway in one direction (or in both direc-
tions for a two-lane or a three-lane highway) I. The demand being placed upon the
during a given time period under prevailing roadway by the vehicles desiring to use it at
roadway and traffic conditions. The term the particular time.
capacity as used in this manual is synony- 2. The capacity of the roadway at:
mous with the term "possible capacity" as (a) The point of observation;
used in certain other publications. In the (h) A point upstream or
absence of a time modifier, capacity is an (c) A point downstream.
high-volitine
u full-control-of-access ICC Filly.
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
When item I is the limiting measure, the performance of the particular group of
flow is less than the capacity of the observed drivers and vehicles at a specific time can
section or of relatively nearby sections up- influence the flow under conditions 2a. 2h.
stream or downstream. When the flow is and 2e.
limited by item 2a, traffic will generally he
flowing freely at the point of observation, PREVAILING CONDITIONS
but a backlog may occur on the section
immediately upstream. When the flow is The capacity of it roadway depends on a
limited by item 2b, traffic will generally he number of conditions. Composition of traf-
flowing freely at the point of observation fic, roadway alinement, and number and
because it has been metered at the point width of lanes are a few of those conditions
upstream. In this case, unless the upstream which may he referred to collectively as the
bottleneck is visible from, or reported to. pre vailvu,' (OPlditiOI.V.
the point of observation, it is not possible The prevailing conditions may he divided
to determine whether condition I or con- into two general groups—( I) those that are
dition 2b is the limiting measure. When established by the physical features of the
the flow is limited by item 2c, a backlog will roadway. and (2) those that are dependent
occur on the section under observation. The on the nature of traffic on the roadway.
mum
—L ----
Ij'
Grade separation over 8-1ane freeway. I'aved median provided with edqe stripi/i' for visibility
and fence in Center. iVote provision of shoulders and adequate side clearances at structure.
DEFINiTIONS
Those in the first group. none of which

change unless some construction or recon-
struction is performed, are referred to as the
prevailing roadway conditions. Those in the
second group, any of which may change or
he changed from hour to hour or during
various periods of the day, are referred to as
the prevailing traffic conditions.
In addition to these prevailing roadway
and traffic conditions. ambient conditions
are present during all traffic flows. These
conditions relate primarily to weather and
include measures such as clear, dry, cold,
warm, hot, rain, snow, fog, smog. smoke,
wet or icy pavement, and windy. Visibility
during different hours of the day, particu-
larly in daylight as compared to dark, also
is an ambient condition. These conditions
affect the ability of a roadway to accom-
niodate traffic. However, because only very
limited data are available to quantify their
effect on capacity, they cannot he discussed
in detail in this manual.
LEVEL OF SERVICE
Level of service is a term which, broadly

interprete(l. denotes any one of an infinite
number of differing combinations of operat- Urban free nov with fit/i control of titcess:
ing conditions that may occur on a given dia,iiond inte,-cliane in foreground,
lane or roadway when it is accommodating c-lover/eat inteicliange top center.
various traffic volumes. Level of service is
a qualitative measure of the effect of a num-
her of factors, which include speed and
travel time, traffic interruptions, freedom
to maneuver, safety, driving comfort and of the volume and composition of traffic and
convenience, and operating costs. In prac- of the speeds attained. A lane or roadway
tice, selected specific levels are defined in designed for a certain level of service at a
terms of particular limiting values of cer- specified volume will actually operate at
tain of these factors. many different levels of service as the now
A given route or route segment will nor- varies during an hour, and as the volume
mally consist of a number of roadway com- varies during different hours of the day.
ponents. In addition to the through lanes. days of the week, periods of the year, and
these components may include weaving during different years with traffic growth.
areas, ramps, ramp terminals, auxiliary lanes Further. dillerent types of highways, roads
and intersections. These \'ariOtlS roadway and streets, such as freeways, expressways
components should provide operating char- at grade, major multilane highways, local
acteristics in harmony with the specified two-lane rural roads, urban arterial streets,
level of service for the through lanes which and downtown streets, nearly always provide
comprise the basic framework for the over- different levels of service that cannot he
all route or route segment. directly related to one another because each
A given lane or roadway may provide a must be measured by a different standard
wide range of levels of service. The various or scale.
levels for any specific roadway are functions From the viewpoint of the driver, low
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
flow rates or volumes on a given lane or paved gutters, is ordinarily called a street.
roadway provide higher levels of service b. Control of access .—T he condition
than greater flow rates or volumes on the where the right of owners or occupants of
same lane or roadway. Thus, the level of abutting land or other persons to access,
service for any particular lane or roadway light, air or view in connection with a high-
varies inversely as some function of the flow way is fully or partially controlled by public
or volume, or of the density. authority.
This manual includes narrative descriptions Full control of access means that
of prevailing traffic flow conditions which the authority to control access is exer-
represent several levels of service. These cised to give preference to through
levels encompass a working range of vol- traffic by providing access connections
umes from a condition of free flow to a with selected public roads only and by
condition of capacity. It is the intent of the prohibiting crossings at grade or direct
Committee that this manual provide guide- private driveway connections.
lines from which the user can select a vol- Partial control of access means
ume which corresponds to the level of service that the authority to control access is
best adapted to the specific need. exercised to give preference to through
traffic to a degree that, in addition to
SERVICE VOLUME access connections with selected public
A service volume is the maximum num- roads, there may be some crossings at
ber of vehicles that can pass over a given grade and some private driveway con-
nections.
section of a lane or roadway in one direction
on multilane highways (or in both directions Uncontrolled access means that
on a two- or three-lane highway) during a the authority having jurisdiction over
specified time period while operating condi- a highway, street, or road, does not
tions are maintained corresponding to the limit the number of points of ingress
selected or specified level of service. In the or egress except through the exercise
absence of a time modifier, service volume is of control over the placement and the
anhourly volume. geometrics of connections as necessary
for the safety of the traveling public.
OTHER DEFINITIONS 2. Functional Types
Other terms which are used in this man- a. Arterial highway.—A highway pri-
ual and their definitions follow, not in alpha- marily for through traffic, usually on a con-
betical order, but grouped according to the tinuous route.
subject to which they are most closely re- Expressway.—A divided arterial high-
lated. For convenience in locating any defi- way for through traffic with full or partial
nition an alphabetical index is included at control of access and generally with grade
the end of the chapter. separations at major intersections.
Freeway.—An expressway with full
ROADWAY DEFINITIONS control of access.
Parkway.—An arterial highway for
I. General
noncommercial traffic, with full or partial
a. Highway, street, or road—These are control of access, and usually located within
general terms denoting a public way for a park or a ribbon of parklike developments.
purposes of vehicular and pedestrian travel, Major street or major high way.—An
including the entire area within the right- arterial highway with intersections at grade
of-way. In rural areas, or in urban areas and direct access to abutting property, and
where there is comparatively little access on which geometric design and traffic con-
and egress, a way between prominent ter- trol measures are used to expedite the safe
mini is usually called a highway or a road. movement of through traffic.
A way in an urban area, with or without Through street or through highway.
provision made for curbs, sidewalks, and —Every highway or portion thereof at the
DEFINITIONS
-uHt
'xtw' •/
4r I
fourteen traffic lanes are prorated on this depressed urban freeway. lrequent grade separations
provide for cross traffic movement. Note thamond interchanee ra,nps intersecting
with one-way fro,:lcn,'e roads, and lane separators.
entrance to which vehicular traffic from nuittaneously. It may be either divided or

intersecting highways is required by law to undivided.
stop or yield before entering or crossing and
where appropriate signs are erected as pro- 4. Cross-Section Components
vided by law, unless entry or crossing is a. Roadway.—That portion of a road
made on the proper indication of a traffic which is improved, designed, or ordinarily
control signal. intended for vehicular use. Divided roads,
g. Local street or local road.—A street and roads with frontage roads, have more
or road primarily for access to residence, than one roadway. On undivided roads with-
business, or other abutting property. out frontage roadways, the roadway width
normally lies between the regularly estab-
3. Directional Use lished curb lines or between the outer extrem-
One-wa v road.—A road on which ities of the shoulders, whichever is appro-
the movement of traffic is confined to one priate.
direction. 1). !rontage road.—A road contiguous
Two-war road.—A road on which to and generally paralleling an expressway,
traffic may move in opposing directions si- freeway, parkway, or through street and so
UI HIGHWAY CAPACITY
designed as to intercept, collect, and distrib- (1) Acceleration lane.—A speed

ute traffic desiring to cross, enter, or leave change lane for the purpose of:
such highway and which may furnish access Enabling a vehicle entering
to property that otherwise would be isolated a roadway to increase its speed to
as a result of the controlled-access feature; a rate at which it can more safely
sometimes called a service road. merge with through traffic.
c. Pave,nent.—That part of a roadway Providing the necessary merg-
having a constructed surface for the facilita- ing distance.
tion of vehicular movement. Giving the main roadway
d. Shoulder.—That portion of a road- traffic the necessary time and dis-
way between the outer edge of the through tance to make appropriate adjust-
traffic pavement and the curb or the point ments.
of intersection of the slope lines at the outer (2) Deceleration lane.—A speed
edge of the roadway and the fill, ditch, or change lane for the purpose of enabling
median slope, for the accommodation of a vehicle that is to make an exit turn
stopped vehicles, for emergency use, and from a roadway to slow to the safe
for lateral support. speed on the curve ahead after it has
e. Curb.—A vertical or sloping member left the main stream of faster-moving
along the edge of a pavement or shoulder traffic.
forming part of a gutter, strengthening or (3) Parking lane.—An auxiliary lane
protecting the edge, and clearly defining the primarily for the parking of vehicles.
edge to vehicle operators. The surface of (4) Climbing lane.—An auxiliary
the curb facing the general direction of the lane in the upgrade direction intended
pavement is called the "face." for use primarily by slow-moving vehi-
f. Separator.—An area or a device lo- cles to maintain capacity and freedom
cated longitudinally between two roadways of operation.
so as to separate traffic flowing in the same 5. 'Cross-Sectional Design
or opposite directions and so designed as
Undivided road.—A road which has
to discourage or prevent passage by vehicles
from the traffic lanes on one side of the no directional separator, either natural or
separator to those on the other. structural, separating traffic moving in oppo-
site directions.
Median.—That portion of a di-
Divided road.—A two-way'road on
vided highway separating the traveled
which traffic in one direction of travel is
ways for traffic in opposite directions.
separated from that in the opposite direc-
Lane separator.—A separator be-
tion. Such a road has two or more roadways.
tween traffic streams moving in the
same direction where the service ren- 6. Width, in Lanes
dered by the roadways on either side of Two-lane road.—An undivided two-
the separator is essentially of the, same way road having one lane for traffic in each
character, as distinguished from that of of two opposing directions.
a frontage road. Three-lane road.—An undivided two-
Outer separator.—A separator way road providing one lane for the exclu-
between a frontage road and the road- sive use of traffic in each of two opposing
way of a controlled-access highway or directions and a third (center) lane usually
major street. for use by traffic in either direction in over-
Traffic island.—An island pro- taking and passing. In special cases, the
vided in the roadway to separate or center lane may be operated reversibly, or
direct streams of traffic; includes both reserved for left turns only.
divisional and channelizing islands. Multilane road.—A road having two
g. A uxiliary lane.—The portion of road- or more lanes for traffic in each direction,
way adjoining the traveled way for parking, or four or more lanes for traffic in two
speed, change, or for other purposes supple- directions. It may be one-way or two-way,
mentary to the through traffic movement. divided or undivided.
DEFIN ITIONS ii
7. Traffic Lane—A strip of roadway in- Lane two, lane three, etc.—On a
tended to accommodate a single line of multilane roadway, the traffic lane or lanes
moving vehicles. to the left of the right lane (or lane one)
Ri.'ht lane or lane one.—On any available for traffic traveling in the same
roadway, the lane on the extreme right, in direction, designated "lane two." "lane
the direction of traffic flow, available for three." etc., in that order numbered from
moving traffic. Sometimes referred to as the right to left when facing in the direction of
nutsule lane on rural highways or the curb traffic flow.
lane on city streets. Reversible lane or lanes—A lane or
Left lane.—On a two-lane, two-way lanes where traffic moves in one direction
road, that traffic lane which is to the left only during some period of time, then in
of the center line and which is normally the reverse direction during another period
used by traffic in the opposite direction: or of time.
on a multilane road, the extreme left traffic Left-turn lane.—A traffic lane within
lane of those available for traffic traveling the normal surfaced width of a roadway,
in one direction. or an auxiliary lane adjacent to or within
Center lane—On an undivided two- a median, reserved for left-turning vehicles
way road having an odd number of traffic at an intersection.
lanes, the lane which may be used by traffic Right-turn lane.—A traffic lane with-
traveling in either direction, or which may in the normal surfaced width of a roadway,
be operated reversibly or reserved for left or an auxiliary lane to the right of and
urns. adjacent to the through traffic lanes, reserved
E.vjiresiiav at gaide, nit/i partial (ontr('l of access. Note median openius and Icuic 1,roiided for
left-turn vehicles. Grade separation (in hack ground) carries cross tm/lu.
12 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
for right-turning vehicles at an intersection. Multileg intersection.—An intersec-

h. Bus lane.—A traffic lane reserved tion having five or more legs.
for buses, either in transporting, discharg- Rotary intersection.—A confluence
ing, or loading passengers, except, in the of three or more intersection legs at which
case of a curb bus lane, for use by turning traffic merges into and emerges from a one-
vehicles at intersection approaches. way roadway in a counterclockwise direc-
tion around a central area. (In those few
8. Intersection—The area embraced with- countries where "keep-to-the-left" driving
in the prolongation or connection of the rules apply, traffic moves clockwise.)
lateral curb lines, or, if none, then the
lateral boundary lines of the roadways of 9. Channe!ization.—The separation or
two highways which join one another at, or regulation of conflicting traffic movements
approximately at, right angles, or the area into definite paths of travel by use of pave-
within which vehicles traveling on different ment markings, raised islands, or other
highways joining at any other angle may suitable means to facilitate the safe and
come in conflict. orderly movement of traffic, both vehicular
a. Intersection leg.—That part of any and pedestrian.
one of the roadways radiating from an inter-
section which is outside the area of the JO. Highway Grade Separation.—A struc-
intersection proper. ture used to separate vertically two or more
Approach.—That portion of a leg intersecting roadways, thus permitting traf-
which is used by traffic approaching fic on all roads to cross traffic on all other
the intersection. roads without interference.
Exit—That portion of a leg which Interchange—A system of intercon-
is used by traffic in leaving an inter- necting roadways in conjunction with one or
section. more grade separations, providing for the
b. Three-leg intersection.—A roadway interchange of traffic between two or more
intersection with three intersection legs. If roadways or highways on different levels.
one of these intersection legs is an approxi- Ramp.—An interconnecting road-
mate prolongation of the direction of way of a traffic interchange, or any connec-
approach of another, and if the third leg tion between highways at different levels,
intersects this prolongation at an angle be- or between parallel highways, on which
tween 75° and 105°, the three-way inter- vehicles may enter or leave a designated
section is classed as a T intersection. If roadway.
one leg is an approximate prolongation of (I) Inner loop.—A ramp used by
the approach of another, and the third leg traffic destined for a left-turn move-
intersects this prolongation at an angle less ment from one of the through road-
than 75° or greater than 105°, it is classed ways to a second when such move-
as a Y intersection. ment is accomplished by making a
c. Four-leg intersection—A roadway right-exit turn followed by a three-
intersection with four intersection legs. If quarter-round right-turn maneuver and
two of the intersection legs are approxi- a right-entrance turn.
mate prolongations of the other two legs, Outer connection.—A ramp used
and the angle of intersection of these pro- by traffic destined for a right-turn
longations is 75° or more, but not greater movement from one of the through
than 105°, it is classed as a four-way right- roadways separated by a structure to
angled intersection. If two of the intersection the second through roadway.
legs are approximate prolongations of the Direct connection—A form of
directions of approach of the other two, and ramp which does not deviate appreci-
the angle of intersection of these two pro- ably from the intended direction of
longations is less than 75° or more than travel. The inner loop for left-turning
105°, it is classed as a four-way oblique movement is avoided by the use of
intersection. separate structures. An outer connec-
J)EFINJFIONS 13
IN
-
AD
'ci;-I •-' L
Rotary intersection in urban area. Grade separation used to carry major traffic flow underneath.
Traffic signals, pavement markings, and raised islands extensively employed to
facilitate traffic movement.
tion is a direct connection for right- ured along the normal travel path of a road-
turning movements. way, to the roadway surface or to a speci-
c. Rain p terinina/.—The general area fied height above the roadway, when the
where a ramp connects with a roadway. view is unobstructed by traffic.
Ramps have both entrance and exit termi- a. Stopping sight distance.—The dis-
nals. The entrance terminal relates to a tance required by a driver of a vehicle,
merging condition; the exit terminal relates traveling at a given speed, to bring his
to a diverging condition. vehicle to a stop after an object on the
roadway becomes visible. It includes the
11. Weaving Section.—A length of one-way
distance traveled during the perception and
roadway at one end of which two one-way
reaction timcs and the vehicle braking dis-
roadways merge and at the other end of
tance.
which they separate. A multiple weaving
h. Passing sight distance.—The mini-
section involves more than two entrance
mum sight distance on two- and three-
and/or exit roadways.
lane highways that must he available to
12 .Si,'ht Distance.—The distance visible enable the driver of one vehicle to pass
to the driver of a passenger vehicle, fleas- another vehicle safely and comfortably
14 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
without interfering with the speed of an on- TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE DEFINITIONS
coming vehicle traveling at the design speed,
1. Traffic Control Device.—Any sign, signal,
should it come into view after the overtaking
maneuver is started. marking, or device placed or erected for the
purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding
13. Terrain—The topography of the profile vehicular traffic and/or pedestrians.
of a highway, road, or street. As used in 2. Pavement Markings
this manual, the term generally has one of
three modifiers: level, rolling, or mountain- Lane line—A line' separating two
ous. These three modifiers represent com- lanes for traffic moving in same direction.
binations of geometric features in varying Center line—A line indicating the
degrees which relate primarily to gradients division of the pavement between traffic
and horizontal and vertical alinement. They moving in opposite directions. It is not
reflect the effect on capacity of the operat- hecessarily at. the exact geometric center of
ing characteristics of trucks in terms of their the pavement.
passenger car equivalent under the different
3. Traffic Sign.—A traffic control device
geometric conditions.
mounted on a fixed or portable support
Level terrain—Any combination of
which conveys a specific message by means
gradients, length of grade, or horizontal or
of words or symbols, and is officially erected
vertical alinement that permits trucks to
for the purpose of regulating, warning, or
maintain speeds that equal or approach the
guiding traffic.
speeds of passenger cars.
Rolling terrain—Any combination 4. Traffic Control Signal—Any device,
of gradients, length of grade, or horizontal or whether manually, electrically, or mechani-
vertical alinement that causes trucks to re- cally operated, by which traffic is alternately
duce their speeds substantially below that directed to stop and permitted to proceed.
of passenger cars on some sections of the Signal indication—The illumination
highway, but which does not involve sus- of a traffic signal lens or equivalent device
tained crawl speed by trucks for any sub- or a combination of several lenses or equiva-
stantial distance. lent devices at the same time.
Mountainous terrain.—Any combi- Time cycle—The time period re-
nation of gradients, length of grade, or hori- quired for one complete sequence of signal
zontal or vertical alinement that will cause indications.
trucks to operate at crawl speed for con- Interval.—Any one of the several di-
siderable distances or at frequent intervals. visions of the time cycle during which signal
Sustained grade.—A continuous indications do not change.
highway grade of appreciable length and Phase—A part of the time cycle
consistent or nearly consistent gradient. allocated to any traffic movement or to any
combination of traffic movements receiving
14. Ideal Conditions.—The base conditions the right-of-way simultaneously during one
as used in capacity determinations, including: or more intervals.
Uninterrupted flow, free from side Pretimed signal.—A type of traffic
interferences of vehicles and pedestrians. control signal which directs traffic to stop
and permits it to proceed in accordance with
Only passenger cars in the traffic
predetermined time schedules.
stream.
I. Traffic-actuated signal.—A type of
Traffic lanes 12 ft wide with ade- traffic control signal in which the intervals
quate shoulders and no obstructions within are varied in accordance with the demands
6 ft of the edge of the pavement. of traffic as registered by the actuation of
Horizontal and vertical alinement detectors.
satisfactory for average highway speeds of (1) Semi-traffic-actuated signal. - A
70 mph and no restricted passing sight dis- type of traffic-actuated signal in which
tance on two- and three-lane highways. means are provided for traffic actuation
DEFINITIONS 15
on one or more, but not all, approaches Bus.—A free-wheeled vehicle having
to the intersection. a self-contained source of motive power,
Full traffic-actuated signal.—A designed for the transportation of persons,
type of traffic-actuated signal in which and having a seating capacity of ten or
means are provided for traffic actua- more passengers.
tion on all approaches to the inter- Commercial vehicle.—A. truck or a
section. bus.
Pedestrian-actuated signal. - A
type of traffic control signal which may TRAFFIC OPERATIONS DEFINITIONS
be actuated by a pedestrian.
g. Progressive system.—A signal sys- I. Speed.—The rate of movement of
tem in which the successive signal faces vehicular traffic or of specified components
controlling a given street give "go" indica- of traffic, expressed in miles per hour.
tions in accordance with a time schedule to a. Spot speed.—The speed of a vehi-
permit (as nearly as possible) continuous cle as it passes a specified point on a road-
operation of groups of vehicles along the way.
street at a planned rate of speed, which may Average spot speed.—The average
vary in different parts of the system. of the individual spot speeds of all vehicles
or a specified class of vehicles at a specific
TRAFFIC DEFINITIONS point on a given roadway during a specified
I. Traffic.—All types of conveyances, to- period of time. Also referred to as time
mean speed.
gether with their load, either singly or as a
whole, as well as pedestrians, while using Overall travel speed.—The total dis-
any roadway for the purpose of transporta- tance traversed divided by the total time
tion or travel. required, including all traffic delays.
Vehicle.—Any component of wheeled Average overall travel speed.—The
traffic. Unless otherwise qualified, the term summation of distances traveled by all vehi-
vehicle will normally apply to free-wheeled cles or a .specifiedclass of vehicles over a
vehicles as hereinafter defined. given section of highway during a specified
Free-wheeled vehicle.—Any com- period of time, divided by the summation of
ponent of traffic not limited in its field of overall travel times.
operation to rails or tracks. Space mean speed.—The average of
Passenger car.—A free-wheeled, self- the speeds of vehicles within a given space
propelled vehicle generally designed for the or section of roadway at a given instant.
transportation of persons, but limited in Also, the average speed of a specified group
seating capacity to not more than nine pas- of vehicles based on their average , travel
sengers, including taxicabs, limousines, and time over a section of roadway.
station wagons. Also included, for capacity Design speed.—A speed selected for.
purposes, are two-axle, four-tired pickups, purposes of design and correlation of those
panels and light trucks, which have operat- features of a highway, such as curvature,
ing characteristics similar to those of passen- superelevation, and sight distance,. upon
ger cars, but not motorcycles. which the safe operation of vehicles is de-
Truck.—A free-wheeled vehicle hav- pendent.
ing dual tires on one or more axles, or hav- Average highway speed. - The
ing more than two axles, designed for the weighted average of the design speeds with- /
transportation of cargo rather than passen- in a highway section, when each subsection
gers. Includes tractor-trucks, trailers and within the section is considered to have an
semitrailers when used in combination. Ex- individual design speed.
cludes those two-axle, four-tired vehicles Operating speed.—The highest over-
that may be classified as a truck for registra- all speed at which a driver can travel on a
tion purposes, but which have operating given highway under favorable weather con-
characteristics similar to those of a passen- ditions and under prevailing traffic condi-
ger car. tions without at any time exceeding the safe
16 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
speed as determined by the design speed on a single stream. The total volume in this
a section-by-section basis. combined stream is the merge volume.
Free-flow operating speed.—The
Diverging.—The dividing of a single
operating speed of a passenger car over a
section of highway during extremely low stream of traffic into separate streams. The
traffic densities. total volume in this single stream before
division is the diverge volume.
Running speed—The speed over a
specified section of highway, being the dis- Volume.—The number of vehicles that
tance divided by running time. The average pass over a given section of a lane or a
for all traffic, or a component thereof, is the roadway during a time period of one hour
summation of distances divided by the sum- or more. Volume can be expressed in terms
mation of running times. of daily traffic or annual traffic, as well as
on an hourly basis.
2. Running Time—The time the vehicle
a. Average annual daily traffic.—The
is in motion.
total yearly volume divided by the number
3. Delay.—The time consumed while traf- commonly abbreviated
fic or a specified component of traffic is
impeded in its movement by some element ~ verage daily traffic.—The total
over which it has no control. Usually ex- volume during a given time period in whole
pressed in seconds per vehicle. days greater than one day and less than one
Fixed delay.—The delay to which year divided by the number of days in that
vehicles aiè subjected during light traffic time period, commonly abbreviated as ADT.
volumes orlow densities. The delays experi- Maximum annual hourly volume.—
enced by a lone vehicle as a resultof traffic The highest hourly volume that occurs on a
signals or stop signs are fixed delays. given roadway in a designated year.
Operational delay.—The delay Tenth, twentieth, •thirtieth, etc.,
caused by the interference between compo- highest annual hourly volume.—The hourly
nents of traffic. The difference between travel volume on a given roadway that is exceeded
times over a.route during extremely low and by 9, 19, 29, etc., respectively, hourly vol-
high traffic volumes is operational delay. The umes during a designated year.
time consumed while waiting at a stop sign
for cross traffic to clear, the time losse Peak-Hour Traffic—The highest num-
resulting from congestion, from interference\r of vehicles found to be passing over a
with parking vehicles, and from turning vehi- section of a lane or a roadway during 60
des are examples of operational delays. onsecutive minutes.
4. Vehicular Gap.—The interval in time Rate of Flow—The hourly repre-

.
or distance between individual • vehicles sentation of the number of vehicles that pass
measured from the rear of one vehicle to over a given section of a lane or a roadway
the head of the following vehicle, for some period less than one hour. It is
obtained by expanding the number of vehi-
Spacing.—The interval in distance from des to an hourly rate by multiplying the
head to head of successive'vehicles. number of vehicles during a specified time
Headway.—The interval in time be- period by the ratio of 60 min to the number
tween individual vehicles measured from of minutes during which the flow occurred.
head to head as they pass a given point. The term "rate of flow" will normally be
prefixed by the time period for the measure-
Weaving.—The crossing of traffic ment. For example, a 15-min count of N
streams moving in the same general direction vehicles multiplied by 60/15 or 4 would
accomplished by merging and diverging, produce a "15-min rate of flow of 4N vehi-
cles ner hiir•"
Merging.—The process by which two
separate traffic streams moving in the same 13. Interrupted Flow.—A condition in
general direction combine or unite to form which a vehicle traversing a section of a lane
DEFIN!T0NS 17
In 119
-4
I PIM
I
9
-, F~k
1-f igh-density traffic on parkway. Relatively unusual condition of complete congestion in hot/i
directions due to bottleneck co,ulitions (not s/ia wit).
or a roadway is required to stop by a cause traffic when the volume is at capacity on a

outside the traffic stream, such as signs or given roadway. At a density either greater
signals at an intersection or a junction. Stop- or less than the critical density, the volume
page of vehicles by causes internal to the of traffic will be decreased. Critical density
traffic stream does not constitute interrupted occurs when all vehicles are moving at about
flow. the same speed.
Uninterrupted flow.—A condition in Load Facior.—A ratio of the total
which a vehicle traversing a section of a number of green signal intervals that are
lane or a roadway is not required to stop by fully utilized by traffic during the peak hour
any cause external to the traffic stream al- to the total number of green intervals for
though vehicles may be stopped by causes that approach during the same period. Its
internal to the traffic stream. maximum attainable value is one.
Densit v—The number of vehicles oc- Peak-Hour Factor.—A ratio of the vol-
cupying a unit length of the through traffic ume occurring during the peak hour to the
lanes of a roadway at any given instant. maximum rate of flow during a given time
Usually expressed in vehicles per mile. period within the peak hour. It is a measure
a. A verage density.—The average of peaking characteristics, whose maximum
number of vehicles per unit length of road- attainable value is one. The term must be
way over a specified period of time. qualified by a specified short period within
h. Critical density.—Thc density of the hour: this is usually 5 or 6 rnin for free-
1ll!lWtY C.l'.v( (IV
;•. tIN .
I ..' •"••lN
f'V/i/J i1
Unbalanced traffic flow. Predominant flow is from bottom to top of photo: counter movement is
relatively light. iVote direct left-turn connection from /:igh:s'av at right and
clzan,zeiization used to separate ramps at rig/It center.
way operation and 15 min for intersection moving streams of traffic. This friction is
operation. For example, "a peak-hour fac- due solely to the effect of one stream of
tor of 0.80 based on a 5-min rate of flow." traffic crossing the other stream.
b. Marginal friction.—The retarding
18. Friction
effect on the free flow of traffic caused by
a. intersectional friction.—The retard- interference of any sort at the margin of
ing effect on traffic movement caused by the highway. This does not include conflicts
potential and actual traffic movement con- at intersections or medial friction.
flicts at an intersection or merge of two c. Medial friction.—The retarding
DEFINITIONS 19
effect on the free flow of traffic caused by

interference between traffic units proceeding
in opposite directions on a highway. (Turn-
ing conflicts are classed as intersectional
conflicts).
d. Stream /riciion.—The retarding effect
on the free flow of traffic caused by mutual
interferences between traffic units proceeding
in the sanie direction. This does not include
turning conflicts. Conflicts are caused pri-
marily by differences in sizes and speeds of
traffic units. Narrow 10-ft lanes, jack of s1wu1dcr. restrictice
side clearances, and lack of proper sight
Upstream—The direction along the distance reduce capacity substantially
roadway from which the vehicle flow under on this two-lane rural highway.
consideration has come.
Downstream.—The direction along the Fringe Area—That portion of a munici-

roadway toward which the vehicle flow pality immediately outside the central busi-
under consideration is moving. ness district in which there is a wide range
in type of business activity, generally includ-
Bottleneck—A constriction along a ing small businesses, light industry, ware-
traveled way which limits the amount of housing, automobile service activities, and
traffic which can proceed downstream from intermediate strip development, as well as
its location. some concentrated residential areas. Most
of the traffic in this area involves trips that
Pas.cen'er Car Equivalent.—The num-
do not have an origin or a destination within
ber of passenger cars displaced in the traffic
the area. This area is characterized by mod-
flow by a truck or a bus, under the prevail-
erate pedestrian traffic and a lower parking
ing roadway and traffic conditions.
turnover than is found in the central busi-
Platoon.—A closely grouped elemental ness district, but it may include large parking
component of traffic, coniposecl of several areas serving that district.
vehicles, moving or standing ready to move
Out/ring Business District.—That portion
over a roadway. with clear spaces ahead and
of a municipality or an area within the influ-
behind.
ence of a municipality, normally separated
Base Volume—A volume value required geographically by some distance from the
for certain computational purposes, which central business district and its fringe area,
differs from capacity under prevailing con- in which the principal land USC IS for busi-
ditions only in that the adjustment factors ness activity. This district has its own local
applied to capacity under ideal conditions to traffic circulation superimposed on through
derive it are those for a particular level of movements to and from the central business
service rather than those for capacity. district, a relatively high parking demand
and turnover, and moderate pedestrian traf-
fic. Compact off-street shopping develop-
LAND USE AND DEVELOPMENT DEFINITIONS ments entirely on one side of the street are
not included in the scope of this definition.
1. Central Business District.—That portion
of a municipality in which the dominant Residential Area—That portion of a
land use is for intense business activity. municipality, or an area within the influ-
This district is characterized by large num- ence of a municipality, in which the donii-
bers of pedestrians, commercial vehicle load- nant land use is residential development,
ings of goods and people, a heavy demand but where small business areas may be in-
for parking space, and high parking turn- cluded. This area is characterized by few
over. pedestrians and a low parking turnover.
20 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
INDEX OF DEFINITIONS
Page Page
Access, control of ......................8 Gap, vehicular ........................ 16
full control of..................8 Grade, sustained ...................... 14
partial control of...............8 Grade separation, highway.............. 12
uncontrolled ...................8
Approach ............................12 Headway .............................. 16
Area, fringe ..........................19 Highway............................. 8
residential . ......................19 arterial ...................... 8
major ......................... 8
Bottleneck ...........................19 through ...................... 8
Bus.................................15
Interchange 12
Capacity............................. 5 Intersection 12
Car, passenger ....................... 15 four-leg ................... 12
Channelization ......................... 12 multi-leg .................. 12
Components, cross-section............... 9 rotary .................... 12
Conditions, ideat ...................... 14 three-leg .................. 12
prevailing 6 Intersection leg ........................ 12
Connection, direct ..................... 12 Interval ............................. 14
outer ..................... 12 Island, traffic ......................... 10
Curb............................... 10
Cycle, time ............................. 14 Lane................................ 10
acceleration ..................... 10
Definitions, land use and development.... 19 auxiliary ........................ 10
roadway .................. 8 bus............................. 12
traffic ..................... 15 center .......................... 11
traffic control devices......... 14 climbing ........................ 10
traffic operations ............ 15 curb........................... 11
Delay............................... 16 deceleration ..................... 10
fixed.......................... 16 left............................ 11
operational ..................... 16 left-turn ........................ 11
Density.............................. 17 outside ......................... 11
average ....................... 17 parking.........................
critical ........................ 17 reversible ....................... 11
Design, cross-sectional ................... 10 right........................... 11
Device, traffic control ................... 14 right-turn ........................ 11
District, central business ............... 19 traffic .......................... 11
outlying business .............. 19 Lane one ............................ 11
Diverging ............................ 16 Lane two, lane three, etc................. 11
Downstream ......................... 19 Line, center .......................... 14
lane............................ 14
Equivalent, passenger car................19 Loop, inner ............................ 12
Exit.................................12
Markings, pavement ................... 14
Expressway ...........................8
Median.............................. 10
Factor, load .......................... 17 Merging ............................. 16
peak-hour ..................... 17 Parkway ............................. 8
Flow, rate of ......................... 16 Pavement ............................ 10
interrupted ..................... 16 Phase............................... 14
uninterrupted ................... 17 Platoon .............................. 19
Freeway............................. 8
Friction .............................. 18 Ramp............................... 12
intersectional ................. 18 Road................................ 8
marginal ..................... 18 divided ......................... 10
medial ....................... 18 frontage ........................ 9
stream ....................... 19 local ............................ 9
Functional types ....................... 8 multilane ....................... 10
DEFINITIONS 21
Page Page
one-way 9 space mean ...................15
service 10 IS
three-lane ....................... 10 Street 8
two-lane ....................... 10 local 9
two-way ........................ 9 major 8
undivided ....................... 10 through ....................... 8
Roadway ........................... 9 System, progressive 15
Section, weaving 13 Terminal, ramp ...................... 13

10 Terrain ... 14
Separator
level 14
lane........................ 10
mountainous 14
outer ....................... 10
rolling 14
Service, level of ............ ............ 7
Time, running 16
Shoulder ........................... 10
Traffic . 15
Sight distance ........................ 13
average annual daily ........... 16
passing ................. 13
stopping ................ 13 average daily .................. 16
Sign, traffic .......................... 14 peak hour ..................... 16
Truck 15
Signal, full traffic-actuated ............... 15
pedestrian-actuated .............. 15 Upstream ......................... 19
pretimed ...................... 14 Use, directional ...................... 9
semi-traffic-actuated ............. 14 15
Vehicle
traffic-actuated ................. 14 15
commercial
traffic control .................. 14
free-wheeled 15
Signal indication ...................... 14 Volume ............................. 16
Spacing . . 16
base ......................... 19
Speed............................... 15 diverge ....................... 16
average highway ................. 15 maximum annual hourly......... 16
average overall travel ............. 15 merge ....................... 16
average spot .................... 15 service ....................... 8
design......................... 15 tenth, twentieth, etc., highest an-
free-flow operating ............... 16 nual hourly ................. 16
operating ....................... 15
overall travel ................... 15 Weaving .............................16
running ........................ 16 Width, in lanes .......................10
#kA
A signalized intersection in a central business district.
CHAPTER THREE
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
INTRODUCTION able range in the resulting levels of service.

Variations in demand do not, in them-
The capacity of a highway * is a measure
selves, represent variations in capacity;
of its ability to accommodate traffic. Ob-
rather, they result in variations in the level
viously, this ability depends greatly on the
of service which a road provides.
physical features of the roadway itself. Yet
The chapter then discusses speed trends
there are other factors not directly related
and variations, inasmuch as speed and travel
to roadway features that are of major
time are significant qualitative measures of
importance in determining the capacity of
levels of traffic service.
any highway. Many of these factors relate
The remaining portion of the chapter
to variations in the traffic demand and the
deals with the interrelationship of speed,
interaction of vehicles in the traffic stream.
volume, and vehicular spacings in connec-
Thus, highway capacity is a function of the
tion with their effect on roadway capacity.
physical features of the highway and the
operational characteristics of the traffic
MAXIMUM OBSERVED TRAFFIC VOLUMES
thereon.
In general terms, the aggregate demand Tables 3.1 through 3.10 give maximum
for the use of a highway is expressed in observed traffic volumes recorded in 1961
traffic volume, whereas the level of traffic on various highways throughout the United
service to the road user is a function of com- States, as reported by state, city, and other
fort and convenience, speed, travel time, highway officials. Highways have been
maneuverability, safety, and cost. The broad classified by width, type, and location within
field of highway capacity involves determi- an urban or rural area. For each classi-
nation of whether or not a certain roadway fication the five highways with the highest
is capable of handling the predicted or meas- hourly volumes were selected for inclusion
ured demand at an acceptable level of serv- in these tables, where data were available.
ice. In some .cases the selection was from a much
This chapter first discusses volume, which larger number of locations; for other classes
is a manifestation of traffic demand. The five were not available and only a smaller
demand for the use of any highway is a number could be included. There may well
changing quantity and exhibits many types be other highways in some of the classifica-
of variations. Although a highway may have tions where volumes exceed those shown
only one capacity (unless prevailing condi- but for which no data have been reported.
tions change), in practice it will serve a The traffic volume for each specific loca-
wide range of traffic volumes under varying tion reported is the highest for which accu-
operating conditions. Thus, capacity con- rate data are available. In some cases the
siderations should be based not only on reported hourly volumes probably repre-
whether a highway can handle a selected sent capacity, whereas for other locations
volume at an acceptable level of service, the hourly volumes were merely the highest
but also on whether the range in volumes that had been observed. On some of these
that occurs can be handled within an accept- highways the traffic demand has probably
been sufficient to reach or exceed the same
* The term "highway" is used in this chapter in its
general sense, denoting any public way for purposes of volumes on many occasions. For others,
vehicular travel. the maximum value which was recorded on
22
TABLE 3.1-HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON TWO-LANE,
TWO-WAY HIGHWAYS IN THE UNiTED STATES, 1961
AVERAGE
VOLUME (VPI.I)
LANE _________________ ADT FOR
WIDTH HEAVY BOTH BOTH
ROUTE AND LOCATION (FT) DIRECTION DIRECTIONS DIRECTIONS
(a) URBAN EXPRESSWAYS AT GRADE
N.J. 208, Fairlawn, Bergen Co., N.J. 12.0 1,090 2,056 16,028
P.R. 21, San Juan, Puerto Rico 9.1 - 1,482 19,201
(b) RURAL HIGHWAYS
Md. 5, Woods Corner, Prince Georges Co., Md. 12.0 1,099 1,871 18,825
Md. 26 (Liberty Road), Baltimore, Md. 10.0 1,224 1,777 21,500
U.S. 40, West of Denver, Cob. 12.0 - 1,760 5,950
Md. 3, Glen Burnie, Anne Arundel Co., Md. 12.0 855 1,680 22,275
Del. 141, New Bridge Rd., New Castle Co., Del. 12.0 963 1,605 15,935
MAJOR CITY STREETS
U.S. 95, Bonanza Road, Las Vegas, Nev. 12.0 - 2,297 20,064
U.S. 60, Washington St., Charleston, W.Va. 15.0 1,125 2,062 19,850
U.S. 27, Clinton St., Ft. Wayne, md. 10.0 1,063 .2,024 20,041
Coldwater Canyon Dr., Los Angeles, Calif. 15.0 1,586 1,985 15,000
Rt. IT, Brown Road, St. Louis Co., Mo. 11.0 1,223 1,970 -
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Posey Tube, Oakland, Calif. 11.0 1,303 2,595 27,163

Lake St. Bridge, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn. 14.0 1,515 2,570 25,024
Broadway Ave. Bridge, Minneapolis-St. Paul, 14.0 1,498 2,373 17,956
Minn.
&
C 0 Bridge, Cincinnati, Ohio 13.0
15.0
1,397
1,182
2,281
2,262
31,088
14,062
Plymouth Ave. Bridge, Minneapolis-St. Paul,
Minn.
TABLE 3.2-HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON THREE-LANE,

TWO-WAY HIGHWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1961
AVERAGE
LANE .
VOLUME (VPH)
... ADT FOR
WIDTH HEAVY BOTH BOTH
ROUTE AND LOCATION (FT) DIRECTION DIRECTIONS DIRECTIONS
(a) RURAL HIGHWAYS
U.S. 16, Fowlerville, Livingston Co., Mich. 10.0 - 1,876 9,900

N.Y. 101, Nassau Co., N.Y. 10.0 - 1,833 18,000
U.S. 302, 1 mi. E. of U.S. 2, Berlin, Vt. 10.0 - 1,434 7,903
Rt. 99, Karnehameha Hwy., Haw. 10.0 697 1,286 10,608
Wis. 38, S. Howell Ave., Milwaukee Co., Wis. 10.0 817 1,260 -
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Wis. 20, Washington Ave., Racine, Wis. 11.0 1,120 2,205 26,752
Wis. 100, Milwaukee Co., Wis. 10.0 1,014 1,910 -
U.S. 11, N.E. of 4th Ave., Birmingham, Ala. 12.0 1,377 1,812 18,850
U.S. 23, Washtenau Ave., Ann Arbor, Mich. 12.0 1,120 1,723 18,000
Memorial Drive, Atlanta, Ga.' 10.6 1,188 1,626 19,500
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Bay Street Viaduct, Savannah, Ga.' 10.0 1,690 2,409 22,500

Rt. 37, Dover Twp., Ocean Co., N.J." 9.5 1,813 2,383 9,292
Douglas MacArthur Bridge, E. St. Louis, III. 10.0 1,286 1,961 18,800
Los Alamos Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, N.M. 13.3 - 1,942 8,500
Winooski River Bridge, U.S. 7, Burlington, Vt. 14.0 - 1,862 17,049
Two lanes reserved for heavy flow during peak periods. Volumes given are for unbalanced operation; ADT
for all conditions of operation.
b Operates two-lane, two-directional except during summer peak periods. Volumes given are for unbalanced
operation with two lanes reserved for heavy flow; ADT for all conditions of operation.
24 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
TABLE 3.3-HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON FOUR-LANE,

TWO-WAY HIGHWAYS a IN THE UNiTED STATES, 1961
AVG. VOLUME
AVERAGE
(vPH/LANE)
LANE A ADT FOR
WIDTH LIGHT HEAVY BOTH
ROUTE AND LOCATION (PT) DIRECTION DIRECTION DIRECTIONS
URBAN FREEWAYS
U.S. 40 (Trk.), Red Feather Expressway, St.

Louis, Mo.
12.0 862 2,030 -
No. Sacramento Freeway, Sacramento, Calif. 12.0 860 1,900 647000
Eastshore Freeway, Oakland, Calif. 12.0 1,315 1,850 66,000
Atlanta Expressway (N.E. Section), Atlanta, 12.0 950 1,800 50,300
Ga.
Conn. 15, E. of Silver Lane, Hartford, Conn. 12.0 - 17794 36,000
RURAL FREEWAYS
Shirley Highway, Arlington, Va. 12.0 789 1,684 60,400

1-96, Grand River, Livingston Co., Mich. 12.0 214 1,518 15,200
Rt. 128, Circumferential Highway, Newton, 12.0 1,070 1,435 38,259
Mass.'
New Hampshire Turnpike, Hampton, N.H. 12.0 224 1,144 12,706
1-94, 6 mi. W. of U.S. 24, Wayne Co., Mich. 12.0 258 1,112 24,263
URBAN EXPRESSWAYS AT GRADE
Lake Shore Drive, S. of 57th Drive, Chicago, 12.0 445 2,236 75,000
Ill.
N.J. 4, Paramus, N.J.' 10.0 1,438 1.498 62,480
Olentangy River Road, Columbus, Ohio 14.4 851 1,345 42,259
U.S. 6, West 6th Ave., Denver, Cob. 12.0 587 17177 30,000
U.S. 6, N. of Denver, Cob. 12.0 432 1,107 26,300
RURAL HIGHWAYS
N.J. 3, Clifton, Passaic Co., N.J. 12.0 - 1,774 40,800

Rt. 90, Pearl City to Aiea, Haw. 11.0 739 1,289 37,728
U.S. 46, Ledgewood, N.J. 12.0 - 1,220 25,932
U.S. 75, W. of Galveston, Tex. 11.0 590 1,193 20,170
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Sepulveda Blvd., S. of Muiholland Dr., Los 12.5 737 1,742 45,000

Angeles, Calif.
U.S. 12, Wayzata Blvd., Minneapolis, Minn. 14.0 420 1,431 32,145
Fla. 9, 27th Ave., N.W., Miami, Fla. 11.5 785 1,195 43,851
Charles St., Baltimore, Md.
Aurora Ave., Seattle, Wash.
9.8
11.0
379
294
1,174
1,152
-
35,758
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
U.S. 99, Battery St. Subway, Seattle, Wash. 12.5 314 2,189 49,500
American River Bridge, Sacramento, Calif.' 11.0 695 1,850 64,000
Caldecott Tunnel Approach, Oakland, Calif.' 11.0 703 1,848 50,302
Lake Washington Bridge, Seattle, Wash.' 11.0 971 1,583 46,350
South Capitol St. Bridge, Washington, D.C. 11.5 1,120 1,542 53,411
Divided except as noted.
Shoulder used as acceleration and deceleration lane; lane volume based on count of through lanes
No median divider.
1 Unbalanced. 3/I.
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS 25
a single occasion may have been an excep- both directions of travel. The hourly traf-
tional case with no other instance when the fic volume for the heavier direction of travel
traffic volume equaled or even approached during the corresponding time period is,
the reported values. It should be noted that however, given in a separate column.
many important capacity determinants, such The selection of the highways to be in-
as traffic composition, parking restrictions, cluded in Tables 3.3 through 3.6, for two-
and grades, are not available to assist in way highways with four or more lanes, was
the evaluation of these data. based on the magnitude of the traffic vol-
These maximum observed volumes are ume in the heavier direction of travel. The
given primarily to acquaint the reader with traffic volume for the lighter direction of
the peak traffic that has been carried on travel during the corresponding time period
some of the more heavily traveled routes. is, however, given in a separate column.
They are also intended to indicate the wide The selection of all one-way highways in-
range of capacities of highways that are cluded in Tables 3.7 through 3.10 was based
seemingly alike in type, but actually have on the magnitude of the peak-hour traffic
significant differences in their physical, as volume, given as the average number of
well as traffic, characteristics. The reasons vehicles per lane.
for much of the variation in capacity will
become more apparent as the subject is VOLUME CHARACTERISTICS
developed in the succeeding material. How-
ever, considerable variation must still re- Spatial Variations in Traffic Flow
main unexplained, awaiting further research.
TRAFFIC DISTRIBUTION BY ROUTES
The selection of the highways included in
Tables 3.1 and 3.2, for two-way highways Figure 3.1 shows the breakdown by var-
with two and three lanes, was based on the ious average daily traffic flows of surfaced
magnitude of the hourly traffic volume in mileage on state primary systems in the
TABLE 3.4—HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON FIVE-LANE,

AVG. VOLUME
AVERAGE
(VPH/LANE)
LANE ADT FOR
ROUTE AND LOCATION (FT) DIRECTION DIRECTION DIRECTIONS
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Russell St., at Gwynns Falls Bridge, Baltimore, 10.0 921 890 -

Md.°
E. Marginal Way, Seattle, Wash." 10.0 902 879 44,000
Fourth Ave. S., Seattle, Wash.b 10.0 433 510 38,000
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Hackensack River Bridge, Secaucus, Hudson 10.0 1,418 1,463 65,000

Co., N.J."
First Avenue S., (Duwamish River Bridge), 10.0 502 1,102 .37,500
Seattle, Wash.
Three lanes reserved for heavier direction permanently.
Center lane reversible, to operate three lanes in peak direction
26 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
TABLE 3.5-HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON SIX-LANE,

TWO-WAY HIGHWAYS ' IN THE UNITED STATES, 1961
AVG. VOLUME
AVERAGE
(vPH/ LANE)
LANE . ADT FOR
URBAN FREEWAYS
Hollywood Freeway, at Highland, Los Angeles, 12.0 1,253 2,190 130,000

Calif.
Eisenhower (Congress) Expressway, Chicago, 12.0 1,567 2,163 103,000
Ill.
John Lodge Expressway, at Elmhurst, Detroit, 12.0 1,360 2,071 139,297
Mich.
Schuylkill Expressway, Philadelphia, Pa. 12.0 1,370 2,015 113,291
Edsel Ford Expressway, at Russell-Rivard, De- 12.0 - 1,925 132,554
troit, Mich.
RURAL FREEWAYS
U.S. 40, Delaware Mem. Br. Approach, Wil- 12.0 708 733 28,909
mington, Del.
1-35, S. of Austin, Travis Co., Tex. 12.0 74 396 7,170
U.S. 66, N.E. of Ill. 83, DuPage Co., Ill. 12.0 277 376 18,000
URBAN EXPRESSWAYS AT GRADE
U.S. 30 & 130, Pennsauken Twp., Camden Co., 10.0 703 1,340 69,114
N.J.
Geo. M. Cohan Blvd., Providence, R.I. 10.0 875 1,331 55,900
Penrose Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. 12.0 783 1,132 48,300
U.S. 99, S.W. Harbor Drive, Portland, Ore. 12.0 680 1,115 49,917
U.S. 1 & 401, Downtown Blvd., Raleigh, N.C. 11.0 440 847 32,500
RURAL HIGHWAYS
U.S. 46, Clifton, Passaic Co., N.J. 12.0 - . 1,998 78,000

RI. 90, Pearl Harbor Spur to Middle St., Hono- 11.0 411 995 37,671
lulu, Haw.
U.S. 13-40, Farnhurst, Del. 14.0 806 989 60,000
U.S. 91-466, S. of Las Vegas, Nev. 10.6 372 683 35,888
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Alemany Blvd., San Francisco, Calif. 10.3 303 1,261 44,985

Elliot Avenue, Seattle, Wash. 11.0 393 1,155 43,500
Mich. 102, Base Line Road, Detroit, Mich. 12.0 763 1,060 59,000
Ala Moana, Honolulu, Haw. 11.0 . 553 1,035 47,640
Riverside Drive, Los Angeles, Calif. 11.7 431 991 53,000
(/) BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Aurora Ave. Bridge, Seattle, Wash. 9.5 1,117 1,876 82,500

Memorial Bridge, Washington, DC.1' c 9.3 1,188 1,722 68,590
Central Artery Tunnel, Boston, Mass. 12.0 1,226 1,685 75,462
San Fran-Oakland Bay Bridge, Calif.' 9.7 1,171 1,533 -
Lincoln Tunnel, New York, N.Y." 10.8 1,230 1,134 75,967
Divided except as noted.
Four lanes reserved for heavier direction during peak periods. Peak counts shown are for unbalanced
operation; ADT for all conditions of operation.
No median divider.
Upper deck.
TABLE 3.6-HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON EIGHT-LANE,

AVG. VOLUME
AVERAGE
(VPH/LANE)
LANE ADT FOR
(a) URBAN FREEWAYS
Eisenhower Expressway, W. of Austin, Chicago, 12.0 1,445 2,155 164,000

ill.
Harbor Freeway, Los Angeles, Calif. 12.0 1,145 1,888 171,200
Hollywood Freeway, Los Angeles, Calif. 12.0 1,138 1,838 204,000
Pasadena Freeway, Los Angeles, Calif. 11.0 . 1,400 1,825 115,200
Bayshore Freeway, San Francisco, Calif. 12.0 1,538 1,798 137,000
(b) URBAN EXPRESSWAYS AT GRADE
Lake Shore Drive, N. of LaSalle, Chicago, Ill.' 11.0 695 1,513 140,000
Rt. 92, Nimitz Highway, Honolulu, Haw. 12.0 257 864 52,226
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Santa Ana Freeway Bridge over Los Angeles 12.0 1,412 1,725 189,000
River, Los Angeles, Calif.
George Washington Bridge, New York, N.Y. 10.8 1,179 1,554 106,247
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Wis. 190, W. Capitol Drive, Milwaukee, Wis. 9.0 417 693 47,954
o Divided.
Six lanes reserved for heavier direction during peak periods. Count shown is for unbalanced operation; ADT
for all conditions of operation.
TABLE 3.7-HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON TWO-LANE,

ONE-WAY HIGHWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1961
AVERAGE
LANE
WIDTH AVG. VOLUME
ROUTE AND LOCATION (FT) (VPH/ LANE) ADT
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Roosevelt Way N.E., Seattle, Wash. 12.5 1,238 15,500

Second Street, Tulsa, OkIa. . 13.0 967 . 12,036
U.S. 410, Main Street, Lewiston, Idaho 12.0 585 11,100
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
L & N Bridge, Cincinnati, Ohio b 9.6 1,276 21,749

Marion Street Bridge, Salem, Ore. 12.0 672 10,500
Weekday.
I Operates two-lane, one-way during peak periods. Count shown is during one-way operation; ADT includes
all conditions of operation.

TABLE 3.8—HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON THREE-LANE,
AVERAGE
LANE
WIDTH AVG. VOLUME
ROUTE AND LOCATION (FT) (VPH/LANE) ADT
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Fourth Avenue, Nashville, Tenn. 11.0 1,052 14,626

19th Avenue, Los Angeles, Calif. 11.0 849 18,000
11th Avenue, N.E., Seattle, Wash. 10.0 834 15,000
Western Avenue, Seattle, Wash. 10.0 658 12,100
Second Avenue, Spokane, Wash. 12.0 646 21,000
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Fourteenth St. Bridge (Southbound), Washing- 13.3 1,856 59,353

ton, D.C.
Martin Pena Bridge, P.R. 1, San Juan, P.R. 10.5 1,040 24,746
TABLE 3.9—HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON FOUR-LANE

AVERAGE
LANE
WIDTH AVG. VOLUME
MAJOR CITY STREETS
Oak St., San Francisco, Calif. 10.7 958 18,910

Fell St., San Francisco, Calif. 10.0 816 19,284
12th St., Sacramento, Calif. 11.0 750 63,600
Saginaw St., Lansing, Mich. 11.0 714 17,000
Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 12.0 653 24,000
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
Spokane St. Bridge, Seattle, Wash. 10.5 1,402 56,000

Fourteenth St. Bridge (Northbound), Washing- 12.0 1,335 57,861
ton, D.C.
One-half of a cupIet; hourly volume given is for this Street only; ADT is for both slreels.
Weekday.
TABLE 3.10—HIGHEST REPORTED HOURLY VOLUMES ON FIVE-LANE,

AVERAGE
LANE
WIDTH AVG. VOLUME
(a) MAJOR CITY STREETS

King Street, Honolulu, Haw. 10.0 619 30,000
Jefferson St., Phoenix, Ariz. 10.0 477 21,664
United States as of December 1962. Of a

total of 446,391 miles of streets and high-
ways reported in this classification, 44,881
miles or 10.1 percent were within municipal
areas, while 401,510 miles or89.9 percent
were in rural areas.
When a comparison is made by traffic
volumes, the significant differences between
rural and urban highways are apparent.
One-half of the rural mileage carries traffic
volumes of less than 1,000 vehicles per day
and 98 percent have volumes of less than
10,000 vehicles per day (vpd). On the
other hand, traffic volumes on more than C
one-half of the municipal mileage exceed 0
4,000 vpd and on about one-fourth they

exceed 10,000 vpd. Although comprising
only 10 percent of the total mileage, mu-
nicipal extensions account for 57.9 percent
of the mileage where volumes exceed 10,000
vpd.
DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
On most two-way highways the annual Figure 3.1. Percentage of surfaced mileage of
average daily traffic has been found to be state primary syste,n in various volume groups,
approximately the same in each direction. 1962.
(Source: Ref. 1, 1962, Table SM-iS)
This is also the case for most 24-hr volumes,
but holiday and weekend travel can cause
an unbalanced total flow on specific days.
The volume during any specific hour may,
however, be much heavier in one direc- direction of flow depends on several fac-
tion than in the other. A knowledge of the tors, including traffic volume, medial and
traffic load in each direction for the peak marginal friction, proportion of slow mov-
periods of traffic flow is essential because ing vehicles, and the number and location of
of the critical effect an unbalanced flow can ingress and egress points. The origin and
have on the needed capacity as related to destination desires of the individual users
the design and operation of a highway. are principal determinants for the distribu-
Typical directional distributions for urban tion of vehicles between lanes near entrance
and rural highways are given in Tables 3.1 or exit points. Outside the influence of these
through 3.6. For specific locations, direc- and other interferences adjacent to the
tional distributions vary widely and the use traffic stream, lane distributions are influ-
of average values without confirming their enced mainly by the variation in speeds and
applicability is not recommended. Even the volume of traffic.
along one street or highway section, differ- Figure 3.2 shows average lane distribu-
ing characteristics at various locations and tions in one direction found on selected
traffic volume gains and losses at ingress six-lane freeways at various volumes. Chap-
and egress points may cause wide variations ter Eight, Ramps, contains a more detailed
in directional distribution at different points. discussion of lane distributions under a
variety of conditions.
LANE DISTRIBUTION
TRAFFIC COMPOSITION
Where two or more lanes are available for
travel in one direction, the number of vehi- Variability also occurs in the percentage
cles in each lane may vary widely. The dis- of the different types of vehicles comprising
tribution of traffic between lanes for one the traffic stream. The relative proportion
30 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
LANE 2 A
~149LLOC TIONSI
NE 02
222 40
0
LANE
5 8' 5 6
r
> 30
C
rimiuuuu•ui•uu
tiiii••u••u••
.
RATE1 OF FLOW
2 IN ONE DIRECTION (1,000 VPH)
Figure 3.2. Eflect of traffic volume on lane use' 20

'ViENl'UIk
for six-lane facilities. 0 4

(Source: Ref. 21)
........
of trucks and buses in the traffic stream has ION

u•uuu•i
WEEMENE
4AM 8AM 128
TIME OF DAY
4PM 8PM 128
a significant effect on traffic speeds and

other operating characteristics. Figure 3.3. Traffic composition by time of day,
Of the 79,022,916 motor vehicles regis- Wisconsin highways, weekdays, 1961.
(Source: Ref. 9)
tered in the United States in 1962, 83.4
percent were passenger cars, 16.2 percent
were trucks, and 0.4 percent were buses (1).
The manner in which each type is used,
however, creates wide variations in the rela-
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
tive proportion of each vehicle type in the
traffic stream on a specific highway at any The seasonal pattern of traffic volume on
time. For example, Figure 3.3 shows the any highway is closely related to economic
percentage of commercial vehicles in the and social demands for transportation. A
total volume during various hours of the few representative patterns are shown in
average weekday, as found in 1961 in Figure 3.4. A typical variation for rural
Wisconsin. highways influenced by summer recreational
traffic is shown using 1961 data from ten
permanent counting stations in the State of
Time Variations in Traffic Flow
Washington. Variations in urban seasonal
Over the years, there has been a long-time patterns tend to be much less pronounced,
trend in total vehicle-miles of travel that, as indicated by the patterns for the average
except for the depression years (1932-1933) of six urban stations in the State of Washing-
and the war years (1942-1944), has shown ton (1961) and for a three-year average
a consistent annual increase. Since 1950 this of five control stations in Tucson, Ariz.
increase has been approximately 4.6 percent (1958-60). The variation in seasonal pat-
compounded annually (1). terns, because of climate, is also apparent
Within the annual increase in motor vehi- in Figure 3.4 when the two urban patterns
cle travel, there exist certain cyclical varia- are compared. It should be noted that for
tions with respect to time. The major varia- these highways the May and October vol-
tions may be expressed as seasonal, weekly, umes are close to the annual average.
and daily time patterns of traffic 'flow. Peak-
WEEKLY VARIATIONS
ing characteristics within the peakS hours
also should be considered, although few Figure 3.5 shows the characteristic weekly
data are available on the nature and pattern patterns of traffic volume for three area
of repetition. Because of their importance types: urban Nashville, Tenn.; the periphery
in volume and capacity determinations, the of Lexington, KY.; and rural highways in
general characteristics of these time patterns Mississippi. Although individual locations
are illustrated. will vary greatly, certain general
TRAFFIC CHAR .\CTERISTICS 31
ILL
LA
f-our-lam' urban arterial con'ested with traffic also has an extremely big/i percentage of trucks in
direction away frwn camera. Note ,nedian /,arrler.
u..ui'uI-..
30
>
I
0
om
NASIIVILLE 06646. 958
0
uuuuvui
uuuuuuuiiuu
7 LEAIN6109 (X1'ERNAL, 1960
"
C
C
0
o 90
I iu IN
• Au muauii
Er 100
C
•
VA•l•iUlUI
MISSISSIPPI RURAL 196
uuu•uuuuuu
Iuuiuuuuuuu
F 6 A 6 J J A S 0 Is 0
10
SAVOr WEEK
MONTH OF YEAR
Figure 3.5. Exa,n pies of t'eekly traffic
Figure 3.4. Examples of ,nonthiy traffic volume variations.
variations. (Sources: Mississippi State Highway Dept.; Nashville,
(Sources: Washington State Dept. of Highways and Tcnn., Metro. Area Transp Study; Lexington-Fayette
Tucson, Ariz., Area Transp. Study) Co., Ky., Transp. Study)
32 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
and commerce, and return. The rural sta-

tions exhibit one pronounced peak in the
late afternoon. The magnitude and dura-
tion of the maximum volumes vary con-
siderably between routes and within a given
urban area. Seasonal patterns and special
••••••u traffic generators may create wide variations

on any specific route.
Figure 3.7 shows two daily patterns in
August 1961 for the Calumet Expressway,
a radial freeway in south suburban Chicago,
Ill., which, at this location, is 4-lane. Here,
the weekday and Sunday patterns are dis-
12M 4AM SUM 128 4PM 8PM 124 tinctly different. The weekday pattern is
HOUR OF DAY
dominated by travel to and from the central
Figure 3.6. Hourly variations of traffic for city, whereas the Sunday pattern presum-
average weekday. ably reflects recreational travel.
(Source: Ref. 9) The previous discussion was concerned
with total two-way volumes on the high-
ways studied. When one-way traffic is con-
sidered separately, the volume curve may
tend to have a single peak period of greater
istics are portrayed in the figure. On urban magnitude than when the total two-way flow
streets and highways, the Monday through is considered.
Friday daily traffic volume is fairly stable,
and the Sunday volume quite low. The re- VARIATIONS WITHIN THE HOUR (PEAKING
verse is generally true on rural highways, CHARACTERISTICS)
with peak daily volumes occurring on sum- Before going into more detail on the
mer Sundays and holidays. Individual loca- significance of hourly volumes as a deter-
tions may have characteristics different minant in the planning, design, and opera-
from any of the patterns shown. tion of highways, the short-period fluctua-
DAILY VARIATIONS
Daily time patterns show wide variation

for different routes, and also for different
days of the week and months of the year on
the same route. Inasmuch as peak-hour vol-
umes are a prime determinant in the plan-
ning, design and operation of highways, a
few of the more characteristic daily patterns WEEKDAYS
are discussed here.

Figure 3.6 shows the variations of hourly
volume for the average 1961 weekday for
(a) 49 rural stations on Wisconsin's trunk
highway system, and (b) 34 urban stations
in Milwaukee, Wis. The two patterns are SUNDAY
similar in one respect, the preponderance of

travel during the daylight hours. About
70 to 75 percent of the daily travel occurs
in the 12-hr period from 7:00 AM to 12M 4AM 8AM 12M
HOUR OF DAY
4PM 8PM 12M
7:00 PM. The Milwaukee stations depict

a pattern of two distinct daytime peaks Figure 3.7. Hourly variations of daily traffic
resulting from the repetitive travel from on Calumet Expressway, 1961.
(Source: Traffic Characlerislics on Illinois Highways,
home to centers of employment, business, 1961)
;;j I
L1 _
: -.
- 'S... •••. ..
-S
•?.. '"-,
1:z_..
j1 l eI .. .
Slower vehicle forces following vehicles to reduce their speeds; queuing e/Ject cOnh?flellCi,Ig on
two-lane rural highway.
tions in traffic flows within the hour should be I vps, based on the hourly volume. The
be considered. Although hourly volumes are variability of smaller mean values is greater
normally used in planning and design, the than that of larger mean values, when ex-
ability of a highway to accommodate satis- pressed as a percentage of the mean. The
factorily an hourly volume depends primarily narrowing of the confidence interval band
on the magnitude and sequence of these for increasing mean values is characteristic
short-period fluctuations. not only of the Poisson distribution, which
No matter what criteria are used for the closely approxiniates the distribution of light
design and operation of a highway, it is volumes of traffic, but also of the many
necessary to know what the nature of the other distributions which have been used to
traffic demand will be, as well as its specific approximate various actual traffic distribu-
value. A peak-hour volume does not neces- tions. Even the normal distribution exhibits
sarily imply that a high rate of flow will these same characteristics, although it is
exist for less than a full hour, more than an rarely used as an example of existing traffic
hour, or approximately one hour: it is sim- distributions. Thus, even without the occur-
ply an estimate of the maximum number of rence of a change of volume within a given
vehicles expected on a facility during a full peak hour, a short-term period within this
60-nun period. Due to the nature of the hour has increased probability of exceeding
peak-hour demand and the statistically vari- its mean by a given percent than does the
able nature of traffic, it is known that short- whole hour.
term rates of flow within the peak hour are For planning purposes, future volumes
often quite variable. are usually estimated for the peak-hour
The statistical variability of volumes of period. In order to relate such volumes
traffic is affected by the time period involved. to a design peak rate of flow, the factors
As the time period is reduced, the average which affect this relationship must be estab-
number of vehicles for that time period lished and evaluated.
will reduce accordingly. For example, if Various studies, notably those concerned
the average hourly volume were 1,800 vph, with freeway, tunnel, and intersection opera-
the average minute volume would be 30 tion, have been concerned with this rela-
vpm and the average second volume would tionship of peak periods to total peak-hourly
34 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
ways in 54 cities as reported to the Bureau

of Public Roads (4). Here, size of the
metropolitan area, as measured by popula-
(a) tion, is used as a primary criterion. Although
a reduction in the peaking effect with in-
creasing city size is noted, the wide scatter
of individual readings shown by the standard
0 deviation suggests the need for caution in
25 30 40
35 45
HOURLY VOLUME IN PEAK 15 MIN (%)
50 55
applying this relationship at a specific loca-
tion. The reduced peaking on those high-
i••m••a.•
MMMMMMMMMMMM
ways reported as non-free-flowing during
the peak hour points out the damping effect
of congestion..
C
20
mmmmmmmmmllk Another study utilized data from more

than 200 freeway traffic studies, including
10 work by the Texas Highway Department,
C the previously mentioned work of the Bureau
of Public Roads, studies conducted by the
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Texas Transportation Institute, and specific
PEAK-HOUR FACTOR
studies conducted for the project (5). The
relationship between short-period (5-mm)
Figure 3.8. Distribution of (ci) magnitude of
15-min peak flow rate and (b) 15-mm peak-hour traffic flow to total hourly flow was deter-
factors at 792 signalized urban intersections. mined from these data.
(Source: BPR 1955-56 studies, and Ref. 2) Consideration of all factors likely to
influence peaking characteristics was not
possible in this study, however. For in-
stance, the degree of utilization, or "load-
ing," of a freeway in some instances is con-
volume. Variations within other than the trolled by the capacity and operation of the
peak hour are usually less critical and sel- supporting street system and that capacity
dom require investigation. Variations with-
in the peak hour on ordinary two-lane and
multilane highways without access control
have received relatively little study as yet.
A Michigan study of seven different multi- rM
lane highways of various types found that

the peak 15 min carried from 26.1 to 30.7
percent of the peak-hour traffic, with an 0
11.1111110M I
average of 28.5 percent (3). ll.0
Figure 3.8 shows the distribution of peak

15-min rates of flow as a percent of hourly
volume computed for 792 signalized inter-
0.5:!IUIH
section approaches on all types of streets.
The peak 15 min contained from 25 to 55
percent of the total hourly volume, averag-
U0
2
0.0
9.5
Ninon
ing 29.3 percent for all approaches.
Freeway and expressway studies have i!!UhII
9.0
frequently used 5- or 6-min flows as being
more indicative than hourly volumes. Figure
3.9 shows the relationship of peak 5-mm
!IIHIIHHIIII
8.5
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
METROPOLITAN AREA POPULATION (MILLIONS)
flows to peak-hour volumes, summarized
from data for 225 study locations on free- Figure 3.9. Peaking trends related to popula-
tion and quality of traffic flow.
See Chapter Six. (Source: Ref. 4)
36 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Iwo
31 cities in 18 states. The variables are
statistically significant and the curves fit the
available data with a standard deviation of
5 percent. They are also in reasonable con-
.IOOO t ;
11 formance with the results shown in Figure
O8SERVED RATE OF FLOW (1,OOO)
3.9.
Figure 3.11. Relationship l,etween error in esli- Figure 3.1 I shows the relationship between
mated rate of f/au' and obse'ved rate of flow. estimated rates of flow and observed rates
(Source: Ref. 5) of flow and includes a 10 percent error
band within which most points were in-
cluded. Figure 3.12 shows the frequency
distribution of the percent error involved in
also sometimes limits "unloading.' which using Figure 3.10 to estimate the peak rates
results in impaired freeway operation. There of flow. As can be noted, the errors are
was not sufficient knowledge of each of the somewhat normally distributed.
freeways, except those in Texas and a few
other specific sites, to permit consideration
of these characteristics. However, conges-
(ion was not apparent in the immediate
vicinity of any of the study sites. It is possi-
ble that much better correlations of the
results would have been possible had all
conditions been known. Those freeways
known to have good "loading" and "unload-
ing" characteristics showed very good cor-
relation of the data.
Many characteristics related to trip gener-
ation—such as geographical and time con-
centrations of trips, character of the freeway
(radial, circumferential, etc.), character of
the supporting street system, population,
area served—have marked effects on peak-
ing characteristics. However, as was the
Overtaking and passing maneuver on rural loss'-
case in the Bureau of Public Roads study, volume freeway.
it was possible from the data available to
study only the relationship of peaking to
the population of the city or urban area.
The results (Fig. 3.10) are based on the Relating Hourly Volu,nes to A nnual
data for 132 peak periods from studies in A verages and Peak Flows
The foregoing discussion has served to
indicate that normal traffic patterns develop
peaking characteristics with respect to both
time and location. Because these variations
in traffic flow represent patterns of travel
desire, the adequacy of a highway cannot
be judged by its ability to carry the average
volume, but rather must be evaluated in
terms of its ability to function properly
PERCE NT under specified peak loads. This concept that
Figure 3.12. Frequency distribution of percent the capacity of a highway is a function of
ditlerence bet wean e.s-t,,nated and observed rates both the physical features of the roadway
of floss'. and the pattern of demand shapes present
(Source: Ref. 5) highway practices.
In subsequent chapters, traffic volumes

are expressed in terms of vehicles per hour. U,
0
However, the engineer often finds that com- 0
0
plete and detailed hourly volume data are
not available. Many times the only infor- 1.0
0
mation may be a group of scattered counts 0
>
or an estimate of annual average daily
traffic (AADT), based on counts made at 0
0
intervals throughout the year on the high- 0.5
way under consideration or on similar

highways. In such cases, a method for
adjusting the available counts to determine
the hourly capacity necessary becomes a 0 100 1,000 10,000
matter of paramount importance. A clear NUMBER OF HOURS a VOLUME SHOWN
understanding of the variations in traffic Figure 3.13. Yearly variation of hourly traffic
load that may be expected is essential in this volumes in descending order of magnitude.
determination. Without this knowledge the (Source: Individual ATR s(alion; analyzed by BPR)
application of traffic count data to planning,
design, and operation cannot be completely
successful. mum recorded hourly volume of 1,575 vph
DETERMINATIO'J OF PEAK HOURLY VOLUMES
would have substantial excess capacity dur-
ing all but one hour of the year, an ecOnomi-
Closely related to the fluctuations in cally unfeasible situation. The selection of
traffic flow is the selection of the specific an appropriate value as the hourly volume
hourly volume which should be used for to be served is, thus, a compromise between
design purposes or which should be estab- annual service provided and cost. Customary
lished as the reasonable volume which an practice in the United States would base
existing street or highway should be expected design on a value between the 10th and
to accommodate. Therefore, knowledge of 50th highest hourly volume or, in this
those brief, but frequently repeated,- peak example, between three and four times the
volumes is essential.
When hourly traffic counts for a full
year are available for a highway under con-
sideration, it is possible to show the distribu- 100
tion of hourly volumes by arranging these 0

2.0
volumes in descending order of magnitude. -J

90
These volumes can be shown either as a 0
-J
0
continuous array (Fig. 3.13) or as an 70 >
0
accumulation of the total vehicles served at 0
or above various volume levels (Fig. 3.14). >
-J
In the example shown, one-half of the hours 4
0 50
Z Lc 0
carry volumes of less than 235 vph, but z
4 40
only 13 percent of the total annual volume 0 C
I-
is served during those hours. Conversely, 4
30 Z
0
one-half of the traffic is served in the less 0 0.5
20
0 0.
than 20 percent of hours which carry over 0
0
425 vph. It is obvious that a highway 4
designed to give an acceptable level of serv-

.5 1.0 0.5
ice on the basis of either of these hourly HOURLY VOLUME (1,000 VEH)
volumes would be less than adequate on
Figure 3.14. Amount and percentage of annual
many occasions when higher demand existed.
volume served at or above hourly volumes
On the other hand, a highway designed to shown.
provide a high level of service for the maxi- (Source: Figure 3.13)
38 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
average hourly volume. Frequently, the 30th TABLE 3.11—OBSERVED HOURLY

highest hourly volume is used, but it is not TRAFFIC VOLUMES ON TWO RURAL
a rigid criterion. HIGHWAY SECTIONS WITH IDEN-
Table 3.11 gives the yearly traffic pat- TICAL AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
terns for two rural highways in the same
state. For these two roads, neither the annual ROAD ROAD
volume nor the maximum hourly volume, ITEM A B
by itself, adequately describes operating con-
ditions; both measures must be considered. AADT 7,200 7,200
Both highways have an annual average Maximum hourly volume 2,462 988
10th highest hourly volume 2,106 896
volume of approximately 7,200 vpd; yet the 20th highest hourly volume 1,986 880
peak hourly volumes on Road A are much 30th highest hourly volume 1,892 864
higher than those on Road B due to greater 50th highest hourly volume 1,720 840
fluctuation in traffic flow. The volume dur- 100th highest hourly volume 1,506 800
ing the peak hour on Road A is 2.5 times 200th highest hourly volume 1,270 762
that of Road B. Road A has volumes exceed- 400th highest hourly volume 1,010 644
ing 900 vph 5.7 percent of the time, whereas 600th highest hourly volume 824 588
on Road B this volume is exceeded only
0.1 percent of the time.
It is apparent that if peak volumes are to
be handled adequately Road A would require yearly traffic patterns for one direction and
a higher-type design than Road B, even two directions and for urban and rural high-
though the AADT's are the same. ways from a sample of 113 continuous
Figures 3.15 and 3.16 show the average counting stations in 17 states. The curves
24
20
0
44
101RECrl
U AN
0.
0.02 0.1 0.20 0.50 1.0 50 10.0 50.0 100.0

PERCENTAGE OF HOURS IN YEAR
Figure 3.15. Percentage of ADT recorded during all hours of the year on 113 selected urban and
rural roads, 1959-1960.
(Source: BPR)
I
26
'4
U
10
20 40 60 80 100
D
HOUR OF YEAR
Figure 3.16. ADT recorded thiring 100 highest hours of year on 113 selected urban and rural
roads, 1959-60.
(Source: BPR)
represent the median values for highways Figures 3.15 and 3.16 show the difference
ranging in volume from 429 to 66,624 in peak-hour percentage between one-direc-
AADT. tional and two-directional volumes. The
Looking first at all curves, a similar dis- volume variations in one direction have been
tribution of traffic volumes is observed expressed as a percentage of the one-direc-
throughout the lower 90 percent of the tion AADT, as found on the sample of
hours carrying from 0 to 8 percent of the highways of more than two lanes, whereas
AADT. About three-fourths of the total the variations in two directions combined are
annual traffic is carried in these hours. For expressed as percentages of the two-direc-
the 10 percent of hours of highest volume, tion AADT. It can be seen that for the
the data in all four classes are best repre- average condition the peaking characteristic
sented mathematically by exponential curves for one direction of flow is substantially
of the order y = a + b. Thus plotted in higher than that for two directions.
semilogarithmic form (Fig. 3.15), no demon- All measurable continuous volume pat-
strated break in the curves is apparent at the terns must, of course, be obtained from
30th highest hour. Plotted directly, how- specific locations on existing highways, and
ever, such a break is evident (Fig. 3.16). measure variations at those particular points.
Consider next the differences in rural and At such points, the maximum volume
urban patterns. Although there are specific recorded will be the lesser of two values—
exceptions to the generalization, it can be either the peak demand for use or the capac-
said that peak traffic volumes in urban areas ity of the highway, whichever governs.
are a somewhat lower percentage of the Unless observations are from highways
AADT than on rural highways. One reason with excess capacity during all hours, the
for this pattern is discussed in the preceding effect of capacity limitations on the magni-
section on time variations of traffic flow. In tilde and duration of peak traffic flows will
general, urban highways are less affected by be a significant, but unquantified, factor
seasonal, weekly, and daily variations in affecting time-volume relationships.
travel demand, with traffic being distributed
RELATION OF HOURLY VOLUMES TO ANNUAL
more uniformly throitghout the time period
AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
considered. Traffic variations become less
pronounced as the types of traffic (com- Continuous volume counts are available
position, trip length, purpose) using the at only a limited number of locations on the
highway become more varied. The extent existing highway system, and then only
of development in the area traversed by the depict past occurrences. The most common
highway is a major factor. measure used in reporting the traffic on a
40 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
TABLE 3.12-PERCENTAGE OF AADT IN PEAK HOUR FOR ONE DIRECTION

AND BOTH DIRECTIONS BY PEAK HOUR, 30TH HIGHEST HOUR,
AND 200TH HIGHEST HOUR, BY TYPE OF FACILITY•
PERCENTAGE OF AADT IN PEAK HOURS
ONE DIRECTION BOTH DIRECTIONS

TYPE OF FACILITY
30TH I 200TH 30TH 200TH
PEAK HIGHEST HIGHEST PEAK HIGHEST HIGHEST
HOUR HOUR HOUR HOUR HOUR HOUR
Rural:
Freeway 23.6 15.4 11.4 18.3 13.5 10.9
Expressway 21.5 14.1 10.6 19.2 12.7 9.7
Highway with more than 2 lanes 21.2 13.7
2-Lane two-way highway - -
10.3
-
16.4
19.7
12.7
13.6
9.9
11.2
Urban:
Freeway 15.0 12.7 10.7 13.6 11.0 9.6
Expressway 14.6 11.4 8.9 11.6 9.5 8.3
Street with more than 2 lanes 13.8 11.1 9.6 12.0 10.0 8.7
2-Lane two-way street - - - 13.4 10.6 9.0
highway is the annual average daily traffic The percentage of AADT in

flow (AADT). For the most part, the AADT the highest hours is generally less for urban
of a given roadway is estimated from highways than for rural highways and is
short counts adjusted by factors obtained less for two-directional traffic than for one-
at one or more continuous counting stations directional traffic.
having assumed similar time patterns. The percentage of AADT in the highest
As a guide in relating annual traffic vol- hours is generally greater for highways with
umes and peak-hourly flows, an analysis of very low AADT (under 1,000).
traffic data collected during 1961 and 1962 The percentage of AADT in an hour
throughout the United States is presented in typically decreases from the highest hour
Appendix A of this manual, by region, by through the 200th highest hour in a smooth
rural and urban location, and by various curve, without a sudden change in the rate
design types (freeways, expressways, high- of change at any point.
ways of more than two lanes, two-lane high-
ways). Average and maximum 24-hr vol- The foregoing discussion emphasizes the
times are given and, in accordance with problem of selecting a measured or pre-
present practice, various.categories of hourly dicted traffic volume to be used for design
volumes are expressed as a percentage of the purposes. That this volume should be greater
AADT. An examination of these data, than an average volume is undeniable. The
which are summarized in Table 3.12 and selection of. an appropriate design hourly
Figures 3.17 through 3.20, leads to the volume becomes an economic and system
following general conclusions: consideration of balancing expected benefits
with construction costs; this involves admin-
There is a wide variation in the per- istrative decisions beyond the scope of this
centage of AADT in the highest hour with- manual.
in each class of highway.
The variation decreases from the high- TRENDS IN HIGHEST HOUR RELATIONSHIPS
est hour through the 200th highest hour, In this section, relationships of the 30th
and decreases as AADT increases. highest hour will be discussed. This is be-
II
EU
x
z
(b) URBAN
ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEl.
TWO DIRECTIONS OF TRAVEL

20
26 LOCATIONS
10
I I I
771
100 200 8- 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 69 20 21.
10 30 DO
HOUR OF YEAR PERCENTAGE OF AADT IN 30TH HIGHEST HOUR
Figure 3.17. Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on freeways..
ONE DIRECT' ON OF TRAVEL

LOCATIONS
Me
_____________________________
.
0
60
C
- ONE DIRECTIONOF TRAVEL
Z 40 8 LOCATIONS
U
2O
73
60
40 7 TWO DIRECTIONS OF TRAVEL

ID LOCATIONS
20
10 30 50 100 200 S. 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 IN 20 21,
HOUR OF TEAR PERCENTAGE OF AADT IN 30TH HIGHEST HOUR
Figure 3.18. Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on expressways.
42
-"
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL

28 LOCATIONS
191
0
t:VI DIRECTIONS . flI;l'yOW

33 LOCATIONS
UFO
P.0il jwmordi
r
30
= 20'
U
11 h1.i,r"19 _
0.
10
30.
malpop II -
00 FIA LOC ATIONS
10.
10 30 50 100 200
0. 0
/"
0- 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21..
HOUR OF YEAR PERCENTAGE OF AAOT IN 30TH HIGHEST HOUR
Figure 3.19. Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on ordinary multilane
highways.
4 30
20
z
239 LOCATIONS
'9
0 0
0
U.
0
UI
0
z
C
I-
U
U
a
LII
0.
30
20 34 LOCATIONS
10
C
10 30 SO lOS 200 R- 9 10 II ID 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 DI..
HOUR OF YEAR ' PERCENTAGE OF AADT IN 30TH HIGHEST HOUR
Figure 3.20. Relation of hourly volumes and annual average daily traffic on two-lane highways.
-
-:-
Traffic signals such as this special pedestrian one interrupt vehicular traffic to provide for crossing
movement.
cause many states utilize the 30th highest The 30th highest hour factor generally
hour as a design criterion for rural highways, decreases as the AADT on a highway
thus data on the 30th highest hour relation- increases.
ships are readily available. This frequent The reduction rate for the higher
reference to the 30th highest hour should 30th highest hour factors is much greater
not be misconstrued as a recommendation than for low factors.
for rigid adoption, but rather as an example Highways through areas of low popu-
of typical highest hour relationships and lation or sparse development, or those sub-
trends. These same relationships and trends
are generally true for other high-volume
ject to high seasonal traffic fluctuations, have /
high 30th highest hour factors. Develop-
hours within the normal design range. ment or growth in the surrounding area
Early investigations in the area of 30th tends to lower these factors more rapidly
highest hour trends found little, if any, than would otherwise occur.
change in the ratio of the 30th highest hour
Under light volumes the excess capacity
to AADT from year to year. It was thus con-
of a particular highway allows unimpeded
cluded that an increase in AADT was fol-
travel whenever desired, whereas limited
lowed by a corresponding increase in the
trip purposes in sparsely settled areas create
high hourly volumes on any particular high-
short but intense periods of travel demand.
way. More recent investigations, based on
extended coverage and longer periods of This creates very high factors. As total vol-
continuous-count operation, have not con- unie increases and/or the surrounding area
firmed the above conclusion (6, 7, 8). The develops, an increase in trip purposes tends
findings of three of the more significant to spread the travel demand throughout
studies, based on 30th highest hour relation- the day more evenly. At some time, capac-
ships, are as follows: ity limitations of the highway itself may
44 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
TABLE 3.13-AVERAGE SPEED, BY An analysis' of 1947 to 1961 data from

VEHICLE TYPE, 1946-1964 continuous traffic counting stations on rural
\ highways ,in Wisconsin showed that the
\\
AVERAGE SPEED (MPH) decrease in the 30th highest hour factor
within any group of stations with similar
PAS-. ALL
traffic patterns was mainly a function of an
SENGER yE-
increase in AADT (6). Another study in
YEAR CARS BUSES TRUCKS HICLES
New Jersey of data from 69 stations indi-
1946 46.1 47.8 40.2 45.2 cated that the decrease in the 30th highest
1947 48.1 48.4 42.5 46.9 hour factor was principally a function of
1948 48.8 50.0 43.1 47.7 time, decreasing at an average rate of 2.3
1949 48.7 50.3 43.5 47.6 percent compounded per year (7). A third
1950 48.7 49.8 43.0 47.6 study of 160 stations scattered throughout
1951 50.1 51.2 44.4 48.9
1952 50.8 52.1 45.0 49.5 the United States found the relationship to
1953 51.3 51.8 45.1 49.8 be a function of both volume increase and
1954 51.4 51.8 45.4 50.0 time (8).
1955 52.0 52.3 45.6 50.5 Each study represents an analysis of data
1956 52.0 52.2 46.2 50.6 limited to specific states or route types;
1957 52.6 52.6 47.0 51.4 hence, the findings cannot be assumed appli-
1958 52.8 53.6 47.3 51.7 cable for other than the localities studied.
1959 53.2 53.5 47.3 51.9
1960 Nevertheless, they represent a methodology
53.8 55.5 48.2 52.6
1961 53.7 55.3 48.3 52.6 that may be used to estimate or forecast
1962 55.1 56.0 49.4 53.8 peak traffic flow more accurately. Further
1963 57.1 58.1 51.3 55.8 research is necessary to define more ade-
1964 56.9 57.3 50.9 55.6 quately the relative effects of these and other
SOURCE: Bureau of Public Roads, 'Speed Trends,
factors on the trend in peak rates of traffic
various years. flow.
Preliminary.
SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
No discussion of highway or street capac-

limit the amount of traffic that can be ity would, be complete without considera-
carried during the peak hours, either sup- tion of the operating speed under the given
pressing travel or lengthening the time over conditions. Much of the driver's evaluation
which the peak periods extend. Therefore, of a highway depends on the speed at which
a decrease in any high hour factor does not he can operate. The engineers' definition of
imply a decrease in the volume during peak service volumes is also predicated in part
periods, but only a larger percentage in- on the relationships between volume and
crease in total traffic, especially during the speed on any given highway.
off-peak hours. The factors, therefore, are Given a highway on which vehicles can
subject to the same considerations as de- be operated at 70 mph if volume levels are
scribed in the section on time variations in low, some lesser speed is usually tolerated
traffic flow, where peak periods of flow are by the road user under many conditions.
a smaller percentage of the total under high Current experience on rural highways
volume conditions and in well-developed of advanced design indicates that more
areas. Under extreme conditions, !any traffic than 95 percent of the drivers do not exceed
growth must take place in off-peak periods speeds of 75 to 80 mph, and appear satisfied
due to congestion during the peak periods. when geometric and traffic situations result
The magnitude of change in the 30th in average operating speeds between 55 and
highest hour or any other level selected will 65 mph. Unfortunately, no equivalent data
depend on many factors and should be are available for urban streets. Whether or
determined for each state, area, or, if pos- not it is necessary or desirable to provide
sible, specific highway. Initial studies in identical operating conditions for urban as
this field have already been undertaken. for rural highways remains subject to dis-
180 60
cussion, but at present it is usually assumed
that drivers will accept somewhat poorer
service inurban areas than in rural.
60 50
Speed Trends
>
Although any given, set of speed observa-
40
tions may be influenced by such items as
volume, capacity, design, weather, or traffic z
control devices, the long-range speed trend rl
has been gradually increasing, as shown in 20
SPEED
50 z
Table 3.13, which gives the result of speed

studies conducted by more than one-half of
the states on level tangent sections of main
00
rural highways, during periods of relatively 7:00 7:20 7:40' 8:00 8:20
low traffic densities when most drivers can TIME. AM
travel at their desired speeds, subject, of Figure 3.21. Variation of flow and speed dur-
course, to applicable speed limits and en- ing 5-min intervals of morning peak period,
forcement levels. Measurements were made Gulf Freeway, Houston, Tex.
on both two-lane and multilane facilities, (Source: Ref.'lO)
many of which were not of advanced design.
Some measure of the effect of modern
design on the speed trends can be noted from
a 1961 traffic speed study by the Wisconsin for that particular segment of highway will
State Highway Commission (9). During tend to decrease with time.
1961 the average speed of vehicles observed Although the effects described in the
during low-volume periods on level tangent foregoing are found on all types of high-
sections. of the regular rural state highway ways, they are most clear-cut on freeways
system was 53.2 mph. Under similar con- and expressways, where few roadside fric-
ditions, the average speed on the completed tions are present to produce other adverse
portions of the Interstate highway system effects. Hence, in most of the remainder of
was 60.1 mph, a reflection of the influ- this discussion of speed characteristics, exam-
ence of better design. This finding is typical ples taken from freeway operations are
of those being made by 'the many states employed.
which study traffic speed trends.
The speed trends shown in Table 3.13, Daily Speed Variations
as noted, are based on observations on a
selected set of highways at times when The previously noted influences of volume
drivers can travel at desired speeds. Thus; and capacity on speeds can be observed
they indicate an increase in desired speeds when volume or density curves are super-
and, to a lesser extent, the influence of imposed on the speed curves for like time
improved highway design. But speed stud- periods on the same highway. Typically, a
ies made in this manner may not reflect speed reduction is found with increasing
the impact of capacity limitations on speeds, volume. Figure 3.21 shows this relationship
so that a series of speed measurements during the morning rush hour for the median
made during hours of peak flow rates may lane of ' the Gulf Freeway in Houston,
have a long-range trend of decreasing speed. Tex., for 5-min increments.
As time passes the capacity of an open rural A similar relationship over a 12-hr period
highway remains relatively constant, but the is shown in Fig 3.22, derived from data for
number of hours during which the volume all lanes in one direction on the Edsel Ford
rate approaches capacity usually increases. Expressway in Detroit, Mich. The minimum
Under these conditions there will be more speed during the period occurred during the
hours when vehicles will not be able to drive morning peak, just prior to 8:00 AM, and
at their desired speed and the average speed corresponds to the hour of peak flow rate.
46 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
rp transition from more casual midday drivers

to the work-to-home group.
---
-- -
_ -I
A comparison of the distribution of day
and night speeds is shown in Figure 3.23,
__WI-'
Pr" --
based on data from the Davison Express-
way in Detroit. The distribution in this case
is for 1-min average speeds and shows the
percent of minute intervals less than a given
speed. The median speeds for daytime and
nighttime are nearly identical, but the varia-
tion of nighttime speeds is much greater.
Two-thirds of the daytime minute average
speeds are within 3 mph of the median day-
0'
time speed, whereas less than one-half of the
- 0
6AM 8AM IOANI MOON 2PM 4PM 6PM minute average speeds are within 3 mph of
TIME OF DAY the median nighttime speed.
Figure 3.22. Variation in volume and speed by As noted in the foregoing examples, speed
time of day, Ford Expressway, Detroit, 1959. distributions and averages vary by hours of
(Source: Ref. 3) the day as the result of many influences.
Driver characteristics, trip purposes, visi-
bility, and volume-capacity effects are all
related to daily speed variations.
In this example, it is important to note that
in the afternoon peak a lesser volume in- Average Speed by Lanes
crease did not result in a speed reduction;
instead, it was accompanied by a slight For any given time of day there is also a
increase in average speed. This phenome- variation in average speed for each lane
non, observed on other freeways as well, of multilane freeways. This effect is seen
may be due to differences in the driver pop- in Table 3.14, which presents mean speeds
ulation (i.e., the driver category, such as by lane compiled from several sources.
home-to-work, business, housewife) at dif- In every instance but one, the slowest
ferent hours. In the morning peak, traffic average speed was found in the shoulder
is principally a "clean" buildup of home- lane (lane 1). This is consistent with the
to-work drivers intent on reaching their prevalent pattern in the United States, where
destination; but in the afternoon there is a slow-moving vehicles keep to the right or
shoulder lane.
Another factor influencing freeway lane
speeds is the number of entrances and exits.
The influence of adjacent ramps on lane
average speed was demonstratedin a study
of the Gulf Freeway which compared §peeds
before and after ramps leading to the free-
way were closed to traffic (JO). Based on
5-min observations, the volume in lane 1
adjacent to the ramps showed little, if any,
increase when the ramps were closed. On
the other hand, average speeds in lane 1
showed a substantial increase after the ramps
30 40 50 60 were closed, in one case from 23 mph to
ONE-MINUTE AVERAGE SPEEDS (MPH) 36 mph. This increase in speed was attribut-
able to a decrease in turbulence in lane I.
Figure 3.23. Daytime and nighttime speed dis-
tribution, Davison Expressway, Detroit, 1959. The values given in Table 3.14 indicate
(Source: Ref. 21) speed differentials between lanes under mod-
TABLE 3.14—MEAN SPEEDS BY LANES
MEAN SPEED (MPH) AVG. RATE OF

LOCATION SOURCE FLOW PER
LANE I LANE 2 LANE 3 LANE
New Jersey Turnpike Ref. 41 46 55 60 1,120

Eastshore Freeway, Calif. Ref. 23 46 51 53 1,423
Pasadena Freeway, Calif. Ref. 23 42 44 46 1,756
Gulf Freeway, Texas Ref. 10 43 X 41 1,543
Ford Expressway, Mich. Ref. 3 42 46 47 -'
Davison Expressway, Mich. Ref. 3 45 48 47
Santa Ana Freeway, Calif. Ref. 23 44 45 None 1,963
North Sacramento Fwy., Calif. Ref. 23 46 50 None 1,449
Merritt Parkway, Conn. Ref. 32 47 51 None 1,095
Hutchinson River Parkway, N. Y. Ref. 42 41 45 None 1,000
'24-Hour average.
erate to heavy volumes. Generally, the aver- a well-enforced 60-mph speed limit. The
age speed differential between lanes will average speed is 55.5 mph and the middle
show a wider range than that indicated in 70 percent of the drivers were observed in
Table 3.14 under low volumes, with this the 16-mph range from 47 to 63 mph.
differential narrowing as the volume in- Curves D and D' show typical speed
creases. distributions for higher speed limits or light
enforcement on high-type facilities. In each
Speed Distributions case, the average speed is 64.2 mph, and the
middle 70 percent of drivers travel in a
Previous discussion has been concerned broader range between 55 mph and 73 to
with the effect of various factors on average 75 mph.
speeds. Except in unusual circumstances,
The curves of Figure 3.24 are based on
however, individual vehicle speeds are dis-
observations made when capacity limitations
tributed about the average. Figure 3.24
did not affect the drivers' choice of speed.
depicts typical distributions for uncongested
level tangent sections of rural highways in As volume increases, drivers are less able
1941 and 1958, based on information sup- to choose their own speed, the faster drivers
plied by a number of states, and for the New being forced to decrease speeds more than
Jersey Turnpike and the Kansas Turnpike the slow drivers, and the range of speeds
is reduced. -
based on information supplied by their oper-
ating authorities. A specific illustration of the influence of
Prior to 1941 the average speed for rate of flow on speed distributions is shown
passenger cars was in the range between in Figure 3.25, derived from data on passen-
42.5 and 48.5 mph, as shown in curves A ger car speeds in lane 2 of the John Lodge
and B, Figure 3.24. For higher speed high- Expressway in Detroit (11). At a mean lane
ways in 1941 (curve B), the middle 70 per- rate of flow of 954 vph, the median speed
cent of the drivers traveled within a range in lane 2 was 49 mph and the middle 70
of 18 mph, from 39 to 57 mph. Average percentile range was 9.6 mph. Increasing
speed for all rural highways in 1958 had the rate of flow to 1,977 vph per lane
increased to 52.8 mph (curve B'), with lowered the median speed to 46 mph and
the middle 70 percent of the drivers ranging the 70 percentile range to 8.8 mph. This
from 44 to 61 mph, or a spread of 17 mph. relationship between volume and speed pro-
Curve C is a typical speed distribution vides one method for capacity determina-
for passenger cars on a rural freeway with tions as developed in this manual.
48 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
100
z
3
0 ~N PA,N E0
0 -0a0N
- ON
O'0
0 -0
Mr/005 1
t
In
0
80
MID I :*
I N 194~
I ' 1 %=9A
z
C
r
In
wFA MAMV AMPAA
'M
'A
FREEWAY WITH 1. MPH LIMIT
60 0EM MEMO
ME.!
0
I-
C
0
z
EVAEMEMOEMMO
UI
>
C
MONFAVANAMNAMEMEMEN
MENEWEEMEMMEMEN
40
U
t
>
0 20
MEEMMENEMEMEMEN
C
z MENEEMEMEMOMMEN
U
0 ORNMENEEMEMEMEN
30 90 011 DV
SPEED (MPH)
IV DV #9 911
Figure 3.24. Distribution of normal passenger-car speeds.

(Source: Freeway Operations, Inst. of Traflic Eng., 1960)
100 __0- --
-
-- -
77 -
-
Sc
---/--
MEANE 0FW: - -
LANE, 1,471 VPH MEAN RATE OF FL0W
-- TOTAL, 5,415 VP#1 - - _ LANE, 954 VP8
5 5-818 SAMPLES TOTAL, 2,441 VPII;
22 5-818 SAMPLES
/ --
34 38 58 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 - 56 58 80 62 84 66
SPEED (MPH)
Figure 3.25. Passenger vehicle velocity distribution in north bound and southbound middle lanes,
Lodge Expressway, Detroit, 1957.
(Source: Ref. 11)
More general illustrations of this speed- estimating gaps and delays at vehicular and
volume relationship for certain broad classes pedestrian crossings, developing traffic con-
of highway are presented in Figures 3.26, trol warrants, and timing traffic signals.
3.27, and 3.28, which show for freeways, The following discussion introduces vehicu-
ordinary multilane highways, and two-lane lar spacing characteristics as an important
highways, respectively, speed distributions determinant in traffic operations.
likely to be found at each of several different
approximate volume levels. These curves Mathe,natical Relationships
are generalizations for relatively ideal con-
ditions, developed from a variety of recent Spacing is the distance measure and head-
speed distribution and average speed data way is the time measure from head to head
on file at the Bureau of Public Roads. (The of successive vehicles. Thus, one mile of
letters A through F on each chart refer to roadway includes spacings totaling one mile
levels of service represented, as described and one hour of traffic flow includes head-
in Chapter Four and used throughout the ways totaling one hour. Spacing and head-
remainder of the manual). way may be considered for each lane sepa-
rately, for all lanes in one direction, or, in
special cases, between all vehicles regard-
SPACING AND HEADWAY CHARACTERISTICS
less of direction. These two measures thus
Capacity studies of intersections, weav- describe the longitudinal arrangement of
ing areas, ramps, and tunnels, and other vehicles in a traffic stream.
analyses of roadway characteristics, have The relationship between spacing and
required the investigation of spacing and headway is dependent on speed, with
headway characteristics. Vehicular spacing
also has application in predicting arrival Headway (sec) = Spacing (ft) (3.1)
Speed (ft/sec)
rates at a point, testing the randomness of
traffic flow, designing vehicular storage lanes, This equation is clearly true for pairs of
100
90
a
0
60
0
uuurririuirr•u•i•u
'Li
0- 70
in
.
a
4
:BIi111I•UlUl
X 60
I-
••••••iiiiiv•i••m•
'I,
in
50
••••••iiiiwiiri......•
a
0
40
C
0
z
30
>
5 10 IS 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
SPOT SPEED (MPH)
Figure 3.26. Typical distribution of passenger car speeds in one direction of travel under ideal
uninterrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways.
(Source: BPR, combined data from various studies)
50 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
100
90
z
3
0
80 SEENESSEEMBEE0WON 1
0
w
INEMEMEENME N•
cc
I-
I,,
70
60 ••uur
I 1
irirrr
110
isiuu
AMEMEME
50
cc
I-
CD
0
>
40
50 uuuuuinti•uuu•i
C-
=
>
20
CO ••••unvirimumu•uu•
••uuuru•••uu••
0 5 0 5 20 25 50 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
SPOT SPEED (MPH)
Figure 3.27. 'Typical distribution of passenger car speeds in one direction of travet under ideal
uninterrupted flow conditions on multilane rural highways.
00
NEEMMMMOMMMMMENOMM
cc
3
0
0
90
80 ••••••u•r1u•i•rA••••
uuiuuiiirici
CO
z
CD
CO
70
60 ••••uiririririariu••uu
CCC 50
cc
0
40
MMMMMMIMEWIMANAI MMIENE
CD
0
z
50
>
4
20 NEENEEMEMENNENESEN
(IC
o 10 MEMMEEMEENNEENEEME
>
0 5 10 IS 20 25 30 35 4045 50 05 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
SPOT SPEED (MPH)
Figure 3.28. Typical distribution of passenger car speeds for both directions of travel under
ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on two-lane rural highways.
Urban freeway under low niq/iui,nc traffic flow.
vehicles or a traffic stream operating in a choice of speed and position of his vehicle.
steady state, but becomes much more com- His decisions in weaving, merging. passing,
plex when individual vehicular speeds vary and car-following operations are predicated
considerably. on his judgment of suitable gaps between
A relationship between average spacing vehicles. The frequency and length of gaps
and density exists, as follows: also govern his ability to enter or cross
the traffic stream in question. Because spac-
Density (veh/mile) =
ing greatly affects the individual vehicle
5,280_(ft/mile) operation, the driver's reactions under van-
(3.2)
Ag. spacing (ft/veh) otis conditions have profound effects on
A similar relationship between average head- highway capacity.
way and volume may be expressed as Much of the earliest work in highway
capacity used assumed spacing between vehi-
Volume (vph) = cles as the criterion. Fundamentally, the
3600(sec/hr) (33 amount of traffic carried per unit of time
Average headway (sec/veh) varies directly with the speed and inversely
with the spacing between vehicles. There-
Spacing as a Measure of Capacity fore, considering a single lane of traffic for
sinpl icity,
Although volume may be the most signifi-
cant measure of traffic demand on a facility,
spacing and headway affect the individual Volume= Speed
- (3.4a)
Spacing
road user to a greater degree and are thus
more directly related to the level of service. or
Spacing and headway give the driver travel-
Volume (vph) =
ing within the traffic stream his sense of
freedom of movement or congestion and of 5,280_(ft/mile)xSpeed (mph)
(3.4b)
relative safety, and continuously affect his - Spacing (ft/veh)
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Using this reasoning, many early research- sponds to a rate of flow per lane of 2,400
ers and authors determined the maximum vph, which has been observed for short
capacity of a traffic lane by assuming certain periods under ideal environmental condi-
minimum spacings at various speeds: In tions on certain lanes of various freeways,
some of their studies, minimum spacings usually the median lane. This rate, however,
were computed by use of such factors as occurs under too specialized conditions to
driver reaction time, braking distances, and be considered a criterion for capacity.
coefficients of friction. In others, minimum
spacing as a function of speed was derived Headway Distribution and Random Flow
from field observations or photographic stud-
ies of vehicles traveling in queues so that If all vehicles using a highway were equally
each one could be assumed to be traveling at spaced, determination of maximum volumes
minimum spacing. or levels of congestion would be a simple
Much of this earlier work was summarized matter. However, vehicles do not move at
in the original (1950) edition of this manual. uniform headways; rather, they tend
Some of these results were remarkably close to form groups, even at low volumes. For
to the speed-spacing relationships found in each level of traffic volume there will be
more recent studies, especially for the lower an average headway. However, individual
ranges of speed. The main assumption made headways will show a large variation, with
in most cases was that for maximum flow many vehicles queuing at short headways
all or nearly all of the vehicles must be and others separted by relatively large time
traveling at minimum spacing. gaps.
Other studies have found that, generally, Figures 3.29 and 3.30 show headway dis-
drivers perform by using the criterion of tributions for vehicles traveling in the same
-
potential time to a collision point, with direction on typical two-lane and four-lane
average minimum headway a constant, re- rural highways for various volumes during
gardless of speed. Minimum headways vary uninterrupted flow. Under nearly all vol-
from f sec to 2 sec, depending on the driver ume conditions, approximately two-thirds of
and traffic conditions, with an average of the vehicles are spaced at, or less than, the
about H sec (12, 13). This value corre- mean headway between vehicles. In Figure
(00
-—=— -
--------
M-,
=-
80 1
ONEW10
0
I
- 60
1
4
MIRAWod
a
I
a
.( 40
0
U,
U,
>- 20
4
a
0
C
I
—-.— —-
4 6 8
VOLUME OF TRAFFIC IN ONE DIRECTION (100 yeN)
Figure 3.29. Frequency distribution of headways between successive vehicles traveling in the same
direction at various traffic volumes on typical iwo-lane rural highway.
(Source: Ref. 43)
100
80
MEMI
60
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 to 12 14 16 18 20
HOURLY TRAFFIC VOLUME IN ONE DIRECTION (100 VEH)
Figure 3.30. Frequency distribution of headways between successive vehicles traveling in the same
direction at various Ira ffic volumes on typical four-lane rural. highway.
(Source: Ref. 43)
3.30, for example, it can be seen that at an ways (3), it was found that in all cases the
hourly volume of 600 vehicles in one direc- mode (most frequently occurring value)
tion (or a mean headway of 6 see), approxi- was less than the median (50 percentile
mately 400 vehicles will be 6 sec or less level) and the median was less than. the
behind the car ahead. average headway. Approximately two-thirds
A study of Michigan freeways presented (64 to 69 percent) of the headways were less
headway data in a somewhat different man- than the mean headway, in agreement with
ner (3). Figure 3.31 shows the headway the data of Figure 3.30.
distributions related to 1-min flows sepa- Further description of vehicular spacing
rately for each laneof the Edsel Ford Ex- characteristics can best be made in mathe-
pressway. The heavy curve in each case in- matical terms. Under certain conditions ve-
dicates the mean headway at various 1-mm hicular spacing or vehicle arrival rates at
flow levels; the lighter curves represent the a point follow a random distribution; that
15, 50, 85, and 100 percentile levels for is, the position of each vehicle is independent
each lane. The 1-mm flows per lane were of any other vehicle and equal segments of
classified into seven groups by flow rate the road are equally likely to contain the
(6-10, 11-15, 16-20, 21-25, 26-30, 31-35, same number of vehicles. Such a distribu-
and 36-40 vpm) and the distribution of tion is given by the Poisson distribution
headways for each group is presented as a = emm2
crosshatched area. In lane 3 the mode is P(x) . (3.5)
between 0.6 and 1.0 see, whereas for lane
1 the mode ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 sec. in which
As 1-min flows increase, the distribution of
headways is more peaked and the mode P(x) = probability of exactly x occurrences;.
between 0.5 and 2.0 sec becomes more x= number of occurrences;
pronounced. e= base of Napieian (natural)
When these data were combined with logarithms (=2.7183); and
data from other Michigan multilane high- m= average expectation of occurrence.
54 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
10
8
=1 1010 ME. -0
6
2 WEAI o
wn w
0ww'~'
10
8
WEN_______
6
__•-
4
P.
-1011ff~-alI
1. _01-
4
11
1Mal"0
0 0(600) 20 (1,200) 30(1,800) 40 (2,400)
MINUTE VOLUME RATE (EQU(V. HOURLY RATE IN PARENTHESES)
Figure 3.31. Lane headway distribution related to traffic flow, Ford Expressway, Detroit, 1957.
(Source: Ref.. 21)
The Poisson distribution is most useful in in which

dealing with the distribution of discrete P(h~t) = probability of a time gap equal to
events, such as the arrival of vehicles within or greater than t;
a given time, interval. The distribution of. h = headway, in sec;
headways between vehicles is a continuous t= time, in sec; and
variable and is exponential in nature. This q = flow per second.
exponential distribution, derived from Pois- The solid line in Figure 3.32 is the computed
son for the condition that no vehicles arrive exponential distribution, but the points shown
during a given time interval, is given by are obtained from Figures 3.29 and 3.30 for
two-lane and four-lane rural highways carry-
(3.6) ing 500 vph. At this volume, the Poisson
distribution provides a good fit for four-lane uo,
highways, but not for two-lane highways.

2
0
0
0 TWO.LANE HIGHWAYS
Although the Poisson distribution may 80 R.LIGHWAYS

C
approximate the distribution of headways 0
in a traffic stream, two factors limit its C
direct application. First, the theoretical curve 60

distributes headways continuously over the C2
entire range of headways; yet, obviously, "4 00
in practice there exists a minimum headway C _ CONPUTED VALUES
that cannot be diminished. Except for multi-
lane highways, where two vehicles in differ-
ent lanes in the same direction of travel can
maintain a lesser headway, no spacings C0
exist at values less than perhaps 0.5 sec or r 0 5 25 30
5 0 20
30 ft, inasmuch as each gap must also in- HEADWAY (SEC)
clude one vehicle. The poor fit of the data Figure 3.32. Co,nputed and observed /teadvays
for two-lane highways in Figure 3.32 demon- for typical tti'o-/ane and four-lane highways
strates another-effect, the concentration of carrying 500 vp/i in one direction.
more vehicles into the short headway classes (Source: Data from Figs. 3.29 and 3.30)
due to platooning. As volumes increase,

more and more vehicles adopt short head-
ways as they overtake, but cannot pass,
slower moving vehicles. This bunching effect
is prevalent • on two-lane highways, but
may also become a significant factor on T1= average headway of free-moving
multilane highways at heavy volumes. vehicles; -
Various authors have proposed modifica- = average headway of restrained- ve-

tions of the basic Poisson distribution to hicles;
correct for these factors. One proposal is a
X= minimum headway of free-moving
translation of the exponential curve a small
vehicles; -
distance away from the origin to eliminate
r=minimum headway of restrained
less-than-minimum headways, (14). For the
other factor, the platooning or "bunching" vehicles; and -
of traffic, a composite exponential distribu- e=base of Naperian (natural) loga-

tion has been pràposed (15, 16). It has been rithms (=2.7183).
hypothesized that a traffic stream is com-
This composite distribution has been used
posed of a combination of free-flowing and
restrained vehicles, each conforming to a in recent studies of traffic flow on two-lane
Poisson distribution. urban streets (16, 17). Figure 3.33 shows
The equation for this composite. distri- a cumulative composite distribution fitted to
bution (16) is experimental data from 585 samples of
traffic flow on a two-lane urban street with
p(h ~! I) = (1 a) e_(tX) /(Ti-X I + ae''' 1
-
rates of flow ranging from 150 to 1,200
(3.7) vph (17). The experimental data are shown
in which as circled points; the composite curve based
on parameters calculated from observed
p(h~!t)=probability of a headway, h,
greater than or equal to the data is represented by the solid line. It is
time, t; important to note that the restrained vehicle
proportion of the traffic stream in is only significant in that portion of the curve
the restrained group; representing headways of less than 6 sec.
(1 7 a) = proportion of the traffic stream in The separation of flows into free-flowing
the free-flowing group; and restrained vehicles has also been mdi-
56 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
As a practical matter, warrants for design

1 criteria and traffic control measures should
be based on how the highway will function
IAU mmvrrn. under different traffic flows. When a driver
desires to cross a traffic stream from a stop
EMMMOMM condition, he will cross when a gap in the
main traffic stream seems adequate to him.
From studies on a rural four-lane highway
in California, charts were prepared show-
I N&Nhh'oil ing the probability of waiting a certain time

for different-sized time intervals between
arrivals of cars in either direction in the
total two-way traffic stream. Figure 3.34
shows two of these charts giving, for various
intervals, the probable waiting time which
would not be exceeded 95 percent and 50
percent of the time at various volume levels.
Figure 3.35 shows the percentage of time
occupied for all spaces equal to or greater
than selected values and the percentage of
time that spaces are in excess of certain
lolling, 0 10 20
TIME (SEC
25 30 30
values at various volumes, based on obser-
vations on typical two-lane and four-lane
rural highways. These data, though recorded
in the early 1940's, have proven to remain
Figure 3.33. Computed and observed headways
consistently valid and are included as evi-
on a two-lane urban Street.' dence of the consistency of certain traffic
(Source: Ref. 16) characteristics.
cated in other studies of spacing charac- Effects of Traffic Interrupilons on

teristics. Car-following experiments have Head ways
indicated that the correlation of behavior
between successive vehicles decreases rapidly Obviously, the frequency of time spacings
at a distance greater than 200 ft, with little will be materially different from random
or no correlation be'ond 500 ft (18, 19). flow at or downstream from 'flow interrup-
Earlier studies discussed in the original 1950 tions, such as traffic signals. A traffic signal
edition of this manual found no effect on the has the effect of platooning all vehicles and
following vehicles when headways exceeded vehicles leave such an interruption under
9 sec. constrained conditions. As the platoon
The' distribution of headways derived moves down the highway, it tends to spread
from either a basic or modified Poisson over both time and distance. If succeeding
distribution has many applications in traffic interruptions are not present, at some dis-
investigations. One would be the compari- tance downstream headways again become
son of observed with theoretical headway dis- random.
tributions for various volume levels. Either Figure 3.36 shows the frequency distri-
substantial deviation from a random distributions of vehicle arrivals at several points
bution or a large percentage of vehicles downstream from a traffic signal on a four-
traveling within the restrained headways lane divided urban facility in California.
would give an index of the congestion being Although there were several minor inter-
experienced by the traffic stream. sections in this stretch of highway, traffic
Another application is in estimating the was assumed to be uninterrupted downstream
number and length of gaps in a traffic stream from the traffic signal within the limits of
at pedestrian or vehicular ingress points. study. As distance from the signal increased,
the platooning effect decayed as the faster uted about some mean speed. Experimental
and slower vehicles detached themselves results confirm that the model accurately
from the group. A tendency for vehicles to describes the spreading of a platoon in
change lanes with increasing distance down- medium traffic moving without interference.
stream was also noticed. In another study Knowledge of the effects of traffic inter-
in Michigan (20) it was found that the ruptions on headways is necessary in evaluat-
spread of a platoon of vehicles could be ing many traffic engineering measures. On
described by a simple kinematic model. The one hand, the presence of traffic signals
model assumes that cars in a platoon travel upstream will affect the distribution of ac-
at fixed speeds which are normally distrib- ceptable gaps for vehicles or pedestrians
10<
UUUAIIU•
8<
6<
F Al IUUI AUUUR
MMWA
4<
0 an Me N MME
2<
No
IUUUF1UPU$A*I
SUNRIUUWiWIUVA•UIl•l
80
FAME
60
iUUU•!1MiW1ilW4UUI
40
INoU009 U UIUURI
20
WHO
M M-1
0 2 4 6 6 10 UI 14 ID I --------------------- -
TRAFFIC VOLUME (tOO VPH)
Figure 3.34. Waiting time for selected intervals at various volumes with (a) probability of 95
percent and (b) probability of 50 percent.
(Source: Ref. 44)
58 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
IOC
9C
ec
71
61
SC
4C
=
30
0
REM
I I I I
- TIME OCCUPIEO 67 ALL SPACES EQUAL TO
OR GREATER THAN TIME SHOWN -
s.., TINE THAT SPACES ARE IN EXCESS OF
\ \\
- CERTAIN VALUES
\\
70
60
ko~
\
\ \ \
\
\
SO
N
-
'0
40
'.7
30
" ,..p.J ....
20
c .
-
10 _
0 2 4 6 8 0 12 14 16 IN 20
VOLUME IN ONE DIRECTION (100 VPH)
Figure 3.35. Percentage of total time occupied by various time spacings between vehicles travel-
ing in the same direction and percentage of total time that spacings are in excess of certain values
on (a) typical two-lane rural highways and (h) typical four-lane rural highways.
(Source: Ref. 45)
wishing to enter or cross the traffic stream. Density as a Measure of Conditions

On the other hand, retention of platoons is
desirable in progressive signal systems. The As previously stated, spacing can be
locations and conditions of application are alternatively expressed in terms of density:
too varied to permit presentation of specific Density (veh/unit length of roadway) =
criteria, inasmuch as vehicles entering or
leaving the traffic stream within a section,
or operating erratically within it, create Avg. spacing (length of roadway/veh)
variances from a normal patter.n. (3.8)
Considering the units in which it is ex- density are explored further in the succeed-
pressed (vehicles per given distance), it can ing section of this chapter; each is a signifi-
be seen that density describes the condi- cant indicator of operating conditions and
tions along a length of roadway, rather than may require consideration in developing Ca-
at one given point. Headways, on the other pacity criteria.
hand, better describe point conditions.
As defined in Chapter Two, space mean RELATIONSHIPS OF SPEED, FLOW, AND
speed is the average speed of all vehicles DENSITY
on a given length of roadway at an instant
in time. Density describes the number of This section enlarges upon and sum-
vehicles on a given length of roadway, also marizes the previous discussion of speed,
for an instant in time. If both are expressed flow, and spacing. Pure relationships are
in comparable units (density in vehicles per investigated where possible, such as the effect
mile and space mean speed in miles per of flow on speed with all other variables
hour), their product is a rate of flow. There- held constant. Although difficult, numerous
fore, a basic relationship exists, with studies have been successful in approximat-
ing this laboratory approach.
Rate of flow (vph) = The principles of physics, dynamics, by-
Space mean speed (mph) x Density draulics, and the laws of various sciences
(veh/mile) (3.9) are being applied to traffic research with
I this sense, the derived flow is the rate for increasing success. With computers, traffic
the instant in time being studied, although flow is being simulated with an increasing
it may be expressed in vehicles per hour. degree of realism and these simulations are
The relationships between speed, flow-,and serving as the basis for certain studies.
2 . CE
STATION (MI)
003
4.0 0.21
2.0
00
00
02
C)
0.
1.0
fi 20 30 40 50 80
SECONDS AFTER GREEN
70
Figure 3.36. Frequency distributions of vehicle arrival limes at five stations downstream from a
traffic signal, California.
(SourcE: Ref. 46)
60 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Based on probability distributions, the aggre- speed-density, and flow-density relationships

gate behavior of. drivers can be predicted are considered in that order.
under various given conditions. However,
the traffic stream is not homogeneous with
Speed-Flow Relationships
regard to either drivers or influence of en-
vironmental factors, and cannot, therefore, This section presents only the fundamen-
be precisely reproduced. As a result, few tals of speed-flow and speed-volume rela-
practical applications to specific situations tionships. Because many of the capacity
have been possible as yet. and level of service criteria presented in
Nevertheless, a theoretical approach is the remainder of this manual are based on
highly useful, with or without computer these relationships, they will be discussed
application, because it is indicative of what in more specific detail where appropriate in
the traffic observer might expect to find in the chapters that follow.
the field under the controlled, or ideal, cir-
cumstances seldom if ever actually found in UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
practice. For instance, it is becoming in-
The fundamental speed-flow relationship
creasingly evident that few, if any, research-
for a given population of drivers can be
ers have recorded truly "ideal" through flows
simply stated as, follows: As traffic flow
on urban freeways. Practically all such
increases, the space mean speed of traffic
urban data examined in the course of prepa-
decreases. This relationship holds true
ration of this manual had to be qualified in
throughout the range of free flow and
some way, to recognize the presence of
impending congestion, up to the point of
nearby on- and off-ramps, changes in num-
critical density, or the density at maximum
ber of lanes, "tunnel effects" under bridges,
flow. At and beyond this point, however,
or the like, which influenced the flow, prob-
it no longer applies; both rates of flow and
ably adversely. Given' theoretically estab-
space mean speed then decrease with an
lished limits, the engineer can better visualize increase in density. This relationship
the true magnitude and nature of his specific applies to a roadway section, rather than to
operational problems. a point. Although studies of very short
Augmenting theory, a thorough knowl- sections may produce erratic results, longer
edge of what has already been found in sections typically produce reasonably smooth
carefully conducted and analyzed field stud- and measurable relationships.
ies is indispensable to a complete understand- Space mean speed, as referred to in the
ing of the relationships among vehicle speed, foregoing, is an average and does not indi-
flow, and density. This manual brings to- cate the maximum attainable speed at a
gether in one place the experience gained given flow. There is, of course, some range
from many studies throughout the United of speeds at any given flow, as the preceding
States. With this experience as a starting section has shown. At low flows the range
point, the individual researcher can aug- of individual vehicle speeds may be great;
ment his own direct observations of local at higher flows the range narrows. Best-fit
curves, connecting the space mean speeds,
conditions and be helped to. sound conclu-
generally are used to represent the speed-
sions.
flow relationship for uninterrupted flow,
A combination of theoretical and field
but boundary curves connecting the maxi-
studies is thus considered to be the best mum speeds for given flows also are used on
overall approach. Accordingly, the follow- occasion.
ing paragraphs are arranged first to pro- There are varying degrees of uninter-
vide a theoretical expectation about a par- rupted, or Continuous, flow. Although it
ticular relationship, and second to report may be more or less congested, uninterrupted
selected field studies that tend to support flow means an absence of traffic signals,
the theory. References are given for further stop signs, or other traffic control interrup-
study of details. Symbolic notation is occa- tions. At one extreme the movement of
sionally used to conserve space. Speed-flow, vehicles may be very irregular due to mar-
gmat frictions, such as strip commercial ing faster speeds at intermediate flow rates
developments. At the other extreme the than are found on other highways. Thus,
movement of vehicles may be quite smooth they appear flatter than those for other high-
in the absence of such frictions. This sug- ways.
gests that different roadways have different Results of a study on the Ford Express-
speed-flow curves. For example, the freeway in Detroit, Mich. (21), are shown by
way driver expects minimum marginal inter- the curve labeled Detroit in Figure 3.37.
ferences and maintains shorter headways. In this study the minute rate of flow and
This may explain why speed of vehicles on average speed for all the minutes in a day
a freeway should decrease less rapidly with are arrayed and plotted. The curve shown
increasing flow than that on a highway with is for the median lane. The curve labeled
no access control. Chicago in Figure 3.37 represents aggregate
There are a number of other factors hourly volume and speed data for all lanes
which affect the speed-flow relationship, from two separate sections of the Eisen-
including the "character" of traffic, the hower (Congress St.) Expressway, and for
weather, the accident record, and other one lane each of the Edens and Calumet
difficult-to-assess factors. They are impor- Expressways and South Lake Shore Drive
tant because when they are not explicitly (22). For the 116 observations represented
recognized and dealt with they may obscure by this curve the correlation coefficient is
the real speed-flow relationship. The various 0.876. The curve labeled Los Angeles is
studies cited in this section reportedly in- based on 5-min volume and speed observa-
cluded no such unusual factors which would tions for all lanes in one direction on the
affect results. six-lane Santa Ana Freeway during two
Investigations conducted on an extensive evening peak periods (23).
scale have shown that a straight line reason- Theoretically, under any uninterrupted-
ably represents the speed-flow relationship flow conditions, a rigidly-enforced speed
in the range below critical density, for un- limit lower than the average highway speed
interrupted flow conditions on all ordinary would result in a flatter average speed-flow
multilane highways without access control, curve than otherwise would be the case.
as well as on most four-lane freeways. The flattening here would result from lower-
These investigations also indicate that ing of the low-volume end of the curve,
speed-flow relationships for freeways of more where normal average speeds cannot be
than four lanes are somewhat curved, reflect- attained due to the speed limit; at some
80
LOS GELES
50
- -
SANTA AMA FREEWAY, SR AT MOTE ST.
30 - ———
FORD EXPRESSWAY. LONE I-
CONGRESS ST., EDENS, AND CALUMET EXPRESSWAYS
20
0 R2 20
RATE OF FLOW (100 VPH/LANE(
Figure 3.37. Speed-flow relationships for three different highways.

(Sources: Refs. 21, 22, 23)
1-IIGHWAY CAPACITY
70
?0
(60
50
NE
=
0.
40
0
0
U)
30
0
20
0 0 6 20
AVERAGE LANE VOLUME (100 PASS. CARSIHR)
Figu,e 3.38. Typical relations/zips between volume per lane, and operating speed in one direction
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways.
point, as volumes increased, the speed operating speed and volume, given ideal
limit would no longer govern. This is in conditions, on freeways; ordinary multi-
contrast to. the freeway case previously de- lane highways, and two-lane highways,
scribed, where the flattening results from a respectively. Curves for less-than-ideal aver-
raising of the high-volume end to reflect the age highway speeds are also shown. These
higher speeds attained during heavy volume charts, like the speed distributions presented
conditions, as compared to speeds on ordi- earlier, were developed from data on file
nary highways. Where. these two effects at the Bureau of Public Roads. They are
both are found, as on heavily-used freeways presented as illustrations only, and should
with enforced speed limits, there may appear not be used for actual problem solutions
to be little change in average speed over a because they do not incorporate adjustments
wide range of flow rates. for the various adverse influences usually
On two-lane highways, speed-flow rela- found on actual roadways.
tionships appear to take a somewhat wavy
The upper portion of each curve shows
form which, however, does not depart
greatly from a straight line in most instances the relationship up to the point of critical
(24). Trends toward higher speeds over density. Beyond this point, however, a fur-
the years have gradually raised the speeds ther increase in flow causes the speed to
typically found at the higher flow levels. decrease rapidly, with a marked simul-
Throughout the procedural portions of taneous decrease in rate of flow. For exam-
this manual applying to uninterrupted flow, ple, in Figure 3.39, at a rate of flow of
operating speed is used as a primary meas- 1,400 vph per lane on an ordinary multi-
ure of level of service. Figures 3.38, 3.39, lane' rural highway, the space mean speed
and 3.40 show typical relationships between might range from 45 mph with free-flowing
u
OL
70
60
60
40
20
to
AVERAGE LANE VOLUME (100 PASS. CARS/HR)
one direction
Figure 3.39. Typical relationships between volume per lane and operating speed in
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on multilane rural highways.
(Source: BPR, combined data from various Studies)
70
on
60
—
a
30
uu•iiu•
N
0.
a
0
40
51~ia
(0
0
z
C-
30
••••ilUU••lE UU
u•••u•uau••••uui••
0
20
10
0 4 0 2 16 20
TOTAL VOLUME, BOTH DIRECTIONS ((00 PASS. CARS/HR)
Figure 3.40. Typical relationships between total volume for both directions of travel and oper-
ating speed under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on two-lane rural highways.
64 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
70
MMMEMMEMMEMMEMMMEMMMEg
40
r.iu•uu•uu•u•
20
••••iu•i•uiu••ii•
u•uuuuuu•uu•iuu•uu
20
uii••iuu•••u•••••
IC
uuu•uiu•i••••i••
0 4 8 2 6 20
AVERAGE LANE VOLUME (1 00 PASS. CARS/HR(
Figure 3.41. Typical relationships between iolurne per lane and average speed in one direction
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on freeways and expressways.
70
NNOMMENEENNEMENNEMENEM
60
zfflNMMMMMMMMMEMMMMMEMMM
00
..............--....
20
10
••••••••l•E:
ui•••uau••••u•••
8
••
00
AVERAGE LANE VOLUME (100 PASS. CARS/HR)
Figure 3.42. Typical relationships between volume per lane and average speed in one direction
of travel under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on multilane rural highways.
......................
70
60
uauu•uuuuu•ui•iu•u•
NNENNEEMEN
65
MENNEN
iuuuuu•u•uu•u•u••uu
i•u••i•uuau•u•••u
812 - 6 20
TOTAL VOLUME, BOTH DIRECTIONS (100 PASS. CARS/HR(
Figure 3.43. Typical relationships between total volume for both directions of travel and average
speed under ideal uninterrupted flow conditions on two-Jane rural highways.
conditions to only 15 mph under highly con- forced speed limits is also shown. It will be
gested stop-and-go conditions. noted that the average speed is always
These charts portray actual hourly vol- somewhat less than the operating• speed,
umes, averaged across all traffic lanes, on at any volume level below capacity. These
highways having a high peak-hour factor charts are included primarily to make clear
(that is, constant high traffic demand through- the distinction between average speed and
out the hour). The shaded area at the right operating speed. Again, these charts are
end of each chart represents highly unstable presented as illustrations, not as bases for
conditions. On freeways such volumes are computations.
occasionally found in one or two lanes INTERRUPTED FLOW
(usually those nearest the median) but
average hourly volumes of this magnitude The speed-flow relationship is difficult to
over all lanes are recorded too rarely to be isolate under interrupted flow conditions.
considered as reasonably attainable. In the most common example, the city
If, instead, it were assumed that the street with signalized intersections, both de-
charts represent flows (over short periods) mand and capacity often are different on
rather than volumes (for full hour), short immediately adjacent segments. Also, maxi-
periods of operation in or even to the right mum speed is frequently determined by
of the shaded area might be expected. external influences, such as signal progres-
Figures 3.41, 3.42, and 3.43 are equiva- sion timing and speed limits, rather than
lent charts showing the average speed-volume by driver desires. Thus, most studies of
relationship, while Figure 3.44 presents interrupted flow characteristics have dealt
examples of source material for freeways. with relatively short segments and have
On these several charts, the-influence of en- treated the relationship indirectly in terms
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
JSOJ
I
8)
60 MPH
TO
fl - - A A
*
*
50 MPH
-- --
a-
40
.MPH
LOCATION
NEW JERSEY TURNPIKE
SURC S
GYM
SOL
U DAY
=
.10.0.
4
"1 -
60
-
RICHER
A
- ----
U NIGHT 4 60 RICHER
*
SCHUYLKILL EXPRESSWAY. 8 DAY 4 60 50(11 COLEMAN
PHILA. 0 DAY 6 50 COLEMAN
SHIRLEY HWY, ARLINSTON,YA. H DAY 4 50 BPR
---
FAIRFAX CO.,YII, 2 DAY 4 60 40 APR
LODGE ECPWY, DETROIT OHS 6 55 40 MALOA
FORD EXPWY, DETROIT-MILLER RD. 0 DAY 6 55 40 RPR
LONYO OR. B DAY 6 55 40 APR
--
TELEGRAPH RD DAY 6 65 APR
HAMNANRD. B DAY 4 65 RPR
*
BELT RD. B DAY 4 65 RPR
00 DETROIT 8 DAY 6 45
EDENS CXPWY, CHICAGO-LINCOLN AVE. B DAY 6 60
GULF FWY, HOUSTON ION-RAMPS CLOSED) 0 DAY 6 50 40 XEENE
E.W FREEWAY, HOUSTON A DAY 4 50 KEESE
CALIF. FREEWAYS 0 DAY 8 55 FILM)
NIMITZ FWY. OAKLAND, CALIF. A DAY 6 65 HELL
It; N 'IIGHY 4 65 KELL
ABASED ON 5 MIN EACH HOUR DURING ALL 241
1 OPTIMUM POINT ________________________
—I
'A IN 28
AVERAGE LANE VOLUME OO PASS. CARS/HR)
Figure 3.44. Specific reported speed-volume relationships per lane in one direction of trqvel under
interrupted flow conditions on free ways and expressways.
of "average delay," rather than by obtaining

space mean speed. Even this relationship
is difficult to measure under field condi-
4)
I
CONDITIONS:
80-SEC CYCLE
45% GREEN; 5% YELLOW
NOTURNS
—— -
tions, as arrival and discharge rates on a EQUAL VOLUME ALL DELAY—
DIRECTIONS
cycle-by-cycle basis vary widely (25). Figure
3.45 shows the relationships of average
delay and a computed average speed to
traffic volume at a pretimed traffic signal.
This curve is based on a computer simula-
tion of 160 hr of operation of an intersection
of two-lane two-way streets with a 60-sec
cycle and a 50 percent cycle split. >0
20
/ YERAUE SPEED
--
IN 860-FT
Despite the difficulties of field measure- S SECTION
ment, a Chicago study did find a typical ------

'C
'C
speed-flow relationship for a composite of
37 test sections with parking permitted and
again for a composite of seven test sections
with parking prohibited, as shown in Fig-
ure 3.46 (22). Test sections averaged about
one-half mile in length, with different signal
4 6
spacings and with some range of values for VOLUME OOVPH/LANE)
other variables. By multiple correlation, it
was found that average speeds were most Figure 3.45. Computed average speed and
responsive to the number of signals per average delay at simulated urban signalized
intersection.
mile. Because data were averaged for 1-hr (Source: Ref. 47)
periods, the short-term speed and flow fluc-

tuations were lost, and the resulting curves
were best fitted to assumed linear curves.
For the approximately 1,000 points repre-
sented by these curves, the correlation coeffi-
cients are 0.70 and 0.93, respectively.
Speed-flow curves found in a study in
0
U,
30
20
100
MEMENEMONNEZZE
.....
...
uu•m
10 12
67
Charleston, W. Va., are shown in Figure RATE OF FLOW (100 VEIl/LANE/HR OF GREEN
3.47. These curves are hand fit to data Figure 3.46. Speed-flow relationship for 37 test
from 9 hr of observation of traffic on a sections with parking and 7 test sections without
1,200-ft section upstream from an isolated parking.
(Source: Ref. 22)
urban traffic signal (26). The reverse
curve indicates that critical density was
regularly induced by the traffic signal. It
should' be noted that when the data were
aggregated for different time periods, in 6.8
increments of 6 mm, the shape of the curves 6ONiN \

changed slightly. Here, then, is another cau- - 4.5
[",
1.4
41
tion in describing the speed-flow relation- I I I I I I
ship: the time period of observation must
be explicit. Although 1 hr is often a standard
for discussion, moremeaningful results some-
times are obtained from shorter time periods.
The longer the period of observation, the
less pronounced the effect of flow on space
NTER
?I' T'') 4.5
mean speed.
0
4
111111 >
U,
4
Even a study such as that just described

must be interpreted with care, however.
Its data were obtained from 7 AM to 2
11 AM on one,)day and from 2 PM to 7 PM 2T...66

4.5
on another. These increments include both
peak-hour and off-peak traffic, hence con- 4 5 6 7
2 3
tain a variety of types of drivers, some driv- RATE OF FLOW (100 VPH(
ing intently on rush-hour trips and others
Figure 3.47. Travel time and average speed on
driving more casually on midday errands.
signalized street in intermediate urban area.
As previously mentioned, the effect of this (Source: Ref. 26)
variable is not yet clear. Therefore, for
some purposes it is desirable to separate
the data into categories by time of day, to
assure that differing human characteristics
Speed-Density Relationships
are not influencing the pure speed-flow
relationship. UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
Finally, a London study (27) found Inasmuch as speed, density, and flow are
curves for signalized sections which contain interrelated, much of the previous discus-
a definite "break" point. This is consistent sion of the speed-flow relationship applies
with the hypothesis that at low flows maxi- also to the speed-density relationship. Den-
mum attainable speed depends almost solely sity is the' number of vehicles in a particular
on intersection signalization and midblock length of roadway at a particular moment.
marginal frictions. Only at higher flows do Usually, it is expressed in vehicles per mile.
Stream frictions begin to restrict attainable Although an instantaneous value, it is also
speeds. possible to average successive observations
68 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
intensively investigated the speed-density

relationship under uninterrupted flows. In
general, the speed-density relationships were
described by mathematically fitting the best
curves to observed data. Graphical plots
used to describe some of these relation-
ships are shown in Figures 3.48 through
- 20 60 100 140 180 220
3.52.
AVERAGE DENSITY (VEH/MILE/LANE) Figure 3.48 is a plot of average speed
Figure 3.48. Speed-density relationship, Lin- and density resulting from a least-squares
coln Tunnel, New York. fit to experimental data taken in the Lincoln
(Source: Ref. 29)
Tunnel, New York (29). The points shown
are the empirical data obtained by using
5-min averages to compute space mean
speeds and mean densities. A high degree
of correlation is noted.
= Figure 3.49 shows a speed-density rela-
0.
tionship for a section of the Eisenhower
a
(Congress St.) Expressway in Chicago (30).
0.
0) Individual speeds and densities were meas-
I, ured within a 400-ft trap and averaged on
C
cc a per minute basis.
> A speed-density relationship for one loca-
C
tion on the Hollywood Freeway in Los

too
20 40 60 80 120
Angeles (31) is shown in Figure -3.50.
AVERAGE DENSITY (VEH/MILE/LANE)
Each plotted point represents 1 min of
Figure 3.49 Speed-density relationship, Eisen- observations and the curve is included to
hower (Congress St.) Expressway, Chicago. indicate the average trend between speed
(Source: Ref. 30)
and density.
Figure 3.51 represents data obtained in
lane 1 upstream of a bottleneck produced
by a narrow temporary bridge on the Merritt
over a period of time. Thus, if vehicle counts Parkway in Connecticut (32). Each point
were made each minute for an hour, the shown was determined from a 5-mm sam-
arithmetic mean would express the average
density, for the hour. This differs from
flow, which is a rate of movement per unit
of time, the practical minimum time of ob-
50
servation being perhaps I mm. o
The speed-density. relationship is similar
to the speed-flow relationship in that in the 40
upper range speed decreases with increas-

a
ing flow and density. However, density oj
30
continues to increase past the point of criti- U)
0 O 0.
0"•
cal density, whereas flow decreases. This '5
C
characteristic sometimes makes density a 20
> o :o ,
more advantageous speed predictor than C
flow. 0
Some of the earliest capacity studies, such IC
0 20
- -
40 60 80 100 120
as a 1934 study of rural roads in Ohio, AVERAGE DENSITY (CARS/MILE/LANE)
found that there was a straight-line relation-
ship between the average density of cars Figure 3.50. Speed-density relationship, Holly-
wood Freeway at Franklin West, Los Angeles,
per mile and the space mean speed (28). April 19, 1961.
A number of recent studies have more (Source: Ref. 31)
40
pie of data, with density being computed
by dividing the rate of flow by the mean LANE 2
(100100I_AGE)
speed. A straight line was mathematically 30
R' 0.96
fitted to the data points and a high coefficient I

0,
of correlation was obtained. 20
Speed-density relationships for non-free-

way facilities are shown by Figure 3.52
10
(33). The speeds used in these plots were
not observed, but were computed from a
linear regression equation based on observed 0 20 40 60 80 160 120
volumes. It should be noted that if the DENSITY (CARS/MILE)
speed-flow relationship is a straight line, the Figure 3.51. Speed-density relationship, Mer-
speed-density relationship will be nonlinear, ritt Parkway, Conn.
and vice versa. Although experimental (Source: Ref. 32)
results have not determined which is the
case, the weight of evidence appears to
support a nonlinear speed-density relation-
ship within a density range of 20 to 160 unstable flow, and a zone of forced flow—
vehicles per mile. The difference is, perhaps, each zone being specified in terms of proba-
of greater theoretical than practical signifi- bilities, as in Figure 3.53 (35). When devel-
cance at present. oped beyond the theoretical approach, a
As a result of the previously cited work, family of curves expressing speed-density
it has been suggested that traffic flow can and speed-flow relationships may well be a
best be described in terms of three distinct very practical and realistic method of sum-
zones—a zone of normal flow, a zone of marizing traffic characteristics.
11
40 - --
IEIIII
- PRINCES HIGHWAY,
EAST HARRISFIELD, VICTORIA,
2.LANE, 2-WAY
-
20
NT0N AVENUE,
MELBOURNE,
(0 IIIIIIIEJI_L___
0 10 20 30 40 . 50 60 70
DENSITY (VEH/M(LE/LANE)
Figure 3.52. Speed-density relationship tinder uninterrupted flow conditions on two Australian
highways.
(Source: Ref. 33, pp. 59 and 61)
70 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
PROBABILITY OF
BREAKDOWN OF FLOW
ZONE OF UNSTABLE FLOW

(CONSTANT FOR ALL
FACILITIES)
ZONE OF FORCED FLOW

(CONSTANT FOR ALL FACILITIES)
NOTE: ALL ZONES HAVE BEEN SHOWN

BOUNDED BY THEID AND 90 PERCENTILES.
IN FACT. THEY WOULD EXTEND BEYOND
THESE LIMITS. I
24
Figure 3.53. General speed-volume diagram (to demonstrate principles; not for use in specific
problem applications).
(Source: Ref. 35)
INTERRUPTED FLOW ditions. A Chicago study (36) found a

One of the difficulties in distinguishing straight-line relationship in a one-quarter
between types of flow is that sooner or mile arterial section in an intermediate-type
later all flows are interrupted. Thus, a free- area approaching a fixed-time signal, as
way ends, a rural road enters a town, or a shown by the curve marked Washington
progressive signal system becomes unable Blvd. in Figure 3.54.
to accommodate the demand. The careful Instantaneous densities at 1-, 2-, and 3-
investigator of an uninterrupted flow condi- min intervals were correlated against test
tion should indicate the length of the section car space mean speeds obtained before,
studied and the distance in each direction to during, and after the density observations.
the first interruption of flow. Ordinarily, Space mean speed and density (ahead of
however, there is little difficulty in defining the test car) were highly associated (r2 =
interrupted flow itself; it usually implies 0.89); speed and flow were not (r=0.04).
signalized or stop sign conditions. A New Haven study found a more steeply
The speed-density relationship under typi- sloped speed-density relationship in a one-
cal urban interrupted flow conditions is sub- lane urban flow, with a correlation of
ject to many of the same problems of meas- r2 =0.86. The author, however, indicated a
urement previously discussed under the theoretical preference for a curvilinear
speed-flow relationship. However, a number boundary curve instead of the best-fit curve
of successful studies have been made which (37). Studies of one-way flow toward a
indicate that the relationship is very simi- bottleneck, which show characteristics of
lar to that under uninterrupted flow con- interrupted flow, have been made on the
Merritt Parkway and in New York's Lincoln

Tunnel (37, 38). Both found speed-density
boundary curves similar to those under un-
interrupted flow conditions.
Flo ;t'-Density Relationships

The relationship between flow and den-
sity is curvilinear, as shown in Figure 3.55
(39).
Assuming constant speeds for a partic-
ular roadway, an increase in density results
in a linear increase in flow, and vice versa.
At some point as the density increases from
zero, however, speed does decrease, as
described in the preceding section, and the
relationship becomes curvilinear. As the
point of critical density is passed there is a
decrease in flow despite the continued in-
crease in density.
This is why complete congestion can
occur when a highway is operating at or
near its possible capacity. Let it he assumed
that traffic on a road represented by Figure iyi'ical rural t Ito-lam hu'/i aa %' carrvInI leYs
3.39 has gradually increased to a volume of than 1,000 vehicles per day.
2,000 vph per lane in one direction and the
average speed has reduced to 30 mph, and
that this traffic volume is approaching a
temporary restriction where average speed 300 per lane per hour, causing a sudden
must drop to 20 mph. The rate of flow of increase in density of traffic. If the approach
vehicles on the highway at the point where flow of 2,000 vph per lane continued, even
speeds are only 20 mph can only approxi- though the restricted condition existed for
mate 1,700 vph per lane. Therefore, vehi- only a few seconds, some vehicles would be
cles would immediately start to accumulate
at this point on the highway at the rate of
Ers
30
I
2
>.
0
2 0
0
2C
0. 0
-J
IL
4 .
40 80 120 160
0
DENSITY (VEH/MILE)
50 100 150 200 250 300
DENSITY (VPM)
Figure 3.55. Example of flow-density relation-
Figure 3.54. Speed-density relationship under ship in limited-access traffic flow (Holland Tun-
urbwi conditions. nel, New York).
(Source: Refs. 36, 37) (Source: Ref. 39)
72 HIGHWAY CAPAcIry
required to stop and the instantaneous traffic

flow would immediately drop to zero at this
point on the highway. The queue of vehi-
cles at a standstill would continue to in-
crease in length as long as the arrival rate
of vehicles at the tail of the queue exceeded
the departure rate at the head of the queue.
Even though the cause of the restriction
lasted but a few seconds or minutes, addi-
tional vehicles might continue to heconie
stopped for a considerable time after the
cause of the restriction was removed. These
vehicles would form a queue which would
move down the highway in the direction
opposite to that of traffic flow. Queues of
vehicles at a standstill have been observed
several miles from the scene of the original
restriction, even though traffic was apparently
operating in its normal manner between the
queue and the place where the queue origi-
nally started to form. This phenomenon has
been extensively studied, resulting in for-
mulation of the theory of backward kine-
matic waves (40).
The curvilinear flow-density relationship
appears common to both uninterrupted and
interrupted flows. In signalized sections with
moderately heavy flow there is an almost
constant succession of wave movements due
to artificial creation of critical densities at
each red signal indication. Because of
added time losses in acceleration and decel-
eration, it is likely that the flow-density
curve for interrupted flow is well below that
for uninterrupted flow.
Summary
This section has summarized some of the

theoretical and observed relationships be-
tween speed, density, and rate of flow.
Their interrelationships with capacity should
be clear. By definition, capacity is the maxi-
mum rate of flow under stated conditions.
Both speed and density are required to
produce a rate of flow. Various combina-
tions of speed and density produce various
flows. The maximum rate of flow on a
particular highway is at the point of critical
density, which depends on the minimum
headways that drivers find tolerable at par-
Directional distribution patterns on a freeway ticular speeds. Generalizing, it is found that
complex. the higher the type of highway, the shorter
these headways may be. Consequently, criti- Bw..is, W. R., and JONES, J. E., "3Cth
cal density occurs at somewhat different Peak Hour Trend." Highway Res. Record
speeds and densities, depending on the type No. 27, pp. 1-13 (1963).
of highway. WALKER, W. P., "Trends in the 30th Hour
Factor." HRB Bull. /67, pp. 75-83 (1957).
Within certain limits the relationships
Wisconsin State Highway Commission,
explored in this section are found on most
Wisconsin Highway Traffic, 1961. (PubI.
typical highways, bearing in mind the basic annually) (1963).
differences that distinguish uninterrupted KEESE, C. J., P1NNELL, C., and MCCAS-
and interrupted flows. By definition, such LAND, W. R., "A Study of Freeway Traffic
relationships are found wherever vehicles Operations." HRB Bull. 235, pp. 73-132
regularly follow one another in the same or (1960).
adjacent lanes. Weaving sections, rotaries, MALO, A. F., MIKA, H. S., and WALURIDGE,
and other types of maneuver areas are V. P., "Traffic Behavior on an Urban Ex-
therefore exceptions. Also, within limits, pressway." HRB Bull. 235, pp. 19-37
these relationships hold true for any reason- (1960).
ably short periods of time, such as I mm, GREENSHIELDS, D. B., SCHAPIRO, D., and
10 mm, or 1 hr. They are sharpest and ERICKSON, E. L., Traffic Performance at
Urban Street Intersections. Tech. Rep.
most meaningful for the shorter periods; No. 1, Bur. of Highway Traffic, Yale Uni-
data aggregated over periods of more than versity (1947).
1 hr tend to obscure short-run fluctuations. MAY, A. D., and WAGNER, F. A., "Head-
The individual researcher and user of the way Characteristics and Interrelationships
manual should be aware of these inherent of Fundamental Characteristics of Traffic
relationships in order to fully understand Flow." Proc. HRB, 39: 524-547 (1960).
highway capacity. The references in this GERLOUGH, D. L., "Traffic Inputs for Simu-
chapter represent a starting point. A vast lation on a Digital Computer." Proc. HRB,
amount of work has been accomplished in 38: 480-492 (1959).
this field, and the serious student is well SCHUHL, A., "The Probability Theory Ap-
advised to study the literature in greater plied to Distribution of Vehicles on Two-
Lane Highways." Poisson and Traffic, Eno
detail. Found, for Highway Traffic Control,.Sauga-
tuck, Conn.,pp. 59-75 (1955); pp. 16-19
(1948).
REFERENCES KELL, J. H., "A Theory of Traffic Flow
on Urban Streets." Proc. 131/i Ann. West-
U.S. Dept. of Comrnercc, Bureau of Public ern Sect. Meeting, Inst. of Traffic Engi-
Roads, Highway Statistics (various years). pleers, pp. 66-70 (1960).
Govt. Printing Off., Washington, D.C. LEWIS, R. M., "A Proposed Headway Dis-
NORMANN, 0. K., "Variations in Flow at tribution for Traffic Simulation Studies."
Intersections as Related to Size of City, Traffic Eng., 33: No. 5, 16-19, 48 (Feb.
Type of Facility and Capacity Utilization." 1963).
HRB Bull. 352, pp. 55-99 (1962). GREENSHIELDS, B. D., and WEIDA, F. M.,
WAGNER, F. A., and MAY, A. D., "Volume Statistics with Application to Highway Traf-
and Speed Characteristics at Seven Study fic Analysis. Eno Found. for Highway
Locations." HRB Bull. 281, pp. 48-67 Traffic Control, Saugatuck, Conn. (1952).
(1960). HERMAN, R., and PoTTs, R. B., "Single-
HESS, J. W., "Capacities and Characteris-
Lane Theory and Experiment." Theory of
tics of Ramp-Freeway Connections." High-
way Res. Record No. 27, pp. 69-115 Traffic Flow, pp. 120-146. Van Nostrand
(1963). (1961).
DREW, D. R., and KEESE, C. J., "Freeway HERMAN, R., POTTS, R. B., and ROTI-IERY,
Level of Service as Influenced by Volume R. W., "Behavior of Traffic Leaving a Sig-
and Capacity Characteristics." Highway nalized Intersection." Traffic Eng. and Con-
Res. Record No. 99, pp. 1-47 (1965). trol, 5: No. 9,529-533 (Jan. 1964).
Wisconsin State Highway Commission, Cor- MAY, A. D., "Traffic Characteristics and
relation, A Method of Estimating Design Phenomena on High Density Controlled
Hourly Volumes. Unpubl. mimeo. (Jan. Access Facilities." Traffic Eng., 31: No. 6,
1963). 11-19,56 (Mar. 1961).
74 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
KEEFER, L. E., "The Relation Between PALMER, M. R., "The Development of

Speed and Volume on Urban Streets." Traffic Congestion." Quality and Theory
Quality of Urban Traffic Service Corn,nit- of Traffic Flow, pp. 104140. Yale Uni-
tee Report, HRB, 37th Ann. Meeting versity (1961).
(1958) (unpubl.). UNDERWOOD, R. T., "Speed, Volume and
WEBB, G. M., and MOSKOWITZ, K., "Cali- Density Relationship." Quality and Theory
fornia Freeway Capacity Study-1956." of Traffic Flow, pp. 141-188. Yale Uni-
Proc. HRB, 36: 587-642 (1957). versity (1961).
SCHWENDER, H. C., NORMANN, 0. K., and KEEFER, L. E., "Speed-Density Study."
GRANUM, J. 0., "New Methods of Capacity CATS Res. News, 1: No. 13, 6-10 (1957).
Determination for Rural Roads in Moun- GUERIN, N. S., "Travel Time Relation-
tainous Terrain." HBR Bull. 167, pp. 10-37 ships." Quality and Theory of Traffic Flow,
(1957). pp. 69-103. Yale University (1961).
CAMPBELL, E. W., KEEFER, L. E., and EDIE, L. C., and FOOTE, R. S., "Traffic
ADAMS, R. W., "A Method of Predicting Flow in Tunnels." Proc. HRB, 37: 334-
Speeds Through Signalized Street Sections." 344 (1958).
HRB Bull. 230, pp. 112-125 (1959). EDIE, L. C., FOOTE, R. S., HERMAN, R.,
and ROTHERY, R., "Analysis of Single-Lane
ROTHROCK, C. A., and KEEFER, L. E.,
Traffic Flow." Traffic Eng., 33: No. 4,
"Measurement of Urban Traffic Conges-
tion." HRB Bull. 156, pp. 1-13 (1957). 2 1-27 (Jan. 1963).
LIGHTHILL, M. J., and WHITHAM, G. B.,
WARDROP, J. G., "Some Theoretical Aspects
"On Kinematic Waves: II. A Theory of
of Road Traffic Research." Proc. Inst. Traffic Flow on Long Crowded Roads."
Civil Eng., Part H, Vol. 1: No. 2, pp. 325- Proc. Royal Soc. (London), Series A, 229:
378 (1952). No. 1178, 317-345 (1955); also, HRB Spec.
GREENSHIELDS, B. D., "A Study of Traffic Report 79, pp. 7-35 (1964).
Capacity." Proc. HRB, 14: Pt. I, 448-474 RICKER, E. R., "Monitoring Traffic Speed
(1934). and Volume." Traffic Quart., 13: No. I
GREENBERG, H., "An Analysis of Traffic (Jan. 1959).
Flow." Oper. Res., 7: No. 1, 79-85 (Jan.- CROWLEY, K. W., "A Comparison Study
Feb. 1959). of Driver Characteristics on Two Limited
MAY, A., ATHOL, P., and PARKER, W., "De- Access Facilities." Unpubi. thesis, Yale
velopment and Evaluation of Congress University (1956).
Street Expressway Pilot Detection System." Highway Capacity Manual. U.S Govt.
Highway Res. Record No. 21, pp. 48-63 Printing Off. (1950) (Out of print)
(1963). Mosiowirz, K., "Waiting for a Gap in a
MAY, A., California Freeway Operations Traffic Stream." Proc. HRB, 33: 385-395
Study. Final Report to California Div. of (1954).
NORMANN, 0. K., "Results of Highway Ca-
Highways (Jan. 1962), Thompson-Ramo-
Wooldridge. pacity Studies." Pub. Roads, 23: No. 4,
57-81 (June 1942).
HUBER, M. J., "Effect of Temporary Bridge
LEWIS, B. J., "Platoon Movement of Traf-
on Parkway Performance." HRB Bull. 167, fic from an Isolated Signalized Intersec-
pp. 63-74 (1957). tion." HRB Bull. 178, pp. 1-11 (1958).
GEORGE, H. P., "Measurement and Evalua- KELL, J. H., "Results of Computer Simula-
tion of Traffic Congestion." Quality and tion Studies as Related to Traffic Signal
Theory of Traffic Flow, pp. 41-68. Yale Operations." Proc. Inst. Traffic Eng:, pp.
University (1961). 70-107 (1963).
CHAPTER FOUR
CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
Chapter Three summarized available data analysis, ideal conditions are defined as fol-
on maximum observed volumes on different lows:
types of highways, and presented informa- Uninterrupted flow, free from side in-
tion on such traffic characteristics as varia- terferences of vehicles and pedestrians.
bility of traffic flow and volume-speed- Passenger cars only, in the traffic
density relationships by type of highway. stream.
In this chapter, information in Chapter Traffic lanes 12 ft wide, with ade-
Three is applied in presenting the Commit- quate shoulders and no lateral obstructions
tee's recommendations on the following: within 6 ft of the edge of pavement.
Capacity, in numerical values, for vari- For rural highways, horizontal and
ous types of highways with uninterrupted vertical alinement satisfactory for average
flow under ideal conditions. highway speeds of 70 mph or greater, with
Levels of service, and criteria for iden- no restricted passing sight distances on two-
tifying each of several levels, for various and three-lane highways.
types of highways. It is apparent that few roadway sections
A generalized procedure for determin- have all of these "ideal" conditions of oper-
ing the level of service that will be obtained ation. A few parkways built to high-type
when a specific volume is carried over a geometric design standards, with full con-
section of highway under actual conditions. trol of access and carrying no commercial
Corrections for conditions which are not vehicles, may actually attain this status, and
ideal, because of such factors as reduced many modern level freeways come very
widths, restricted sight distances, grades, close, meeting all criteria except the "all
and trucks, are described in Chapter Five. passenger car" requirement.
Applications of the generalized procedure 'Jt is important to emphasize that "ideal"
for determining the level of service for dif- geometrics and traffic characteristics do not
ferent types of highways and streets are imply good operating conditions per se.
given in Chapters Nine and Ten. Although ideal conditions do produce the
highest volumes for any given level of serv-
CAPACITY FOR UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
ice, operation at capacity, or maximum pos-
sible volume, will be unsatisfactory even
CONDITIONS
under ideal conditions.
The maximum observed traffic volumes, For multilane highways, the largest num-
as reported in Chapter Three, together with ber of vehicles that can pass a point one
the results of speed-volume relationship stud- behind the other in a single lane, under
ies also discussed in that chapter, have been ideal conditions,, averages between 1,900
used as a guide in establishing the numerical and 2,200 passenger vehicles per hour. This
values of the capacity of different types of represents an average maximum volume per
roadways for ideal conditions. The capacity lane sustained over the period of one hour,
of any individual section of roadway would when all through lanes are considered in
vary from the maximum value of capacity developing the average. Various studies
for that type of roadway, depending on how have found higher lane volumes for specific
its roadway and traffic characteristics vary lanes or for short time periods on multilane
from ideal conditions. For the purpose of facilities, reaching the 2,400- to 2,500-vph
75
76 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
range, but they do not represent sustained TABLE 4. 1 —UN INTER RUPTED-FLOW
volumes representative of all lanes. Where CAPACLTIES UNDER IDEAL
there are at least two lanes for the exclusive CONDiTIONS
movement of traffic in one direction, and
disregarding the distribution of traffic be- CAPACITY
tween lanes, the capacity of a multilane HIGHWAY TYPE (PASS. VPH)
highway under ideal conditions is consid-
ered to be 2,000 passenger vehicles per lane Multilane 2,000 per lane
per hour. Two-lane, two-way 2,000 total both dir.
For two-lane, two-way highways, over- Three-lane, two-way 4,000 total both dir.
taking and passing maneuvers must be per-
formed in the lane normally used by on-
coming traffic. With traffic traveling in both
directions, slower moving vehicles create
gaps between vehicles that can be filled
only by passing maneuvers, whereas these ideal conditions for a three-lane, two-way
same gaps, if of sufficient length, provide roadway approaches 4,000 passenger ye-
passing opportunities for the opposing traf- hides per hour, regardless of distribution by
tic. Travel during heavy-volume conditions direction. This figure is reduced substan-
on two-way, two-lane highways, therefore, tially by poor roadway alinement and pro-
oscillates between the formation of queues file. A single restrictive sight distance will
with gaps between, and the partial filling of restrict the capacity of a three-lane, two-
these gaps by passing maneuvers. way roadway to 2,000 vph in one direction,
Studies have shown that with traffic with directional distribution determining the
evenly divided by direction vehicular opera- total capacity.
tion is sufficiently restricted to limit the Currently, there is increasing use of lane
flow in each direction to 1,000 passenger control devices on the center lane of re-
vehicles per hour. At the other extreme, maining three-lane highways, either to make
when almost all traffic is moving in one it a reversible lane or to reserve it for left
direction, the one lane can be kept corn- turns only, in both directions. Insufficient
pletely filled by passing maneuvers. The data have been gathered thus far to permit
capacity under these conditions is limited specific capacity values for these situations.
to the • number of vehicles that can crowd Capacities for all basic highway types for
into one traffic lane, because the other traf- uninterrupted flow under ideal conditions
\ tic lane must still be reserved for opposing
traffic. The capacity of a two-lane, two-way
are summarized ii Table 4.1.
It must be remembered, however, that
roadway under ideal conditions is, therefore, these values were determined from studies
2,000 passenger vehicles per hour, total, of many highways under a variety of condi-
regardless of distribution by direction. tions. In all cases it would be impossible to
Traffic operation on typical three-lane, state that the volume measured was the
NK two-way highways is similar to two-lane absolute maximum that could be carried,
highways, except that an additional lane is inasmuch as maximum volumes observed at
provided for passing maneuvers in either different times at one point will show a
direction. With traffic evenly divided by di- range of values. Rather, each capacity value
rection, the capacity under ideal conditions given in Table 4.1 should be considered as
would approach the number that can the average maximum volume, or a maxi-
crowd into two traffic lanes, because the mum volume that has a reasonable expecta-
center lane can be utilized for passing tion of occurring frequently on the particu-
maneuvers to fill' the long gaps between lar type of highway under ideal conditions.
vehicles. Conversely, predominant move- In this connection it should be recog-
ment in one direction will preempt the cen- nized that occurrences such as minor acci-
ter lane so the characteristics of flow be- dents or vehicle breakdowns, which are
come similar to those in one direction on a often referred to during traffic studies as
four-lane highway. The capacity under "abnormal" or "unusual," actually may be
CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE 77
- -
0000
The capacity of a two-lane, I ito-way roadu a

uud r ideal (nuhitmn c is 2.000 pacten e.'r
/iu ii V i r lunir. total.
IV
V V
q uite common on heavily-used highways.

V V
- -. .. V
A.
:
possibly occurring several times in any
given section during 'i typical peak period ..
It would be unwise to consider the rare
case when no such incident occurred as the V -
controlling case a more realistic maximum /-
is required. 4 V J
In addition to the existence of ideal con- V V
ditions, three other factors are implied. V V

.i ( Vapiicii V of /fl ulitlane 'iiV!''i ItO tinder ideal
The
These should be restated as essential for the conditions is 2000 pascenger %V(,hiic.les
foregoing values to be attained in practice. per lane per/tour.
First, there must exist immediately upstream
from the roadway section provision for and
a traffic demand equal to or greater than
this capacity. Second, the roadway down-
stream from the section being studied niust CAPACITY FOR INTERRUPTED FLOW
be of sufficient capacity to carry the traffic CONDITIONS
away. Finally, outside influences such as
weather must allow the maximum capabili- Unlike uninterrupted flow, few broad cr1-
lies to be utilized. lena can be described for interrupted flow.
The values in Table 4.1, although not It is not feasible to define fundamental ca-
directly applicable to many highways. pro- pacities tinder ideal conditions, because too
vide the basis for the succeeding capacity many variables are involved. Rather, any
and level-of-service analysis techniques. The examination of interrupted flow requires de-
need for adjusting these capacities to actual tailed study of the elements producing the
roadway conditions is discussed in Chapter interruptions. Although any signalized in-
Five. tersection is obviously such an element, van-
78 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
ous midblock interruptions may be equally Traffic interruptions or restrictions..

significant. This includes the number of stops per mile,
Generally speaking, the following two the delays involved, and the magnitude, fre-
basic limitations can be established: (1) quency, and suddenness of speed changes
Rarely does a traffic lane on an urban ar- necessary to maintain pace in the traffic
terial carry volumes at a rate greater than stream.
2,000 passenger cars per hour of green sig- Freedom to maneuver. This considers
nal indication, even with ideal signal pro- the amount of freedom to maneuver to
gression; and (2) a line of vehicles, all of maintain desired operating speeds.
which are stopped by an interruption, will Safety. This includes not only accident
only rarely move away from the interrup- rates, but also potential hazards.
tion at a rate greater than 1,500 passenger Driving comfort and convenience. This
cars per lane per hour, during those periods considers roadway and traffic conditions as
when the interruption is not in effect. they affect driving comfort, and also con-
It is essential to note that these values are siders the degree to which the service pro-
rates, not volumes. Thus the values given vided by the roadway meets the convenience
are measures of the maximum that would standards of the driver.
pass if sufficient periods of moving traffic Economy. This considers the cost of
were summed in the interrupted flow envi- operating the vehicle on the highway.
ronment to total 60 mm. They do not repre-
sent actual volumes per clock hour, which Desirably, all of these factors should be
typically are considerably less. Thus, these incorporated in a level-of-service evaluation.
values cannot be used as "rules of thumb" As yet, however, there are insufficient data
in the same sense as can the uninterrupted to determine either the values or the rela-
flow capacities. tive weights of certain of the six factors
listed.
LEVELS OF SERVICE
After careful consideration, the Commit-
tee has selected -travel speed as the major
When the traffic volume equals the ca- factor to use in identifying the level of serv-
pacity of a highway, operating conditions ice. The Committee also uses a second fac-
are poor, even under ideal roadway and tor—either the ratio of demand volume to
traffic conditions. Speeds are low, with fre- capacity or the ratio of service volume to
quent stops and high delay. In order that a capacity, depending on the particular prob-
highway provide an acceptable level of serv- lem situation—in making this identification.
ice to the road user, it is necessary that the Although the recommended level-of-service
service volume be lower than the capacity scales may not include all of the factors con-
of the roadway. The maximum volume th a idered desirable, the use of these two fac-
can be carried at any selected level of serv- tors is considered to represent a practical
ice is referred to as the "service volume" for approach based on past and present experi-
that level. Several such levels are specifically ence.
defined in this manual. In practice, the second factor is referred
The individual road user has little reali- to as the v/c ratio." In problems where
zation of the volume level itself, but he is demand an capacity are known and the
aware of the effect of high volume on his level of service is desired, v primarily repre-
ability to travel on a street or highway with sents the demand. It also, of course, repre-
reasonable speed, comfort, convenience, sents a service volume, but only coinciden-
economy and safety. Thus, factors which tally would it represent a controlling value
might be considered in evaluating level of marking the limiting service volume of a
service include the following: defined level of service. Usually, it would
1. Speed and travel time. This not only fall somewhere within a defined level-of-
includes the operating speed, but also the service rang@. On the other hand, in a case
overall travel time utilized in traversing a where capacity and a required level of serv-
section of roadway. ice are specified v represents the computed
limiting service volume that can be handled traffic density increases and quality of serv-
at that level of service. Throughout this ice falls, only coincidentally will both limits
text, then, v may represent either demand be reached simultaneously; usually, one or
volume or service volume, depending on the the other of the limits will govern in any
circumstances in which it is used. particular case. Once either limit is passed,
Because design speed can vary consider- service will drop to the next level.
ably by type of highway, it is quite possible Based on the previous discussion, the fol-
to obtain low operating or overall travel lowing criteria thus have been established
speeds on some highways because of physi- for determining capacity and level-of-service
cal design features, rather than traffic char- relationships:
acteristics, regardless of the volume of traf- Volume and capacity are expressed in
fic carried. Thus, a single level-of-service numbers of passenger cars per hour for sub-
scale applying to all types of streets and sections of each section of roadway. De-
highways is not considered feasible. Rather, mand volume and capacity may vary con-
separate recommended level-of-service scales siderably along a section of roadway, and
are established in this manual for several average values for an entire long section
different major highway types, and related often may not adequately represent the ac-
scales are presented for certain highway ele- tual conditions at all points within that sec-
ments. Even within a given highway type, tion. The degree of detail necessary in
variations in design standards will prevent dividing any particular section into subsec-
some from offering the better levels of serv- tions for separate examination will, of
ice. course, depend on the nature of the study.
Travel speed, used as one measure of level Level of service, strictly defined, ap-
of service, may be either an operating speed plies to a section of roadway of significant
or an average overall travel speed, depend- length. Such a section may have variations
ing on the type of highway. Operating speeds in operating conditions at different points or
are used for those types of highways carry- over subsections throughout its length, due
ing generally uninterrupted flow; these are to changes in demand volume or capacity.
typically found in rural areas. Average Built-in variations in capacity result from
overall travel speed is utilized for urban ar- varying conditions along the roadway, such
terial and downtown streets, and interrupted as changes in width, or presence of grades,
flow generally, because this is the type of ramp terminals, weaving areas, restricted
speed data normally obtained in urban areas. lateral clearances, and intersections. Varia-
The operating speed provides an indications in volume result from varying amounts
tion of overall performance on a roadway. of traffic entering and leaving at points ir-
The additional evaluation of the volume-to- regularly spaced along the roadway. The sec-
capacity ratios provides some indication of tion level of service must, within limits, take
traffic densities and freedom to maneuver. into account the overall effect of .these point
Each level of service should be considered and subsection limitations on the entire sec-
as a range of operating conditions bounded tion. Therefore, for computational pur-
by values of travel speed, and by volume-to- poses, certain point or subsection equivalents
capacity ratios. Wherever speed and service to the more broadly defined levels of service
volume values are given, to identify the must also be considered.
limits of a level, they are considered to be, Analysis of volume and operating
respectively, the limits representing the low- speed, or average overall travel speed, is
est acceptable speed and highest acceptable made for each point or subsection of the
volume of a level-of-service range. It is highway having relatively uniform condi-
essential to remember, however, that the tions. The weighted operating speed, or
identified level's range extends from the average overall travel speed, is then deter-
limits of the next higher level. When speeds mined for the entire section, and a corre-
are higher and service volumes are lower sponding level of service is identified.
than the values given, operations are equal Elements used to measure capacity and
to or better than that level of service. As levels of service, are variables whose values
80 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
or categories are easily determined from speed and volume conditions on any high-
available data. For capacity these include way or street. It should be noted that other
roadway type, geometrics, average highway intermediate levels may be established by
speed, traffic composition, and time varia- other jurisdictions for specific conditions.
tions in volume. For level of service, addi- The descriptions here relate to uninterrupted
tional elements used include speed and flow and are broadly generalized; definitive
volume-to-capacity ratios. values are given in Chapters Nine and Ten
5. For practical use, values of speed and for each type of highway. These levels of
volume-capacity ratio which define levels of service, designated A through F, from best
service are established for each of the fol- to worst, cover the entire range of traffic
lowing types of facilities: operations that may occur. On many spe-
cific streets and highways, the better levels
/ (a) Freeways and other expressways.
cannot be attained.
Other multilane highways. Traffic operational freedom on a highway
Two- and three-lane highways. of a particular type is considered equal to or
( (d) Urban arterial streets. greater than level of service A, B, C, or D,
(e) Downtown streets (approximate as the case may be, when specified values of
only). the two separate conditions previously de-
scribed are met. These conditions require
Related levels of service are established for that: (1) operating speeds or average overall
several point elements, including intersec- speeds be equal to or greater than a standard
tions, ramp junctions, and weaving sections. value for the level considered, and (2) the'
6. Criteria selected for practical applica- ratio of the demand volume to the capacity
tion in identifying levels of service for vari- of any subsection not exceed a standard value
ous types of highways are given in Table for that level. Level of service E describes
4.2. conditions approaching and at capacity
(that is, critical density). Level F describes
conditions under high-density conditions
OPERATING CONDITIONS FOR when speeds are low and variable; it is not
LEVELS OF SERVICE effectively described by combinations of
speed and volume-to-capacity ratios, because
Six levels of service have been selected these may vary widely.
by the Committee for application in identi- Level of service A describes a condition
fying the conditions existing under various of free flow, with low volumes and high
TABLE 4.2—ELEMENTS USED TO EVALUATE LEVEL OF SERVICE
TWO- AND '

MULTI- THREE- DOWN-
LANE LANE URBAN TOWN
ELEMENT FREEWAYS HIGHWAYS HIGHWAYS ARTERIALS STREETS
Basic elements
Operating speed for section X X X
Average overall travel speed X X
Volume-to-capacity ratio:
Most critical point ' X X X X
Each subsection X X X X
Entire section X X X X
Related elements
Average highway speed X X X
Number of lanes X
Sight distance ' X
speeds. Traffic density is low, with speeds

controlled by driver desires, speed limits, and
physical roadway conditions. There is little VEL
or no restriction in maneuverability due to SERVICE A
the presence of other vehicles, and drivers

can maintain their desired speeds with little
or no delay. LEVEL OF SERVICE
Level of service B is in the zone of stable

flow, with operating speeds beginning to be LEVEL OF SERVICE C
restricted somewhat by traffic conditions.

Drivers still have reasonable freedom to se- 77
LEVEL OF SERVICE
lect their speed and lane of operation. Re-
ductions in speed are not unreasonable, with
\ LEVEL OF SERVICE
a low probability of traffic flow being re-
stricted. The lower limit (lowest speed, high-
est volume) of this level of service has been
associated with service volumes used in the Of 5CR_.-
design of rural highways.
Level of service C is still in the zone of ———
stable flow, but speeds and maneuverability
VOLUME/CAPACITY RATIO
are more closely controlled by the higher
volumes. Most of the drivers are restricted Figure 4.1. General concept of relationship of
in their freedom to select their own speed, levels of service to operating speed and i'olu,ne/
change lanes, or pass. A relatively satis- capacity ratio. (Not to scale.)
factory operating speed is still obtained, with
service volumes perhaps suitable for urban
design practice.
Level of service D approaches unstable occur for short or long periods of time be-
flow, with tolerable operating speeds being cause of the downstream.congestion. In the
maintained though considerably affected by extreme, both speed and volume can drop to
changes in operating conditions. Fluctua- zero.
tions in volume and temporary restrictions These levels of service are depicted con-
to flow may cause substantial drops in oper- ceptually in Figure 4.1.
ating speeds. Drivers have little freedom to
maneuver, and comfort and convenience are
SUMMARY OF PROCEDURES
low, but conditions can be tolerated for short
periods of time. This chapter presents only the broad gen-
Level of service E cannot be described by eralized concept for determination of the
speed alone, but represents operations at attainable level of service for a typical sec-
even lower operating speeds than in level D, tion. of highway having uninterrupted flow.
with volumes at or near the capacity of the Detailed procedures for determination of
highway. At capacity, speeds are typically, capacity, service volumes, and level of serv-
but not always, in the neighborhood of ice are presented in Chapters Nine and Ten:
30 mph. Flow is i.instable, and there may be The basic concept involves the following
stoppages of momentary duration. steps:
Level of service F describes forced flow Subdivide the roadway section into sub-
operation at low speeds, where volumes are sections having reasonably uniform condi-
below, capacity. These conditions usually tions from the standpoint of capacity. Also,
result from queues of vehicles backing up identify for possible separate detailed analy-
from a restriction downstream. The section sis points which may be critical bottleneck
under study will be serving as a storage area locations.
during parts or all of the peak hour. Speeds Determine, for each subsection and
are reduced substantially and stoppages may critical point, the capacity, demand volume,
Level of se/vice concept on a multilane freeway as viewed from above. Note center roadway.
Center left: level B, stable flow, few restrictions on operating speed; Lower left: level C,
stable flow, big/icr volume, more restrictions on speed and lane changing; Upper right:
level D, approaching unsta b/c flow, little freedo,n to mane/I ver, condition tolerable
for S//art periods; Center right: level K, zn.vtable flow, /0/icr operatin' speeds 1//all
level D, some momentar.N. stoppages; Lower right: level F, forced fioit'
operation at low .speeds, highwaY acts as storage are(l, li/ally .s top pages.
i',- ?,w_t .1TP ••. -• ': ;
el
-.
R
1 1Lt; 4
.... x,
., I • . tsf•.
I 4 fr.' •. . JS/
/ IF
- I
- .. .................................... - .
_ -
IIL1*
- --- - - -
-
-• ;. ••• •,
J -f
2'
Level of service co/lee!)t io viewed looking upsirewn. Coni/itions .si,niltir to f/lose described on
Center left: level B; Lower left: level C; Upper right:
-I
.4
----
tl ,
•
jlj --
...... _ =1 •
C. -'
•• •- I
-.... . ...- r - ..ir—*•' i
:
.•__r
j
puges 82 and 83, wit/i level A 11111-ing, Ito re.trkiiwi. on operiUi,l •ipeeil. U pper left: level A;
level D; Center right: level E; Lower right: level F.
Jk 4
y $SOL
---.-.--
• r-
- .-
______ --
-- -. -
\ __
&ip,.JIp
1. - -
- - ;====;•••%• \% I
:...,
•j
- I
LI
___ ____
-• - -: - -.
•: • - • .- __
oil' /_-
01 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
and volume-to-capacity ratio. Capacity is commonly recorded in traffic studies, be-

the value obtained by applying appropriate cause it can be obtained only by actual timed
reduction factors, described in Chapter Five, runs of vehicles driven as fast as possible,
to the ideal capacity for that highway type, without exceeding the design speed, at vari-
to correct for physical factors (such as ous volume levels. Where, however, it is
widths, clearances, grades) and traffic fac- known from such observations, it should be
tors (such as commercial vehicles) less than used directly.)
ideal. Determine the overall level of service
For refined determination of level of serv- of the several subsections combined. First,
ice, a "base volume" must be used instead compute the weighted averages of operating
of actual capacity, to reflect the effect of speeds and of v/c ratios for the entire sec-
correction factors that are different for lev- tion, as described in Chapters Nine and Ten.
els of service than for capacity. It is com- Then use the overall weighted average op
puted in the same way as corrected capacity, erating speed and v/c ratio thus computed
except for use of the different correction to determine the resulting overall level of
values. service for the section, based on standards
3. For each subsection, use the resulting presented in Chapters Nine and Ten for the
volume-to-capacity ratio, v/c, or, more pre- appropriate type of highway.
cisely, volume-to-base volume ratio to deter- Check the most critical v/c ratio or
mine an operating speed for that subsection. ratios in the section to make sure that ca-
This operating speed is obtained from the pacity is not exceeded at any point. Where
appropriate table or curve selected from the controlling level-of-service or v/c ratio lim-
typical speed-volume relationships given in its have been established for all the points
Chapters Nine and Ten, taking into account along a section, check further to make sure
the type of highway and its average highway that these are not exceeded at any point.
speed. If desired, the level of service for A simple example of the general use of
each particular subsection can be established the procedure follows, as applied -to a rural
from these measures, using criteria in Chap- roadway section with given physical and
ters Nine and Ten. traffic conditions and an estimated demand
(Note: Operating speed is not a measure volume.
EXAMPLE OF LEVEL-OF-SERVICE DETERMINATION FOR UNDIVIDED FOUR-

LANE HIGHWAY WITHOUT ACCESS CONTROL UNDER UNINTERRUPTED
FLOW CONDITIONS
IDEAL RESTRICTED
GEOMETRICS CURVE WIDTH GRADE
ELEMENT SECTION SECTION SECTION SECTION.
Length (ml) 2.0 0.5 1.5 1.0

Avg. highway speed (mph) 70 50 60 70
Capacity, ideal ' 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000
Reduction factor 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.70
Capacity, actual" 3,800 3,600 3,400 2,800
Demand (vol/hr)" 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000
v/c Ratio 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.71
Weighted avg. v/c ratio 0.59
Operating speed 0 (mph) 51 38 42 45
Wtd. avg. operating speed (mph) 45.8
0One direction.
See Chapter Five.
Operating speed obtained for each section of roadway from curves Showing relation between operating speed
and i/c ratio for the pertinent type of highway with that average highway speed.
Results volume and speeds, for levels of service on

freeways, multilane highways without access
This analysis determines an overall oper- control, and two-lane roads. It should be
ating speed of 45.8 mph, an overall v/c noted that for freeways and other multilane
ratio of 0.59, and critical v/c ratio of 0.71, highways, levels of service can be determined
for use in establishing the level of service separately for each direction of flow, where-
associated with the 2,000-vph demand vol- as on two-lane highways only the overall
ume. level for the total two-way flow , can be
Criteria presented. in Chapter Ten show established because only two-way capacity
that level of service C is thus indicated, and criteria are available.
that the grade does not produce a drop into Levels of service, then, incorporate no
a poorer level of service. radically new concept. Rather, they refine
The service volume and level-of-service the previous procedures to incorporate a
concepts for uninterrupted flow may at first new degree of flexibility for local applica-
seem quite different from earlier methods, tions. The need for such flexibility has be-
but fundamentally there is little change. The come increasingly apparent over the years,
measures used in both. cases are a volume particularly in connection with analyses of
less than capacity, and a related operating benefits provided in relation to the costs of
speed. The earlier procedures offered a providing them. Highway planning, financ-
choice of two levels below capacity—namely, ing, construction, and operation have be-
"practical-urban" and "practical-rural"— come too complex and interrelated subjects
each of which, by definition, was associated to permit the Committee to attempt to define
with an operating speed range pre-established all-inclusive "practical" levels equally suita-
by the Committee as appropriate nationally. ble throughout the nation, or even the world,
Separate volume scales were established for as it did in 1950.
two-lane, three-lane, and multilane roads, Utilizing the refined procedures in this
but speed levels were approximately equal. manual, designers and traffic engineers in
The new procedures offer a choice of four specific localities are encouraged to develop
levels below capacity, each of which is re- their own charts and tables for capacity and
lated to an operating speed; these levels offer service volume determinations, based spe-
more freedom to the local administrator or cifically on local traffic, environmental and
engineer to select that type of operation most geometric characteristics. Such charts may
suitable for his local conditions. Separate permit the bypassing of several of the steps
scales now are established in terms of both contained herein.
CHAPTER FIVE
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITY AND

SERVICE VOLUMES
Chapter Four provides fundamental ca- fluence of certain variables on the capacities
pacity values for various types of highways and service volumes of highways, they also
and describes levels of service under ideal indirectly reflect the degree of safety. In
conditions. It is seldom, however, that all nearly every case, an element which reduces
roadway and traffic conditions which affect the amount of traffic that can be carried also
capacity are ideal. Therefore, determina- creates greater accident potential. However,
tion of service volumes for most highway other elements which do not affect capacity
sections requires application of adjustment may nevertheless affect safety.
factors described in this chapter.
The determination of a service volume, of ROADWAY FACTORS
course, first depends on choice of the level
of service desired for the highway under Restrictive physical features incorporated
consideration, as discussed in detail in Chap- into the design of a section of roadway have
ters Nine and Ten. Adjustment factors for an adverse effect on its capacity and service
certain effects apply volumes. Such elements are called "road-
the several levels of service, whereas those way factors" in this manual. Roadway fac-
for other effects differ depending on the tors discussed in this chapter include: lane
level to which they are to be applied. width, lateral clearance, shoulders, auxiliary
Factors affecting capacity and level of lanes, surface conditions, alinement, and
service are described under two categories grades.
—roadway factors and traffic factors. In
some cases, the two categories are interre- Lane Width
lated. For example, most grades would not
affect capacity appreciably were it not for Narrower lanes have a lower capacity un-
trucks in the traffic stream. Conversely, the der uninterrupted flow conditions than the
effect of trucks on capacity is much greater 12-ft lanes which the Committee has ac-
on long, steep upgrades than on level sec- cepted as the defined ideal. On a two-lane
tions. highway, a vehicle performing a passing
Not all of the factors affecting capacity maneuver occupies the lane normally used
and level of service have been fully evaluated by traffic traveling in the opposite direction
as yet. This is particularly trite of the level- for a longer period when the lanes are nar-
of-service factors, because the overall con- row than when they are wide. On multilane
cept is relatively new. Further research is highways, more vehicles encroach on adja-
essential in some areas before firm numerical cent lanes when the lanes are narrow than
adjustment values can be assigned, or be- when they are wide, in effect occupying two
fore refined separate adjustments for the lanes rather than one at such times.
several different levels of service can be de- Table 5.1 gives the capacities of lanes
veloped. The figures included here repre- from 9 to 12 ft in width expressed as a per-
sent the best estimate of these factors that centage of the capacity of a 12-ft lane.
can be presented as guides at this time. These percentage factors are applicable only
It is significant to note that although under uninterrupted flow conditions. The
these factors are intended to reflect the in- effect of lane width on capacities of inter-
88
CAPACITY AND SERVICE VOLUME FACTORS 89
sections where stop-and-go operation pre- TABLE 5.1—EFFECT OF LANE WIDTH

vails is discussed in Chapter Six. ON CAPACITY FOR'UNINTERRUPTED
Table 5.1 'is presented for information FLOW CONDITIONS
only. Its use is not required for the deter-
mination of roadway capacity or service vol- CAPACITY
umes, as described in the procedures chap- (% OF 12-FT LANE CAP.)
LANE
ters of this manual, inasmuch as the com- WIDTH 2-LANE MULTILANE
bined effects of lane width and restricted (FT) HIGHWAYS HIGHWAYS
lateral clearance are there presented as sin-
gle adjustment factors. 12 100 100
Although the table shows only the effect II 88 97
of narrower lanes on capacity, such restricted .10 81 91
lanes also adversely affect driver comfort 9 76 81
and increase potential hazard.
Lateral Clearance
TABLE 5.2—EFFECTIVE ROADWAY
It is believed that mountable curbs and WIDTH DUE TO RESTRICTED
vertical curbs 6 in. or less in height have in- LATERAL CLEARANCES UNDER
significant influence on traffic operations. UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
However, other lateral obstructions (such as CONDITIONS
retaining walls, abutments, signposts, light
poles, and parked cars) located closer than CAPACITY
6 ft from the edge of a traffic lane reduce its CLEARANCE FROM EFFECTIVE OF TWO
effective width. Table 5.2 shows, as an PAVEMENT EDGE WIDTH OF 12-FT
example, how restricted lateral clearances on TO OBSTRUCTION, TWO 12-FT LANES
both sides of a 24-ft, two-way pavement BOTH SIDES LANES (% OF
carrying uninterrupted flow reduce its effec- (FT) (FT) IDEAL)
tive width. For instance, a section of 24-ft
6 24 100
pavement with a bridge truss at the edge has 4 22 92
the same effective width as a 17-ft pavement 2 20 83
with no obstructions on either side closer 0 17 72
than 6 ft.
Judgment must be exercised when evalu-
ating the effects of lateral restrictions on the
level of service provided by a given section
of highway where the restrictions are not As a "rule of thitmb," high barrier curbs
continuous throughout its length. Even one can be identified as those high enough to
lateral restriction may cause a bottleneck and damage the body and fenders of vehicles
thereby directly affect the capacity of the coming in contact with them. (The influ-
entire section, but operation at lower vol- ence of curbs higher than 6 in. but lower
times (better levels of service) may not be than this level remains questionable.) Data
seriously affected. (2) on the lateral placement of vehicles
Continuous obstructions (such as median with respect to high barrier curbs show that
barriers, guardrails on long viaducts, and drivers shy away from them, but that the
high barrier curbs) may have less adverse average clearance allowed is probably some-
effect on effective pavement width than inter- what greater where the curb is first intro-
mittent, short obstructions, because drivers duced than along sections where it has been
become accustomed to them. For example, continuous for some distance. The extent
one study made on a freeway of the results of shying away is not known precisely, but
of erecting a barrier fence in a 4-ft raised it is known that the lateral pIaement of
median with 6-in. curbs showed that the vehicles varies with the curb height and
barrier had no significant effect on vehicle steepness and the position of other obstruc-
placement (1). tions outside the curb. Present indications
90 HIGH\VAY CAPACITY
of roadway widths from 9 to 12 ft, and a

range of lateral clearances from 0 to 6 ft.
They present, where appropriate, separate
adjustments for cases where obstructions
exist on only one side of the roadway and
for cases where they exist on both sides at
equal distances.
In cases where obstructions exist on both
sides, but at differing distances, interpola-
tion between factors is acceptable. For in-
stance. given a setback of 4 ft on one side
and 2 ft on the other on a four-lane high-
way with 10-ft lanes, an average of the
tabulated factors for a setback of 4 ft on
both sides and 2 ft on both sides would be
obtained.
Lane widths of less 1/Ia?! /2 ft, p/its restrictive
lateral clearances, suhsta,:tially reduce capacity.
Shoulders
Adequate shoulders are essential if the

capacity provided by the traffic lanes is to
be maintained continuously. Without a
place of refuge outside the traffic lanes, one
disabled vehicle can reduce the capacity of
are that an introduced harrier curb has the a highway by more than the capacity of one
full influence indicated by the lateral clear- lane, particularly if the lanes are less than
ance factors where first encountered, but 12 ft wide. The disabled vehicle blocks the
that if it is continuous its effect gradually lane occupied, and, in addition, reduces the
becomes less as drivers adjust to its pres- capacity of adjoining lanes whenever ve-
ence. hicles must merge into fewer lanes at speeds
It should be remembered that lateral below that at which capacity occurs for the
clearances which are "ideal" from a capacity highway in question.
standpoint—that is, 6 ft or greater—are not For example, the capacity of a traffic lane
necessarily adequate from a safety stand- on a certain multilane highway may be at-
point. In modern high-type designs, there- tained at 30 mph. However, if it is adjacent
fore, safety considerations generally govern to a blocked lane and speeds in it fall to
the clearance finally established. 20 mph, possibly only 85 percent of its ca-
Table 5.2, like Table 5.1, is presented for pacity may be realized, and at 10 mph the
information only; it is not used in actual lane may be able to carry only about 50 per-
problem solutions, because the combined ad-
cent of its 30-mph capacity. Therefore, a
justments discussed in the following are used
minor accident which causes a reduction in
instead.
speed can cause complete congestion on a
highway operating at or near its capacity.
Lane Width and Lateral Clearance This loss of traffic-carrying capability due to
(Co,nbined) speed reduction also explains why accidents
In practice, there is seldom a need to which do not block the traffic lanes often
know the individual effects of lane width and cause congestion due to excessive slowing
of lateral clearance, because they are largely by curious drivers.
interrelated. Therefore, for convenience in In addition to maintaining the capacity of
actual problem solutions their combined a highway by providing refuge for disabled
effects are consolidated into single adjust- vehicles, adequate shoulders also in some
ment factors, which are given in Tables 9.2, cases increase the effective width of traffic
10.2, and 10.8. These tables cover a range lanes. For lanes less than 12 ft wide, shoul-
Adequate shoulders (ITC essen(wl to tnaifltaifl capacity of traffic lo,u'. ('o,iliIlaou sIivuhlr arc
provided on boil: sides of this 4-1ane ,zon-eontro/led-occe.is high tay.
ders which are paved or which are treated consideration must he given to the actual
with bituminous materials for a width of parking conditions along the street, rather
4 ft or more increase the effective width of than to parking regulations.
the adjacent traffic lanes by 1 ft. Where parked vehicles must he accom-
modated along the highway, the provision
of parking lanes greatly reduces the adverse
A uxiliarv Laies effect of the parking on the highway's ca-
An auxiliary lane is the portion of the pacity. Parking lanes may also serve as
roadway adjoining the through traveled way shoulders for the parking of disabled vehicles
used for parking, speed change, weaving, if space is available where a particular
turning, storage of turning vehicles, separa- breakdown occurs.
tion of slow-moving vehicles on long, steep However, it is not correct to state that
upgrades, and other purposes supplemental any parking lane wide enough to accommo-
to through traffic movement. Auxiliary lanes date the parked vehicles physically will pre-
generally are provided to permit effective vent all capacity loss due to parking. This
utilization of the capacity of, and to improve is because parking, like any other obstruc-
the quality of service on, the through traf- tion, has an influence range extending be-
fic lanes. As such, they often serve to pre- yond its physical limits. For example, as-
vent development of bottlenecks. suming an 8-ft parking lane, and applying
uninterrupted tiow principles, the parked
cars would constitute an obstruction located
PARKING LANES
about 1 ft from the edge of the traffic lane,
Obviously, a pavement of any width suf- with restrictive effects as just discussed, even
fers a loss in capacity if parking is present. if it were assumed that they were parked
This is true even if only a few vehicles park very close to the curb or lane edge.
at any one time, legally or illegally. There- It is not common practice to provide for
fore, for capacity analysis purposes, primary parking lanes on rural highways. If a spe-
92 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
cific problem occurs where a parking lane is through pavement, which is one cause of
added to a rural highway, the effect on ca- congestion at exits from high-volume high-
pacity can best he handled by considering ways.
the parked vehicles to constitute a lateral Acceleration lanes permit entering traffic
obstruction. On signalized urban streets, to accelerate to speeds close to normal op-
where lateral clearance corrections are not erating speeds on the through highway be-
used directly, it appears that a row of parked fore entering the through traffic lanes and
vehicles takes up an effective width of some to adjust their speeds as necessary to match
12 to 14 ft, in the average case, though the openings or gaps, so as to merge smoothly
effect may vary quite widely in specific cases. into the through traffic stream. A smooth or
No separate adjustment need he made for free-flowing merging condition contributes
this effect, however, because parking con- materially to the quality of service provided,
ditions are incorporated as a basic element both for through and entering traffic, at an
in the intersection capacity determination entrance to a highway.
procedures described in Chapter Six. Cor- The influences of traffic merging into and
rect use of these procedures automatically diverging from the main traffic stream are
makes proper allowance for parking. too complex to be represented by simple cor-
rection factors. Complete capacity analyses
SPEED CHANGE LANES are needed at these locations. The reader is
referred to Chapter Eight for detailed dis-
Deceleration lanes permit traffic leaving cussion of capacity analyses at ramp en-
a highway to decelerate, after moving off the trances and exits.
through pavement, from its normal operat-
ing speeds in the through lanes either to
TURNING AND STORAGE LANES
comfortable and safe exit roadway speeds or,
where necessary, to a full stop, before mov- Separate turning lanes apart from the
ing onto the adjacent connecting highway. through pavement may substantially improve
Thus, during normal operation they elimi- intersection operation by providing extra ap-
nate the need for excessive slowing on the proach width, allowing more suitable signal
The truck c/i,nhinq lane (at right) improves capacity and level of service on this 2-1a,ze highway
.section.
phasing, and preventing the blocking of

through traffic by stored vehicles awaiting
an opportunity to turn. Separate turning
lanes may function under free flow. "yield"
or "stop" control, or signal control, as ap-
propriate in each particular case.
Turning lanes often are direct continua-
tions of deceleration lanes. Where storage
is required, the storage length should be in
addition to that required for deceleration, if
a fully adequate length is to be provided.
The reader is referred to Chapter Six for
analysis of the effects of separate turning
and storage lanes.
::
AUXILIARY LANES IN WEAVING SECTION
Where two or more traffic flows join and

again separate over a relatively short dis-
tance with substantial associated weaving be-
tween flows, there may be a capacity hottle-
neck unless additional lanes are provided
through the section. This is true both in the
A dverse elf eel of i,qade.s on cupacilv is alleviated
case of basic weaving sections where rela- k' proper design in this new 2-lane hi'li hay
tively similar flows join, and in the case of section. Note provision of full-ss'idth
weaving sections produced at interchanges shoulders and o ver- width earth work.
by on-ramps followed by off-ramps.
In either case, special capacity analyses
arc required: simple adjustment factors are
not feasible. These procedures are described
in Chapters Seven and Eight. reflect the effect of surface condition at
other levels of service. It may be assumed
TRUCK CLIMBING LANES AND
that where surface condition is very poor,
I'ASSING IIAYS
operating speeds are somewhat lowered for
an), given volume as compared to those at-
Although truck climbing lanes and pass- tamed where the surface is good. If knowl-
ing bays are clearly types of auxiliary lanes, edge of the attainable speed at very low
they are so closely related to the subject of volumes can be obtained on it given road,
grades that they are included in that section then an approximate speed-volume relation-
of this chapter. ship can be developed.
Surface Condition A lineitient

A deteriorated, poorly-maintained pave- The alinement and profile of a highway
ment adversely atlecis level of service, par- are important factors affecting its traffic-
ticuarly in terms of speed, comfort, econ- carrying capabilities. Although design speed
omy, and safety. However, on any highway is a common descriptor of alinement, it is
where capacity is a significant consi(leration not a sufficient measure for level -of -service
it would be rare for maintenance to be so purposes, because it takes into consideration
poor that 30 mph, the approximate speed only the separate characteristics, such as
at which capacity is attained, could not be sharpness of curvature, of individual curves.
maintained. Thus, it does not vary with the frequency
Insufficient data are as yet available to of such curves and the lengths of intervening
permit development of adjustment factors to tangents, although these factors have a pro-
94 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
nounced influence on operating speeds. the design speed for that particular curve.
Rather, the lowest design speed of any sub- Although the 800-ft value may not be ap-
section within the section is often assigned propriate everywhere, an equivalent appro-
as the governing value for the entire section. priate value might well be found suitable in
For the relatively long sections of road- other areas.
way considered for level-of-service purposes, An upper limiting design speed, normally
therefore, alinement and profile have been 70 mph, is assigned to tangent sections and
related in this manual to (a) the highway's sections with easy curvature which satisfy
"average highway speed," and (b) stopping such a limit.
and passing sight distance restrictions. Two types of sight distance requirements
"Average highway speed," a term origi- are considered in evaluating an alinement
nally developed for highway needs study —stopping sight distance and passing sight
purposes (3), is defined as the weighted distance. Stopping sight distance is the dis-
average of the design speeds within a high- tance required to bring a vehicle to a stop
way section, when each subsection within from a given speed after an object on the
the section is considered to have an mdi- roadway becomes visible. Passing sight dis-
vidual design speed. It is determined by tance is the minimum sight distance that is
weighting the design speeds of individual required to pass another vehicle safely and
sections of a length of roadway by the length comfortably, without affecting the speed of
of each section, with suitable allowance for an oncoming vehicle if it comes into view
transitions, and is thus a better indicator of after the passing maneuver is started. For
the overall influence of alinement limitations the purposes of this manual -this minimum
on the capabilities of the entire section. is established as 1,500 ft. Adequate stopping
For detailed analyses, determination of sight distances are necessary continuously
average highway speed requires the follow- on all highways for safety. Passing sight
ing information, which reflects the nature of distances require consideration only on two-
the curves on the route and the extent of the way roadways with two or three lanes. Al-
speed changes necessary to negotiate them though they usually cannot be provided
safely: continuously, the more nearly continuous
they are the higher the capacity and the
The geometrics of each horizontal
better the service provided.
curve and critical vertical curve, including
curvature and length. The effect of the quality of alinement on
capacity and the service volumes which a
The design speed of each curve (ob-
tainable from AASHO design policies). roadway can carry, then, is expressed here
in terms of the average highway speed and
The approximate distance preceding the percentage of the highway having 1,500-
and following each curve over which speed
ft passing sight distances (for two- or three-
is affected, together with the average speeds lane highways).
over these deceleration and acceleration
distances. (AASHO policies suggest com- These effects are incorporated in the
limiting v/c ratios given in the basic compu-
fortable deceleration and acceleration rates,
from which distances can be determined.) tational tables in Chapters Nine and Ten,
so do not require independent consideration.
Given the foregoing, a relatively refined They are also shown by means of specific
speed profile can be obtained for the route, curves in the basic charts there included.
and weighted for development of average For two-lane highways the influences of
highway speed. However, in some regions, restricted highway speeds there reported are
for many approximate computations, an "in- based on quite detailed studies. For multi-
fluence area" of 800 ft for each curve has lane highways less is known and approxima-
been found to be a workable simplification. tions are necessary.
Here, specific curve lengths and acceleration The primary effects apply to levels of
and deceleration distances are neglected. service better than capacity. However, ca-
Weighting then involves simply considering pacity itself is somewhat affected. Table 5.3
each curve as an 800-ft length restricted to is presented for information only, to demon-
Multilane freeway retains big/i capacity level by few cluitiges in alinenieni and by grade reduction.
Note variable ,nc'djwi width in adverse terrain.
strate this fact that capacity appears to be at capacity is due mainly to clearance, grade,
least slightly related to average highway and related restrictions usually associated
speed even though the operating speeds at with poor alinement, rather than to aline-
capacity are relatively fixed at about 30 mph. nient itself. Hence, no specific adjustment
It is believed that this apparent effect at at capacity is included in the computational
procedures that follow.
Grades
TABLE 5.3—APPARENT EFFECT OF
QUALITY OF ALINEMENT (AS EFFECTS OF GRADES
REPRESENTED BY AVERAGE
HIGHWAY SPEED) ON Grades affect the capacity of a highway
CAPACITY in the following ways:
I. The presence of a grade is generally,
CAPACITY (% OF IDEAL although not always, associated with re-
AVERAGE
ALINEMENT) strictions in the sight distance, thereby af-
HIGHWAY - fecting the percentage of the length of two-
SPELl) MULTILANE 2-t.NE
(1PH) HI(;HVAYS LIIGIIWAYS
lane highway sections on which passing
maneuvers can be performed safely. This
70 100 100 effect is considered in the previous section
60 100 98 on "Alinement."
50 96 96 2. Vehicle braking distance is less on up-
40 - 95 grades and greater on downgrades than on
30 - 94
the level, thereby permitting shorter spac-
96 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
ings between vehicles •that are climbing especially if the upgrade is long and steep.
grades, and requiring longer spacings be- This is also true to some extent for passenger
tween vehicles descending grades, in order cars. Most passenger cars, however, can
to maintain a safe headway. negotiate sustained 6 and 7 percent upgrades
3. Trucks with their normal loads travel at speeds above that at which capacity oc-
at slower speeds up grades than on the level, curs for the highway in question. Therefore,
40
-
L~00
' %=
h ,
M
30 6 E
qV _ I
0EIN N,
N1o
N0a.- N EIE-00
-
10
0 0.5 1.0 t.5 - 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

DISTANCE UPGRADE (1,000 PT)
50
40
40
DISTANCE UPGRADE (I,000FT)
Figure 5.1. Eflect of length and steepness of grade on speed of average trucks on (a) two-lane and
(b) multilane highways.
(Source: Refs. 3, 4)
the effect of upgrades up to 7 percent on the assumption that the truck enters the
passenger car capacity is generally negli- grade at about 50 mph for multilane and
gible. It is the effect of sustained steep up- about 40 mph for two-lane highways. How-
grades on the speeds of trucks, and the ever, the curves also show the speed reduc-
resulting effect on capacity, with which this tion due to any length and steepness of grade
section is concerned. for other approach speeds. For example,
given a typical two-lane condition and a 4
The relationships between speed of trucks percent grade, if the approach speed is 35
at the bottom of a hill, percentage of grade, mph (initial distance 400 ft), the speed at a
and speed at any distance upgrade are point 1,000 ft up the grade will be 21 mph
shown in Figure 5.1 for two weight/power (final chart distance 1,400 ft).
ratios. Figure 5.1a represents an approxi- The broken lines show what performance
mate ratio of 325 lb per hp, considered may be expected when starting on the hill
typical of conditions on two-lane highways or approaching the hill at a speed lower
carrying a variety of types of trucks (3). than the crawl speed, so that the vehicle
Figure Sib shows conditions with an ap- accelerates to eventually reach the sustained
proximate ratio of 200 lb per hp, as found crawl speed. These curves show that long
on many modern multilane highways carry- distances are required to accelerate on grades
ing largely higher-powered long-haul truck- when the approach speed is below the final
ing (4). sustained speed. For example, to change
From these graphs, for the types of ve- the speed of a typical truck on a two-lane
hicles represented, it is possible to determine road with a 3 percent grade from 15 mph
how far a vehicle, starting its climb from to the sustained speed of 16 mph, an in-
speeds up to 40 and 50 mph, respectively, crease of only 1 mph, the vehicle would
can travel up various grades or combinations have to travel about 900 ft.
of grades before the sustained speed is
Practically any speed reduction by trucks
reached. The solid curves indicate the per-
will influence level of service to some de-
formance that may be expected when the
gree. Capacity also will always be influenced
beginning speed is above the possible sus-
by trucks to the extent that they take up more
tained or crawl speed. They are based on
roadway space than passenger cars. Never-
theless, the additional influence of grades on
capacity will not be felt until they cause
truck speeds to fall below 30 mph, the
approximate speed at which capacity is gen-
TABLE 5.4—DISTANCE FROM BOT-
erally attained.
TOM OF GRADE AT WHICH
SPEED OF TRUCKS IS As an example, Table 5.4 gives the dis-
REDUCED TO 30 MPH" tance that trucks having a weight-power ra-
tio of 325 lb per hp, considered typical
VERTICAL for two-lane highways, can go up various
DISTANCE FROM CLIMB FROM grades before their speeds are reduced to
BOTTOM OF BOTTOM OF 30 mph, assuming that they enter the grade
GRADE GRADE GRADE at 40 mph. It follows that, grades longer
(%) (FT) (FT) than those given in the table would have an
adverse effect on the capacity of a highway
1,950 39 because they would reduce the speeds of
1,150 35
825 33 trucks that occur with considerable fre
625 31 quency to values below 30 mph.
500 30 The distances upgrade in Figure 5.1 are
400 28 based on uniform grades. Where a vertical
curve is part of a length of grade, approxi-
Trucks having a weight-power ratio of 325 lb per hp.
"Assuming an approach speed of 40 mph. Bad aline. mation must be made as to equivalent uni-
ment, weak or narrow bridges, or other hazardous con- form grade length. Figure 5.2 shows a
ditions at the bottom of the hill would make this ap-
proach speed unsafe. variety of possible vertical curve configura-
98 }HGHWAY CAPACITY
VP' -0 2 tions. Where the condition under study in-

volves vertical curves of types II and IV
VP cPr
VPT ... 1
1
and the algebraic difference in grades is not
VP'
too great, the measurement of length of
TYPE I grade may be made between the VPI points.
-0, Where vertical curves of types I and III are
+02 involved, particularly where the algebraic
VPG
VP' VPT difference in grades is appreciable, about
one-quarter of the vertical curve length may
be considered as part of the grade under
VPC OPT
consideration.
TYPE TYPE IM Higher weight-horsepower ratios will, like-
-GI
VPC wise, reduce the speed of trucks ascending
ZVP grades and have an adverse effect on the
capacity of a highway. Studies conducted
by the Bureau of Public Roads clearly show
VPT that weight-horsepower ratios increase with
-0 2 VPI
an increase in gross weight (5, 6). Figure
CREST VERTICAL CURVES SAG VERTICAL CURVES 5.3 shows the cumulative frequency distri-
Figure 5.2. Types of vertical curves. bution of weight-horsepower ratios for all
(Source: Ref. 12) commercial vehicles weighed, both empty
100
II27LIEEII
80
'V
/
OTHER IINCLUDES Al_I. VEHICLE COMBINATIONS
WITH 5 OR MORE ARLES)
>
I 60
C
0
0
3/7I7_ 1111111 /
40
z
C
20
0 Z 3 4 5 6 7
WEIGI-IT/POWER RATIO (IOOLO PER NET lIP)
Figure 5.3. Cumulative Ire quency distributions of weight-power ratios for all commercial
vehicles weighed in 1963 studies on major multilane highways.
(Source: Ref. 6)
CAPACITY AND SERVICE VOLUME FACTORS
100
0 rA0EAEP"o—gANAA0N0P M
80 EMEMNWASNEEMEN
0
MEMMMONEWEEMEN
I V1WiVA
E_VillA NV1 _____
tiJiiUWA
uiiw•viriu
_
0.
20
23 4 5
WEIGHT/POWER RATIO (IOOLB PER NET HP>
Figure 5.4. Cumulative frequency distributions of -weight-power ratios for loaded trucks weighed
in 1963 studies on n>ajor multilane highways.
(Source: Ref. 6)
and loaded, during special braking studies lengths are more useful, where available.
conducted in 1963. Figure 5.4 shows similar Such relationships have been developed for
distributions for loaded trucks only. These typical two-lane highways (Fig. 5.5). For
curves show that the weight-power ratios of multilane highways such relationships are
commercial vehicles vary considerably, de- more complex and equivalent data are not
pending on vehicle type, with a definite in- yet available; alternate approaches to the
crease in weight-power ratios with an in- problem are therefore used.
crease in the number of axles. Knowing the effect of a particular grade
Although engine horsepower has more on the speed of trucks does not in itself
than tripled during the past 25 years, the enable one to determine its effect on ca-
overall vehicle performance has not im- pacity. It is also necessary to know the
proved as radically. Because increases in influence which trucks and buses in the traf-
horsepower have been offset to a large ex- fic flow have on volume and the effect of
tent by increases in gross weights, the aver- each in terms of equivalent passenger cars,
age weight-horsepower ratio remains about or the "passenger car equivalent." There-
two-thirds of its value 15 years ago. fore, the information presented in this sec-
In typical problem applications it is not tion is applied in conjunction with that
the specific speed characteristics at every given in the subsequent "Traffic Factors"
point on the grade that are directly needed. section, under "Trucks," to determine the
Rather, the average speed characteristics overall effects of trucks on grades on the
over grades of various steepnesses and. capacity of a given section of highway.
100 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
Climbing lanes are also of value in main-

35
taining a balanced level of service along
multilane highways, as well as in eliminat-
ing potential capacity bottlenecks on such
highways. In fact, an added lane for each
direction of travel over the entire length
on a multilane highway may often be
avoided by providing climbing lanes on sus-
tained, steep upgrades. Although, as dis-
cussed under "Trucks" in the next section,
the effect of trucks on the operation of multi-
lane highways is not as well known as for
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0 15 2.0 3.0 4.0 06D two-lane highways, it can be generalized that
LENGTH OF GRADE (MILES) passenger cars tend to shun the right lane
Figure 5.5. Average speed of typical truck over whenever slow trucks are in it and volumes
entire length of grade on two-lane highways. are low enough in the remaining lanes so
that the desired level of service can be
maintained in them. It follows that a climb-
ing lane becomes desirable when without it
service would fall below the desired level in
TRUCK CLIMBING LANES AND the remaining lanes.
PASSING BAYS Under certain traffic and terrain condi-
tions on exceedingly long grades, the use of
On long, sustained, steep upgrades the passing bays may be an adequate and a
greatest difference occurs between the nor- more feasible solution than a continuous
mal speed of passenger cars and the normal climbing lane. For example, given moderate
speed of trucks. In effect, trucks on grades traffic volumes and terrain such that widen-
take up the space of a larger number of ing is not feasible throughout, provision of
passenger cars (that is, have higher passen- bays can improve level of service markedly
ger car equivalents) than they do on level by permitting frequent clearing of queues
sections, particularly on two-lane highways, developing behind trucks, even if capacity
resulting in lower service volumes and ca- is little improved. However, with passing
pacities for the uphill sections than for the bays the capacity of a highway will gener-
level sections. Although the need for ade- ally be greater than without the passing bays,
quate passing opportunities is therefore because of the reduced influence of trucks,
greatest on long grades, the passing oppor- as discussed in the next section. For cer-
tunities, at least on two-lane highways, gen- tain conditions, they might approach the ca-
erally are less here than on level sections. pacities for highways with a continuous
Truck climbing lanes provide a means for climbing lane. General criteria for their
improving both the capacity of and level of adoption cannot be given; each case must be
service on long, sustained, steep grades analyzed separately, because strategic loca-
carrying significant truck volumes. Under tion of the bays is highly important.
certain conditions, truck climbing lanes will In practice then, a climbing lane or pass-
increase the quality of service of an entire ing bay is adopted primarily to maintain a
two-lane highway section with grades to a level of traffic operation on the grade in
level higher than that for the same aline- harmony with that elsewhere on the highway.
ment with no grades. This is because the There usually will be little need to make de-
provision of climbing lanes greatly reduces tailed computations of attainable service vol-
the effect of trucks on the through lane, while umes and capacity of the section with the
increasing the opportunity for passing. Al- climbing lane. Rather, the need is to deter-
though actual through-lane volumes may not mine these values for the roadway without
be greatly reduced, equivalent passenger car climbing lanes, to detect where service would
volumes are likely to be reduced substan- fail below the desired level without a climb-
tially. ing lane.
CAPACITY AN CE VOLUME FACTORS 101
TRAFFIC FACTORS TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
Highways of identical geometrics (that is, On two-lane highways, passenger car

with the same values of all of the roadway equivalents of trucks are obtained relatively
factors just described) may nevertheless easily. They can be directly determined by
have differing capacities. This is true be- obtaining detailed information on the speeds
cause the capacity of a highway is influenced and headways of vehicles during various
also by the composition and the habits and rates of flow on highways with different
desires of the traffic which uses it, and by alinements and profiles. An average passen-
the controls which must be exercised over ger car equivalent is obtained for the trucks
that traffic. Factors which take these con- under each condition. If the study is of
siderations into account, are termed traffic sufficient magnitude, it is possible to obtain
factors. Traffic factors considered in this a passenger car equivalent for each type of
chapter include: trucks, buses, lane distri- dual-tired vehicle, classified by speed groups.
bution, variations in traffic flow, and traffic Passenger car equivalents can also be cal-
interruptions. citlated with a high degree of accuracy from
the separate speed distributions of passenger
cars and trucks at any given volume level.
The criterion used is the relative number of
Trucks
passings that would be performed per mile
Trucks (defined for capacity purposes as of highway if each vehicle continued at its
cargo-carrying vehicles with dual tires on normal speed for the conditions under con-
one or more axles) reduce the capacity of sideration. That the results from such an
a highway in terms of total vehicles carried analysis agree with those obtained by the
per hour. In effect, each truck displaces more painstaking methods is not surprising.
several passenger cars in the flow. The It is the difference between truck speeds
number of passenger cars that each dual- and passenger car speeds on grades that
tired vehicle represents under specific con- causes trucks to reduce the traffic volume
ditions is termed the "passenger car equiva- carried by a highway at any given level of
lent" for those conditions. In level terrain service. The greater the speed difference,
where trucks can maintain speeds that equal the greater is the reduction in any given
or approach the speed of passenger cars, it service volume, with a corresponding in-
has been found that the average dual-tired crease in the passenger car equivalents.
vehicle is equivalent, in a capacity sense to On two-lane highways, typical equiva-
2 passenger cars on multilane highways and' lency factors for levels of service B and C,
to between 2 and 3 passenger cars on 2-lane over sections of significant length, includ-
highways, depending on the level of service. ing both upgrades and downgrades inter-
These values are appropriate for most down- spersed with level or crest sections, have
grades as well. been found to average about 5 for rolling
On upgrades, the passenger car equivalent terrain and 10 in mountainous terrain. At
of trucks may vary widely, depending on levels D and E, near capacity, they are 5
steepness and length of grade and number of and 12, respectively. Table 10.9 gives ad-
lanes. Further, the average equivalent over justment factors based on these generalized
passenger car equivalency factors, for use in
a substantial length of roadway will differ
general problems involving such overall
from that for specific individual grades
roadway sections.
within that section. On the other hand, when specific grades
For approximate analyses of operations on two-lane roads are considered, a wide
on a given highway section it may be suf- range in values is found, depending on the
ficient to apply an overall approximate severity of the terrain. The passenger car
equivalency factor to the route as a whole. equivalent for any given level of service on
In refined analyses, however, truck opera- sustained steep upgrades increases with a
tions on each of the more significant grades decrease in the truck speed, which is re-
should receive individual attention. lated to the length of grade, because greater
ni=0011 Figure 5.6 shows how the passenger car
loommon
equivalent varies with variation in the aver-
age speed of trucks climbing any particular
grade on a two-lane highway (as shown in
Fig. 5.5), for levels of service B, C, and E
VS
• IltIlulull (capacity). It was developed by the sepa-
rate speed distributions method just de-
scribed. It is considered satisfactory in prac-
z
NNE11011 tice to apply the level B criteria to level A

also, and the level E criteria to level D.
NNIESSIN
Reference to Figure 5.6 is not required
in most computations, inasmuch as Table
1010 presents the passenger car equivalency
R111110010 factors for the entire range of grades likely

to be found on two-lane roads. These as-
sume average trucks, performing as shown
11910010
Ii.iuuuu
in Figure 5.1a. Where this assumption ap-
pears unacceptable and special analyses must
be made to determine average truck speed
on the grade, Figure 5.6 can be used to
•
determine the equivalency factor. This pro-
cedure might also prove necessary in consid-
ering a steep downgrade where trucks in
30 40
0 20
low gear travel at a speed slower than passen-
SPEED OF TRUCK (MPH)
ger car traffic.
Figure 5.6. Passenger car equivalents for vari- Any volume of mixed traffic can be con-
ous average truck speeds on two-lane highways. verted to equivalent passenger cars through
multiplication by the truck adjustment fac-
tor, (100—P7 +E. P)I100, where P7, is the
percentage of trucks and E T is the appropri-
ate passenger car equivalent determined pre-
differences exist between the normal speeds viously. Similarly, any service volume in
of passenger cars and trucks. It becomes passenger cars can be converted to mixed
increasingly greater at the poorer levels of traffic through multiplication by the factor
service, because passing becomes increas- lOO/(lOOP+E Pr). Table 10.10 con-
ingly difficult, and finally largely impossible.. tains the most used values of this conversion
However, on two-lane roads the passenger factor.
car equivalent appears to change very little, By relating the equivalent passenger car
if at all, with a change in the percentage volume to the capacity of the upgrade sec-
of trucks in the total traffic stream, for
tion expressed in passenger cars, the effect
typical truck volumes under constant geo- of the upgrade at any given point may be
metric conditions otherwise. (Studies have considered. If the computation indicates that
not been conducted at locations with more the upgrade in question would experience an
than 20 percent dual-tired trucks and have unacceptably low level of service, or if ca-
been confined principally to locations with pacity would be exceeded, use of truck
less than 10 percent of these vehicles during climbing lanes or passing bays should be
periods of peak flow. It is entirely possible considered, as previously discussed.
that further studies on two-lane roads might
indicate that for certain conditions the pas-
MULTILANE HIGHWAYS
senger car equivalent does change with a
change in the percentage of trucks, but as For multilane highways, truck adjustment
yet there is no evidence to indicate whether procedures are somewhat less well defined,
it increases or decreases with an increase in because the quantitative effect of trucks on
the percentage.) the capacity of multilane highways with
sustained steep grades is not as well known Research in this area has been quite
as it is for two-lane highways. The problem limited, and that which has been done has
is quite complex, involving not only the been restricted principally to operation at
elements just described for two-lane high- or near level of service B.* Figure 5.7 shows
ways but also such other elements as the the results of recent level B research (7).
distribution of traffic between lanes, truck- The passenger car equivalents presented in
passing-truck practices, and the psychologi- this manual for most capacity and service
cal effects of trucks in one lane on drivers volume determinations on multilane high-
in another. These influences make develop- ways are therefore developed around these
ment of passenger car equivalents by either limited findings for level B and rationalized
of the methods used for two-lane roads values for level E, or capacity, operation
(speed-headway characteristics or passing (when passing is largely absent), adapted
characteristics) a considerably more formi- from level B criteria by means of a few
dable task. field data obtained during capacity opera-
It is entirely possible that one or very tion. Again, 20 percent dual-tired vehicles
few heavy trucks on a sustained steep grade is the maximum considered, and no distinc-
of a multilane highway may have nearly as tion is made between freeway and ordinary
great an effect as a much larger number, at multilane operation.
least during relatively low volume condi- On multilane highways, average equiva-
tions, as long as trucks stay in the right lency factors over relatively long highway
lane. Other traffic may largely avoid the sections at levels of service B through E, con-
right, or truck, lane in either case until sidering all elements (upgrade, downgrade,
volumes in the remaining lane increase to
the point where their flows are equally re- * The Committee considers this area to be
stricted. Where truck-passing-truck maneu- one of the most critical voids in existing high-
vers occur, however, generalizations are not way capacity knowledge; further research is
easily made. urgently needed.
2.0
RADE LENGTH IS LEN GTH OVER WHICH

TRUCK SPEED WAS 33MPH OR 0ELOW
(GEE FIG. 0.10)
t
1.5
0
0
0
12,000
4,000' 2,000
OR ODE GRADE
GRADE .,GHU0E-
8,000
GRADE
6,000'
GRADE -'
0.2
00
38 57 75 94 113 132 131
D6 16 0 19
42 63 84 lOS 126 147 167
0 0-20 0 21
04 0 25 0 26 52 78 104 130 156 102 208
35 70 100 140 175 210 245 280
3 30 0
w 2 35 0 52 lOS 157 210 262 314 367 420
0.
TRUCKS (NO/HA)
Figure 5.7. Equivalent service volumes relating trucks (vehicles with six or more tires), grades,
and passenger cars on two-lane one-way roadways at level of service B.
and connecting sections) combined, can be TABLE 5.5--AVERAGE SPEED CAPA-

taken as 4 in rolling and 8 in mountainous BILITIES OF INTERCITY-TYPE
terrain. Tables 9.3 and 10.3 give adjustment BUSES ON SUSTAINED GRADES
factors based on these passenger car equiva-
lents for use in making overall general com- GRADE SPEED
putations regarding a long section of multi- (%) (MPH)
lane highway.
Level 72
Again, where performance on specific +1 68
grades is involved a range of equivalency +2 59
must be considered. Unlike the two-lane +3 51
case, where little or no passing by trucks +4 44
is likely at any level of service, considerable +5 37
passing will occur at the better levels of +6 30
service unless it is prohibited by localregu-
Source: Two major bus manufacturers (averaged).
lation. Therefore, the speed of the slowest
truck will not control average truck speeds
at such levels, although trucks will influence
the second lane as well as the first. At ca-
pacity, it is assumed that relatively little ment factor, 100/(100—P7 +E7, PT), values
passing will occur; hence, the truck influence of which are given in Tables 9.6 and 10.6.
will be largely limited to the right lane. The
percentage of trucks, not considered signifi- Buses
cant in determining the passenger car equiv-
alent in the two-lane case, must, however, be Intercity buses in the traffic stream affect
capacity in a similar manner to, but to a
considered for the multilane case. Although,
lesser degree than, trucks. Speed studies
at capacity, the passenger car equivalent of
have shown that on the averagesuch buses
trucks is nearly as great on multilane as on maintain or slightly exceed the average
two-lane highways, given the same condi- speeds of passenger cars in level or rolling
tions (truck performance, length and steep- terrain. In mountainous .terrain their speeds
ness of grade, and number of trucks in the drop, but remain higher than those of most
flow), actually these conditions seldom are trucks. Data provided by the major bus
the same. Usually, on major highways trucks manufacturers indicate that typical inter-
will be better performing, geometrics will city-type buses can maintain speeds of
be better, and the trucks may represent a 30 mph on sustained 6 percent grades. In
smaller percentage of the total volume. The practice it is seldom feasible to consider
result is that both the range and absolute val- buses separately in normal computations,
ties of the equivalency factors used in typical because bus volumes are typically too small
applications are smaller on multilane than on to affect the result significantly. Where, how-
two-lane highways. ever, bus volumes are substantial or heavy
Because of the several influencing factors grades are encountered, separate considera-
involved, a simple chart comparable to Fig- tion can be given to bus operations.
ure 5.6 for two-lane grades, relating average In the absence of more specific data, typi-
speed on multilane grades and passenger car cal bus speed capabilities are presented in
Table 5.5 Equivalency factors based on
equivalent, cannot be developed. How-
these speeds are included in Tables 9.3, 9.5,
ever, Tables 9.4 and 10.4 give equivalency 10.3, 10.5, 10.9, and 10.11.
factors for the entire range of grades and On two-lane highways the previously-
percentages of •trucks likely to be encoun- given criteria for trucks can be employed for
tered, assuming average performance as buses as well, the only change being the use
shown in Figure 5.1b. of an appropriate higher average speed for
As before, conversion of equivalent pas- the buses, which results in a lower equiva-
senger car traffic to mixed traffic is ac- lency factor for otherwise similar conditions.
complished by means of the truck adjust- On multilane highways, particularly free-
ways, recent study results described in Chap- carry higher volumes partly because the
ter. Eleven indicate that a bus may be con- fastest drivers tend to avoid lane 1, inwhich
sidered to have an average passenger car most of the slower drivers remain. Many
equivalent of 1.6 under a wide variety of drivers in the left lanes also are avoiding the
level and lightly rolling conditions. On "turbulence" in lane I caused by the effects
heavier grades, little data are available; a of entrances and exits, most of which are on
factor of 5 for intercity buses is suggested the right on freeways.
in mountainous terrain, in the absence of On freeways having more than two lanes
better local knowledge. (For heavily-loaded in one direction of travel, however, certain
transit buses on the heavy grades found oc- generalizations are possible regarding the
casionally on suburban freeways in metro- relative efficiency of various numbers of
politan areas situated in mountainous ter- lanes. More efficient use usually is made of
rain, a higher factor may prove necessary, the additional lane(s) above two than the
based on local observations. The effects of average lane volume for two lanes in one
such local transit buses on urban arterials direction. This is because the likelihood of
generally are discussed in Chapter Six.) becoming ".trapped" behind slower moving
A highly-refined procedure would require vehicles is greatly reduced with more than
combined consideration of trucks and buses, two lanes in one direction of travel, given
but such accuracy is not warranted in most the same average rate of flow .per lane. The
cases within the limits of current knowledge. degree of this increase in efficiency is rea-
Separate application of the bus adjustment sonably predictable. For instance, the total
factor, (100—P1 +E P1 )/100, to convert rate of flow for two lanes in one direction at
mixed traffic to equivalent passenger cars level of service B is 2,000 pcph, or an aver-
is considered acceptable, where P11 is the age of 1,000 pcph per lane, but addition of
percentage of buses in the flow and E,1 is the a third lane increases the total flow to 3,500
passenger car equivalent of buses. Tables pcph, on the average, for the same level of
9.6, 10.6, and 10.12 can be used for buses service. The added third lane thus, in ef-
equally as well as for trucks, to supply this fect, adds 1,500 pcph, instead of 1,000 pcph,
factor for typical cases. to the service volume of the one direction for
level of service B, resulting in an average
flow of 1,167 pcph per lane. At lower levels
Lane Distribution of service with higher rates of flow this
effect diminishes, becoming negligible at ca-
On multilane highways all lanes do not pacity (level of service E). Chapter Nine
carry the same rates of flow (8, 9, 10). For presents these data in detail. It should be
example, on a six-lane freeway section oper- noted that, still, only total volumes and
ating at capacity in one direction under ideal average-per-lane volumes are known; lane
conditions at a point away from the influ- distributions remain variable.
ence of interchanges, typical lane volumes Lane distributions at critical areas of op-
might be 1,700 vph in lane 1 (the right eration along a highway may vary consider-
lane), 2,100 in lane 2, and 2,200 in lane ably from those likely under ideal condi-
3 (adjacent to the median). tions. In design of high-type multilane high-
No generalized distribution values can be ways, particularly freeways, or in evaluation
established; a variety of local conditions of their operation, knowledge of how traffic
would have to be considered to establish
redistributes itself at critical areas is essen-
values for any specific location. For in-
tial.
stance, rates up to 2,400 vph might be seen
in lane 4 on certain 8-lane freeways. It can For ramp entrances and exits, and weav-
be generalized, however, that for ideal condi- ing areas between adjacent ramp terminals,
tions, greater use is made of the left lanes the volume in lane I is especially significant,
and less use of lane I than would be indi- because it becomes the measure of how much
cated by the average lane volume at each traffic may enter or leave the highway under
level of service. acceptable operating conditions. In the case
The left lanes, under ideal conditions, of weaving areas involving major traffic
movements, sufficient width must be pro- ratio is based on the maximum 5-min rate
vided to accommodate both the weaving of flow within the peak hour, whereas for
traffic and the non-weaving flows on either intersections the maximum 15-min rate of
side. On upgrades distributions must flow is used. These ratios are determined by
change because, although most of the trucks dividing the number of vehicles actually
stay in lane 1, •their passenger car equiva- passing during the peak hour by, respec-
lents increase markedly, and in effect they tively, twelve times the number of vehicles
take over space previously occupied by ac- passing during the peak 5-min period or
tual passenger cars, which move into other four times the number passing in the peak
lanes. 15 mm. The maximum attainable value of
Service volumes at any given speed, and the peak-hour factor is 1.0.
usually capacity itself, are reduced on multi- Studies have shown that the highest 5-
lane highways with no or only partial con- min rate of flow within the peak hour on
trol of access, where vehicles regularly en- urban freeways is usually 1.05 to 1.15 times
ter and leave on both the right and left the peak-hour volume in larger metropoli-
along the highway. On such highways, the tan areas; it may range up to about 1.4
resulting slower speeds and turbulence in times the peak-hour volume in smaller met-
the left lane will make it more comparable ropolitan areas. This range is equivalent to
to lane 1, where slow vehicles and turbu- a peak-hour factor ranging from 0.95 to
lence will continue to prevail, and any lane 0.70. Likewise, through a typical at-grade
between these outer lanes will carry a intersection the highest 15-min rate of flow
greater proportion of the traffic. may be in the order of about 1.2 times the
Although lane distribution is an important peak-hour volume, giving a peak-hour fac-
variable, no special adjustment for it need tor in the neighborhood of 0.85.
be made because, where its significance is Peak-hour factors should be applied in
great enough to warrant consideration, as on computing capacities and service volumes of
certain freeways, grades, or at ramp junc- at-grade intersections and freeways. Their
tions, its effect is already taken into account selection and use is described in detail in
in the basic procedures enlployed. Chapters Six and Nine, respectively. Less
is known about the peaking characteristics
Variations in Traffic Flow in uninterrupted flows on sections of rural
highways, particularly those without con-
As discussed in Chapter Three, the de- trol of access. However, since these are
sign hourly volume is determined as a per- normally designed for a relatively high level
centage of the assigned future ADT volume. of service, within the particular class of
This procedure reasonably accounts for the highway, a large safety factor with regard
variation in traffic volumes during the differ- to peaking is usually provided. Therefore,
ent hours of the day, and even the fluctua- variations in traffic flow within the peak
tions in hourly volumes throughout the year. hour are not normally considered in their
As also discussed in Chapter Three, varia- design. Similarly, little is known about peak-
tions in flow within the peak hour also have ing characteristics on ordinary urban and
definite effects on the operating characteris- suburban highways with relatively uninter-
tics of a highway, and •thus influence the rupted flow, and without access control, but
capacity which can be attained in practice. again the need is not great. Uninterrupted
Knowledge of these effects is increasing, at urban flow seldom is found; at-grade inter-
least for certain highway types. sections or other interrupting features along
In this manual the peaking characteristics urban and suburban routes usually consti-
of traffic on freeways and through at-grade tute the critical areas with respect to ca-
intersections are taken into account. They pacity.
are expressed in terms of the peak-hour fac-
tor, which is the ratio of the volume occur- Traffic Interrupt ions
ring during the peak hour to the maximum
rate of flow during a given time period Thus far discussion has centered princi-
within the peak hour. For freeways this pally about uninterrupted flow.. Obviously,
-.
I j1
Pc cf)c , jithi: 1/ce •l-/.ciu /ec.'Ie cc ,\ into eli/Icc i/i It rrceifl reduced .eeeere ,elene ice,ce( /1cc ft that
could ,creatly reduce capcwilv.
where features are built into the highway As previously mentioned, a basic rule to
which force some or all traffic to stop, the remember in considering a traffic interrup-
highway's ability to carry traffic will be im- tion is that consecutive passenger vehicles
peded. Although level of service will suffer stopped in line will rarely get under way at
to a greater or lesser degree in every case, a faster rate, on the average, than 1,500
typical occasional interruptions will accom- pcph per lane (average of 2.4 sec headway).
modate, with only momentary restriction, When it is recalled that uninterrupted flows
may carry some 2,000 pcph per lane, it is
all traffic flowing at the better levels of serv-
ice on the class of highway involved. How- easy to see why back-ups can develop rap-
idly where traffic is stopped, unless appro-
ever, the poorer levels of service and Ca-
priate steps are taken.
pacity will suffer unless sufficient additional For the purpose of this discussion, traf-
traffic lanes are provided through the vicinity fic interruptions are divided into two broad
of the restriction to offset the reduced time categories—at-grade intersections and other
utilization of the normal number of lanes. interruptions.
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS rate of flow of arriving vehicles fell below

11 500 pcph per lane, because until this
At-grade intersections constitute by far happened traffic would be arriving at the rear
the most common type of interruption, and of the queue at the same or at a greater
the most difficult to eliminate, because they rate than it was pulling away from the front.
involve the sharing of a common area of The queue, or stoppage wave, might well
roadway by two or more entirely different move back several miles before reaching a
traffic flows. Their influences on capacity time or place where demand fell below
and service volumes are so great, in most 1,500 pcph per lane.
cases where they exist, that they govern
The type of operation described for the
the capacity determination, rather than being railroad crossing, however, does not occur
handled as adjustments to uninterrupted flow at an overloaded toll gate. Where demand
criteria. An entire chapter of this manual is sufficiently great to cause queues to form
(Chapter Six) is devoted to this subject. at a toll gate, each vehicle does not remain
stopped in one place for some period of time
OTHER INTERRUPTIONS and then resume normal travel. Instead, it
This category includes such interruptions moves up to the gate in a "stop-go" pat-
as toll gates, drawbridges, and at-grade tern of operation.
railroad crossings. At toll gates all vehicles If a queue sufficiently long to keep a con-
must stop, but generally there is not exces- tinuous backlog of traffic in spite of ran-
sive delay and queuing because adequate ad- dom arrival were maintained at each lane of
ditional lanes normally are provided to as- the gate, the capacity of each lane would
sure that demand does not exceed total gate be controlled by the average time required
capacity. Elsewhere, however, such com- for each vehicle to pass through (average
pensating elements are not so easily pro- headway through the gate). However,
vided. No general adjustment factors can queues of such length generally would be
be provided to correct for such influences. intolerable to the highway users. To pre-
Each is a special case, which must be con- vent formation of queues of excessive length,
sidered individually. Once the magnitude the determination of the number of lanes
of the problem is established, feasible cor- at a toll gate or other similar interruption
rective measures can be considered. should be based on queuing theory, which
For example, suppose that an at-grade considers the effect of random arrival, as
railroad crossing of a four-lane highway discussed in specialized statistics texts.
were closed for 2 min while the rate of flow Actually, to a varying degree even speed
per lane in the direction of heavier travel limits may be traffic interruptions. If they
was 600 pcph, or 10 per mm. Some 20 reduce speeds only to something higher than
cars would be backed up in each lane when approximately 30 mph (or possibly 40 mph
the crossing reopened and flow resumed, on freeways) they do not greatly influence
with the queues extending back for a distance capacity, but they do affect level of service.
of 500 ft, if the average distance per stored On the other hand, a rigidly-enfoiced limit
vehicle were 25 ft. Because the front of the of 25 mph or less, on a highway with unin-
queue would resume travel at the rate of terrupted flow otherwise, will reduce the
1,500 pcph per lane, whereas vehicles at capacity by preventing attainment of the
the back of the queue would be arriving and optimum speed for capacity.
stopping at the rate of only 600 pcph per
lane, the queue would soon dissipate, but APPLICATION OF ADJUSTMENT
would move back upstream as it did so. PROCEDURES
If, however, at the same location, traffic
in the direction of heavier travel were flow- Capacities under ideal conditions for vari-
ing at the rate of 1,500 pcph per lane or ous highway types were discussed in Chap-
higher, the queue would be correspondingly ter Four. In practice, these values for ideal
longer at the end of the 2-min stoppage. conditions are never directly applicable to a
More important, the queue would not dis- specific roadway, except possibly certain
sipate as it moved back upstream until the high-type parkways which carry no trucks.
In order to solve the usual problem of esti- considered in typical problem solutions, and
mating the capacity of any given individual to show how each of the latter is considered.
roadway, the values obtained from Table This listing is given in Table 5.6.
4.1 must be adjusted downward to take into The factors included in the several tables
account the several roadway and traffic fac- in this chapter, and summarized in the fore-
tors which have been described in this chap- going, are applicable only under uninter-
ter. rupted flow conditions, except as specifically
Specific adjustment procedures for these stated otherwise in the case of several which
factors are presented where appropriate in relate to intersection operation. The re-
the following chapters. At this point, it will mainder are not applicable for city streets
suffice to list the several factors that have or other facilities where average operating
been discussed, to indicate which must be speeds are low and stop-and-go operation
TABLE 5.6—SUMMARY OF ADJUSTMENTS TO IDEAL UNINTERRUPTED

FLOW VALUES
FACTOR HANDLING
Roadway factors:
Lane width1 Select appropriate adjustment factor from Tables 9.2,
Lateral clearancef 10.2, or 10.8.
Shoulders ..........................Apply adjustment factor as given under "Shoulders" if
applicable.
Auxiliary lanes
Parking lanes ................... Consider as lateral clearance problem.
Speed change lanes.............. Consider as ramp junction problem; see Chapter Eight.
Turning and storage lanes......... Normally not associated with uninterrupted flow; see
Chapter Six for handling of signalized intersections.
Weaving lanes ..................Consider as weaving or ramp junction problem; see
Chapters Seven or Eight, as appropriate.
Truck climbing lanes............. Consider in conjunction with "Trucks," below.
Surface condition ................... No specific adjustment; judgment required.
Alinement .. ........................ Built into other adjustments, mainly v/c ratio.
Grades .............. ............. Combined into "Trucks" adjustment, below.
Traffic factors:
Trucks, Two-lane ................... Apply equivalent passenger car procedures (see Chapter
Ten, including Tables 10.9, 10.10, and 10.12).
Multilane ................... Apply equivalent passenger car procedures (see Chapters
Nine and Ten, including Tables 9.3, 9.4, 9.6, 10.3, 10.4,
and 10.6).
Buses .............................Apply equivalent passenger car procedures (see Chapters
Nine and Ten, including Tables 9.5, 9.6, 10.5, 10.6,
10.11, and 10.12).
Lane distribution ................... Built into other adjustments.
Variations in traffic flow.............. For freeways, apply peak-hour factor (5-mm base); see
Chapter Nine.
For intersections, apply peak-hour factor (15-mm base);
see Chapter Six.
Optional, based on judgment, for other highway types.
Traffic interruptions ................. Intersections; see Chapter Six.
Other; each a special case.
As presented in Table 4.1.

b Including average highway speed and passing sight distance
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
it niight be unnecessarily time consuming to

consider each in detail during preliminary
computations. This would be particularly
true where comparative analyses were being
made, requiring relative rather than abso-
lute answers. In short, the refinement of
capacity and service volume computations,
including application of adjustments, should
be commensurate with the degree of ac-
curacy feasible for the problem at hand.
REFERENCES
I. KILSE, C. J., and PINNLI.1., C., "Effect of

Freeway Medians on Traffic Behavior."
IIRB Bull. 235, pp. 1-18 (1960).
WALKER, W. P., "Influence of Bridge
Widths on Transverse Positions of Ve-
hicles.' Proc. i/RB, 21: 36 1-365 (1941).
SCIiWENDER, H. C., NORMANN, 0. K., and
GRANUM, J. 0., "New Methods of Capacity
Determinations for Rural Roads in Moun-
tainous Terrain." IIRB Bull. 167, pp. 10-37
(1957).
Wiau, G. M., Traffic Bulletin No. 2—
Truck Speeds on Grades. California Div.
of Highways (Sept. 1961).
Ssi.. C. C., "Relation Between Gross
Weights of Motor Trucks and Their Horse-
power." Pub. Roads, 29: No. 10, 233-238
(Oct. 1957).
WRIGhT, J. M., and TIGNOR, S. C., "Rela-
tionship Between Gross Weights and
Horsepowers of Commercial Vehicles
Lack of auxtharv cli,nhinç' lane, adequate Operating on Public Highways." Soc. Auto-
shoulders, and proper a/i/Lenient ,educe motive Eng., Paper 937B (Oct. 1964).
capacity of this 2.lane highway. 7, NEWMAN, L., and MosKowrrz, K.. "Effect
of Grades on Service Volumes." Highway
Rc's. Record No. 99, pp. 224-243 (1965).
MosKowITz, K.. and NEWMAN, L., Traffic
Bulletin No. 4—Notes on Freeway Ca-
pacity." California Div. of Highways
prevails. Specific procedures for such high- (July 1962).
ways are discussed where appropriate in MAY, A. D., JR., "Traffic Characteristics
Chapters Six and Ten. It should also be and Phenomena on High Density Con-
noted that these tables show only the effect trolled Access Facilities." Traffic Fag.,
of restrictive elements on capacity and level 31: No. 6, 11-19,56 (Mar. 1961).
of service, as measured by the criteria se- TUTT, P. R., Traffic Volume Distribution
by Lanes on Texas Freeways. Texas High-
lected in Chapter 1our. The adverse effect
way Dept.
on driver comfort and safety is not indi-
II. KEESL, C. J., PINNELL., C., and McCAs-
cated, but exists at all levels of service. LANE), W. R., "A Study of Freeway Traffic
It is important that in actual applications Operation." HRB Bull. 235, pp. 73-132
good judgment be used in considering the (1960).
factors discussed throughout this chapter. 12. A Polic'/' on Geometric Design of Rural
Any final problem solution certainly should Highways. Amer. Assn. of State Highway
reflect full consideration of each factor. But Officials, Washington, D. C. (1965).
/
rqA
CHAPTER SIX
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS
One of the more important elements limit- terms of the separate capacities of each indi-
ing, and often interrupting, the flow of traf- vidual approach roadway. In practice, the
fic on a highway, especially one in an urban term "intersection capacity" as generally
area, is the intersection at grade. Intersec- used by traffic engineers actually represents
tions not only control, to a large extent, the individual approach capacity. Similarly, "in-
capability of major and secondary arterial tersection service volume" in practice usually
streets to accommodate the flow of vehicles refers to the service volume on a particular
and pedestrians, but they also may seriously approach. In this connection, it should be
affect or limit the ability of nearby freeways noted that the term "intersection capacity"
to perform at maximum efficiency. There- often will be broadly used for simplicity in
fore, the subjects of intersection operation referring to the entire field of capacities and
and interrupted flow are often largely synon- service volumes.
ymous. This chapter is primarily concerned with
The amount of vehicular traffic which can signalized intersections, but a brief discus-
approach and pass through an intersection sion of unsignalized intersection operations
depends on (a) various physical and oper- is included.
ating characteristics of the roadways, (b)
environmental conditions which have a bear- SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS—GENERAL
ing on the experience and actions of the
driver, (c) characteristics of the traffic In the preparation of the 1950 Highway
stream, and (d) traffic control measures. Capacity Manual, the Highway Capacity
Because so many such factors influence Committee found that little material had
interrupted flow through intersections, it is been published on the subject of signalized
not feasible to define "ideal conditions" as intersection capacity. Therefore, under the
was done in the case of uninterrupted flow. direction of the late 0. K. Normann, consid-
Consequently, capacities and service vol- erable research was performed to assemble
umes under ideal conditions cannot be di- satisfactory data. In addition to the data
rectly specified. Rather, interrupted flow collected by committee members, material
criteria are developed around typical or was furnished by state highway departments
average conditions. Adjustments either up- and by officials of many cities, as a result of
ward or downward may be applied to fit the solicitation by the Bureau of Public Roads.
specific conditions at hand. Through such splendid cooperation, infor-
Although the volume of vehicular traffic mation was obtained on a scale never before
which actually can reach and pass through attempted. From these data, which reported
an intersection may well be influenced by maximum observed volumes per hour re-
conditions remote from the intersection, the corded in 15-min increments, intersection
capacity of any specific intersection is de- capacity curves and associated adjustment
termined largely by the effect of elements factors were derived which served to meet
directly related to its contiguous approach a very pressing national need.
roadways. Seldom are all approaches to an During the following years, however, it
intersection simultaneously burdened to their was recognized that still more refined data
full capabilities. Therefore, it is appropriate would be required to detect and explain the
that intersection capacity be thought of in effect of additional variables involved in
111
signalized intersection capacity. In 1954, TABLE 6.1—FACTORS AFFECTING

a new, more comprehensive study was in- INTERSECTION CAPACITY AND
augurated by the Highway Capacity Com- LEVELS OF SERVICE
mittee, again under Mr. Normann's per-
sonal direction. Special forms and instruc- Physical and operating conditions:
tions were sent, to responsible officials Width of approach
throughout the country with the request that One-way or two-way operation
they be pompleted and returned to the Bu- Parking conditions
Environmental conditions:
reau of Public Roads for analysis. Detailed Load factor
information, was obtained during 1955 and Peak-hour factor
1956 from some 1,600 busy intersection Metropolitan area population
approaches, recorded on a per-cycle basis for Location within metropolitan area
from 1 to 2 hr, with the degree of utilization Traffic characteristics:
noted for each cycle. Data from about 1,100 Turning movements
of these approaches were selected as suita- Trucks and through buses
ble for detailed, analysis. These data were Local transit buses
Control measures:
analyzed both graphically and by multiple
Traffic signals
regression techniques (1). Most of the final Marking of approach lanes
analyses, interpretations of results, and prep-
aration of basic computational charts and
procedures were carried out personally by
Mr. Normann in the period immediately
prior to his untimely death (2). It is, there-
fore, fitting that the procedures described ber of roadways on which vehicles approach
in this chapter be designated collectively, as and leave the intersection area. Traffic sig-
the "Normann method" of computing signal- nals and other control devices (i.e., signs,
ized intersection capacity and levels of lane markings, turning controls, etc.) are
service. used to specify the conditions—direction,
Despite the knowledge thus gained, there sequence, and time—governing movement of
remain a number of factors that influence traffic.
intersection capacity and service volumes The number of vehicles that can enter an
for which only limited data are available. intersection is dependent on a large number
Particularly perplexing among these is the of factors, some of which are fixed or semi-
effect of environmental and operating char- fixed (such as basic geometric design and
acteristics which vary widely between differ- built-in traffic control features), and others
ent localities, and which may considerably of which are variable (reflecting the actual
affect 'the number of vehicles that can pass use of the intersection by vehicles and
through an intersection in a given period of pedestrians). Such factors must be con-
time. Local traffic regulations, degree of sidered if a computed capacity or service
enforcement, and education and training of volume value is to be meaningful. The fac-
drivers are among the several elements that tors discussed in this chapter are summa-
comprise these environmental conditions rized in Table 6.1.
which cannot be precisely evaluated from
material at hand. Thus, although the effects
of these elements are inherent parts of the FACTORS AFFECTING SIGNALIZED
reported data, they cannot be identified as INTERSECTION CAPACITY
yet; they undoubtedly account for much of
Basic Physical and Operating Conditions
the remaining variability between predicted
and actual capacities and service volumes. The geometrics and dimensions of the
Basically, a signalized intersection con- streets involved, 'the proportion of the total
sists of the actual intersection area (that is, pavement width available to moving traffic,
the section of pavement shared by traffic and the manner in which traffic is handled on
on each of two crossing streets) and a num- that pavement are all fundamental factors in-
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS 113
.1.
: -
7 : •
I
ZZ
I •:•
Principal street in central business district providing six traffic lanes and two parking lanes. Note
traffic ,naking left-turn maneuver in foreground on advance signal control before opposing
traffic starts.
fluencing the traffic-carrying capabilities of occasionally by means of complex lane con-

intersections along those streets. Therefore, trol signal installations, but often by means
approach width in feet, parking conditions, of movable traffic cones or only simple sign-
and type of operation (one-way or two-way) ing.
are used in this procedure to establish a The number of lanes actually formed by
basic condition under which the other fac- moving traffic thus may change, either due
tors can be evaluated. to regulation or simply because striped lanes
are not always respected during peak hours,
WIDTH OF AI'I'ROACH
where physical room exists for more lanes
than have been marked. Available data indi-
The width of the approach, rather than cate that, fundamentally but with reason-
the number of traffic lanes, has proved to able tolerance, both intersection approach
have the most significant bearing on the ca- capacity and service volumes vary directly
pacity of a typical approach. Obviously, ap- with the width of approach. Therefore, the
proach widths vary greatly at intersections, procedures that follow are based on the
depending on the street width and the posi- widths of approach roadway, rather than
tioning of pavement markings and other on the number of lanes.
traffic control devices. Sometimes widths are This is not to say, however, that striped
deliberately varied within the day to handle lanes have no effect on intersection capacity.
normal use variations through the day, Where inefficient use of an approach is
occurring without striping, marked lanes may or pickup. "With parking" means that ve-
prove very beneficial. This subject is further hicles are present, standing attended or un-
discussed in the section on traffic control attended, along the curb on the approach.
measures. For capacity purposes, it is the actual pres-
One caution is necessary here. No longer ence or absence of parked vehicles, not
is it feasible to consider the approach width posted parking regulations, which counts.
to be simply one-half of the curb-to-curb When "no parking" conditions are spec-
width, as was done in earlier procedures. ified, this does not necessarily mean that
Offset center lines are very common today, no parking can exist anywhere in the block;
making it essential that the actual width rather it indicates that parking must not
available for approach traffic be known and exist close enough to the intersection to af-
utilized. fect the approach's operation. Attempts to
develop refined criteria regarding the influ-
PARKING CONDITIONS ence of this parking restriction distance,
using the data from the 1955-1956 studies,
Parking regulations on an approach might have proved largely unsuccessful.
well be considered to be traffic control meas- As a rule of thumb, approaches having
ures, in terms of their usual handling by
parking within 250 ft of the intersection
signing and police enforcement. However, should be considered in the "with parking"
because parking conditions at or near an ap-
group. However, many exceptions to this
proach have such a pronounced effect on
rule exist. For example, on a street lacking
intersection capacity, the presence or ab-
coordinated signalization and with a rela-
sence of parking is considered to be a basic
tively small percentage of green signal time,
condition which should be defined initially
the midblock section may well be able to
before other factors are evaluated. The re-
accommodate parking quite close to the
moval of parking provides a substantial gain
approach while still handling sufficient mov-
in capacity. If the elimination (or addition)
ing traffic to make full use of the limited
of parking is being considered on one or
green time at the approach. At the other
both sides of an approach, capacity should
extreme, on a street with a perfectly-coordi-
be evaluated for each condition.
nated signal system, no midblock parking
In this connection it is important to re-
can be tolerated in the "no parking" condi-
peat a previously-mentioned point—namely,
tion because uniform width •throughout is
that the width of roadway influenced by a
required to handle moving platoons of traf-
parked vehicle is, on the average, substan-
fic.
tially greater than simply the physical space
it occupies. The cautious reactions of pass-
ing drivers, who fear sudden maneuvers by ONE-WAY OR TWO-WAY OPERATION
parked vehicles or doors opening into their
paths, result in effective loss of some 12 to There are obviously major differences in
14 ft of roadway width, on the average. the operation of one-way and two-way ap-
Where a wide approach exists and load fac- proaches which are reflected in the capaci-
tors are low, this lateral shying away may ties and service volumes attained. On a
produce an effective width loss due to park- one-way approach, for example, left-turning
ing ranging up to 20 ft or more. At the movements can be made more easily, due to
other extreme, where the approach is nar- the absence of opposing traffic. Where cross
row and loading is so high that there is streets are also one-way, turning movement
little or no room for maneuvering, the effec- conflicts are further reduced. In either case,
tive width loss may be little more than that the reduction in total possible movements
taken up, physically by the parked cars. reduces pedestrian-vehicular conflicts. The
Trucks, of course, take up greater physical one-way street also lends itself to better sig-
space. nal progression.
"No parking" has been defined as no Because of these differences, capacity
standing and no stopping on the approach, analysis procedures for one-way and two-
other than occasional passenger discharge way approaches are handled separately in
Well-marked pascnu'nt and prohibition of parking expedite frolic at i/mis pair of mnter.wcfio?Ls in an
outlying business area.
this manual, and differing adjustment factors factor, metropolitan area population, and
for these two conditions are presented. location within a city.
In most cases, these procedures show that All of these factors except the last are
a given approach width will have somewhat additions not included in earlier procedures.
greater capacity operating one-way than two- In effect, the new factors are, together, a
way, due to the reduced friction. However, formalized substitute for the "city factors"
this will not always be the case. Conse- which individual traffic engineers frequently
quently, it is not prudent to make broad found need to apply to the earlier average
generalizations regarding the relative effi- curves. They help to explain why such city
ciency of an individual approach operating factors were found necessary in the past.
one-way as compared to two-way, without
consideration of the entire system of which
the approach is a part. In particular, com- LOAI) FACTOR
parisons made by superimposing the one-
The term "loaded cycle," or more prop-
way curves on the two-way should be
erly "loaded phase," is much used in de-
avoided. This subject of relative efficiency is
scribing the degree of utilization of an in-
discussed in detail in Chapter Ten, in the
dividual intersection approach. A green phase
section on urban arterials. on an approach may be considered to be
"loaded" when the following conditions ap-
Environniental Co,zditiom ply: (I) there are vehicles ready to enter
Environmental condition factors repre- the intersection in all lanes when the signal
sent those characteristics of the traffic de- turns green. and (2) they continue to be
mand, as reflected in the traffic stream, that available to enter in all lanes during the
cannot be readily changed by alteration of entire phase with no unused time or exceed-
design or control features of the intersection. ingly long spacings between vehicles at any
These factors include load factor, peak-hour time due to lack of traffic, whether resulting
from lack of demand (as often found to- considerable delay to some vehicles on the
ward the end of the phase) or from fric- approach. Load factors greater than 0.4 rep-
tional interferences upstream. Usually, the resent correspondingly higher percentages of
ending of a loaded green phase will force fully utilized phases. These conditions are
some vehicles to stop, but in a perfect pro- not often experienced at isolated non-inter-
gressive signal system the last of a platoon connected intersections. However, a pro-
of vehicles may pass through just as the gressive system will accommodate high vol-
signal changes. umes with a high load factor, provided it is
It is not essential for traffic to move con- accurately operated and timed for traffic
tinuously during a phase for that phase to demand. Nevertheless, it is rare for a load
be considered loaded; all that is required is factor of exactly 1.00 to be attained, even
that the vehicles be present, and that any under the best operating conditions under
stoppages which occur be due to conditions high volumes, due to normal fluctuations in
at the intersection under study, not a con- traffic flow. Where a load factor of 1.00
sequence of conditions elsewhere. For in- was reported during the 1955-1956 studies,
stance, even if the left lane did not move at it was frequently discovered that a "jammed"
all during a green phase, because the lead condition due to congestion somewhere else
car desired to turn left but could not do so downstream had been erroneously inter-
due to opposing traffic, the phase could preted as full utilization.
still be considered loaded if all other cri- Figure 6.1 shows typical relationships be-
teria for loading were met. On the other tween load factor and delay likely to be
hand, if traffic could not move because of encountered by traffic, for the simple case
a back-up from an intersection ahead the of a single-lane approach at an isolated
location under study would not be loaded. intersection. Figure 6.1a shows -the 'typical
Rather, it would be "jamthed" and flow data demand fluctuations which tend to prevent
from it would be quite meaningless. attainment of a load factor of 1.00 even
The load factor is a measure of this de- under overall high-volume conditions when
gree of utilization of an intersection ap- demand exceeds capacity, on the average
proach roadway during one hour of peak over an extended period, and long back-ups
traffic flow. It is the ratio of the number of of traffic are resulting. Even under these
green phases that are loaded, or fully util- highly undesirable conditions, when many
ized, by traffic (usually during the peak vehicles are delayed through several signal'
hour) to the total number of green phases cycles before clearing the intersection, there
available for that approach during the same are often short. periods within a full hour
period. As such it is also a measure of the when conditions are less critical. In the
level of service on the, approach, as dis- case shown, for example, all waiting ve-
cussed later. The load factor for a normal hicles cleared in two of the cycles early in
intersection may range from a value of 0.0 the hour, while demand was building up.
to a value of 1.0. Figure 6.1b shows the result of a moder-
A load factor of 0.0 represents any situa- ate (20 percent) reduction in demand. Over
tion in which no cycle during the hour is one-half of the cycles are still loaded (load
loaded. Hence, it represents a wide range factor=0.57), but few vehicles must wait
of excellent or very good operating condi- through more than one signal cycle.
tions, handling volumes from very few ve- It is important to, stress that load factor as
hicles up to the point where most green discussed so far applies to a single approach
phases are almost fully utilized. of a given intersection. Obviously, insofar
A load factor of 0.2 still'indicates a good as the individual approach is concerned the
operating condition for most cases. It rep- load factor can be readily altered simply by
resents a condition where some 20 percent of changing the signal timing split. In practice,
the phases are fully utilized but the remain- however, no one approach can be con-
ing cycles are operating below this level. sidered alone. Rather, signal operation must
A load factor of 0.4 represents a relatively be provided which will properly balance the
high volume condition which may result in needs of both streets involved. This does
(a) LOADED TO CAPACITY (b)AT SERVICE LEVEL D

40
VEHICLES APPROACHING INTERSECTION VEHICLES APPROACHING INTERSECTION
TOTAL 720 IN I HR TOTAL 576 IN I RH
20
LIII
40
VEHICLES CLEARING INTERSECTION VEHICLES CLEARING INTERSECTION
UI TOTAL DISCHARGE 720 VEV IN I HR TOTAL DISCHARGE 276 VEH IN I HR
AVG. DISCHARGE RATE 1,200 VEH/HR OF GREEN AVG. DISCHARGE RATC 960 VCH/HR OF GREEN
20
to HO
0 ACCUMULATION OF WAITING VEHICLES ACCUMULATION OF WAITING VEHICLES
z
LOAD FACTOR '0.97, RUT MAO LOAD FACTOR • 0.51
RANGE FROM 0.7 TO 1.0 CYCLE 36 SEC GREEN
4SEC ANRER
20 SEC RED
60 SEC TOTAL
20 30 40 50 60 I 10 20 30 40 SO 60
CYCLE NUMBER CYCLE NUMBER
Figure 6.1. Operation of traffic at a rural intersection (a) loaded to capacity and (b) in intersection
service level D.
not necessarily mean that the same level of as well as during different hours of the day.
service must be provided on both. Where In modern traffic engineering applications
two arterials cross equal levels probably it is often not enough to know only that
would be desired, but where the side street adequate capacity exists to handle, in one
is decidedly inferior to the arterial differing hour, the total traffic that will arrive in that
levels might be appropriate. hour. Variations in the demand throughout
Further considerations relating to load the hour may produce peak arrival rates for
factor and its use are included in the por- short periods during the hour which sub-
tions of this chapter relating to levels of serv- stantially exceed the average rate. This is
ice and to intersection analysis procedures. the situation represented by Figure 6.1a. To
assure that long back-ups do not develop
PEAK-HOUR FACTOR
during parts of an hour, even though ca-
pacity for the hour is not exceeded, this
The subject of individual approach load- element must be taken into consideration.
ing is closely related to the consideration of The peak 15-mm flow is used as the basic
overall delays to traffic along a route and, short-period rate at intersections for such
thus, to travel times. Small reductions in consideration in this manual.
flow rate often substantially reduce travel The peak-hour factor is a measure of
times by largely eliminating back-ups. This consistency of demand. For intersections
is of major importance at locations where it is defined as the ratio between the num-
there is a large variation in the demand on ber of vehicles counted during the peak hour
the individual streets during the peak hour and four times the number of vehicles
118 JIIGHWAY CAPACITY
PEAK 15H19 TOTAL HOUR VOL. - 1416 VPII

(a) HIGH PEAK-HOUR FACTOR
PEAK 5-NIH VOL. - 379 YEll
PEAK HOUR
PEAK HOUR
Figure 6.2. Traffic flow at intersection approach with (a) high peak-hour factor and (b) low
peak-hour factor.
AT-GRAI)E INTERSECTIONS 119
1ijj .z
One- way urban arteriI .s triet in do ivn to ivn area. .111(1 Ol,i 1 ,,'iialized intersection with pavement
la,iing.
counted during the highest 15 consecutive arrives during a single 15-min period, with
minutes. A separate peak-hour factor must no traffic during the rest of the hour, the
be computed for each approach to the inter- peak-hour factor will be 0.25. It is, of
section. course, highly unlikely that the second con-
The peak-hour factor reflects variations dition would ever occur (except, possibly,
in peaking characteristics of approach road- on a roadway carrying traffic away from a
ways and provides a means of more accu- single-purpose parking area).
rately evaluating their operating character- The lowest peak-hour factor recorded
istics. during any of the 1955-6 studies was 0.47.
Figure 6.2 is included here to illustrate At this location, more than one-half of the
the effects of a high or low peak-hour fac- hourly flow occurred during the peak 15
tor. It should be noted that in both cases mm. A peak-hour factor between 0.85 and
the peak-hour factor represents the per- 0.90 was most common, being observed at
centage that the area of the 15 shaded bars 28 percent of the submitted approaches, but
is to the total area shown. In the case of about 5 percent were between 0.95 and 1.00,
Figure 6.2a the peak-hour factor is high, indicating nearly uniform flow throughout
indicating that the flow rate was fairly uni- the hour.
form during the peak hour. In Figure 6.2h The peak-hour factor can be determined
the peak-hour factor is low, indicating that by the following methods:
much of the peak-hour demand arrived dur- 1. On-site measurenient.—Where opera-
ing a period much shorter than the full hour. tion of an existing intersection is being con-
As defined, it is possible for the peak-hour sidered in detail, measurement of peaking
factor to vary from 0.25 to 1.00. If the characteristics can be accomplished as a
traffic flow is entirely uniform during the part of normal investigation procedures. Rel-
entire peak hour, so that the peak 15 mm atively detailed data-gathering procedures
carry only one-fourth of the traffic during are required, to provide cycle-by-cycle
the hour, the peak-hour factor will be 1.00. knowledge of flow rates and characteristics.
At the other extreme, if all the hourly traffic Manual counting and observation proce-
Li
Separate left-turn lane at big/s -apacstv rural signalized inter.re(tion. Note right-turn lane from
cross road at extre,ne left.
dures, photographic techniques, and a va- control locations on traffic corridors in the
riety of electronic recording devices can be city, representing the full range of conditions
utilized. likely to be found in the city. The factor
Ordinary mechanical traffic counters are for the most similar location can then be ap-
not adequate for this purpose, because they plied to the particular location under study.
do not provide the minute-by-minute vol- 3. Estimation.—Often, particularly in the
umes necessary for computing the peak-hour case of general studies of capacity problems
factor. Utilizing the 15-min counts pro- over broad areas within a city, it is not
duced by some counters can result in sub- feasible to make detailed studies of peaking
stantial errors. To illustrate, assume that characteristics. In such cases estimated
such a counter recorded the data contained values may be used, as described in the pro-
in Figure 6.2h. Analysis of the counter data cedures section of this chapter.
would probably indicate that the peak hour
was from 4:45 to 5:45 and contained slightly
METROPOLITAN AREA POPULATtON
less than the total volume shown (assume
1,400 vph). The peak IS min recorded One important finding from the analysis
would be from 5:00 to 5:15, with 467 ve- of the submitted intersection data was strong
hicles (assuming the same accuracy as the indication that approaches in any particular
minute counts shown). These two values type of area within large metropolitan areas
would result in a computed peak-hour fac- had higher capacities than those of similar
tor of 0.75, compared to the actual factor geometrics located in equivalent areas in
of 0.70. If the true peak was more nearly smaller cities. The facts that drivers in large
centered on one of the recording intervals, cities are more experienced in coping with
the error would substantially increase. high densities and congested traffic condi-
2. Similar location measurement.—Peak- tions, and are more intent on moving
ing characteristics can be measured at a few through, because they have greater distances
AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS 121 -
to traverse under these conditionsprobably turnover than is found in the central busi-
explain this finding. ness district, but it may include large park-
This effect of metropolitan area size is ing areas serving that district.
difficult to determine independently, inas- Outlying business district.—That por-
much as other primary variables, such as tion of a municipality or an area within the
peak-hour factor, are also related to area influence of a municipality, normally sepa-
size. Its effect, nevertheless, has been deter- rated geographically by some distance from
mined sufficiently for inclusion as one of the the central business district and its fringe
variables in the procedures to be described. area, in which the principal land use is for
Nine population groups are included, en- business activity. This district has its own
compassing a wide range of metropolitan local traffic circulation superimposed on
areas from small single cities to widespread through movements to and from the cen-
urbanized areas composed of several cities. tral business district, a relatively high park-
It should be noted that the intersection ing demand and turnover, and moderate
data were gathered largely in or near the pedestrian traffic. Compact off-street shop-
central cities in the various metropolitan ping developments entirely on one side of
areas studied. Application of the resulting the street are not included in the scope of
criteria to satellite suburban communities this definition.
requires judgment to establish whether the Residential area.—That portion of a
community is better considered as a separate municipality, or an area within the influence
independent small city or an outlying por- of a municipality, in which the dominant
tion of the large central city. Local studies land use is residential development, but
may be required to make this determination. where small business areas may be included.
Although few data were gathered for This area is characterized by few pedestrians
rural areas, the procedures that follow in- and a low parking turnover.
clude rural criteria, developed by adapta- Although the data gathered in the 1955-6
tion of data from the smallest of the popu- studies provided little information regarding
lation groups to the rural situation. modern off-street shopping centers concen-
trated on one side of a highway or in one
LOCATION WITHIN METROPOLITAN AREA
quadrant of an intersection in outlying areas,
it can be assumed that the highways serving
For analysis, metropolitan areas are di- them fall in this residential category if ac-
vided into four land use and development cess to the center is only by marked drive-
classifications or types, as follows: ways and businesses do not front on the
Central business district.—That portion highways themselves.
of a municipality in which the dominant The gathered data indicate that:
land use is intense business activity. This
district is characterized by large numbers of For one-way streets without parking ap-
pedestrians, commercial vehicle loadings of proach capacities are about 10 percent
goods and people, a heavy demand for park- higher in the fringe and outlying business
ing space, and high parking turnover. districts than in the central business district.
Fringe area—That portion of a mu- No data are available for such streets in
nicipality immediately outside the central residential areas, because this type of opera-
business district in which there is a wide tion rarely occurs, but it is estimated that a
range in type of business activity, generally 20 percent higher figure would apply.
including small commercial, light industrial, For one-way streets with parking on one
warehousing, automobile service activities, side approach capacities are similar in the
and intermediate strip development, as well central and fringe districts. In residential
as some concentrated residential areas. Most areas this type of street handled approxi-
of the traffic in this area involves trips that mately 20 percent more traffic than in cen-
do not have an origin or a destination within tral and fringe districts. No data are avail-
the area. This area is characterized by mod- able for one-way streets with parking on
erate pedestrian traffic and a lower parking one side in outlying business districts, but
it is estimated that 'the 20 percent value tersection' area, most of which have not
would apply here also. received detailed study, it is not yet possible
For one-way streets with parking on both to provide refined criteria regardingthe
sides approach capacities are about 15 per- effects of turning movements. Listed in the
cent higher in outlying business districts following are some of the more obvious
than in the central business district and the characteristics. In the computation próce-
fringe area. In residential areas they are dures later in this chapter the adjustments
about 25 percent higher than in the central presented are partly rationalizations based
business district. on such trends and limits of these charac-
For Iwo-way streets, both with and with- teristics as have been identified.
out parking, approach capacities are about Left turns exhibit the following charac-
25 percent higher in all other areas than in teristics:
the central business district.
The effect per vehicle on approach
There are several reasons for lower ca- capacity is less if two successive vehicles
pacities in the central business district than turn left than if single vehicles turn at more
elsewhere. Some of the more important ones widely spaced intervals. It follows that the
are (a) a greater frequency of vehicles larger the number of turning vehicles the
stopping to load or unload passengers, in- less the effect per vehicle.
cluding both buses and passenger cars; (b) The effect of left-turning vehicles is
pedestrians causing interference to vehicu- related to the number of opposing vehicles,
lar traffic; (c) a more circulatory-type traf- on two-way streets.
fic flow, involving more turns; (d) pres- The effect of a left turn is dependent
ence of appreciable numbers of delivery on conflicting pedestrian flows, usually those
trucks making brief stops; and (e) curb in the crosswalk of the leg into which the
parking turnover,' where parking is present. turn is being made.
A vehicle waiting to make a left turn
Traffic Characteristics causes a greater relative reduction in ca-
pacity on a narrow street than on a wider
Intersection approach capacity, like the street or one having a center dividing island
capacity of other highway elements, is in- with a left-turn lane.
fluenced by the inherent characteristics of
The width of the cross street affects
the traffic being accommodated. These char-
speed and number of vehicles turning (i.e.,
acteristics include the amount of turning
a wide cross street provides more space to
traffic, the percentage of commercial vehi-
receive left turns and provides a larger turn-
cles, and the operations of local transit buses.
ing radius, thus increasing maneuver speed).
TURNING MOVEMENTS
Problems of left-turning vehicles should
be considered with respect to specific condi-
Turning movements are most directly a tions occurring at the prticular intersection
traffic characteristic, although they are re- under study. Treatments such as separate
lated to the environment and they also can left-turn signal phases may be effective if the
be, and frequently are, controlled. Certain number of left-turn movements is high.
turning movements at individual intersec- Leading or lagging green intervals, to allow
tions can be totally eliminated or otherwise some turns to clear free of opposing traffic,
manipulated by traffic engineering techniques may be desirable. Channelized left-turn
for a net increase in capacity at that point. lanes separate left-turning traffic and allow
However, as discussed in Chapter Ten, a through lanes to move to better advantage,
control which appears desirable in terms of regardless of whether or not the location is
a single location may not be effective in signalized. Complete prohibition of left
terms of the street system as a whole. turns at critical points may be desirable at
Because of the many interrelationships some intersections, if suitable alternate
between turning movements and other traf- means of handling the movement exist.
fic and pedestrian movements within the in- Procedures offered in this manual con-
Separate left-turn signal indications and exclusive let (-Fur,: lanes at intersection on 1,1:1/Or urban
divided high way.
sider the effect of left turns on capacity in tempting to leave the curb simultaneously.
cases where (a) no separate lane or phase A vehicle turning right causes a
is provided for left-turning traffic, (b) a greater relative reduction in capacity on a
separate lane is provided with no separate narrow street than on a wider street.
signal phase. (c) a separate signal phase is The influence of width of cross street
provided with no separate lane, and (d) is quite variable. The restrictive effect of a
both a separate lane and a separate signal narrow cross street may be greater on right
phase are provided. Although these proce- turns than on left, due to the shorter avail-
dures provide means of assessing the effect able turning radius. On the other hand,
of left turns, they still represent only an
where little pedestrian interference is ex-
approximation.
perienced, where adequate curb return radii
Right turns also influence intersection ca- are provided, or where continuous right
pacity in varying degrees, depending on con-
ditions at the intersection. Although op- turning is allowed, some studies have shown
posing traffic is not a factor, other influences an increase in capacity with an increase in
are much the same as for left turns, includ- right turns, particularly where the cross
ing the following: street is wide and turning vehicles clear the
intersection more quickly than do through
Two or more consecutive vehicles turn-
ing have less effect per vehicle than if they vehicles.
arrive separately.
I intersections are a special case. Here,
Right-turning vehicles are affected by
both possible movements involve turns, and
pedestrian movements, usually those in the
crosswalk of the leg into which the turn is the heavier of the two is generally considered
being made. Sometimes the effect is greater as a through movement unless very sharp
than on left turns, because the conflict is turns or heavy pedestrian conflicts are en-
often with large groups of pedestrians at- countered.
TRUCKS AND THROUGH BUSES grouped into three general categories, as fol-
lows:
The presence of trucks tends to reduce
intersection approach capacities because I. Near-side curb stops—located at the
their acceleration rates are lower and they curb on the intersection approach in ad-
occupy more road space, both in length vance of the intersection proper. Generally,
and width, than passenger cars. The degree where bus volumes are appreciable a near-
of this effect varies widely, depending on side curb bus stop will have a greater ad-
the type of vehicle, its weight-power ratio, verse effect on intersection capacity than a
and, in particular, its size and turning char- far-side stop. Both right-turn and through
acteristics. However, little detailed research movements will be affected on approaches
has been reported in these various areas where no parking is allowed. However, it
separately. Hence, in the computation pro- may offer the advantage to the transit oper-
cedures presented later in this chapter ap- ator of combining delays due to red signals
proximate all-inclusive adjustment factors with loading and unloading delays, thus tend-
are provided. ing to speed up the overall transit operation.
For capacity purposes pick-ups, panel This potential advantage to bus operation
trucks, and other light trucks having only depends on the buses consistently arriving
four tires are considered as passenger cars, at the intersection at the beginning of the
inasmuch as their performance is so simi- red signal interval. Detailed studies of bus
lar. All other trucks, from six-tire single operations relating to their arrival at the
units through the largest combinations, as intersection with respect to the red or green
well as through intercity buses and express signal interval will indicate the practicality
transit buses, are considered in one category of locating the bus stop on the near side of
as "trucks and through buses." Passenger the intersection for this reason.
car equivalency factors are not used in inter- On approaches where parking is permitted
section capacity computations; rather, di- the effect varies, being somewhat dependent
rect adjustment factors are provided. How- on the distance from the intersection that
ever, one truck can be considered as equiva- parking would have been restricted if no bus
lent to a minimum of two passenger cars at stop existed. If parking otherwise would be
intersections, even under the best conditions. permitted near the intersection, the presence
Where conditions quite far from average of a bus stop provides added capacity for
exist, such as where a preponderance of moving traffic, particularly right turns, when
large heavy trucks is present or where sub- not in use.
stantial numbers of trucks make turns into When traffic movement on the cross street
narrow cross streets, judgment based on is one-way and approaching the intersection
local observations should be used in making leg of the main street from the right-hand
allowance for the special conditions. side, the bus stop usually should be located
on the near side of the intersection; it thus
LOCAL TRANSIT BUSES will produce the least interference with turn-
ing movements.
Local transit buses on urban streets have Adjustment procedures for this type of
entirely different effects than through buses, stop are pr\esented later in this chapter.
which are considered as trucks. The spe- 2. Far-side curb stops—located at the
cific quantitative influence of these effects curb immediately beyond the intersection
is presented in this chapter, whereas Chap- proper on the straight-through exit from the
ter Eleven describes transit bus operations approach under consideration. Far-side bus
more generally. stops will have only a minor adverse effect
The specific effect of such buses stopping on the approach capacity of streets where
to load and unload passengers on the ca- parking is permitted. This effect is due pri-
pacity of any particular intersection depends marily to buses pulling back into the mov-
on the area of the city, street width, parking traffic lanes, rather than to loss of the
ing conditions, number of buses, and bus space which they occupy during loading.
stop location. These locations can be On streets without parking the. effect is
partially dependent on the percentage of necessary) to substantial (where awkward

turning traffic. In some cases on wider maneuvers are needed). No general adjust-
streets, where turning movements are high, ment procedures can be specified, but cri-
the loss of volume due to the turning move- teria for corner stops can often he adapted
ments may nullify any adverse effect. For to fit the conditions.
example, on a three-lane approach and exit,
if the left and right turns combined exceed In addition to the three common types
one-third of the total approach volume,the just described, other specialized types exist,
far-side bus stop will probably have little such as mid-street platforms, for which no
effect on the approach capacity, because the general adjustment procedures can be sup-
two lanes remaining should accommodate plied. Local study is necessary in such
the through flow adequately. cases.
Adjustment procedures are also included The degree to which a bus stop affects
in this chapter for this type of stop. intersection capacity depends not only on
3. Mid-block bus stops—located at the the stop location, but also on the number of
curb at some point in the middle of the buses using the loading zone during the
block. They are used where the entire peak hour, the number of boarding and
street widths near the intersection are needed alighting passengers per bus, and the time
for moving and storing traffic, where buses taken to accomplish this boarding and
must maneuver for a left turn after leaving alighting. It is obvious that a route with
the stop, or where some other special case frequent bus service has a considerably
exists. greater adverse effect on capacity than one
The influence on capacity depends on the serviced by only one or two buses per hour,
circumstances of each individual case, vary- but less apparent that a near-side bus stop
ing from slight (where a stop of adequate on a street with parking elsewhere may, un-
length is located in a block having parking der certain conditions, increase capacities
elsewhere and no unusual maneuvers are above basic "with parking" values. Chapter
A ONLY
II
••'3— r ci/
. .j.Mi
.. ..
TIT
Int('rsectun, /,(,,z(/l,,: /?!,'/i 'O/l(,flC' of tur,o provide.r for two left-turn lanes, two through traffic
lanes, and a rig/it-turn Ia pie.
Eleven discusses this subject of bus stop use indication" is the measure normally used,
characteristics in more detail. inasmuch as it largely compensates for the
Procedures to be followed in applying influence of varying percentages of green
average adjustment factors for bus stops are time assigned to specific approaches.
discussed later in this chapter. The main influence of a signal on a par-
ticular approach on capacity itself, in terms
of vehicles per hour of green, involves the
Control Measures
degree to which it stops moving vehicles. At
Several factors which involve traffic con- one extreme, if all approaching vehicles in
trol measures have already been noted in the the traffic flow are stopped on the approach
previous categories. These include parking before entering (as might occur at an iso-
restrictions, turning controls, and one-way lated signal not connected with others), then
operation. In this section, other traffic con- rarely can traffic move away at a rate
trol measures which have an influence on greater than 1,500 vehicles per hour of
intersection capacity are discussed. green. At the other extreme, if no moving
traffic ever is stopped (as would be true at
a signal within a perfectly-coordinated pro-
TRAFFIC SIGNALS
gressive signal system), then a capacity flow
The ordinary traffic signal regulates traf- rate of 2,000 vehicles per hour of green
fic flow by displaying a sequence of green might be achieved. Volumes per actual
(go), yellow (stop if possible), and red clock hour would, of course, be proportion-
(stop) indications to traffic on any given ately less in either case.
approach. In the simplest case, the same Where level of service is concerned, on
indication is given to all movements on the the other hand, delays to traffic become
approach simultaneously, timing is fixed, important. A single isolated signal with
and there is no interconnçction with other adequate capacity to handle the peak de-
signals. In complex installations, on the mand on all approaches may nevertheless
other hand, each movement may be gov- handle lower volumes on the several legs
erned by its own specific series of indica- at widely varying levels of service. Whether
tions, the timing of each indication may be or not differing levels on the intersecting
variable, and the signal very likely is inter- streets are desirable often depends on their
connected with others on the street. relative importance. Similarly, a series of
It is not the purpose of this manual to signalized intersections, each of which in-
discuss signal timing and signal controllers dividually has adequate capacity to handle
at length; the subject is covered in detail in the demand, may nevertheless provide poor
such references as the "Manual on Uniform service as a group if they are not coordi-
Traffic Control Devices" (3) and the "Traf- nated, thus forcing traffic to make fre-
fic Engineering Handbook" (4). However, quent stops.
certain fundamentals regarding the influence Consequently, both individual and co-
of signals on capacity and levels of service ordinated signal control and timing require
should be mentioned briefly. consideration.
Practically any signal, no matter how Traffic Signal Control.—A variety of
timed or controlled, displays periodic red types of traffic signal controllers are utilized,
indications when traffic in a certain move-
their complexity depending on the purpose
ment cannot flow. Obviously, these red
they serve. They include (a) pretimed traf-
periods reduce the amount of traffic that
fic signal control, in which fixed-time signal
can be accommodate4 in a clock hour (i.e.,
the capacity per hour), in approximate pro- cycles are established in accordance with
portion to their percentage of the total time. predetermined time schedules (usually not
Therefore, "vehicles per hour," referring exceeding three, to handle morning peak,
to an actual clock hour, is not a feasible evening peak, and off-peak); and (b) traf-
measure of signalized intersection flow. In- fic-actuated signal control, in which the
stead, "vehicles per hour of green signal intervals are varied in accordance with the
actuation of demand-detecting devices by accommodated on the various approaches

vehicles and sometimes also by pedestrians. to the intersection in any given time period.
The latter are generally divided into two Although the basic computational measure
basic types—namely, semi-traffic-actuated used later in this chapter is simply the pro-
control, in which means are provided for portion of the hour when the signal is green
actuation by traffic on one or more, but not for the approach under study, other aspects
all, approaches, and fully-traffic-actuated of timing affect capacity and should be
control, in which means are provided for considered. Efficient use of the time avail-
actuation by traffic on all approaches. A able, including application of overlapping
variety of detecting devices is used, ranging phases to the maximum extent possible, can
from simple installations that register only significantly increase the time available for
the presence or nonpresence of vehicles on individual movements, thus increasing the
an approach, to complex volume-density actual per-hour capacity of these movements
equipment in which detector actuations by and of the intersection as a whole, even
individual vehicles on each approach, or though the per-hour-of-green capacities of
each lane of each approach, are received, the several movements may not change.
stored, and interpreted. Significant elements involved in signal
In the case of an isolated single signal timing include:
the controller serves simply to allocate the 1. Cycle length—the total time taken for
total time available proportionately to the display of all of the several indications pro-
two highways crossing at the particular loca- vided by a signal. Cycle lengths are based
tion, with due consideration to the relative on total intersection requirements. Gen-
traffic demands and the available pavement erally they should be kept as short as feasible
widths on the several legs. Increasingly, commensurate with accomplishment of all
however, it has been found desirable to in- of the individually-phased movements nec-
terconnect groups of signals, particularly in essary in the total intersection operation.
urban areas, in order to facilitate traffic flow Typical off-peak cycle lengths usually range
along substantial lengths of an arterial or from 50 to0 sec. It is seldom feasible to
throughout an entire network of streets. Con- operate on cycle lengths of Jess than 40 sec
trol of such interconnection ranges from or on phase lengths for individual move-
simple linkage of a few signals under one ments of less than 15 sec. Cycle lengths
master controller to computer control of longer than 60 sec may be required at times
the entire signal system of a city. to accommodate multiple-phase movements
The capacity computation procedures that at complicated- intersections, to provide
follow in this chapter are based on individ- longer green signal time on those approaches
ual signalized locations along highways and which carry peak flows, or to operate sev-
streets having only average levels of co- eral intersections simultaneously. However,
ordination with other locations along the long cycles tend to increase total intersec-
highway. Application of these procedures tion delay (mainly by producing excessive
to substantial lengths of urban streets in- back-up of traffic on the minor cross street),
volves consideration not only of the indi- create fewer opportunities for left-turn
vidual approach capacities along the route, movements against opposing traffic at the
but also of the overall level of service pro- ends of phases, and increase the problems
vided from one end to the other, sometimes of pedestrian control (because of the long
including the influence of effective progres- waiting periods required between pedestrian
sion (precise coordination designed to keep movements).
platoons of traffic continuously moving, Fundamentally, then, maximum efficiency
never encountering a red signal). These is attained with the shortest feasible cycle
considerations are covered in Chapter Ten. length. In practice, however, this shortest
Signal Timing—The timing pattern in- feasible length may be quite long in some
stalled on the traffic signal controller at any cases. Careful analysis is necessary in se-
single intersection has a great influence on lecting peak-hour cycle lengths and splits to
the actual number of vehicles that can be apportion the available time among the
various approaches in such a way as to nal sequence of green-yellow-red to warn

achieve balanced effective utilization of the the motorist that the red (stop) in-
green intervals on all approaches. terval will appear in a very short time.
Green time to cycle time ratio (GIC Modern regulations require that the motorist
ratio)—a highly important factor used in a stop rather than enter the intersection on
capacity calculation to convert vehicles per the yellow interval unless he is so close tO
hour of green to actual vehicles per hour. the intersection that such a maneuver is
This ratio is easily computed for pretimed impossible. Once the mbtorist has entered
control. Except in the case of traffic- the intersection legally on the yellow inter-
actuated signals, the cycle length and/or val, sufficient clearance time must be pro-
split normally is not changed within the vided to allow him to exit from the inter-
peak hour so that the green interval for any section before cross traffic is allowed to
phase, divided by the total cycle length, enter it. The safest, most efficient operation
provides the ratio for the approaches which is now believed to result when the yellow
move during that interval. interval is held to a fixed 2 or 3 sec at all
In the case of traffic-actuated signals, the intersections regardless of the time required
GIC ratio is not fixed. To obtain the GIC to clear the intersection. The additional
ratio for actuated signals, it is desirable to time required for the motorist to exit from
conduct field observations at the intersection the intersection should be obtained by pro-
under study or, where this is not feasible, at viding an all-red interval, again usually 2
an intersection with similar physical, traf- or 3 sec, immediately following the yellow
fic, and control conditions. Such studies interval. The total time of the yellow and
should include measurements of volumes, all-red periods should be held to the mini-
cycle length, and green phases. However, mum necessary to clear the intersection.
where such field studies are not feasible a Yellow intervals have not been included in
reasonable estimate of this ratio may be ob- G of the GIC ratio just described because
tained for locations having well-timed fully- the charts used in the computational pro-
actuated or volume-density controllers by cedure were developed on the basis of green
dividing the average demand volume per time only, recognizing the fact that a few
lane for the phase under consideration by vehicles actually would pass through during
the average demand volume per lane the yellow time. It was accepted that in
for all phases at the intersection, and pro- all field data submitted the volume recorded
rating the results to total 1.00, less an ap- as passing through during any given phase
propriate allowance for yellow signal time. was the total which moved through, regard-
This is usually taken as 0.05 of the cycle less of whether the signal was green or yel-
per yellow interval in preliminary computa- low, and regardless of the legality of the
tions. Because all phases usually do not movements recorded on yellow. Thus, the
peak at the same time and are not always charts represent average conditions.
fully utilized, it is incorrect to assume that
an actuated signal ever operates on a fixed MARKING OF APPkOACH LANES
cycle length even under heavy conditions
(i.e., all phases reaching the maximum in- As mentioned previously, overall width
terval, or performing in the same relative of approach rather than number and width
pattern, during each cycle). of lanes has proved to have the most signifi-
Semi-actuated controllers present a spe- cant influence on capacity. Nevertheless,
cial situation. Inasmuch as demand is not certain relationships between number of
registered on all legs, the procedure just marked lanes and capacity have been de-
described is not realistic. Estimation of the tected.
average GIC ratio requires consideration of Figure 6.3 shows grouped data relating to
the individual characteristics, such as mini- the relative efficiencies (expressed in ve-
mum and maximum green times, of the par- hicles per hour of green) of different num-
ticular installation. bers of lanes on various approach widths.
Yellow interval—indication in the sig- Figure 6.3a, relating to two-way streets
TABLE 6.2—OPTIMUM NUMBER OF - NO. OFI AVG.ENVIR.

LANES_FACTOR VALUES
—
LANES FOR VARIOUS APPROACH - - P.H.F.'O.88
L.F.'0.40
-
o'O
WIDTHS ON TWO-WAY STREETS S POP. 500,000
WITH NO PARKING X'S
APPROACH NO. OF
--
WIDTH (FT) TRAFFIC LANES
Upto 17 _
ta)TWO-WAY
STREETS,—--
NO PARKING
18 to 25
26 to 39
III
NUM8ER01 -
APPROACHES
40 to 55 REPRESENTED BY
- -
CORRESPONDING
6 5 POINTS
24 II S
26 26 7 42 6 3 8 I
without parking, indicates that various 1

z • - -
I
NO.OF AVG. ENVIR.
widths accommodate optimum traffic vol- LANES FACTOR VALUES
.0
I IP.H.F.'0.88
umes with the number of lanes specified in
Table 6.2.
—4'2
A' S POP. • 375,000
Similar conclusions may be derived from

Figure 6.3b for two-way streets with park-
I X 5
(b)TWO- WAY STREETS, ----

ing, and from Figure 6.3c for one-way WITH PARKING
streets.
ft
Figure 6.3 and Table 6.2 are guides based
on the 1955-6 study data. They are not used IORRISPONDING
directly in capacity determinations, but may

serve to indicate how best to operate a
- 8 23 23 I
IS
25
6
10 - 2 - 2 —
given pavement width to assure attainment

of computed capacity. Other practical con- __ I
WITH —L WITH I I I -— — -
siderations, such as percentage of trucks in NO. OF NO PARKING PARKING
LANES PARKING OKE.OIDC ROTH SIDES -
the traffic stream, also affect the determina-
tion. It would generally be considered un- - 2
3
0
A
K
A
S
£ - /- NO PARKING
POP 750,000
-
4 0 U
desirable to have less than a 10-ft lane where
truck or bus volumes are significant.
6 S T /L
INTERSECTION CAPACITY, SERVICE
VOLUMES, AND LEVELS OF SERVICE (c)ONE-WAY......... -- *
WITH PARKING_
POP..375.000
-
STREETS
I --
As is true of all other highway elements,
any at-grade intersection approach has a
AVG. ENVIR.
FACTOR VALUES
P.H.F. .0.85
-
capacity which represents the maximum
number of vehicles that can be accommo-
L.F. 1
0.40 1 -
0 - 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70
dated given the particular geometrics, en- APPROACH WIDTH (FT)
vironment, and traffic characteristics and Figure 6.3. Eflect of number of lanes on (a)
controls. Also, as is true for all other ele- Iwo-way streets will, no parking, (h) lms'o-way
ments, operation is far from satisfactory to streets will, parking, and (c) one-hay streets.
most drivers at capacity, with substantial
approach delays likely.
Approximate levels of service can be de-
scribed for individual intersections. How-
ever, because by definition true level of of only local interest. As described in
service is an indicator of the type of opera- Chapter Ten, substantial lengths of signal-
tion over a distance, such "point" levels of ized streets must be examined to establish
service obtained at separate intersections are meaningful levels of service.
Although speeds are used as a measure Level of service B represents stable opera-
of level of service for most other elements, tion, with a load factor of not over 0.1; an
they are of little use in measuring this ele- occasional approach phase is fully utilized
ment, which produces intentional stops; and a substantial number are approaching
therefore, some other measure is required. full use. Many drivers begin to feel some-.
Inasmuch as level of service is described what restricted within platoons of vehicles.
in terms of driver satisfaction, the substi- Under typical rural conditions this fre-
tute measure should be some factor that quently will be suitable operation for rural
the driver himself sees and interprets in design purposes.
terms of degree of congestion. Of the sev- In level of service C stable operation
eral factors that have been discussed in the continues. Loading is still intermittent, but
previous section, probably load factor is more frequent, with the load factor ranging
most evident, to the average driver. Hence, from 0.1 to 0.3. Occasionally drivers may
it is the best measure of level of service at have to wait through more than one red sig-
individual intersections with no or only nal indication, and back-ups may develop
average signal coordination. (The peak- behind turning vehicles. Most drivers feel
hour factor, although highly important to somewhat restricted, but not objectionably
the administrator and traffic engineer and so. In the absence of local conditions dic-
rather directly related to the load factor, is tating otherwise, this is the level typically
a less desirable measure because individual associated with urban design practice.
drivers do not see clear-cut evidence of it. Level of service D encompasses a zone
Its relationships are shown in Chapter Ten.) of increasing restriction approaching insta-
For the purpose of defining typical inter- bility in the limit when the load factor
sectional levels of service, then, load factor reaches 0.70. Delays to approaching ve-
is employed. hicles may be substantial during short peaks
The conditions which the driver is likely within the peak period, but enough cycles
to encounter at each level are next de- with lower demand occurto permit periodic
scribed. This discussion applies to typical clearance of developing queues, thus pre-
signalized intersections, not to perfect or venting excessive back-ups.
near-perfect progressive signalization, a spe- Capacity occurs at level of service E. It
cial case which must be considered over a represents the most vehicles that any par-
length of highway as described in Chapter ticular intersection approach can accom-
Ten. Throughout the entire range of levels modate. Although theoretically a load fac-
it should be realized that some vehicles will. tor of 1.0 would represent capacity, in prac-
arrive during a red indication and will have tice full utilization of every cycle is seldom
to stop. If a reasonably good progression attained, no matter how great the demand,
has been established, such vehicles may be unless the street is highly friction-free. A.
few; otherwise, there will be a considerable load factor range of 0.7 to 1.0 is more real-
number simply due to the random pattern istic. In the absence of a local determina-
of arrivals. For any single intersection, then, tion, use of 0.85 is recommended for iso-
even the highest level of service may in- lated intersections. For interconnected sig-
volve some stops. nals a higher factor may be appropria.te, as
At level of service A there are no loaded discussed in Chapter Ten. At capacity there
cycles (i.e., the load factor is 0.0) and may be long queues of vehicles .waiting up-
few are even close to loaded. No approach stream of the intersection and delays may
phase is fully utilized by traffic and no ve- be great (up to several signal cycles).
hicle waits longer than one red indication. Level of service F represents jammed
Typically the approach appears quite open, conditions. Back-ups from locations down-
turning movements are easily made, and stream or on the cross street may restrict
nearly all drivers find freedom of operation, or prevent movement of vehicles out of the
their only concern being the< chance that approach under consideration; hence, vol-
the light will be red, or turn red, when they umes carried are not predictable. No load
approach. factor canbe established, because full utili-
TABLE 6.3—LEVELS OF SERVICE AND closes) willingly accept a temporary back-

MAXIMUM SERVICE VOLUMES FOR up as inevitable or at least as more accepta-
INDIVIDUAL ISOLATED ble than expenditure of local funds to elimi-
INTERSECTION APPROACHES nate the very short overload period. On the
other hand, if this is found unacceptable
LEVEL locally, level of service during the short
OF TRAFFIC FLOW LOAD period will require consideration as related
SERVICE DESCRIPTION FACTOR to possible design modifications.
A Free flow 0.0 In the computation procedures that fol-
)ow, level of service is represented princi-
B Stable flow 0.1 (pally by a family of curves applying to the
C Stable flow 0.3 type of intersection under study. Although
the influence of the many factors just de-
D Approaching scribed undoubtedly varies to some extent,
unstable flow. depending on the level of service, sufficiently
E' Unstable flow Z 1.00 refined data are not yet available to identify
the degree of variation. Hence, the adjust-
F Forced flow -"
ment factors presented apply alike to all
Capacity. levels of service.
b Not applicable.
PROCEDURES FOR ESTIMATING INTER-

SECTION CAPACITY, SERVICE VOLUMES,
AND LEVELS OF SERVICE
zation of the approach is prevented by out-
side conditions. Thus far this chapter has discussed in
general terms the broad field of intersection
Table 6.3 summarizes •these intersection
approach capacity and the many elements
level of service criteria.
On the average, the intersection ap- and factors which influence it. In this sec-
tion specific procedures are presented for
proaches reported during the 1955-6 studies
use in establishing actual capacity and serv-
showed a load factor of about 0.40 during
the full peak hour, which value is near the ice volume values for a wide range of inter-
start of level D. When it is realized that section conditions, and in estimating level
most of the data came from locations se- of service given a known demand.
lected as the most heavily used, non- First, it is essential to repeat that "ve-
jammed, approaches in the particular cities hicles per hour of green" is the basic unit
involved, it becomes apparent that 100 per- used to express the capacity and service
cent loading is far less frequently found volumes of a signalized approach. Given
than is often supposed. That is, although the volume per hour of green time, by
an intersection approach may look heavily applying to this volume the fraction of the
utilized to the casual observer, or to a par- total cycle time that the signal is green for
ticular driver who regularly passes through a particular movement, one can calculate
during a short peak. period, detailed study the number of vehicles that can clear the
usually reveals considerable unused capac- intersection from that approach during one
ity over any full peak hour. hour elapsed time.
As is true with all other highway ele- Also, it should be made clear that inter-
ments, the importance of short peaks within section capacity, like uninterrupted-flow ca-
the hour on intersection approaches can be pacity, is not a precise determination. Wide
established only by relating their conse- ranges of observed volumes under heavy
quences to local civic and economic prob- flow conditions were reported for appar-
lems as a whole. An intersection approach ently similar physical conditions during the
may be fully adequate if drivers arriving 1955-6 studies. Figure 6.4 shows, for each
during a once-a-day 15-min peak period of the categories given in the "Physical
(such as when a large individual plant and Operating Conditions" section of this
ONE-WAY - ONE - WAY - ONE- WAY—
NO PARKING —PARKING BOTH SIDES PARKING ONE SIDE
0 20 40 60
TWO-WAY— TWO-WAY-
NO PARKING - PARKING
Figure 6.4. Range of approach vol-

umes reported during BPR 1955-6
intersection studies.
0 20 40 80 0 20 40 60
APPROACH WIOTH (Fl)
chapter, the approximate range in vehicles as read directly may be suitable for rough
per hour of green per approach reported comparative computations, but no final
in the data submitted. These charts are problem solution should be read directly
included only to illustrate the great amount from the figures without application of the
of variance in the data received; they should tabulated adjustments and, usually, others
not be used for computations. Much of to be described later in this chapter. In
this variation has been explained by means particular, this value, being in terms of ve-
of the various factors that have been dis- hicles per hour of green, is never suitable
cussed, but some remains unexplained. for direct application to an approach, even
The procedures that follow provide the in approximate solutions. It must always
best overall estimates of intersection capac- be multiplied by the appropriate signal G/C
ity and service volumes which can be de- ratio for the approach under consideration
veloped at this time. The user cannot ex- to establish the actual capabilities of the
pect, however, to find precise agreement approach per hour as signalized.
between observed and computed values in The approach width used in these figures
every case. Where detailed accurately re- is the total width of the approach pavement,
corded local observations of an approach including any parking lanes present but ex-
have been made while it was operating cluding any separate left-turn or right-turn
under fully-loaded, but not jammed, condi- lanes (i.e., lanes reserved exclusively for
tions, and the resulting figure is in disagree- turns, either with or without separate signal
ment with the estimate from this manual, phases). Where such lanes are utilized the
the observed value should be adopted as width of approach used for capacity deter-
the capacity of that particular location. minations from the charts should be the
All of the previously noted factors must total width of approach less the width of
be considered and evaluated to estimate the exclusive turning lanes. The approach
service volumes and the capacity of an ap- capacity is then increased to account for the
proach under specified operating conditions. effect of these lanes, as described in later
Several are consolidated into a set of charts sections.
and tables for application; the remainder The volume carried, in vehicles per hour
are considered individually. of green, represents an average condition
with respect to traffic factors. Specifically,
Fundamental Capacity Charts and it represents 10 percent left turns, 10 per-
Adjustment Tables cent right turns, 5 percent trucks and
through buses, and no local transit buses.
URBAN CONDITIONS The curves in Figures 6.5 thrdugh 6.9
Figures 6.5 through 6.9 and their in- establish the relationship between approach
cluded tabulations permit fundamental de- width and vehicles per hour of green for
termination of service volumes and capac- the full range of possible load factors. They
ity on a per-hour-of-green basis, given the are based on selected values of certain
width of approach, the load factor, the factors described in the "Environmental
peak-hour factor, the metropolitan area Conditions" section of this chapter; namely,
population, and the location within the a peak-hour factor of 0.85 (the average
metropolitan area. These criteria have been value obtained from all data), a metropoli-
prepared to represent the several categories tan area population of 250,000, and a down.L
included in the "Physical and Operating town location. It is important to note that
Conditions" section of this chapter; namely, no assumption is made regarding an aver-
three parking conditions on one-way streets age load factor and that only occasionally
and two parking conditions on two-way will the site under study fit the remaining
streets. assumed conditions in all respects. Conse-
It should be clearly understood that these quently, a choice of load factor always must
figures do not provide final answers, even be made to convert criteria to the actual
when the adjustments contained in the asso- conditions at the study site. For other
ciated tables are applied. The volume value values of peak-hour factor and/or metro-
--
ADJUSTMENT FOR PEAK-HOUR FACTOR AND METROPOLITAN AREA SIZE AOJUSTMENT FOR PEAK-HOUR FACTOR AND METROPOLITAN AREA SIZE
METROPOLITAN
AREA POP. (1,000$
0.70 0.15
S.PEUK.HOUR FATOR
0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 - - METROPOLITAN

AREA POP. (1,0005. -
0.70 0.75 0.80
-
PEAK-HOUR FACTOR
OVER 1,000 0.98 1.04 1.09 I. 14 1.20 1.25 1.50 OVER 1,000 0.99 .04 1.09 1.14 1.19 1.24 1.29
1,000
750
500
0.96
0.93
0.90
1.01
0.98
0.95
1.06
1.0$
1.00
1.12
1.09
1.06
1.17
1.14
1.11
1.20
1.19
I. IN
1.27
1.25
1.22
- 1.000
750
300
0.96
0.93
0.91
1.01
.0.99
0.96
1.08
1.04
1.01
(.11
1.09
1.06
1.17
1,14
1.11
1.22
1.19
1.16
1.27
1.24
1.21
375 0.88 0.93 0.96 1.03 1.06 1.13 1.18
- -
575 0.87 0.92 0.98 (.03 1.08 1.19
250 0.84 0.89 0.95 _I..O, 1.05 1.11 1.16 250 0.83 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15
O.Hj,,.. _0.N7- -O,2 7O09 ,_(93 1.08 1.15 175 0.82 0.87 0.92 0.97 1.02 1.07 1.12
jOO 0.78 'R 0.89 0.94 1.00 1.03 1.1$ 100 0.79 0.84 0.89 0.94 0.99 1.04 1.09
75 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.92 0.97 1.02 1.08 75 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 1.02 1.07
ADJUSTMENT FOR LOCATION

WITHIN METROPOLITAN AREA
o8 0
z
-5
ADJUSTMENT FOR LOCUTION
BUSIN ESS
A - - -/'
IU CENT.. BUSINESS DIST.
FRINUE AREA
1.00
1.00
- /
OUTLYING RUG. 01ST. I.20
DEIAL AREA IL RESIDENTIAL AREA
(EST.)
1.20
- //
7 // ---
0.. - i:1
--
C ON OIT ION S CONDITIONS
RIGHT TURNS- (0% (SIGHT TURNS 10%
LEFT TURNS-IO% LEFT TURNS 10%
TRUCKS AND TRUCKS AND
THROUGH RUSES-5% THROUGH HUSES-5%
-
LOCAL TRANSIT
MUSES NONE
LOCAL TRANSIT
BUSES- NONE
40. 50 60 20 30 40 50 60
CURB-TO-CURB
20 APPROACH
30 WIDTH (PT) CURB-TO-CURB APPROACH WIDTH (FT)
Figure 6.5. Urban intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per Figure 6.6. Urban intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per
hour of green signal time, for one-way streets with no parking. hour of green signal time, for one-way streets with parking one side.
ADJUSTMENT FOR PEAK-HOUR FACTOR AND METROPOLITAN AREA SIZE ADJUSTMENT FOR PEAK-HOUR FACTOR AND METROPOLITAN AREA SIZE
METROPOLITAN
AREA POP. (1,0009)
PEAK-HOUR FACTOR
' 00
METROPOLITAN
UREA POP. (1,00051
PEAK-HOUR FACTOR
0.90 0.99 1.00 -
OVER 1,000 (.00 .05 .09 1.14 (.19 1.04 .29 OVER 1,000 1.04 1.07 1.11 1.14 1.18 1.21 1.25
.000
750
500
0.97
0.94
0.91
.02
0.99
0.98
(.07
.04
1.01
1.1 I
(.09
1.06
1.16
1.14
1.11
1.21
1.18
1.16
.26
(.23
1.21
-- 1,000
750
500
1.01
0.98
0.96
1.05
1.02
0.99
1.08
1.09
1.02
1.11
1.09
1.06
1.15
1.12
1.09
1.18
1.16
1.13
1.22
I.
375 0.88 0.93 0.98 .03 1.08 1.19 1.18 375 0.93 0.98 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.10 1.13
250 0.85 0.90 0.90 1.00 1.09 1.10 1.15
- 250 0.90 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.03 I .07 1.10
-
7
175 0.82 0.87 0.92 0.97 1.02 1.07 1.12 175 0.87 0.90 0.94 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.07
100 0.80 0.83 0.89 0.94 0.99 1.04 1.09 100 0.84 0.87 0.91 0.94 0.98 1.01 1.03
75 0.77 0.82 0.87 0.92 0.96 1.01 1.06 75 0.81 0.83 0.88 0.92 0.95 0.98 1.02
z ADJUSTMENT FOR LOCUTION

ADJUSTMENT FOR LOCUTION
CENT. ROSINESS_01ST..,,- '.1.00.. -- - CENT. HUSINESS 01ST.

FRINGE AREA .2
- --
FRINGE AREA
OUTLYING BUS. 01ST.
RESIDENTIAL AREA
1.23
U
o f
/
V/
- ---- 7 /7 O-
0.1 7Z 7 2-
- 00 .0
- or
----- 00,
- 1/
000
ii
- - i! CONDITI
CONDITI0NS
RIGHT TURNS- 10%
-
2- RIGHT TURNS
LEFT TU8NS-I0%
TRUCKS AND
10%
- -
LEFT TURNS -10%
TRUCKS AND
THROUGH BUSES-5%
-
THROUGH R8SES-5%
LOCI. TRANSIT LOCAL TRUNSIT
ROSES- NONE BUSES NONE
10 20 50 50 NO ID 20 30 40 90 60
CURB-TO-CURB APPROACH WIDTH (Fl) CURB-TO- DIVISION-LINE APPROACH WIDTH (FT)
Figure 6.7. Urban intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per Figure 6.8. Urban intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per
hour of green signal time, for one-way SI reels with parking both sides. hour of Rreen siEnal time. for Iwo-way streets with no parkinR.
----
--
- m '
MEMO
A0JUSTMENT FOR PEAK-BOAR FACTOR AND METROPOLITAN AREA SIZE 4.,IIG.lI.:k.J -.Az.1p- r.Iuj..Y9(*
METROPOLITAN PEAR- HOUR FACTOR
AREA POP. (1,0005)
0.70 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.90 1.00
OVER 1000 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.4 1.19 1.24 1.29

000 0.97 .02 1.07 1.11 1.16 1.21 1.27
750 0.94 0.99 1.04 .09 1.13 1.18 1.22
EMEMEMMEMEME
200 0.91 0.86 1.01 1.06 1.11 1.15 1.20
375 0.89 0.93 0.98 1.03 1.06 1.12 1.17
250 0.68 0.91 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14
--
175 0.83 0.88 0.92 0.97 1.02 1.07 1.11
100
75
0.80
0.77
0.88
0.62
0.90
0.87
0.94
0.91
0.99
0.98
1.04
1.01
1.09
1.06
EMEMEMMEMEME
EMEMEMEM
ADJUSTMENT FOR LOCATION
CENT. BUSINESS 01ST. I

I
1.00 ®r
UU•r4•uutd4
FRINGE AREA 1.25
OUTLYING BUS. 01ST. 1.25
DEN AREA 1.25
4
-S-
G 0v
UI•lUP#N
--
7 7-
7'7 EMEMEMEMENEW
MEMEMENGNMEM
EMMENERNMEME
EMERNMEMMEME
CON0ITlONS
MENSHIMMEMEME
NOWEEMEN
MEMEMMEM
RIGHT TUBNS-I0% 10..ITIO.z
LEFT TURNS-IO%
TRUCKS AND
THROUOH 8USES-5% TRUCKSGAND
OCAL TRANSIT
BUSES- NONE
10 20 30 40 50 80 ID 20 30 40 SO 60
CURB - TO- DIVISION- LINE APPROACH WIDTH (Fl) CURB-TO-DIVISION-LINE APPROACH WIDTH (FT)
Figure 6.9. Urban intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per Figure 6.10. Rural intersection approach service volume, in vehicles per
hour of green signal li,ne, for two-way streets with parking. hour of green signal time, for two-way highways with no parking on the
traveled way.
politan area population, and for location usually consistent demand exists through-
classifications other than downtown, the out a full hour).
table associated with each chart supplies the Where an approach is expected to
adjustment factors by which the volume carry high loads for most of an hour, a
obtained from the chart should be multi- peak-hour factor of 0.85 is a reasonable
plied. estimate. This value also is a reasonable
Choice of load factor depends primarily average for use in the absence of any knowl-
on the intersection level of service desired. edge about conditions at the study site.
For service volumes below capacity the Where a major generator provides a
limiting values given in Table 6.3 can be high rate of flow over a short period a fac-
used where more specific local factors are tor of 0.60 to 0.70 should be considered.
not available. It should be realized that a capacity
As mentioned earlier,it is not considered based on a load factor and/or a peak-hour
feasible to use a load factor of 1.00 except factor of the order of 0.7 is well below the
in those relatively unusual cases where true physical capabilities of the approach, just
loading is proven to be continuous through- as the actual capacity of a freeway having
out the hour. In most actual cases a ca- a low peak-hour factor is below its physical
pacity based on a factor of 1.00 would prove capabilities. In both cases it is the most
unattainable in practice. Local studies are traffic that can be reasonably accommodated
recommended to establish appropriate val- under the prevailing conditions.
ues for specific communities. Such studies The method of using Figures 6.5 through
might even indicate a factor of less than 6.9 is quite straightforward, once all of the
0.7, in which case the factor for level D environmental conditions have been estab-
should be reduced somewhat. In the ab- lished. In the basic case of a given ap-
sence of such studies, however, a load fac- proach width, with volume required, that
tor at level E of 0.85 is recommended for width is located on the lower scale, and a
isolated intersections and those with only vertical line is projected up to the appro-
average coordination. Where highly effi- priate load factor curve. From that point, a
cient progression exists a factor of 0.95 to horizontal line is then projected across to
1.00 may prove appropriate, as discussed the volume scale, and the value •there ob-
in Chapter Ten. tained is adjusted as necessary by means of
Similarly, it is suggested that local in- the appropriate environmental condition
vestigations be conducted to establish the factors from the related tables.
appropriate level of service for design pur-
RURAL CONDITIONS
poses, with due consideration to the needs
of the particular community. Again in the Few data were obtained from rural loca-
absence of such study results, a load factor tions during the 1955-6 studies. However,
of 0.3, representing level C, is considered rationalization based on intersection per-
suitable for average conditions. formance in small cities and known char-
Choice of peak-hour factor also must be acteristics of rural flows has permitted de-
made. Earlier in this chapter methods of velopment of a rural intersection approach
developing local knowledge of this factor service volume chart (Fig. 6.10). Condi-
were described. Where such local knowl- tions assumed include no parking on the
edge is not available, estimated factors can traveled way and a peak-hour factor of
be used,as follows: - 0.70.
Where the rural intersection is on a rec-
1. Where long lines of waiting v1ehicles reational route, or other route free of typical
are typically present or expected at im- urban frictional elements but subject to oc-
portant intersections along major streets in casional heavy demand for a period of
the area throughout the peak hour, a peak- several hours (PHF at or near 1.00), pro-
hour factor of 0.90 to 0.95 may be used. ducing a long continuous backlog of ve-
(A peak-hour factor of 1.00 should be hicles, operation may approach the maxi-
used only in those rare cases where an un- mum rate of 1,500 passenger cars per lane
per hour of green at which vehicles, once street's ratio cannot be taken as simply the
stopped, can again get under way. The vol- difference from 100 percent, inasmuch as
umes read from the chart, probably for a allowance must be made for yellow time.
load factor nearing 1.0, should be multi- For simplicity, arbitrary allowance of 10
plied by 1.4 under these conditions. percent of the total time for yellow time,
In the unusual case where parking exists, 5 percent for each street, usually is satis-
Figure 6.9 can be used instead of Figure factory during preliminary computations
6.10, but without application of any of the involving ordinary four-leg intersections.
tabulated adjustments. (This, in actuality, When the cycle is finally established the
approximates application of the factors for actual yellow intervals must, of course, be
a peak-hour factor of 0.70, a population of used. It is recommended that a 3-sec yel-
75,000, and a residential area, which re- low interval normally be allowed. In cases
sults in an adjustment of very close to where further clearance is required, such
1.00). Again, for recreational route peaks as through very wide or "dog-leg" inter-
multiplication by 1.4 is appropriate. sections, an all-red period should be pro-
vided in addition.
Additional Adjustment Factors TURNING MOVEMENTS
Although application of the fundamental Turns—Basic Case; No Separate Turning

figures and tables is complete at this point, Lanes or Signals.—Adjustments for the per-
the determination of approach service vol- centage of turning movements performed at
umes and capacity remains far from com- simple approaches without special turning
plete. Several other adjustment factors must lanes or signal indications for turns, reflect-
be considered, one being the all-important ing the several effects previously discussed,
GIC ratio, and the remainder being traffic are given in Table 6.4, which is primarily
characteristics. All are applied as multi- for right turns but also is applicable to left
pliers. The purpose of each is described in turns from one-way streets, and Table 6.5,
the following. which is for left turns from two-way streets.
It should be noted that the adjustment
GIC RATIO
varies, depending on the width of the street
As previously discussed under "Control and on whether or not parking is present.
Measures," the GIC ratio is a highly es- In this connection the adjustments for the
sential adjustment, reflecting the percentage wider streets in Table 6.4 deserve special
of the total cycle time during which a green mention. It now appears that on inter-
signal is displayed on the approach under mediate-width streets the adverse influence
consideration. Its use is mandatory in every of right turns is greatest at the 20 percent
problem involving through traffic at a sig- level; above that level, their adverse influ-
nalized intersection approach, because only ence gradually disappears, probably because
in a special case (such as a turn lane with for all practical purposes the lane becomes
a continuous green arrow) will 100 percent an exclusive turning lane and frictional in-
green time occur. terferences are largely overcome. On very
As previously mentioned, G represents wide streets it now appears that right turns
only actual green or "go" time. It does not have little or no adverse influence.
include yellow time, no matter whether the Turns with Separate Turning Lanes and!
yellow indication is displayed alone (prop- or Separate Signal Indications.—At many
erly) or together with green, even though locations on modern highways and streets
it is recognized that a small portion of the specific lanes on intersection approaches are
flows calculated will typically move during designated for turning movements. These
this period. may or may not be in addition to the basic
When a complete intersection is being width of the roadway, and they may or
analyzed, care must be taken to assure that may not be controlled by separate signal in-
unintended overlaps of time do not occur. dications. Similarly, on occasion separate
For example, once the needed GIC ratio signal indications may be provided without
for one approach is determined, the cross- a reserved lane.
For these special cases Tables 6.4 and signal timing data. However, in many typi-
6.5 are not applicable. Instead, the special cal applications the GIG ratio will not be
procedures given in the following should known in advance. Instead, given the traf-
be applied. It is assumed here that the turn- fic volumes and distribution (through, left,
ing lanes provided are long enough to and right) of the vehicles in the approach,
handle the turning volumes computed. In the reverse procedure should be carried out
practice, the turning lane length should be to determine the amount of green time re-
approximately twice that necessary to handle quired on the turning lanes. In practice this
the average turning volume per cycle, to ac- distribution of demand may well limit the
commodate random peaks. number of vehicles with intent to turn that
Separate Turning Lanes (Signal-Con- can reach the intersection in any given
trolled).—This is probably the most com- cycle to some volume less than the com-
mon case. The following procedure as- puted value.
sumes that no through traffic uses the sepa-
rate lanes, that pedestrians are controlled so If through vehicles as well as turning ve-
as not to interfere significantly, and that in hicles use the separate lanes, as might be
the case of right-turn lanes adequate curS the case where the roadway is widened on
radii are provided for easy turns. Under both the near and far sides of the inter-
these conditions the procedure is equally section, the foregoing special procedures
valid for lanes within the basic roadway should not be used. In such cases the basic
width and for added lanes. The steps are as intersection capacity computations should
follows: be applied to the entire approach width,
1. Deduct the width of the reserved incrementally for each differing conibina-
lane or lanes from the total approach width. tion of signal indications. The left turns
Compute the service volume of the remain- should be considered as from one-way
ing width by means of the basic procedure streets.
for intersection approaches, with 0 percent
turning movements inserted for the move- Separate Turning Lanes (No Separate
ment or movements accommodated by the Signal Control).—The following steps are
reserved lanes. involved:
2. Consider each special turning lane as
I. Deduct the width of the reserved lane
having the following service volumes per
or lanes from the total approach width.
10 ft of width:
Compute the service volume of the remain-
Veh per I-Jr Assumed ing width by means of the basic procedures
Level o/Green Truck.s(%) for intersection approaches, with 0 percent
A,B,C 800 turning movements inserted for the move-
D •l,000 nient or movements accommodated by the
E (capacity) 1,200 reserved lanes.
For a right-turn lane (of adequate
Where two or more turning lanes are pro-
vided to handle a particular movement the length): For any level, use 600 x C/C
additional lanes each should be assigned ' a vehicles per hour assuming 5 percent trucks,
service volume of 0.8 times the above if the turns must be made simultaneously
values. Apply the appropriate GIC factor with pedestrian crossings. If pedestrians are
for the separate signal indication, and adjust not present, use the values given, for the
for trucks by means of the factor in Table signal-controlled case. In either case, adjust
6.6. for trucks by means of Table 6.6.
3. Add the service volumes computed in For a left-turn lane (of adequate
Steps I and 2 to obtain the total for the length): For any level, consider the service
approach. volume, in passenger cars, as the difference
Note: This computation yields the physical between 1,200 vehicles and the total op-
capabilities of the location, given known posing traffic volume in terms of passenger
cars per hour of green, but not less than two of through traffic may limit the possible sup-
vehicles per signal cycle. ply of turning traffic which can reach the
3. Add the service volumes computed in intersection to some value less than the com-
Steps 1, 2a, and 2b to obtain the approach puted capacity.
service volume.
Note: As in the previous case, this computa- Separate Signal Control (No Separate
tion establishes physical capacities. In ac- Lane).-This situation is found where
tual applications, with given distributions of certain turning movements are permitted
through, left, and right traffic, the volume for times different from the basic phase
TABLE 6.4-ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR RIGHT TURNS ON TWO-WAY

STREETS,' RIGHT TURNS ON ONE-WAY STREETS,' AND LEFT
TURNS ON ONE-WAY STREETS
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
WITH NO PARKING' WITH PARKING

TURNS
APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH
WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH
:515FT I6T024FT 25To34FT 20n- 2IT029FT 30T039FT
0 1.20 1.050 1.025 1.20 1.050 1.025

1 1.18 1.045 1.020 1.18 1.045 1.020
2 1.16 1.040 1.020 1.16 1.040 1.020
3 1.14 1.035 1.015 1.14 1.035 1.015
4 1.12 1.030 1.015 1.12 1.030 1.015
5 1.10 1.025 1.010 1.10 1.025 1.010
6 1.08 1.020 1.010 1.08 1.020 1.010
7 1.06 1.015 1.005 1.06 1.015 1.005
8 1.04 1.010 1.005 1.04 1.010 1.005
9 1.02 1.005 1.000 1.02 1.005 1.000
10 1.00 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.000 1.000
11 0.99 0.995 1.000 0.99 0.995 1.000
12 0.98 0.990 0.995 0.98 0.990 0.995
13 0.97 0.985 0.995 0.97 0.985 0.995
14 0.96 0.980 0.990 0.96 0.980 0.990
15 0.95 0.975 0.990 0.95 0.975 0.990
16 0.94 0.970 0.985 0.94 0.970 0.985
17 0.93 0.965 0.985 0.93 0.965. 0.985
18 0.92 0.960 0.980 0.92 0.960 0.980
19 0.91 0.955 0.980 0.91 0.955 0.980
20 0.90 0.950 0.975 0.90 0.950 0.975
22 0.89 0.940 0.980 0.89 0.940 0.980
24 0.88 0.930 0.985 0.88 0.930 0.985
26 0.87 0.920 0.990 0.87 0.920 0.990
28 0.86 0.910 0.995 0.86 0.910 0.995
30+ 0.85 0.900 1.000 0.85 0.900 1.000
No separate turning lanes or separate signal indications.

bHandle right turns and left turns separately in all computations; do not sum.
'No adjustment necessary for approach width of 35 It or more; thak is, use factor of 1.000.
d No adjustment necessary for approach width of'40 It or more; that is, use factor of 1.000.
TABLE 6.5-ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR LEFT TURNS ON TWO-WAY

STREETS
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
WITH NO PARKING WITH PARKING

TURNS
APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH APPROACH I APPROACH

WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH WIDTH
:515 FT 16 TO 34 FT ~35 FT 20 FT 21 TO 39 FT !
, 40 FT
0 1.30 1.10 1.050 1.30 1.10 1.050

1 1.27 1.09 1.045 1.27 1.09 1.045
2 1.24 1.08 1.040 1.24 1.08 1.040
3 1.21 1.07 1.035 1.21 1.07 1.035
4 1.18 1.06 1.030 1.18 1.06 1.030
5 1.15 1.05 1.025 1.15 1.05 1.025
6 1.12 1.04 1.020 1.12 1.04 1.020
7 1.09 1.03 1.015 1.09 1.03 1.015
8 1.06 1.62 1.010 1.06 1.02 1.010
9 1.03 1.01 1.005 1.03 1.01 1.005
10 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.00 1.00 1.000
11 0.98 0.99 0.995 0.98 0.99 0.995
12 0.96 0.98 0.990 0.96 0.98 0.990
13 0.94 0.97 0.985 0.94 0:97 0.985
14 0.92 0.96 0.980 0.92 0.96 0.980
15 0.90 0.95 0.975 0.90 0.95 0.975
16 0.89 0.94 0.970 0.89 0.94 0.970
17 0.88 0.93 0.965 0.88 0.93 0.965
18 0.87 0.92 0.960 0.87 0.92 0.960
19 0.86 0.91 0.955 0.86 0.91 0.955
20 0.85 0.90 0.950 0.85 0.90 0.950
22 0.84 0.89 0.940 0.84 0.89 0.940
24 0.83 0.88 0.930 0.83 0.88 0.930
26 0.82 0.87 0.920 0.82 0.87 0.920
28 0.81 0.86 0.910 0.81 0.86 0.910
30+ 0.80 . 0.85 0.900 0.80 0.85 0.900
No separate turning lanes or separate signal indications
length for •through traffic, by means of to permit an unopposed turning movement.

green arrow indications, although reserved The following steps are involved:
lanes for those movements are not provided. i. Where there is opposing traffic apply
It is also found where flows in the two op- the basic intersection capacity computation
posing directions on a given street do not procedures to the entire approach width,
have entirely simultaneous green periods, incrementally, for each differing indication
An example is the provision of "leading" combination.
or "lagging" green, which in effect pro- 2. Where left turns are unopposed corn-
vides turns free of opposing traffic for part pute each such increment by the basic
but not all of the time. Again, separate lanes methods, but consider the left turns as left
are not assigned, but the intent generally is turns from one-way streets.
3. Add the results of the several incre- stops along a street—have a much greater
mental steps to obtain the approach service influence on capacity than do through
volume. trucks and buses. As mentioned earlier,
These alternatives assume that the like- their effect varies considerably, depending
lihood of through vehicles becoming on the type of area, street width, parking
"trapped" behind a vehicle intending to turn, conditions, location of the stop (near side
within any given increment, is no greater of intersection, far side, or other), and num-
than it would be in an ordinary signal in- ber of buses.
terval of the same characteristics. This as- Figures 6.11 through 6.14 are nomo-
sumption is not always valid. For instance, graphs presenting the effects of a range of
if left turns are permitted only during lead- volumes of local buses, using near-side or
ing green time and not through opposing far-side bus stops, on streets with and with-
traffic during the basic green time, the left out parking. They provide the necessary
lane will be more totally blocked than the adjustment factors for nearly all conditions
general assumption indicates. found in the field. However, certain condi-
tions are not directly covered, primarily
TRUCKS AND THROUGH BUSES mid-block stops, mid-street stops, and stops
handling more than 90 buses in downtown
Vehicles per hour of green must next be areas or 120 elsewhere. In some instances
adjusted for the effect of trucks and through the nomographs can be adapted to handle
buses not making local en route stops. The the mid-block case; but in the remaining
basic intersection capacity curves represent situations the special conditions making the
average urban peak-period conditions, inso- unusual installation necessary are such that
far as truck volume is concerned. This was detailed local study will be required to
found to be 5 percent trucks. Adjustment establish capacities. The nomographs are
for other conditions involves a 1 percent largely rationalizations developed from
reduction for each percentage point by limited available knowledge.
which trucks exceed 5 percent of the total The charts are used as follows. Given
number of vehicles, or a 1 percent increase the number of buses per hour, they are
for each percentage point that trucks are entered at the appropriate point on the
less than 5 percent of the total vehicles. vertical scale at the upper left. A horizontal
Table 6.6 gives the correction factors for line is projected to the turning line repre-
given truck percentages. senting the appropriate type of area, and a
vertical line is then projected downward to
LOCAL TRANSIT BUSES
the given number of lanes, if known (or
Local buses—that is, those picking up approach width if vehicles do not consist-
and discharging passengers at regular posted ently form the same number of lanes). A
TABLE 6.6—TRUCK AND THROUGH BUS ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
TRUCKS AND TRUCKS AND TRUCKS AND

THROUGH CORRECTION THROUGH CORRECTION THROUGH CORRECTION
BUSES (%) FACTOR BUSES (%) FACTOR BUSES (%) FACTOR
0 1.05 7 0.98 14 0.91

1 1.04 8 0.97 . 15 0.90
2 1.03 9 0.96 16 0.89
3 1.02 10 0.95 17 0.88
4 1.01 11 0.94 18 0.87
5 1.00 12 0.93 19 0.86
' 6 0.99 13 0.92 20 0.85
20
100
90
i
60
z
60
0
0
40
0
0
_1 20
0,3 0,6 0,7 0,6 0,9 1.0

MAX
LOCAL BUS FACTOR
Figure 6.11. Local bus factor for near-side bus stop on street with no parking.
further horizontal extension is drawn to a two-, three-, and four-lane approaches sep-
final turning line, representing percentage arately. Where only width of approach is
of turning movements in all but one chart, known, the family of turning lines used
following which the proper adjustment fac- should be that for the next lower given
tor is read from the lower scale. Like the width increment.
previous factors, it is applied as a multiplier. Where widths are greater than those
In the case of near-side stops on streets shown on the chart approximate extrapola-
with parking present except at the bus stop tion is permissable, but extrapolation to
(Fig. 6.12) the adjustment factor in some greater numbers of buses is questionable.
instances may be greater than 1.0. This
reflects the secondary purpose provided by Interpretations and Applications of
the stop—as a turn lane for moving traffic Procedures
except when occupied by a bus. In the
other three cases no adjustments greater The basic procedures presented thus far
than 1.0 are shown. In these cases, if an describe determination of intersection ap-
proach capacities and service volumes, given
intercept with the appropriate turning move-
the width of the approach. They assume
ments diagonal would be outside the range
that in any specific problem the desired
of the chart (to the right of the right edge) level of service is known, thereby identify-
the maximum factor of 1.0 should be ing the applicableload factor, which in turn
adopted. permits selection of the correct curve on
Also, in the case of near-side stops on the appropriate chart. This is the case in
streets with parking (Fig. 6.12) a series of many operational studies where the goal is
three families of turning lines is presented to determine approach capabilities at pre-
to cover various percentages of turns for established levels of service.
120
100
90
= 80
0
r
0
m
40
LEFT AND RIGHT TURNS, TOTAL 1%)
NUMBER OF
APPROACH LANES
(INCLUDING PARKING LANES)
OR
WIDTH OF APPROACH
(2-WAY—CURB TO DIV. LINE)
(I-WAY—CURB TO CURB)
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
LOCAL BUS FACTOR
Figure 6.12. Local bus factor for near-side bus stop on street with parking.
120
100
U)
Nz
(0
ID
20
25 '2 -
z0
C-
So -
0.6 - 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

MAX
LOCAL BUS FACTOR
Figure 6.13. Local bus factor for far-side bus stop on street with no parking.
120
40
U
0
20
INCL
(2- W(
0.6 . 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.0

LOCAL BUS FACTOR MAX
Figure 6.14. Local bus factor for far-side bus stop on street with parking.
As long as the desired level of service is width must be known or estimated. De-
known, the procedures can be used "back- mand volume is then adjusted to vehicles
ward" as well as "forward" without diffi- per hour of green. The intersection of lines
culty. That is, given a demand volume, that projected from the volume and width scales
volume can be converted to vehicles per identifies the predicted load factor, from
houi of green through division by the sev- which intersection level of service can be
eral factors previously described. (Care specified. This procedure is useful in high-
must be exercised here to ensure that all way system evaluations where deficiencies
such factors, including both those super- are being identified.
imposed on the charts and those discussed In nearly every case the G/.0 ratio is a
separately, are considered.) Using the ap- special consideration because it in itself is a
propriate chart, and the load factor iden- variable. As the principal link between the
tified by the level of service desired, the particular approach under consideration and
required width can be determined. This pro- the intersection operation as a whole, it is
cedure often is used in development of new dependent on conditions outside the spe-
designs. - - cific approach under study. In operational
Where, however, level of service is the problems there will be an existing G/C
unknown variable whose value must be ratio which can be used as: a. base. How-
determined, it becomes necessary. to work ever, in design or new signalization prob-
toward the plotted curves from both scales. lems a tentative cycle and cycle split must
Here, both demand volume and approach be assumed. Generally, in preliminary corn-
putations this approximate split is based Part, a. (To illustrate the use of Figures
directly on the relative demand volumes on 6.5 to 6.10 only).
the several legs and inversely on anticipated Problem:
widths available. In the simple case of two Determine the unadjusted number of ve-
intersecting streets at any given time, one hicles per hour of green handled by a two-
of the approaches on each will govern that way street intersection approach with no
street, and this becomes: parking, an approach width of 34 ft, and a
load factor of 0.3, in an outlying business
-
Signal Split Ratio = Approach 1 Time
Approach 2 Time
= district of a metropolitan area with a popu-
lation of 500,000, and a peak-hour factor of
Vol., Approach 1 Width, Approach 2 0.80.
Vol., Approach 2 Width, Approach 1
As the solution is gradually refined, width Solution:
may be substituted for green time, or vice Figure 6.8 is the applicable chart
versa, or it may be concluded that balanced for a two-way street with no parking.
levels of service are not desired on all legs. Enter the lower scale of the chart at a width
Each of these considerations will influence of 34 ft and project upward to the curve rep-
the overall problem. Hence, in practice, resenting a load factor of 0.3. Using this
unless the GIC ratio is rigidly established intercept as a turning point, project hori-
in advance due to other considerations (such zontally to the left-side volume scale. Read
as the time needed for pedestrians to cross, volume of 2,380 vph of green time under
where this exceeds time needed for ve- average conditions. From the upper of the
hicular traffic), a refined solution requires related tables on the figure, a city with a
several trial-and-error steps. population of 500,000 and a peak-hour fac-
In some cases at existing locations, tor of 0.80 is found to have an adjustment
knowledge of traffic characteristics (per- of 1.02, while from the lower table the ad-
centages of turns and of trucks, and local justment for an outlying business district is
bus operations) of the study site may be taken as 1.25. Multiplying 2,380 by 1.02
meager. If insufficient data are on file from and 1 .25 results in a service volume of 3,035
previous studies to permit even reasonable vph of green time.
approximation of these values, brief field The value obtained from the fàregoing is
studies may be required. In the case of. new not a complete solution, but is simply the
designs the best available traffic forecasts result obtained from complete use of the
must be used. appropriate basic figure and related tables.
In the typical problem solutions that fol- It must then be corrected for signal timing,
low, the various ways in which these pro- turning movements, trucks, and bus stops
cedures can be employed are shown. (see Part b).
Part b. (To illustrate the completion of
the intersection service volume determina-
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTIONS-SiGNALIZED tion procedure).
INTERSECTIONS Problem:
EXAMPLE 6.1 Given the intersection approach described
in Part a, determine its actual service vol-
ume under the following conditions:
25 sec of green signal time for all move-
t H-
,c--*
II
ments during each 60-sec cycle.
15 percent right turns and 5 percent left
68' turns, with no separate lanes or signal indi-
I II
I 34'-. I I cations.
NO PARKIN 2 percent trucks.
APPROAC 45 local buses per hour, utilizing a near-
UNDER
CONSIDERJAII..J f side bus stop.
Solution: Local buses= 10 per hour, using far-

GIG ratio=25/60=O.42. side stop.
From Table 6.4, right-turn adjustment Maximum load factor typically ob-
for 15 percent turns from 34-ft approach served in the area, at capacity=
with no parking=0.99. 0.90.
From Table 6.5, left-turn adjustment for DETERMINE:
.5 percent turns from 34-ft approach with Service volume being handled
no parking= 1.05. under given conditions.
From Table 6.6, truck adjustment for 2 Capacity.
percent trucks= 1.03.
From Figure 6.11, bus adjustment for 45 Solution:
buses using near-side stop with no parking Service volume for given conditions.
in outlying area= 0.87. Figure 6.7 applies. For width of 50 ft,
Multiply the chart value obtained in 10 cycles loaded
Part a by these factors, or 3,035 x 0.42 x 0.99 and load factor= =0.17 the
60 cycleslhr
x 1.05x 1.03x0.87=1,190 vph. This is the chart volume per hour of green =2,600 vphg.
actual approach service volume under the Adjustment for PHF of 0.75 and population
prevailing conditions, which include a load of 175,000 (from table on chart) = 0.87.
factor of 0.3, shown in Table 6.3 to be the Adjustment for fringe area (from table on
limit for intersection level of service C. Thus, chart) = 1.00 (that is, none necessary). Then
for these conditions, this is the limiting inter- 2,600x0.87x 1.00=2,260 vphg, uncor-
section service volume for level C. rected for signal and traffic factors. -
GIG ratio = 30160 = 0.50.
EXAMPLE 6.2 Adjustment for 0 percent right turns on

approach over 40 ft wide with parking (from
Table 6.4)= 1.00 (that is, none necessary).
Adjustment for 8 percent left turns on ap-
_t_4 proach over 40 ft wide, with parking (from
Table 6.4) = 1.00 (that is, none necessary).
Ij PARKING
t PARKING
11
(Note that Table 6.5 was not used because
50' I I a one-way, rather than a two-way, street is
under consideration.)
S PARKING h ' 6SST0tTING
Adjustment for 7 percent trucks (from
APPROACH
UNDER
- Table 6.6) = 0.98.
CON$IOERA1ION
Adjustment for 10 buses per hour, at far-
side stop (from Figure 6.14)= 1.00, maxi-
Problem:
mum value (that is, none necessary).
GIVEN CONDITIONS:
One-way street, crossing one-way Then, service volume = 2,260 x 0.50 x 1.00
street. x 1.00x0.98x 1.00 = 2,260x 0.49 = 1,110
West leg approach under considera- vph. With load factor=0.17, operation is
tion; width=50 ft. within intersection level of service C.
Parking both sides. Capacity
Fringe area.
At capacity, the foregoing computations
Metro. area population= 175,000.
remain unchanged, with the exception of
Peak-hour factor = 0.75.
load factor and, possibly, peak-hour factor.
Loading= About 10 cycles loaded per
hour. The given conditions indicate that capacity
Signal cycle=60 sec. typically would occur at a load factor of
Green time=30 sec per cycle. 0.90 in the city involved.
Right turns = None; not possible. (I) Capacity under present overall de-
Left turns=8 percent (no separate mand conditions (PHF=0.75):
lane or signal indication). From Figure 6.7, for 50-ft width and load
Trucks= 7 percent. factor=0.90, the chart volume=3,800 vphg.
No changes in adjustment factors previ- Right turns=3 percent.

ously used. Left turns = 5 percent.
Multiplying by the two combined adjust- Trucks =4 percent.
ment factors obtained above, capacity=
Local buses=20 per hour; far-side
3,800 x 0.87 x 0.49=1,620 vph—(for LF=
stop.
0.9, PHF=0.75).
In the future, as demand grows in the Intersection level of service C de-
city, the peak-hour factor will gradually in- sired.
crease; it may in time reach 0.95 (with LF DETERMINE:
remaining at 0.90). Width of approach necessary to handle
(2) Capacity under future demand con- given demand, at level C, (a) with
ditions (PHF= 0.95): parking, and (b) without parking.
Chart volume remains 3,800 vphg. What is the effective width taken up by
New adjustment, for PHF of 0.95 and parking?
population of 175,000= 1.07.
Adjustment for fringe area remains 1.00. Solution:
Combined adjustment for signal and traf-
fic factors remains 0.49. (a) With parking.
Capacity = 3,800 x 1.07 x 1.00 x 0.49 = Convert the demand volume to vehicles
1,990 vph (for LF=0.9, PHF =0.95). per hour of green for the conditions on
Note: In practice, by the time the PHF which the fundamental charts are based.
reaches 0.95, it is likely that other variables (These will be obtained directly as tabulated,
would change, including possibly the popu- but all must be applied in reciprocal form
lation itself; hence, the foregoing prediction because the conversion being made is from
is probably oversimplified. actual to standard conditions).
For turning movement and local bus fac-
tors, an approximate width must be chosen
EXAMPLE 6.3
by inspection of the appropriate basic figure
(here Fig. 6.7) before the adjustment factdrs
can be taken from Table 6.4. There-
fore, it is wise to select the remaining factors
first and determine their effect on the vol-
iime value, in order to be able to make a
PG? PURRING.? reasonably accurate width estimate, which
I I
-1100 VPH
I
I
I
i
i
i
I
can be easily revised if necessary.
I ________ Adjustments not dependent on width:
PURRING' ••' I BUS ST07 PURRING?
4 Percent trucks (Table 6.6) = 1.01.
U PP B OUC H Percent green (G/C ratio) =35/ 70=0.50.
f
UNDER
CONSIDERATION
t Metro. area population and PHF (Fig.
6.7) = 1.11.
Central business district (Fig. 6.7)= 1.00.
Pro blein:
GIVEN CONDITIONS: First trial standardized vphg=
One-way E-W crossing two-way N-S. 1,100
= 1,963 vphg.
West leg approach under considera- 1.01 xO.50x 1.1 lx 1.00
tion; demand= 1,100 vph. From Table 6.3, for level of service C,
Central business district. load factor=0.3.
Metro. area population = 500,000.
Peak-hour factor=0.90. From Fig. 6.7, for load factor=0.3, the
Signal cycle=70 sec. approximate width = 39 ft.
Green time=35 sec (which cannot Adjustments dependent on width and
be increased due to cross-street re- parking:
quirements). 3 Percent right turns (Table 6.4) = 1.015.
5 Percent left turns (Table 6.4) = 1.01. EXAMPLE 6.4

20 Local buses (Fig. 6.14, for 39-ft width
and 8% total turns)= 1.00 (max. value).
Second trial standardized vphg=
1,963
1.015x1.Olxl.00 =1,9l0vphg.
____
From Fig. 6.7, for load factor=0.3, width PARKING II II PARKING
=38 ft. Inasmuch as the assumption of 54• I

BOO
width proved to be nearly correct, no re- vp,r 127 I I I
+I PARKINGjJj I II PARKING
computation is needed, because the adjust-
ment factors will not change. APPROACHES
UNDER
CONSIDERATION
Final width, with parking, at capacity=
38 ft. 14(j
(b) Without parking. 450

VPH
The procedure is the same as for (a), but
uses Figure 6.5 as the base. Problem:
GIVEN CONDITIONS:
Adjustments not dependent on width:
4 Percent trucks (Table 6.6) = 1.01. East-west two-way street with park-
Percent green (G/ C ratio) .= 35/70 = 0.50. ing both sides, crossing north-
south two-way street with no park-
Metro. area population and PHF (Fig. ing; widths as shown in diagram.
6.5) = 1.11. Central business district.*
Central business district (Fig. 6.5) = 1.00. Metro. area population=25O,000.*
First trial standardized vphg= Peak-hour factor=0.85.
1100 Signal cycle=60 sec, 2-phase.
1.OlxO.50x1.11xl.00 =1,963vphg. Green •time=32 sec, E-W; 22 sec,
From Fig. 6.5, for load factor=0.3, the N-S.
Yellow time = 3 sec, both streets.
approximate width=24 ft.
Right turns= 10 %, all. approaches.*
Adjustments dependent on width and Left turns= 10%, all approaches.*
parking: Trucks=5%, all approaches.*
Local Buses=0. *
3 Percent right turns (Table 6.4) = 1.035. Peak demand on E-W street=800
5 Percent left turns (Table 6.4) = 1.025. vph, on west approach.
20 Local buses (Fig. 6.13) =0.99. Peak demand on N-S street=450
Second trial standardized vphg= vph, on south approach.
1,963 DETERMINE:
1.035x 1.025x0.99 = 1,870 vphg. Load factor and intersection level
From Figure 6.5, for load factor=0.3, the of service currently existing on west
and south approaches.
width=23 ft. Therefore, the assumption of
Revised signal time split required
width is acceptable, as the differences in to provide balanced levels of service
adjustments would be insignificant. on both cross streets.
The final width, with no parking, at Ca- Load factor that currently would
pacity=23 ft. exist on the west approach if park-
ing were prohibited.
Conclusion:
N Average conditions on which chart is based; con-
Parking takes up an effective width of
sideration not necessary in this problem demonstrating
38-23=15 ft, atleveiC. another principle.
Solution: EXAMPLE 6.5

Current load factors and intersection
levels of service.
WEST APPROACH
GIG ratio= 32/60=0.53.

800/0.53= 1,510 vphg.
TR
HROUGHOUT
From Figure 6.9, for 27-ft approach width

and 1,510 vphg, LF=0.75, providing level
of service E.
SOUTH APPROACH
GIG ratio = 22/60=0.37. Problem:

GIVEN CONDITIONS:
450/0.37= 1,215 vphg. T intersection, with slightly-skewed
From Figure 6.8, for 20-ft approach width base; widths as shown in diagram.
and 1,215 vphg, LF=0.00, providing level Two-way traffic on all legs; no park-
of service A. ing on any leg.
Revised signal time split for balanced Offset division line on base (north)
level of service. leg; approach in this leg provides
Trial balance, applying direct average level two left-turn lanes and one right-
of service. turn lane.
Average load factor= 0.38. Outlying business district.
For west approach, from Figure 6.91 SV= Metro. area population = 375,000.
1,380 vphg. Peak-hour factor = 0.90.
Signal cycle =70 sec, 2 phase.
G/C= vph/vphg
Green time=35 sec, north (base) leg;
G/60= 800/1,380 29 sec, through street.
G= 35 sec. Yellow time = 3 sec, both phases.
For south approach, from Figure 6.8, SV Right turns:
= 1,450 vphg.
N leg=20%, on reserved lane.
E leg=40%, on reserved lane.
G/60= 450/1,450,
Left turns: N leg=80%, on two re-
G= 19 sec. served lanes.
Check of new cycle Trucks=7%.
Local buses=None.
35 + 19 + 3 + 3 =60 sec; checks.
Substantial number of pedestrians in
Here the first trial balance proved cor- north-south crosswalk; few in east-
rect. If the new cycle did not check exactly, west.
the difference between the required and ob- Intersection level of service C is de-
tained cycle lengths would be prorated be- sired.
tween the green times, and a recheck of
DETERMINE:
levels of service made.
Service volumes of north and east legs
Load factor on west approach under for level of service C.
current conditions, with parking removed.
Solution:
From Figure 6.8, for 27-ft approach width
and 1,510 vphg, LF=0.00, providing level NORTH LEG
of service A. At a T intersection such as this the heavier
Thus, removal of parking would convert turning movement is considered as a through
operation on the west approach from near movement. Because the right turns are han-
capacity, with associated congestion, to free dled by a reserved lane, "separate lane—no
flow with no loading. separate signal control" criteria apply.
"N~
Two left-turn lanes: For 12-ft width and LF=0.3, SV=750

Figure 6.8 applies to heavy turning move- vphg.
ment, considered here as the through move- Adjustments:
ment, using 20 ft of width. V Population of 375,000 and PHF of 0.90
For 20-ft width and LF=0.3, SV=l4O0 (Fig. 6.8) = 1.06.
vphg. Outlying business district (Fig. 6.8) =
Adjustments: 1.25.
GIG ratio, 29/70=0.41.
Population of 375,000 and PHF of 0.90
Right turns (0% for this step) = 1.20.
(Fig. 6.8) = 1.06.
Left turns (0% for this step) = 1.30.
Outlying business district (Fig. 6.8) = Trucks, 7% = 0.98.
1.25. 750x 1.06 x 1.25 x 0.41 x 1.20 x 1.30x
GIG ratio=35/70=0.50. 0.98 = 625 vph, total service volume
Right turns (0% for this step) = 1.05. of through lane for level C.
Left turns (0% for this step) = 1.10.
(Note that even though there are no Right-turn lane (referring to "separate
turns, adjustments are necessary lane—no separate signal control" criteria):
because the "no correction" value Few pedestrians present in east-west cross-
is for 10% turns). walk; criteria suggest use of values for sepa-
Trucks, 7% (Table 6.6) = 0.98. rate signal control. For level C, 800 vph
1,400x 1.06x 1.25x0.50x 1.05x 1.10 applies.
xO.98=1,050 vph, total service vol- 29
800 x x 0.98 = 325 vph, limiting level C
ume of two left lanes for level C. TO
Right-turn lane (using "separate lane— service volume.
no separate signal control" criteria): Determination of controlling volume
value, with given demand distribution:
Because substantial number of north-
625 vph through=60% of total demand
south crosswalk pedestrians are present use
volume.
formula 600 x GIC to obtain volume in'pas-
625/0.60=1,040 vph, demand volume
senger cars per hour, and adjust for trucks.
based on through flow controlling.
35
600x -x0.98=294 vph, limiting serv- Right turns =0.40x 1,040=416 vph, maxi-
mum that can arrive if through approach
ice volume of right-turn lane.
volume is to remain in level C.
Determination of controlling volume 416> 325, 50 is not acceptable.
value, with given demand distribution: Therefore, right-turn lane, rather than
1,050 vph through=80% of total de- through lane, will govern.
mand volume. 325/0.40=813 vph, demand volume
1,050 based on through flow controlling.
0.80 = 1,312 vph, demand volume based 81 3x 0.60 = 488 vph, resulting through
on through flow controlling. flow.
Right turns=0.20x 1,312=262 vph, the Final service volume for east leg, level C,
maximum that can arrive if the through =813 vph.
approach volume is to remain in level C,
with given distribution of demand. EXAMPLE 6.6
But 262<294, so is acceptable and the
through flow controls.
Final service volume for north leg, level C: PAAING
1,050+262= 1,312 vph, given 80% left II
II
56 I
and 20% right. 30 I I -
PARING II I
EAST LEG APPROACH

Through lane: UNDER
CONSIDERAtION
Figure 6.8 applies.
Problem. Adjustments:
GIVEN C0NDFFI0Ns: G/C= 15/ 70=0.21.
Intersection of two two-way streets. 20% Left turns (Table 6.4, for left on
West leg approach. under considera- one-way) 0.975.
tion. 1,820x 0.21 xO.975=37Ovph.
Parking both sides.. Normal green interval.
Outlying business district. Opposing traffic present.
Metro. area population= 100,000. Adjustments:
Peak-hour factor = 0.75. G/C=20/70=0.29.
Signal operation: 20% Left turns (Table 6.5) = 0.90.
Total cycle length =70 sec. 1,820x 0.29 x 0.90=475 vph.
"Leading" green time with no op- Total service volume of west leg
posing traffic; all flows in west 370+475= 845 .vph, at level D.
approach move= 15 sec.
Green time with opposing traffic;
all flows move=20 sec. EXAMPLE 6.7
L
"LEAT
GREEN
INTERVAL
I eA
GREEN
INTERVAL
I 1 F 8O
——
TONLyI
THRUONLV
I
I
L-
-
--
JL
Right turns=15%.
Left turns = 20%.
Trucks=3%.
Local buses=None.
fLI.L L LED
GS
Problem:
DETERMINE: GIVEN CONDITiONS:
Service volume of west leg for level of Intersection of two two-way streets.
service D. West leg approach under considera-
tion; (a) it is widened from normal
Solu lion:
street width, has offset division
Figure 6.9 applies.
line to provide for four approach
Load factor for level of service D, from
lanes, and has lanes reserved for
Table 6.3 =0.7. right turns only and for left turns
For 30-ft approach width and LF=0.7, only. Widths are shown in the
volume= 1,700 vphg. sketch. (b) No widening.
Adjustments for conditions not related to No parking.
variations in signal indications: Outlying business district.
Population of 100,000 and PHF=0.75 Metro. area population= 375,000.
(Fig. 6.9) = 0.85. Peak-hour factor = 0.85.
Outlying business district (Fig. 6.9) = Signal operation:
1.25. . For Part (a) of solution:
3% Trucks (Table 6.6)= 1.02. Total cycle length =90 sec.
15% Right turns (Table 6.4) = 0.99. Through green time=37 sec.
1,700 x 0.85 x 1.25 x 1.02 x 0.99 = 1,820 Left-turn green time= 15 sec.
vphg, chart volume adjusted for all (simultaneous with left turns
constant values for remainder of from opposing direction, but
problem. separate from through time).
Right-turn green time=55 sec.
(a) "Leading" green interval. (simultaneous with left-turn
No opposing traffic; consider left turns as time, yellow period after left
from one-way street. time, and through time).
- - 3SJ
,j
- =
Left turns (0% for this step) (Table
6.5) 1. 10.
3% trucks (Table 6.6) =1.02.
8ASIG IC-=j
=
T[ YELL
LEFT TURN'
INTERVAL
PERIOD I Tr
FOR
THROUGH
INTERVAL
1600x 1.03x 1.25x0.41 x 1.05x 1.10x
(RIGHT ALSO MOVES) LEFT TURNS
(RIGHT ALSO MOVES)
(RIGHT CONTINUES) 1.02 995 vph, through.
Right-turn lane (for "separate lane—
separate signal control" condition):
For Part (b) of solution:. Pedestrian interference minor.
Total cycle length =90 sec. For level D, for 12-ft lane, with 3%
Green time, all movements=55 trucks,
sec. 1000x 12/10x 1.02=1,225 vphg, serv-
ice volume.for level D.
For 55-sec green time, 1,225x55/70=
748 vph, service volume for level D.
Left-turn lane (for "separate lane—sepa-
rate signal control" condition):
Pedestrian interference minor.
Right turns=28%. For level D, for 10-ft lane,
Left turns= 10%. 1,000x 1.02= 1,020 vphg, service vol-
Trucks=3%. ume for level D.
Local buses=None. For 15-sec green time, 1,020x 15/90=
Little or no pedestrian interference. 170 vph, service volume for level D.
DETERMINE: Check of relation of turn service volumes

to available supply of turning vehicles, with
Volume that can be handled at level
of service D: given distribution of arriving traffic:
With separate signal control for Right turns plus left turns=28+10=
turn lanes (no conflicts with op- 38%.
posing flows). Through volume=100-38=62%.
Without separate signal control Through volume = 995/0.62 = 1,604
and without widening (30-ft mid- vph, total arrival volume, level D,
block width maintained). with given distribution of through
traffic and turns, based on through
Evaluate results.
volume at level D.
Solution: Right turns: -
Figure 6.8 applies, basically, together with 1,604x0.28=449 vph, possible right
separate turn lane criteria. turns arriving.
LF=0.7, for level D. 449 <748, therefore satisfactory for
level D.
(a) With separate signal control for each Left turns:
movement. 1,604 x 0.10 = 160 vph, possible left
Through lanes: turns arriving.
For 20-ft width at LF=0.7, from Fig. 6.8, 160< 170, therefore satisfactory for
chart volume= 1,600 vphg. level D.
Adjustments: Final feasible level D service volume for
Population of 375,000 and PHF of 0.85 overall approach = 1,604 vph.
(Fig. 6.8) = 1.03.
Outlying business district (Fig. 6.8) = (b) Ordinary single phase, without ap-
1.25. proach widening.
GIG = 37/90 = 0.41. Figure 6.8 applies.
Right turns (0% for this step) (Table For 30-ft approach width and LF=0.7,
6.4) = 1.05, chart volume= 2,420 vphg.
Adjustments:
Same as in (a), except:
28% Right turns (Table 6.4) = 0.995.
10% Left turns (Table 6.5) = 1.00. 3 TI4AU
G/C=55/90= 0.61.
2,420 x 1.03 x 1.25 x 0.61 x 0.995 x
x 1.00x 1.02=1,93Ovph.
Left-turn lane:
Evaluation: Same as before.
Results show that level D service volume
Remaining lanes:
is:
For 32-ft width at LF=0.7, from Fig. 6.8,
1,604 vph, with widening and sepa- chart volume= 2,600 vphg.
rate turn lanes and signal intervals. Adjustments:
1,930 vph, without widening, and Population and PHF (same)= 1.03.
with single phase. Location (same) = 1.25.
This demonstrates clearly that added ap- G/C=37/90=0.41.
proach lanes and multiphase operation are Right turns, 28.% (Table, Fig. 6.4) =
not automatically devices which will increase 0.995.
service volumes. In this case, widening to- Left turns (0% for this step) (same) =
gether with related establishment of reserved 1.10.
lanes with multiphase operation On the Trucks (same) = 1.02.
widened roadway appears to result in a loss 2,600x 1.03x 1.25x0.41 xO.995x 1.10
in effective volumes carried. The reasons x l.02=1,S3Ovph.
for the latter result include the following: Total demand volume, based on through
and right controlling= 1,530/0.90= 1,700
(I) Assignment of traffic to lanes is vph, total.
largely proportional to distribution of de-
Potential left turns, assuming that through
mand-28% in the right lane, an average of and right control= 1,700x 0.10=170 vph.
31 % in each of the two central lanes, and 170=170; will probably be satisfactory,
10% in the left lane—although this results although borderline.
in unbalanced use of available pavement. A demand volume of about 1,700 vph can
Considerable time is taken away be accommodated; 1,700> 1,604.
from the through movement to accommo-
date the left-turn phase. Thus, at least within
the approach area proper, the loss of through EXAMPLE 6.8
capability is considerably greater than the
gain in left-turn capability.
The left-turn lane is used mainly for
storage rather than movement of traffic.
The right-turn lane has considerably
F-
greater capacity than is needed for the given 48
demand.
Some of these factors are peculiar to this
particular problem, whereas others are gen- CONSIDERA ION
erally associated with multiphase operation.

In this particular case, it appears that Problem:
more volume might be carried if the right GIvEN CONDITIONS:
lane were made available for through move- Rural four-lane, two-way highway,
nients as well as right turns, even though at signalized intersection with two-
ihe right turns during the left-turn interval lane, two-way highway.
would have to be eliminated. The opera- West approach under consideration.
tion would be as follows: Average rural conditions.
Cycle length=90 sec. In the urban case, location of the partic-

Green time=65 sec. ular unsignalized intersection under con-
Right turns=4%. sideration is of great importance in defining
Left turns =3%. its capabilities. If it is relatively far from
Trucks= 10%. uncoordinated signalized intersections up-
Intercity buses =2%. stream and downstream, its operation may
No parking on traveled way. be independent of nearby signalized loca-
DETERMINE: tions. More often, however, signal coordina-
Volume that can be handled at intersection tion causes traffic to pass an unsignalized
level of service B. location in a regular pattern. In one case
this pattern may produce simultaneously in
Solution: both directions regular gaps during which
Figure 6.10 applies. the cross street can clear, but in another
Load factor for intersection level B, from may create a condition in which such simul-
Table 6.3 =0.1. taneous gaps seldom if ever occur. In ad-
For 24-ft approach width and LF=0.1, dition, where a minor intersection is rela-
volume = 1,650 vphg. tively close to a signalized intersection it
For average rural conditions no adjust- may be influenced adversely by queues of
ment for the PHF is needed. traffic extending back from the signalized
GIC ratio = 65/ 90 = 0.72. location.
Adjustment for 3% right turns (Table In rural areas an intersection is typically
6.4) = 1.035. a considerable distance from any other in-
Adjustment for 3% left turns (Table 6.5) tersection and can be considered to receive
= 1.07. traffic in random fashion. In this rural
Adjustment for 10% trucks and 290 inter- case, capacity is seldom a significant factor
city buses (12% total) (Table 6.6) =0.93. because operation of the through highway
SV = 1,650x0.72x 1.035x 1.07x0.93 =
is usually at a sufficiently high level of
1,220 vph, that can be handled at level B.
service that ample gaps exist in the random
pattern of traffic to accommodate typical
cross traffic volumes.
UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
Most of the limited research which has
Typically, intersection capacity and sig- been conducted in the field of unsignalized
nalization are closely related, because most intersections has tended to produce only
key controlling intersections carrying heavy locally useful results. Because of the wide
volumes on at least two intersecting legs possible variations in local conditions, and
are signalized. In a sense, then, capac- the consequently great difficulties involved
ities and the larger service volumes of in developing broadly applicable criteria,
unsignalized intersections may be considered rigid all-inclusive unsignalized intersection
of academic interest only: in practice, by service volumes and capacities cannot be
the time such levels are reached at im- presented, even for situations having ap-
portant intersections signals ordinarily will parently similar geometrics. Only general-
be installed. Nevertheless, in the usual ur- ized observations can be made.
ban situation many intermediate intersec- Unsignalized intersections operate in a
tions will not be signalized, and in rural variety of ways, depending on the presence
areas signalization is relatively rare. A or absence of traffic sign controls, and the
brief discussion of unsignalized operation nature of these controls. Three basic cate-
is, therefore, desirable. gories are next discussed—no control,
An unsignalized intersection on a through YIELD sign control, and STOP sign control.
route is seldom critical from a capacity
standpoint. However, it may be of great No Control
significance to the capacity of a minor cross
route, and it may influence the level of ser- It may at first seem difficult to conceive
vice on both, of an intersection approach operating at
capacity with no control whatsoever. Al- This is an obvious approximation in many

though such a condition seldom would be respects, but current knowledge offers no
tolerated for an extended period, it can better general alternative. The resulting
occur, particularly where one of the inter- values will be the maximums that could
secting streets is decidedly inferior to the be reasonably expected; frequently influences
other in importance. such as non-simultaneous gaps will reduce
With no control, responsibility technically the volumes attainable.
is shared equally by all drivers in making
sure that the way is clear before proceeding Yield Sign Control
through the intersection. In practice, how-
ever, where one highway is obviously far The YIELD sign is primarily a tool used
more important than another (as where a to establish or strengthen legal superiority
local county road enters a main rural high- of one traffic flow over another in low
way, or where a residential street enters a traffic volume locations where most traffic
heavily traveled urban arterial) the occa- on all legs is able to proceed through with-
sional cross-street vehicle yields the right-of- out a full stop. From a capacity standpoint
way to the through traffic and operation at there is little, if any, difference between
high volumes resembles that at a two-way two-way STOP and YIELD control. Where,
STOP intersection, described later. at a YIELD location, volumes have become
On the other hand, where the intersecting sufficiently heavy that capacity must be con-
demands are relatively balanced basic "rules sidered, practically every vehicle on the
of the road" govern. Although these may secondary YIELD legs will be making a full
vary in specific localities, generally a ve- stop just as under STOP control. Hence, for
hicle approaching an uncontrolled intersec- capacity purposes, YIELD control can be
tion.must yield to a vehicle approaching on considered the same as two-way STOP con-
the leg to its right. Again, at low volumes trol.
little delay is likely to result and capacity is
not a consideration. At higher volumes Stop Sign Control
performance is likely to vary widely from
location to location, depending on elements The STOP sign serves two purposes—safety
such as driver characteristics and relative and facilitation of traffic movement.
sight distances on the several approaches. The "Manual on Uniform Traffic Con-
In one case discharge from the several legs trol Devices" (3) lists seven primary appli-
may remain well-balanced, and operation cations of STOP signs, as follows:
may resemble that of a four-way STOP- Intersection of a less important road
controlled intersection, also described later. with a main road where application of the
In others, one or more legs may tend to normal right-of-way rule is unduly hazard-
dominate the others. ous.
In the absence of more specific criteria, Intersection of a county road, city
service volumes and capacities can be esti- street, or township road with a state road.
mated by the previously described signalized Intersection of two main highways
intersection criteria, through assumption of where no traffic signal is present.
a signalized condition in which the signal Street entering a through highway or
split is prorated directly on the basis of the street.
relative volumes on the intersecting streets, Unsignalized intersection in a signal-
ized area.
and inversely on the basis of their relative
Railroad crossing where a stop is re-
widths; that is,
quired by law or by order of the appropriate
Street 1 Time public authority.
Signal Split Ratio = Street 2 Time Intersections where a combination of
high speed, restricted view, and serious
Volume, Street 1 Width, Street 2 accident record indicates a need for con-
X trol by the STOP sign.
Volume, Street 2 Width, Street 1
"IC..,.
Yield sign controls Ira/lie on low- tolu,,zc road crossing divided high way.
It can be seen that none of these criteria within the intersection needs to be con-
is based strictly on traffic volume, and that trolled, from both the traffic flow and the
only the last few relate in some way to im- safety standpoints. This point cannot be
proved traffic movement. Rather, they are identified by specific volume values, but it
based primarily on safety. This is not has been suggested that two-way STOP con-
surprising, in view of the relatively little trol may become desirable at the volume
research that has been conducted in the where 50 percent of the cross traffic is
field of service volumes and capacities delayed beyond a normal stop because of
through STOP-sign-controlled intersections, the volume on the through street (5).
and the limited local applicability of the In this two-way sroP case, capacity cri-
findings. teria for other than the through street are
relatively meaningless if the legal meaning
TWO-WAY STOP CONTROL of two-way STOP control is rigidly accepted.
Cross-street STOP control is normally in- Very simply. in an isolated location the
stalled to provide traffic on a through street through-street traffic volume has complete
with the right-of-way: that is, full freedom priority over the STOP street, hence should
to flow without cross-traffic interference. be able to increase to capacity, while the
When the combination of the traffic on cross-street volume gradually falls off to
the two intersecting streets is relatively low, zero. The only feasible cross-street criteria
the intersection will work satisfactorily with then would be service volumes in terms of
no STOP signs. As traffic increases, the nuni- numbers of cross-street vehicles that can
ber of conflicts between intersecting ve- pass during gaps at various through-traffic
hicles also increases, with related increases service volume levels below capacity.
in delay, until at some point the friction In practice, the problem is considerably
TABLE 6.7—EXAMPLES OF CAPACI- is given. Were such an example available,

TIES OF FOUR-WAY STOP INTERSEC- however, it could not be applied directly
TIONS WITH BALANCED DEMAND to any and all two-way STOP situations, be-
(50-50 SPLIT OF TRAFFIC BETWEEN cause local conditions (number of lanes and
INTERSECTING STREETS) availability of gaps, particularly) vary so
widely from one point to another. In
INTERSECTION CAPACITY short, the fact that available research find-
TYPE (vPH) ings are not specific in nature is evidence
2-Lane by 2-lane 1,900 of the impracticality of establishing gener-
2-Lane by 4-lane 2,800 alized capacities of two-way STOP-controlled
4-Lane by 4-lane 3,600 intersections.
Total capacity, all legs.
In practice, for typical computations in-
volving the higher levels of service (lower
volumes) on both streets, where most ve-
hicles arriving at the STOP sign can enter or
cross without substantial delays, the same
TABLE 6.8—EXAMPLES OF CAPACI- approximate method as described for the
TIES OF A TWO-LANE BY TWO- no-control case can be used to estimate
LANE FOUR-WAY STOP INTER- service volumes. That is, assume that a
SECTION WITH VARYING signal exists and determine, by normal in-
TRAFFIC DEMAND SPLIT tersection capacity methods, the capabilities
of the assumed situation for a signal split
DEMAND CAPACITY prorated through consideration of the rela-
SPLIT (vPH) tive volume on the two streets and the
width available to handle those volumes.
50/50 1,900
55/45 Where delays become substantial this pro-
1,800
60/40 1,700 rating is no longer valid, because unlike the
65/35 1,600 no-control case one flow has legal priority
70/30 1,550 over the other.
Total capacity, all legs FOUR-WAY STOP CONTROL
Four-way STOP control produces more

predictable traffic operation than does two-
way, because all legs have equal priority.
more complex, involving such elements as Under capacity conditions a regular dis-
the number of lanes on the through street, charge pattern tends to develop. (often de-
as well as on the STOP street; the availability veloping clockwise from leg to leg, due to
of gaps produced by signals upstream in the "car on right has right-of-way" rule)
both directions (and the probability of oc- with very little lost time.
currence of such gaps simultaneously in both Studies indicate that four-way STOP con-
directions); and the differing gap acceptance trol works to the best advantage of traffic
practices of drivers, depending on how long when the flow on the two cross streets is
they have been delayed. If appreciable cross- approximately equal. This is probably be-
street volumes exist, they may periodically cause, no matter how .unbalanced the de-
"take over" the intersection, even at high mand may be, the regular discharge pattern
through volume levels, delaying the through tends to continue as long as there is always
traffic momentarily. at least one vehicle in each approach. With
Although a variety of studies of opera- unbalanced demand, consequently, the
tions at two-way STOP-controlled intersec- lighter flow receives unwarranted advantage
tions has been conducted, none appears to over the heavier flow, in terms of discharge
report directly the capabilities of cross time received relative to demand.
streets at varying volume levels on the It has been shown, moreover, that at
through street. Consequently, no example low volumes a four-way STOP-sign control
AT-GRADE iNTERSECTIONS 159
can be almost as efficient as a traffic signal, The data in Table 6.7 generally indicate
and sometimes more attractive to the aver- the upper limit to which four-way STOP
age driver This is because of the flexibility intersections can be expected to operate.
it offers, compared to all but possibly the
most complex forms of signal control. The REFERENCES
driver is kept under reasonable control, but
is given the opportunity to use his own Final Report on Intersection Traffic Flow.
judgment in deciding what movements are C-E-l-R, Inc., unpubl. report for Bur. of
possible at a given instant. For instance, Public Roads (1960).
four right turns can be made simultaneously NORMANN, 0. K., "Variations in Flow at
from four legs, whereas a simple signal Intersections as Related to Size of City, Type
would permit only two.. Other combinations of Facility and Capacity Utilization." HRB
of several through and turning movements Bull. 352, pp. 55-99 (1962).
are possible, particularly in multilane cases. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
for Streets and Highways. Bureau of Public
Here again, studies of service volumes Roads (1961).
and capacities at four-way controlled inter- Traffic Engineering Handbook. Inst. of
sections have been few, but in one study(6) Traffic Engineers (1965).
where data are published it is concluded that RAFF, M. S., and HART, J. W., A Volume
total capacities of all legs combined, under Warrant for Urban Stop Signs. Eno Foun-
balanced demand, are as given in Table dation for Highway Traffic Control (1950).
6.7. The adverse effect of unbalanced de- HEBERT, J., "A Study of Four-Way Stop
mand is given in Table 6.8 for the two- Intersection Capacities." Highway Res. Rec-
lane by two-lane crossing case. ord No. 27, pp. 130-147 (1963).
CHAPTER SEVEN
WEAVING
The basic components of any highway, tional elements are not present which pre-
each with its own peculiar operational fea- vent true weaving. Various examples illus-
tures and capacity potentials, are: (1) the trating the formation of weaving sections
highway proper, characterized by uninter- are shown in Figure 7.1. The basic weave
rupted flow (at least in the typical rural —that is, the simple joining and subsequent
case); (2) the intersection at grade, charac- division of two roadways—is shown in Fig-
terized by interrupted flow (with or without ure 7.1a. Single interchanges are depicted
signal control); and (3) the interchange, in Figures 7.1b through 7.1e, at-grade inter-
characterized by diverging or merging ma- sections in Figures 7.1f through 7.1i, and a
neuvers. Sometimes these combine, in ef- combination of interchanges in Figure 7.1j.
fect, to form yet another component re- Grade-separated interchange arrange-
ferred to as a weaving section. ments in which weaving is inherent include
Weaving is the crossing of traffic streams the cloverleaf in Figure 7.1b, the directional
moving in the same general direction, ac- interchange in Figure 7.1c, the diamond
complished by successive merging and di- interchange with frontage roads in Figure
verging. Thus, a simple weaving section may 7.1d, and the junction in Figure 7.1e. In
be described as a length & one-way road- the case of at-grade situations, weaving is
way accommodating weaving, at one end of inherent in the Y-intersection in Figure 7.1f,
which two one-way roadways merge and at the staggered intersections in Figures. 7.lg
the other end of which they separate. In and 7.1h, and the rotary treatment in Figure
practice the approach and exit roadways 7.li.
may be of a variety of highway types. All Other arrangements where the weaving
may be major freeway legs, or some may section is not an inherent part of any one
be freeways and others ramps. In still other specific interchange sometimes produce
cases they may be ordinary city streets. Oc- weaving sections between successive inter-
casionally, weaving sections also may be changes, as shown in Figure 7.1j. The closer
found along multilane two-way roadways, the spacing, the greater is the influence of
but only one direction of flow will be in- weaving traffic. When interchanges are
volved in any given weave. spaced at sufficiently great distances the ef-
Many factors affect the operational char- fect of weaving becomes nil, with lane
acteristics of weaving sections; each must changes occurring no more often than typi-
be considered in determining the capacity cally occurs along any section of open road-
of, or the level of service provided in, these way. The section of highway may then be
sections. Weaving section analysis is as considered to be operating under uninter-
necessary a part of overall highway capa- rupted-flow conditions, uninfluenced by
bility determination as is analysis of any of weaving.
the other components mentioned, in order Weaving sections formed by successive
to achieve a balanced design and to avoid interchanges are prevalent on urban free-
an overestimation of the overall capacity or ways because of the need for frequent egress
operating level of the highway of which and ingress. Although every effort should
the section is a part. be made in design to achieve a high operat-
Regardless of the nature of the weaving ing level through greater distance between
section, the same operational principles and interchanges and the use of additional grade
analyses in design apply, as long as. fric- separation structures, the fact •remains that
160
WEAVING 161
(0)
--- T
4Ir '
(d)
L. —.J
If
I. a
.1.
Figure 7.1. Formation of weaving sections.

many weaving sections must be incorporated within three segments of the section. The-
in design. The need to correlate the operat- oretically, this illustrates the need to at least
ing levels and the capacity of weaving sec- triple the length to accommodate twice the
tions .with other components of the urban volume. Weaving sections on urban free-
freeway cannot be overemphasized. ways are frequently of the compound va-
riety.
TYPES OF WEAVING SECTIONS The dual-purpose weaving section or the
compound weaving section can be arranged
Weaving sections may be considered as to separate weaving traffic from non-weav-
simple or multiple. The first involves one ing traffic; this separated weaving section is
point of ingress and one point of egress. illustrated in Figure 7.2d. The central por-
The second entails additional points of in- tion thus becomes a single-purpose weaving
gress or egress, or both. Both may be fur- section as in Figure 7.2a, while the two flank-
ther subdivided into one-sided or two-sided ing sections are devoid of weaving and carry
sections. the outer flows only. Such a separated weav-
Simple Weaving Sections
ing section, with only one outer roadway
provided, is characteristic of an introduced
The various forms of simple weaving sec- section of collector-distributor road along a
tions are shown in Figure 7.2. What may freeway, which thus removes weaving from
be termed as the single-purpose weaving the through roadway.
section is indicated in Figure 7.2a. Here
all the vehicles entering the weaving section Multiple Weaving Sections
from either approach are destined to cross In contrast to the simple weaving section
the path of all vehicles entering from the such as shown in Figure 7.3a, which entails
other approach; that is, all traffic weaves. a single entrance junction followed by a sin-
This is weaving in its simplest form; its gle exit junction, is the more complex weav-
application, however, is limited. One exam- ing section which constitutes several ramp
ple of such operation is a weaving section junctions in sequence. Such a section of
between two loop ramps of a cloverleaf in- highway, consisting of two or more over-
terchange having collector-distributor roads. lapping weaving sections, is referred to as a
The dual-purpose weaving section, shown multiple weaving section. A typical exam-
in Figure 7.2b, serves both weaving and ple is shown in Figure 7.3b. A multiple
non-weaving traffic. It is the form that is weaving section may also be defined as that
most prevalent. In this case,
' a sufficient num- portion of a one-way roadway which has
ber of lanes must be provided for both weav- two consecutive entrance junctions followed
ing and non-weaving traffic. Non-weaving closely by one or more exit junctions, or
movements, or outer flows as they are usu- one entrance junction followed closely by
ally described, may be present on both sides, two or more exit junctions. Multiple weav-
or they may be limited to one side, as,in the ing sections occur frequently in urban areas
case of a closely spaced entrance and exit where there is need for distribution and col-
on one side of a freeway. lection of high concentrations of traffic.
Figure 7.2c shows the weaving maneu- Both the operation and the analysis of mul-
vers that must take place when the num- tiple weaving sections are more complex
ber of weaving vehicles is greater than can than in the case of simple weaving sections.
crowd into a single lane; i.e., exceed the
capacity of a traffic lane. Here, some of the One-Sided and Two-Sided Weaving Sections
vehicles are involved in two weaving ma- Either of the previously described weav-
neuvers. A section providing this type of ing section types may be further subdivided
operation is referred to as a compound weav- into those in which weaving takes place only
ing section. When the number of weaving on one side of the roadway and those which
vehicles is double the normal capacity of entail maneuvers on both sides, thus caus-
a traffic lane, four times as many weaving ing weaving to occur across the roadway.
maneuvers must be performed as occur at The two types described are shown in Fig-
one-lane capacity; these take place roughly ures 7.3c and 7.3d, respectively. The one-
WEAVING 163
CROWN
- LENGTH_
(o) BASIC WEAVING SECTION

ALL TRAFFIC WEAVES
LANE,. LEFT WEAVIIJGLANE, LANE LINE..

THROUGH TRAFFIC
THROUGH TRAFFIC LANE N ART WEAVING .
SERVES WEAVING AND NON-WEAVING TRAFFIC
- - -
-E
P00 NO WEAVING SECTION

EACH WEAVING NOV EMENT INVOLVES
TWO WEAVING MANEUVERS
-
(d) SEPARATED WEAVING SECTION
WEAVING AND OUTER FLOWS
ON SEPARATE ROADWAYS
Figure 7.2. Simple weaving arrangements.
sided weaving section is typical on most other, are combined through a weaving sec-
freeways where the entrances and exits of tion, as illustrated in Figures 7.1a, 7.1e, and
interchange ramps are on the right. The 7.1h, and as shown for the rotary intersec-
two-sided weaving sections occur where the tion in Figure 7.1i. Two-sided weaving sec-
roadways of two major routes, crossing each tions are also likely to be found in con-
junction with major two-exit all-directional afterward again splitting into two or more
interchanges, as well. as where left-hand exit flows, within a relatively limited dis-
ramps are occasionally used along with tance. Usually, where the several traffic flows
right-hand ramps. under consideration in a given problem
are of relatively balanced importance, the
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF problem will involve fundamental weaving
WEAVING SECTIONS as described in the remainder of this chap-
Weaving sections are characterized by ye- ter. Thus, basic weaving problems of the
hides entering a common roadway area from types represented by Figures 7.3a and 7.3b
two or more entrance flows, and shortly are usually handled by means of the methods
WEAVING
(a) SIMPLE WEAVING
WEAVING
WEAVING
•1
(b) MULTIPLE WEAVING
FREEWAY FREEWAY
WEAVING
'44fp
(c) ONE-SIDED WEAVING
WEAVING
FREEWAY
FREEWAY
WEAVING
(d)TWO-SIDED WEAVING
Figure 7.3. Basic types of weaving sections.

WEAVING 165
of this chapter, particularly where major of traffic must cross the crown line (a real
roadways are involved. The two-sided weav- or imaginary line connecting the noses of the
ing represented by Figure 7.3d also is often entrance and exit forks) somewhere between
handled by these methods. On the other its extremities (see Figs. 7.2a and 7.2b).
hand, where the problem involves one-sided At no instant can the number of vehicles
weaving, as shown in Figure 7.3c, the pro- in the act of crossing the crown line exceed
cedures given in Chapter Eight may be more the number that can crowd into a single
suitable. lane. Thus, the total number of vehicles pass-
A weaving section handles two classes of ing through a weaving section, if all must
traffic: (I) traffic entering, passing through perform a weaving maneuver more or less
and leaving the section without crossing the simultaneously, cannot exceed the capacity
normal path of other vehicles, and (2) traf- of a single lane. It is assumed, of course,
fic which must cross the paths of other that the facility is operating as intended; that
vehicles after entering the section. It is be- is, without vehicle movement alternating be-
cause of the latter group of vehicles that a tween entrance lanes as if by signal control.
weaving section is produced. On a well-de- In order to accommodate such weaving
signed but short weaving section operating movements, additional roadway width be-
below capacity, the two classes tend to sepa- yond that on the approaches is usually re-
rate themselves from each other almost as quired. Also, it is apparent that as the weav-
positively Lin practice as they do in theory. ing volumes increase, longer distances are
This allows each class to be examined and necessary to perform the weaving maneu-
analyzed separately. Even at higher densi- vers. When the number of weaving vehicles
ties, when the two have some influence on exceeds the capacity of a traffic lane, some
each other due to stream friction, this gen- of the vehicles are involved in two weaving
eral approach still may be used. maneuvers, and compound weaving exists,
Information regarding the relations be- as previously discussed and shown in Fig-
tween geometric features of weaving sec- ure 7.2c. Where the weaving traffic ap-
tions and the traffic volumes and operating proaches a volume equal to double the ca-
speeds attained on them has been obtained pacity of a • traffic lane, theoretically three
from detailed nationwide studies conducted times as much length is required as for a
weaving volume equivalent to a single-lane
by the Bureau of Public Roads (1, 2) and
from other available data (3). Appendix B capacity.
presents data from a group of these studies. The effective length of a weaving section
is also influenced, at least at the better levels
These relationships, based on observations
and operational experience, have been found of service, by the distance in advance of the
weaving section that drivers on one approach
to remain quite consistent over a period of
road can see traffic on the other approach
years. It has been found possible to repre-
road. This distance may be used by drivers
sent these fundamental weaving relation-
who must cross the paths of other vehicles
ships by means of one basic weaving chart
to adjust their speeds and position before
(Fig. 7.4). It includes both a graphical chart
reaching the weaving section. This effect
and a related formula, both of which must
has not yet been quantified; the curves in
be utilized in any complete problem solu-
Figure 7.4 are based on adequate sight dis-
tion.
tances.
The several basic considerations included Weaving performance, therefore, is funda-
in this chart and the related formula are mentally dependent on the length and width
next discussed. of weaving section, as well as on the com-
position of traffic.
Weaving Movements
Whether all vehicles entering a weaving Non-Weaving Movements (Outer Flows)
section are weaving vehicles, or whether the Weaving sections normally accommodate
weaving vehicles are separated into their non-weaving traffic as well, either with or
own class as discussed previously, it is ob- without added lanes adjoining either side of
vious that every car in the weaving stream the weaving lanes (Figs. 7.2b, 7.2c, 7.2d).
/
- A
LENGTH DETERMINATION (CHART)
LENGTH OF WEAVING SECTION

V,,81 * V,,02 . TOTAL WEAVING TRAFFIC, IN EOUIV. PCPHI
WEAVING INFLUENCE FACTOR

2,0, ETC. QUALITy OF FLOW
WIDTH DETERMINATION (EQUATION)
VWI* KVW+VOI*VOE V.Ik-IIVW2

00 N
- XV SV
N;MAMOER OF LANES
V,,1 • LARGER WEAVING VOLUME, VPH
Vw2;SMALLEO WEAVING VOLUME, VPO I
01, T02 • OUTER FLOWS, VPW MIXED TRAFFIC,
E XCEPT IN EXTREME CASES
S
' TOTAL VOLUME, VPW I
SV • APPROPRIATE SERVICE VOLUME OR I
V02.... __ _ _..
V CAPACITT PER LANE ON APPROACH I
OOAAWUTS I
k WEAVING INFLUENCE FACTOR
I I I
WEAVING 167
MERGING END
APPROACH NOSE
(PHYSICAL)
L - LENGTH OF WEAVING SECTION
EXIT
2'
--
2—LANE EXIT
Figure 7.5. Method for measuring length of I'cavuzg sections.
Determination of the capacity of these non- (Fig. 7.4) contains a family of curves des-
weaving lanes involves no new principle, as ignated as I through V., representing vari-
they may be considered comparable to ous qualities of flow ranging from excellent
through traffic lanes on any multilane facil- to poor. As discussed in detail later in this
ity. If any weaving section is to function chapter, these quality of flow levels, although
properly and efficiently, it is important that related to levels of service, are identical for
these added lanes have adequate capacity to all types of highways, whereas the corre-
serve most non-weaving vehicles. If non- sponding levels of service vary depending
weaving vehicles utilize the weaving lanes on the type of highway involved.
either through choice or through necessity,
they may interfere with the vehicles that Length Requirements
must weave to reach their destination, thus It has been shown that length of section
reducing the total number of weaving vehi- is 'a significant factor in weaving. Its impor-
cles that can be accommodated. It may be tance is evidenced by the fact that the funda-
desirable to use signs to direct drivers to mental weaving volume determination chart
the proper side of the approach road during (Fig. 7.4) incorporates length as the basic
peak periods if the number of weaving vehi-
cles is high; however, drivers will normally variable.
use the proper lane in simple weaving sec- The length of a weaving section is mea-
tions. sured along the highway between the en-
trance and the exit, as shown in Figure 7.5.
Quality of Flow To be consistent and to comply with the
Weaving section operation is measured in data on which Figure 7.4 is based, the
terms of "quality of flow" The basic chart measurement must be made as illustrated.
In terms of the projections of the converging flow facility—the volume divided by the
and diverging inner edges of traveled way appropriate lane service volume or capacity.
of the two roadways, straight or curved as Thus, if the two outer flows are represented
the particular roadway alinement may re- by V and V 0 , and the lane service volume
quire, the weaving section length is measured by SV, the number of lanes required to
from a point at the merging end where this handle this traffic would be (V+V 0 )/SV.
distance between the projected edges is 2 ft The additional lanes required for the
to a point at the diverge end where the dis- weaving movements are calculated on a
tance between the edges is 12 ft. This pro- parallel but not identical basis, using V L
cedure is universally applicable to all types and as the two weaving volumes in the
of junctions from single-lane ramp junc-
tions to major forks and is equally suitable numerator and the same value of SV in the
regardless of whether or not shoulders and/ denominator. It has been shown that for
or curbs are present. equivalent volumes more width is required
Where conditions permit, the adverse ef- for weaving than for uninterrupted flow. A
fect of a weaving section can be obviated, rational formula reflecting this fact has been
from an operational point of view, by in- developed from the available data. It states
creasing the length sufficiently between an that the number of lanes required for weav-
entrance and the following exit on a high- ing may be expressed as (V+k V)/SV,
way. Further, any weaving section can be where V10 is the larger weaving volume, in
physically eliminated by the introduction of vph; V,0 is the smaller weaving volume, in
a grade separation structure. Where neither vph; k is a weaving influence factor, in the
is feasible, and a weaving section remains range of 1.0 to 3.0; and SV is the lane serv-
an acceptable feature of the plan, the length ice volume, in vph. The k-factor, in effect,
of the section should be at least sufficient to is an equivalency factor expanding the influ-
provide an operating level compatible with ence of the smaller weaving flow up to a
the level of service on the highway facility maximum of three times its actual size in
of which the weaving section is a part. number of vehicles.
Operating levels are discussed in, more de- Combining these two expressions, and
tail later in this chapter. assuming that some lanes will be utilized by
both outer flows and weaving movements,
Width Requirements the complete formula for the total number
The basic weaving chart (Fig. 7.4) re- of lanes in the weaving section becomes
lates the weaving volumes possible at par-
ticular operating levels to the length of sec- N_01 (7.1a)
sV
tion only. Of equal importance, however,
is another significant factor, the width of If V,,. + V,+ V0 + V 0 = V, the total vol-
weaving section, in terms of the number of ume of traffic accommodated by the weaving
lanes. section, the equation becomes
In a complete solution of a weaving sec-
tion problem, then, both length and width N= 1 " ( 7.1b)
requirements must be met. This analysis in- sV
volves two steps: first, determination of In this form the specific influence of weav-
length based on weaving volume and desired ing becomes clearly apparent, over and
operating level as just described, and second, above the V/SV term representing unin-
determination of the width predicated on terrupted flow. Both equations are in-
the weaving volume, the outer-flow volumes, cluded in Figure 7.4.
and the lane service volume or capacity. For convenience, a series of curves is pre-
As mentioned previously, the weaving sented for various k values. The maximum
maneuvers and the outer flows on the shorter (k=3.0) is applicable to the shorter weav-
weaving sections tend to separate themselves ing sections, whose operation is represented
into two distinct groups. The number of by curves III, IV, and V. Where the actual
lanes required for the outer flows, therefore, weaving section length is greater than the
may be calculated as for any uninterrupted minimum required, as is the case for the
WEAVING 169
- -- -. - ,-
!! !
tz
--
Exam pie of /,as-,c or sun pie weaving section, with one separated outer road way added.
conditions to the right of curve III, the percentage of trucks, grades. and lane widths.
adverse influence of weaving becomes pro- However, certain limitations have been
gressively less, hence the k-factor is gradu- established regarding the maximum vilue of
ally reduced, reaching a value of 1.0 for SV to be employed in conjunction with each
curve I. Along this curve and to the right of the several weaving qualities of flow, I
the section is considered to be out of the through V. These, in effect, reduce the free-
realm of weaving, as discussed in more de- way base value for lane capacity under
tail later, and Eq. 7.1b reduces to ideal conditions of 2.000 vph, to reflect the
N=V/SV (7.1c) influence of inherent weaving turbulence.
These values, which still represent ideal con-
which represents the number of lanes re- ditions of geometries and approach traffic.
quired for uninterrupted flow tinder free- are given in Table 7.1.
flow conditions. In determining the number of lanes which
For the better levels of service the value may be required on weaving sections under
of SV used in the equations for determining
heavy flow conditions, the lane service vol-
the width of weaving section normally should
umes of Table 7.1 should be employed,
be the average service volume per lane for
rather than basic values from Table 9.1.
the level of service chosen for the approach
and exit roadways in question and, in the As before, they should he transformed to
case of levels C and D, for the appropriate values of SV by adjustment for lane width,
peak-hour factor. For freeways, these val- trucks, grades, etc.
ues are given in Table 9.1. They would, of Seldom, of course, will the resulting value
course, be adjusted downward as necessary of N be an even whole number: typically,
to reflect the prevailing conditions, such as it will indicate the need for a fractional part
TABLE 7.1—RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN in the stream of traffic from the other ap-
QUALITY OF FLOW AND MAXIMUM proach. As traffic becomes heavier, how-
LANE SERVICE VOLUMES IN ever, the probability of vehicles entering
WEAVING SECTIONS the section from the two approaches simul-
taneously will increase until, at moderately
QUALITY OF MAX LANE SV VALUE heavy volumes, many drivers will have to
FLOW CURVE (PCPH) slow down to adjust their arrival times to
1 2,000 coincide with a gap, and some will be re-
II 1,900 quired to stop and wait for a gap in the
III 1,800 other stream of traffic. When the section is
IV 1,700 taxed to its capacity many vehicles will be
V 1,600 required to come to a halt and the weaving
section fails to serve its intended purpose.
Operation is then comparable to that of an
ordinary oblique unsignalized intersection,
having a capacity of about 1,500 vph. This
of a lane in addition to several full lanes. value corresponds to the traffic-carrying
Judgment must be exercised in interpreting capability of a single traffic lane at rather
this result in terms of providing or not pro- low overall speeds, under congested flow
viding another lane; no arbitrary dividing conditions, when all vehicles have come to
line can be established. The level of service a stop somewhere along the approach.
desired, as related to the size of the "left- Longer weaving sections, however, will
over" fractional part, is the most important carry considerably more traffic than this.
consideration. At one extreme, where (a) If of sufficient length, they will, within
a high level of service (low volume) is reasonable limits, allow most vehicles to
being provided, (b) the outer flows pre- negotiate the weaving section without unrea-
dominate, and (c) the fractional part is sonable reduction in speed. In general, the
small, an additional lane is unnecessary; the longer the weaving section, the larger the
section can absorb the slight overload with- volume of weaving traffic that may be served
out noticeable difficulty. At the other ex- and the greater the freedom of movement
treme, where (a) capacity operation is in- that will be achieved, provided that in all
volved, (b) weaving constitutes a large pro- cases adequate width is provided.
portion of the total volume, and (c) the Where weaving maneuvers are intensified
fractional part is large, an additional lane by relatively short weaving section lengths,
is essential. and a sufficient number of lanes is available
for the exclusive accommodation of the outer
Speed - Weaving Volume - Length - Width flows, a rather positive relationship is indi-
Relationships cated between (a) the volume of weaving
traffic, V,,. + V, (where V,,,. represents
Speed-volume relationships within a the heavier and V, (. the lighter weaving
weaving section, coupled with the length
movement, both in equivalent passenger
and width of section, have a vital effect on
cars), (b) the operating speed of the weav-
the operating characteristics of the section
ing traffic, and (c) the length of the weav-
and determine the quality of flow. To better
understand these relationships, let it be im- ing section, L. These relations, determined
agined for the moment that a weaving sec- from operational experience and available
tion of very short length, say 50 to 100 ft, data on traffic volumes and speeds on weav-
is under consideration. Further, let it be ing sections, are shown by curves III, IV
assumed that traffic is composed entirely of and V in Figure 7.4, the basic weaving chart,
weaving vehicles. At very low traffic vol- representing a choice in qualities of flow.
umes there will be little conflict between For conditions where drivers are obliged
weaving vehicles even on this short section to separate themselves into weaving and
because the entry of a vehicle from one non-weaving traffic, the three curves, III,
approach will frequently coincide with a gap IV, and V, are representative of perform-
WEAVING 171
ance at moderate to high volumes, at oper-

ating speeds of weaving vehicles usually
approximating about 40-45, 30-35, and
20-30 mph, respectively. The curves show
that for a given volume of weaving traffic,
speed increases with an increase in the
length of section: or for a given length of
section, speed is reduced with an increase
in weaving volume, to a point where the
highest rate of flow—that is, capacity—is
reached at optimum speed in the neighbor-
hood of 20 to 30 mph. as shown by curve V.
Normally, capacity operation is indica-
tive of such high demand that vehicles on
the approach roadways will be in moving
queues which provide a constant supply.
Any further increase in approach volume
or any slight mishap is likely to break down
the unstable condition. With critical den-
sity exceeded, speeds fall below 20 mph,
the capacity car. no longer be attained, and
complete congestion or stagnation, with
forced flow, may occur within a few mo- Free way weaving area between in tercliange
ments. r(IPflf)S.
On weaving sections represented by the
area to the right of curve III (Fig. 7.4)
operating speeds above 40 mph may be
achieved; however, either greater lengths or rupted-flow facility: typically, this curve
lower volumes than indicated by the rela- would apply to low-volume, high level of
tionship of curve III would tend to negate a service operation.
positive separation of weaving and non- On the average, on freeways, operating
weaving traffic. That is, as the length of speeds through weaving sections for a given
section for a given weaving volume increases level of service will fall from 5 to 10 mph
beyond that specified by curve III, a pro- below those for the same level on the road-
gressively greater mixture of weaving and way sections forming the entrances and exits.
non-weaving traffic is assumed, with the re- It will be noted that in the area between
suit that the speed of weaving traffic, as curves III and I, length is substituted for
distinct from non-weaving traffic, may or width to a limited extent. That is, the longer
the section for a given weaving volume, the
may not be greater than the 40-mph speed
lower will be the value of the k-factor sub-
associated with curve III.
stituted in the equation to determine the
For this reason, no attempt is made to
number of lanes required.
relate operating speeds to the curves to the
right of curve III. Generally speaking, how- Sections out of Realm of Weaving
ever, curve 111 represents good operation The effect of weaving is intensified as the
with only slight speed adjustments required length of weaving section is reduced. Con-
by weaving vehicles, provided that ade- versely, the effect of weaving is lessened as
quate width is available. Similarly, curve the length of weaving section is increased.
represents a smooth flow condition where Therefore, there must be a point in length
the speed of weaving traffic would approxi- where the weaving maneuvers are strung
mate the speed of all traffic in the section out over such a long distance that the effect
as determined by the total volume on the of weaving, as such, is nullified or dissipated.
roadway under the prevailing traffic and Thus, where the distance between an en-
roadway conditions, as on any uninter- trance and an exit along a roadway is so
(IIe)I((lj ll! ?U/la/ie, iIl((Uc/C Iflhie,fl( ccI 1fl,' •\ (.!I(ifl.
great that the effect of weaving maneuvers is From this it has been rationalized that
no more than that of normal lane changi tig. when the volume-length combinations given
the section ceases to function as a regular in Table 7.2 obtain, or the lengths given are
weaving section. exceeded, it is not necessary to design or
Data are insufficient to state definitely evaluate the operation of a roadway section
the circumstances for which the effect of on the basis of weaving section criteria.
weaving may be considered dissipated and, The relations of Table 7.2 actually form
therefore, the conditions or lengths for which the basis for curve I in Figure 7.4. Values
it is not necessary to design it roadway as it which would fall on or to the right of this
weaving section. There is some indication curve are considered to he out of realm of
that, beyond certain lengths and within cer- weaving and are representative of uninter-
tain weaving volume limits, operational levels rupted flow conditions. Values which fall
of capacity are little affected by weaving. above and to the left of curve I are taken to
represent a weaving condition. Those he-
tween curves I and III, as previously dis-
cussed, are indicative of excellent to good
TABLE 7.2—VOLUME-1-ENGTH operating conditions in the weaving sec-
COMBINATIONS CONSIDERED tion, provided, of course, an adequate num-
OUT OF REALM OF WEAVING her of lanes is furnished.
MIN lENGTH 01 LEVELS OF SERVICE AND CAPACITY

\'Ol.UMES WEAvING SECTIoN, L
( P(I'H ) ( Fr) It has been pointed out that weaving may
occur under a wide variety of conditions on
5t)0 1.000 highways of all types, ranging from freeways
1.000 2,400
to ordinary urban streets. The weaving cri-
1,500 4,000
2,000 6,000 teria contained in this chapter, represented
by Figure 7.4, have been developed for
v'.. broad application to pure weaving situa-
WEAVING 173
TABLE 7.3—RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BASIC ROADWAY LEVELS OF

SERVICE AND QUALITY OF FLOW ON WEAVING SECTIONS
QUALITY OF FLOW
FREEWAYS AND MULTILANE'
LEVEL RURAL HIGHWAYS URBAN
OF CONNECTING COLLECTOR- TWO-LANE AND
SERVICE DISTRIBUTOR ROADS RURAL SUBURBAN
HIGHWAY AND OTHER HIGHWAYS ARTERIALS
PROPER INTERCHANGE ROADWAYS
A I-Il 11-111 II III-IV

B II III 11-111 III-IV
C Il-Ill III-IV III IV
D III-IV IV IV IV
IV-V V V V
F Unsatisfactory
As represented by curves of Figure 7.4. Relationships below heavy line not normally considered in design
Where two entries are given, that on the left is desirable, that on the right is minimum.
Capacity operation.
Maximum volume equivalent to V, but may be much lower.
tions on highways of any of these types. Inasmuch as weaving sections introduce

Because each of these. types has its own added stream friction, it can be expected
individual scale of levels of service, it is not that operating speeds through them will be
possible to apply the basic level-of-service somewhat more restricted than on the open
designations A through F to the curves on road, at any given volume level. In any
the weaving chart (Fig. 7.4) on an all- case, they should provide a capacity equal
inclusive basis. Rather, those curves are con- to or greater than that of the approaching
sidered to represent several levels of quality roadways; otherwise, the restrictive effect of
of flow, designated by I through V. Table weaving can be reflected over a substantial
7.3 serves as a cross-reference relating these length of the through roadways. Although
quality designations to the equivalent levels it is desirable to maintain the same (equiva-
of service on the particular highway type lent) level of service (i.e., quality of flow)
under consideration. throughout the highway section as a whole,
In Figure 7.4 the various curves (I through achievement of this result is often impracti-
V) relate weaving volume to length of weav- cable because of physical limitations. Where
ing section. Each curve represents a certain this is the case it should be recognized that
combination of relative operating conditions a lower quality of flow will result in the
or intensity of weaving. Curve I, for in- weaving section, as compared to the high-
stance, designates an operating condition way 's overall level of service.
where the weaving vehicles have little if any
In this connection it should be pointed
effect on the quality of traffic flow. At the
other extreme, curve V is indicative of the out that operation through a weaving sec-
most intense weaving conditions, represent- tion is different from operation along an
ing capacity or the maximum hourly rates open roadway section of the same highway
of flow which can be achieved for a given in that a greater percentage of traffic than
length of weaving section. The intervening normal is changing lanes, at somewhat lower
curves (II through IV) are indicative of the speeds. An increase in driver tension may
intermediate range of conditions. be experienced, with varying degrees of
('oIIeiar-/ivtrib,,tor row/s cilom,'su/e a freeway incorporate weaving sections.
driver satisfaction with the overall opera- if. Operating conditions and speeds are
tion. Recognii.ing this, the engineer should only slightly more restricted than those gen-
strive for minimum loss in the quality of erally found under free-flow conditions with-
traffic flow through a weaving section. To out weaving. The effect of weaving on stream
the greatest extent feasible, therefore, the flow is slight to nominal. Some speed varia-
operating level of a weaving section should tions will occur. but with an appropriate
be made compatible with the level of service number of lanes operation at about 45-50
on the highway of which the weaving sec- mph can be achieved.
tion is a part. However, provided the level Ill. Weaving vehicles can maintain operat-
is not much lower than on the highway as ing speeds in the order of 40-45 mph, al-
a whole, and provided this lower level is though speed will vary considerably between
not found at frequent intervals along the individual vehicles and between short pe-
route. it may prove reasonably acceptable riods within the hour. Non-weaving vehicles
to most drivers. can maintain higher speeds if sufficient Ca-
The quality of operation representative pacitY has been provided in non-weaving
of the several weaving qualities may be de- lanes. Drivers are affected by other vehicles
sen bed as follows: in the stream to a greater extent than normal
I. Operating conditions and speeds ap- under free-flow conditions. hut the level of
proach those normally found under free- operation is not unreasonable for the con-
flow conditions without weaving, being de- dition where operating speeds on the ap-
termined largely by average lane volumes. proaches are 50 mph.
The efieci of weaving on stream flow is IV. Although speeds will vary considerably
slight, if any. Thus, with the appropriate between individual vehicles. weaving vehi-
number of lanes speeds of 5() mph or more cles can maintain operating speeds of about
are feasible. 30-35 mph. Non-weaving vehicles can main-
\VEAVINC, 175
tain higher speeds if sufficient capacity has in highly developed areas or where short-
been provided in the outer lanes. Occasional trip traffic predominates on the roadway.
slowdowns and some restriction of niancu- V. This represents capacity for a given
verahility can he expected, but operation is length of weaving section—that is, the maxi-
acceptable to drivers where approach speeds mum number of vehicles that can he ac-
typically do not exceed 40 mph, especially commodated in 1 hr. At such capacity flow
the speed may be quite variable, normally 7.3, to determine length and width of sec-
below 30 mph and frequently averaging tion, given demand volumes. The traffic
20 mph or even less. Slow operation and flows through the weaving section must be
turbulence, including stopping of weaving shown in their separate components, includ-
vehicles, alternating of weaving movements ing outer flows, larger weaving flow, and
between lanes, and nosing into the parallel smaller weaving flow, as defined in Figure
lane by drivers in one weaving lane, are 7.4. The procedures can also be used in
common occurrences. Non-weaving vehicles reverse when geometrics are given and oper-
may or may not move reasonably well ating characteristics are required.
through the section proper, depending on The curves of Figure 7.4 link the three
the capacity provided in the non-weaving basic weaving factors—length of weaving
lanes. Minor accidents may be expected at section (as defined in Fig. 7.5), total weav-
a fairly high frequency. Usually, backup ing traffic, and quality of flow. Knowing
and loss of service are evident on at least any two of these makes it possible to find
one and possibly both approach legs during the third. In the typical problem, level of
high-flow periods, affecting the non-weaving service rather than quality of flow will be
traffic as well as that which will weave. This known, hence the quality of flow in the
type of operation is not acceptable for de- weaving section must be correlated with the
sign purposes. levels of service for each type of highway,
The design of a weaving section should be by means of the relationships shown in
based on the general level of service intended Table 7.3. It is important to note that the
for the entire highway of which the weaving weaving volumes shown on the vertical
section is a part. In this regard, consider- scale of the chart are expressed in terms of
able judgment must be exercised. Table 7.3 equivalent passenger cars per hour.
cross-references the quality of operation in The equation in Figure 7.4 relates the
a weaving section, as represented by curves several traffic flows through the section, level
I to V of Figure 7.4, that is considered of service, and number of lanes required.
compatible with the basic levels of service In the equation all traffic volumes may be
on any particular highway type of which the expressed in vehicles per hour of mixed
weaving section may be a part. The rela- traffic, unless grades or truck 'percentages
tionships below the heavy line normally are vary widely between the several legs. In
not considered in design. For each level of such cases conversion to equivalent passen-
service the first operating level, where two ger cars, or development of a composite
are shown, is considered to be the desirable service volume value reflecting average con-
value and the second is taken normally to ditions, must be considered.
be the minimum value for design of weaving The level of service desired controls the
sections. The desirable values should be value of SV, the appropriate service volume
striven for in design of weaving sections or capacity for the type of highway of which
adjoining freeway-to-freeway interchanges the weaving section is a part, determined by
and for two-sided weaving sections on free- the methods described in Chapters Nine and
ways. Ten. As usually used in weaving problems,
it is an average of the service volumes of
the several freeway legs involved.
PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN AND
Several cautions are necessary regarding
OPERATIONAL EVALUATION OF selection of the appropriate value of SV,
WEAVING SECTIONS in addition to consideration of widely differ-
ing grades and truck volumes as just men-
Simple Weaving Sections tioned. First, in determining the average
value of SV for the several approaáh and
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
exit roadways it is important to remember
Direct analysis of simple weaving sections that in the case of freeways the service
is relatively easy, involving use of the basic volume per lane on the approach and exit
weaving chart and equation in Figure 7.4 roadways will vary, for a particular level of
together with reference to Tables 7.1 and service, depending on the number of lanes,
WEAVING 177
as discussed in Chapter Nine. Second, the Solution:

maximum value limitations on SV for the Values required for use in entering Figure
several qualities of flow, as presented in 7.4:
Table 7.1, must be taken into account. The volume of truck traffic is negligible,
Finally, in the case of one-lane collector- hence no conversion is required to express
distributor roads, specific service volume weaving volumes in terms of equivalent pas-
criteria have not been established. However, senger cars per hour, either for use of the
a review of Table 7.3 indicates that the per- basic chart or for the equation. Consider-
lane volume limits for the next poorer level ing first the approach roadway, it is noted
of service than that under consideration for that the specified ideal geometrics require
the overall problem are suitable. Use of no adjustments for clearance or grade. Re-
the values in Table 9.1 for two lanes in ferring to Table 9.1, for level of service
one direction on four-lane freeways, divided B under these ideal conditions, the maxi-
by two, is suggested. mum service volume of 2,000 passenger
As previously discussed, rounding off of cars per hour listed for a two-lane one-
the fractional part of a lane usually inc!uded directional roadway is found to approximate
in the result, N, requires consideration of the approach and exit roadway conditions.
level of service, extent of weaving, and rela- Comparison of this 2,000 value with the
tive size of the remainder. given demand volumes on the approach and
The typical examples which follow show exit legs shows that, with one borderline
the several ways in which the procedures exception, they can be accommodated at
the specified level. Therefore, the average
may be applied, depending on which varia-
service volume per lane on approach and
bles are given quantities and which are re-
exit roadways is established as 2,000/2, or
quired. 1,000 equivalent passenger cars per hour. A
check of Table 7.1 shows that this 1,000
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTIONS-SIMPLE value is acceptable for use in the width
WEAVING equation.
EXAMPLE 7.1 From Table 7.3, for level B on a basic
freeway section, quality of flow is II. From
Problem: Figure 7.4, k=2.6 for quality of flow H.
What are the minimum length and width Then V=total volume = 1,800 + 1,500 =
requirements for the weaving section formed 3,300 vph and V 01 +V 62 =700+400=
by the intersection of highways AB and CD 1,100 pcph (trucks negligible, so conver-
(see diagram) to give level of service B, sion not made).
under the demand volume conditions shown
in the figure? The highways accommodate Length of weaving section:
rural resort traffic with a negligible volume Entering Figure 7.4 with the total weav-
of trucks. Traffic lanes are 12 ft wide, clearing volume of 1,100 pcph, and projecting
ances are adequate, and grades are level. horizontally to the quality II curve, then
projecting vertically, the length required is
A 1,800 —8- - 2,100 read as 1,500 ft.
N
Width of weaving section (number of
8
lanes):
(TRAFFIC VOLUMES IN 11PM) - V+(k-1)V10
PLAN
sv
Volz 1,400 3,300+ (2.6-1) (400)
A
- 1,000
>1O0
= 3.9,
V02 800
C 8 which is so close to 4 that no "rounding-off"
WEAVING DIAGRAM
question exists.
Result: Five), is the reciprocal of the appropriate

The conditions require a 1,500-ft weav- tabulated truck factor in Table 9.6. For the
ing section with four lanes. (Also, consider- purposes of this problem, the portions of the
ation should be given to the use of three grade influencing operations would, be the
lanes on exit D, which is slightly outside ¼ mile upstream of the section (the first
level B with only two lanes. All the other ¼ mile of the grade) plus the ½-mile length
legs are adequate with two lanes.) of section, or 3/4 mile total effective length.
For a 3 percent grade 3/4 mile long with
EXAMPLE 7.2 3 percent trucks, the passenger car equiva-
Problem: lent from Table 9.4 would be 10, and the
The diagram shows the peak-hour traf- truck factor, T,, from Table 9.6 would be
fic volumes projected for a weaving section 0.79.
on a proposed urban freeway. Trucks con- Then V+ (V10 + VSV )/TL= (450
stitute 3 percent of the traffic. The freeway +2,500)10.79=3,735 pcph.
is being designed with 12-ft lanes and 10-ft
continuous shoulders and the weaving sec- Width of section (number of lanes), k
factor, and quality of flow:
The available length of weaving section
-
4,500 ::
I 2, 45
is given as 2,700 ft. With both the weaving
volume and the length known, Figure 7.4 is
used to determine the quality of flow and
the k factor, both identified by the intercepts
(TRAFFIC VOLUMES IN VPH)
of the projections of the two known values.
PLAN
The quality of flow is found to lie between
2.000
III and IV, with k=3.0. Inspection of Ta-
ble 9.1 for level of service C as related to the
given demand volumes indicates that the
average number of lanes on the approach
and exit legs will be 3. (In most actual
V02 400 problems these numbers of lanes would be
WFAVING DIAGRAM known from separate analyses of these road-
ways.) Hence, the maximum service volume
tion under consideration is centered in a under ideal conditions for PHF=0.91 is
1-mile-long 3 percent upgrade. The desired taken as 4,350/3 or 1,450 passenger cars
level of service on the freeway is C and the per hour per lane. No adjustment is re-
peak-hour factor is 0.91. The maximum quired here for lane width or lateral clear-
length available for weaving is 2,700 ft. ances because these 'geometrics are ideal;
What will be the value of k, the level of the truck factor must be applied, however,
service, and the approximate speed of weav- in determining SV. Therefore, the service
ing traffic? How many lanes will be required? volume on approach and exit roadways is
Does this proposed design provide the de- SV=MSV (TL)=l,45O (0.79)=1,145 vph.
sired level of service?' A check of Table 7.1 shows this value to be
acceptable for quality of flow between III
Solution: and IV. Also,
Equivalent weaving passenger cars:
N_ V+ 1 '1
The 3 percent grade requires that, for
SV
use of the chart in Figure 7.4, the weaving
volumes be converted to equivalent pas- (2,000 + 400 + 2,500 + 450)
senger cars per hour. (Conversion is not - + (3.0— 1) (450)
necessary for the numerator of the width 1,145
equation). The truck adjustment factor, = 5.5.
(100—P +E P7,)!100 (where P' is the Here, for intermediate level C with weaving
percentage of trucks and ET is the appro- predominating, this should be rounded up-
priate passenger car equivalent; see Chapter ward to 6 lanes.
Rj!j VIhIR] 179
2,230 --- 2,490

Level of service and approximate speed in
.000
section: 730
Referring to Table 7.3, the level of serv- (TRAFFIC VOLUMES iN VPHI
ice for the prevailing quality of flow in the PLAN

weaving section between III and IV, is D.
The text indicates that the approximate
speed of weaving traffic is about .35 mph. Vol 680
Then k=3.0, 6 lanes are required, the

level of service is D rather than C as de-
sired, and the approximate speed is 35 mph.
2' 200
Evaluation of results: I.
For level of service C, operating speeds WEAVING DIAGRAM
of 50 mph would exist on the approach

and exit roadways, and corresponding speeds
through the weaving section would typically From Figure 7.4, the length of the section
be in the 40-45 mph range. That is, the 35 required for k= LO is 3,800 ft.
mph here obtained confirms the finding of The volume through the section is V=
level D rather than the desired level C oper- 1,680 + 200 + 800 + 550 = 3,230 vph, and the
ation; that is, operation below usual design number of lanes is determined simply by
levels. V/SV, because conditions are outside the
Attainment of level C is unlikely within realm of weaving.
the length limitation; a length of at least Here, an approximate choice of N must
3,700 ft would appear necessary to achieve first be made, inasmuch as SV on a freeway
it. Recomputation using level D criteria is dependent on the number of lanes. Ref-
would show that five lanes would be ade- erence to Figure 9.1, for level B, indicates
quate to provide service within level D, com- that under ideal conditions 3 lanes would
mensurate with that possible within the be adequate, handling 3,500 pcph. Assume
given length limitation. 3 lanes for computing SV per lane, orSV=
(3,500/3)(TL ) = 1,166(0.95) = 1,110 vph
EXAMPLE 7.3 per lane. This is acceptable, according to
Problem: Table 7.1, and N=V/SV=3,230/ 1,100=
A diamond-type interchange is to be lo- 2.91, or use 3 lanes.
cated on a freeway downstream of but close Note: If the assumed number of lanes
to a fully directional, freeway-to-freeway in- differs from that as computed in the fore-
terchange. For the traffic movements shown going, check the effect of recomputing SV
in the diagram, what distance is required per lane on the basis of the revised number
between the merging end and the exit nose of lanes.
to take the intervening freeway sectionout
of the realm of weaving? A level of service EXAMPLE 7.4
of B is to be maintained on the freeway, Problem:
which has 12-ft lanes and relatively level
Peak-hour traffic volumes for a proposed
grades. Truck traffic is estimated to be 5 per-
cloverleaf intersection on a rural freeway
cent with a passenger car equivalent of 2.
are shown in the diagram. Determine whether
How many lanes are required between the
or not a separate collector-distributor road
interchanges?
would be justified on the basis of length of
Solution: weaving section and number of lanes re-
From Table 9.6, for 5 percent trucks with quired. The level of service on the freeway
ET = 2, the truck adjustment factor is 1 / TL = is C, and the peak-hour factor is 0.91.
1/0.95=1.05. Trucks comprise 6 percent of the traffic, the
For the freeway to be out of the realm of freeway has 12-ft lanes and fully continuäus
weaving, k = 1.0 where V36 + V 2062 = ( 800 + 10-ft shoulders, and the grades on the through
550) x 1.05= 1,420 pcph. lanes are approximately. 2 percent down.
WITHOUT C-O ROAD able 3-lane freeway legs and 1-lane ramp
legs is that for 2 lanes (2,750/2, or 1,375
passenger cars per hour).
SV= 1,375 (T L ) = 1,375 (0.89) = 1,225
500 vph per lane; acceptable according to Table
3,110 7.1.
(TRAFFIC VOLUMES IN VPH)

V=2,700+0+500+4103,610 vph.
PLAN N= V+(k-1)VIU
Sv
V02' 0
500
- 3,610+(1.6x410)
1,225
3.200 h)' < 5-01-1. 3,110
V01' 2.700 = 3.5.
WEAVING DIAGRAM
Use four lanes.
WITH C.O ROAD (b) With separated C-D road:
The desirable quality of flow=III, and
k=3.0, on the C-D road.
410 500 Using Figure 7.4, the length of weaving
.910 section required is 550 ft.
3,200_ ,,,_.-' 2.700 3,110
The volume on the C-D road =910 vph.
The level C service volume for approach
PLAN
and exit lanes, considered applicable to these
C-D road conditions, can be taken from
vo2. 0
Table 9.1 as approximately one-half of the
4 I 3I:O
2-lane value, or 2,750/2= 1,375 vph.
::
Vol 0 SV= 1,375 (0.89) = 1,225 vph on the C-D
WEAVING DIAGRAM
road; acceptable according to Table 7.1.
Solution: The number of lanes required on the C-D
On a 2 percent downgrade, the passenger road =(V(T + 3V50 )/SV=[500+(3.0 x 410)]!
car equivalent is the same as on level ground. 1,225=1.4.
From Table 9.4, E=3.
For 6 percent trucks, the truck adjustment Use 2 lanes.
from Table 9.6 =0.89. The number of through lanes required on
Then V, 0 + "icc= (500+410)/0.89 = the freeway= V/SV= 2,700/1,225=2.2.
1,020 pcph. Use 3 lanes, as would definitely be required
on the approach and exit portions of the
The level of service is C. Using Table freeway.
7.3, the desirable quality of flow is II on the
freeway and III on the C-D road, for which Although a total of 5 lanes is required
the k values are 2.6 and 3.0, respectively. through the weaving area in the C-D road
case, as compared to 4 lanes without the
(a) Without C-D road:
The desirable quality of flow=I1, and k= C-D road, the C-D road appears to be the
2.6. more practical solution if a cloverleaf inter-
Using Figure 7.4, the length of weaving change is to be used; that is, a weaving
section required is 1,400 ft. length of 1,400 ft is not practicable between
Using Table 9.1, for a level of service C the loop ramps, whereas a length of 550 ft
on the freeway with 0.91 PHF, the average is near the usual maximum dimension
per-lane ideal service volume for the prob- achieved on well-designed cloverleafs.
WEAVING 181
II 2
Multiple Weaving Sections (SIMPLE)
Because multiple weaving sections are I-SEGMENT I ..lSEGMENT 2.1

13
2
made up of overlapping simple weaving sec-
tions, each analyzed separately, the basic ()
relationships. in Figure 7.4 and the related

..-SEGMENT I -.4..-SEGMENT 2..1-SEGMENT 3-.4
tables apply to the analysis of multiple weav-
ing sections as well Some of the varieties
of multiple weaving sections are shown in b
Figure 7.6, in which a simple section also
is shown for comparison. These types in-
clude a single entrance followed by (a)
two exits and (b) thrëeexits; two successive
entrances followed by (c) one exit and (d)
two exits; or three sucessive entrances fol-
lowed by (e) one exil. Obviously, other
combinations are also poèsible. Ramps may
be all on the right or thee may be a mix-
(e)
ture of right-hand and left-hand ramps.
A multiple weaving section is referred to
as having two, three, or more segments, Figure 7.6. Types of multiple weaving sections.
where a segment is that portion of a mul-
tiple weaving section between any two suc-
cessive ramp junctions. The weaving sec-
tions in Figure 7.6a'and 7.6b are two-seg-
ment and three-segment varieties, respec- tional to the lengths of segments within
tively. Each segment is analyzed individually these sections, and thus to allocate the weav-
with regard to length and width require- ing on that basis.
ments. For example, in Figure 7.6a the The chart in Figure 7.4, then, is used in
weaving maneuvers on the longer weaving a manner similar to that for simple sections
section (between points 1 and 3) are divided to establish the length requirements for each
into two portions—those that weave in segment, using the summation of all the
Segment 1, and the remainder that wave in weaving movements within the segment, still
on an equivalent passenger car basis.. The
Segment 2. Then, the weaving movements
required number of lanes for each segment
in the shorter weaving section (Segment 1) is also determined individually in accordance
include not only the essential direct weaves with the basic formula, modified as fol-
between points 1 and 2 but also the portion lows:
of the weaves in the longer weaving sec-
tion (point 1 to point 3) occurring in Seg- (7.2)
ment 1.
The manner in which weaving traffic di- The summation sign, , is introduced ahead
vides itself between the various segments of of the second term in the numerator to ac-
count for the more than one set of weaving
a multiple weaving section can only be esti-
movements in some of the segments. Inas-
mated. Considerable variation occurs, de- much as each such set of weaving move-
pending on geometrics, truck traffic, signing, ments may. have a different value of k, this
and other factors. For purposes of analyses, form of summation is essential.
it is considered reasonable to assume that Multiple weaving requires other special
weaving along the longer sections is propor- considerations in connection with the alloca-
lion of weaving to two or more segments of

the weaving section in proportion to their
L I, 500'
lengths. In setting up the weaving diagram,
care must be taken to identify and separate LI 600 1
- L2 900
the various weaving movements (primary 1,600
and secondary weaves) to avoid double-
counting. This principle is discussed and
illustrated in Example 7.5, in which a SEGMENTI SEG ME N T 2 B
movement already handled in full in one PLAN

step is omitted in subsequent calculations.
It is again applied in Example 7.6.
A problem may arise in the use of the
basic formula (Eq. 7.2) for determining
the number of lanes when the omitted vol-
ume -happens to be the smaller of the two
secondary weaving movements. In this case
the unduplicated (larger) weaving volume
is substituted for V in the equation. This
(TRAFFIC VOLUMES IN VPH(
procedure also is illustrated in Example 7.6.
On a well'designed freeway multiple weav OVERALL WEAVING DIAGRAM
ing sections normally will not exceed three

segments. Nevertheless, the procedure out- shown to be available are adequate to pro-
lined applies to weaving sections with any vide the desired service. The proportion of
trucks, having passenger car equivalent of
number of segments. However, it should be
recognized that the analysis becomes more 3, is 8 percent. Assume that the average
service volume for the given conditions
complex as the number of segments in-
creases. For this reason, any one analysis is (level of service, PHF, and trucks) has al-
limited normally to three segments. For more ready been determined as 1,200 vehicles per
hour per lane.
than three segments the analysis would be
made in two separate parts overlapping each Solution:
other. For example, a four-segment weaving Weaving between movements CB and AE
section would be analyzed for the first three is proportional to L1 and L,; thus,
segments as if it were a complete weaving Segment 1:
section, then the last two segments (third Movement CB=400x(6/l5)= 160 vph
and fourth) would be analyzed separately Movement AE=700x(6/l5)=280 vph
in like manner. Inasmuch as the third seg- Segment 2:
ment is analyzed in both parts, the more cri- Movement CB=400— 160=240 vph
tical of the two results for this segment would Movement AE = 700 — 280 = 420 vph
be used in design.
Detailed handling of the multiple weav-
ing method is best described by the follow- c V02600 (E) I 0 VOz 300 El
ing actual examples. I.00I
1 600
10o600
I
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTIONS-MULTIPLE
420 '
WEAVING .900, ISO 2
i2'6 Vol 1,900 (M) (Ad
EXAMPLE 7.5 (A)
Problem: INCREMENTAL WEAVING

DIAG RAMS
Determine the number of lanes required
for the freeway multiple weaving section Note: In Segment 2, the secondary 420-vph
shown in the diagram for level of service C portion of weaving movement AE, which
with PHF=0.91 on the freeway. State did not weave in Segment 1, shown as the
whether the lengths of weaving segments dashed line, has already been included in the
WEAVING 183
total 700-vph AE weaving movement within potential bottleneck because further volume
movement (AC)-E, all of which weaves with increases will cause it to reach capacity be-
DB. Therefore, in subsequent calculations fore the remainder does. For length 900 ft,
for length and number of lanes, this 420-vph
volume is omitted. from Figure 7.4, for V +
= .86
For level of service C, Table 7.3 gives the (1,300+500) = 2,090 pcph, k = 3.0. Simi-
minimum quality of flow as III and the de-
sirable as II. larly, for + V ue ' = 0.86 (420 + 240)
From Table 9.6 for passenger car equiva- =765 pcph, k=2.7.
lent of 3 and 8 percent trucks, TL, the truck
adjustment factor = 0.86. Number of lanes
SEGMENT 1 N= V+(k-1)V0
sV
V+ vwe V,0 ) = ( 1/0.86) - 4,400+ (2.0x 500+ 1.7 x 240)
1,200
(280+160) =510 pcph.
= 4.8
From Figure 7.4, for service quality III
the required minimum length is 200 ft, and Use 5 lanes.
for service quality lithe desirable length is Note: The numbers of lanes for the sev-
650 ft. Thus, the available length of 600 ft eral approach and exit roadways are deter-
is adequate for purposes of weaving. mined by the methods in Chapter Nine,
For length 600 ft, k=2.8. A check of following which the overall layout is re-
Table 7.1 shows the specified service volume
viewed for balance and flexibility, and to
of 1,200 vph per lane to be acceptable.
N= V + (k -1) V,,2 insure that rigid adherence to computed
Number of lanes results has not produced unreasonably fre-
SV
=[3,600+ (1.8 x 160)]/1,200=3.2. quent changes in number of lanes.
Use 4 lanes.
SEGMENT 2 EXAMPLE 7.6
(V we + Vwe ) + V' = [(V, + v) + Problem:

For the freeway multiple weaving section
Vw']=6. [( 1,300 + 500) + 240] = 2,370 shown in the diagram, determine the num-
pcph. ber of lanes required in each segment and
From Figure 7.4, for quality III the re- establish whether or not the length of each
quired minimum length= 1,900 ft. The weaving segment is compatible with a level
available length of 900 ft is inadequate even of service C on the freeway, given a peak-
as a minimum for the level desired. It will hour factor of 0.83. Freeway geometrics
provide only quality of flow IV, with op- are ideal, and the proportion of trucks,
erating speeds likely to be 30 mph or less. with a passenger car equivalent of 3, is 5
The level of service available through Seg- percent. For these conditions, a service
ment 21 then, is below that provided in the volume of 1,200 vehicles per hour per lane
remainder of the freeway. The section is a has been established.
SEGMENT 1
(v+ v 0 ) + Vsoe ' =-—[( V + V) +
Vw']=oI[( 900 + 150) +510]= 1,715pcph.

I-L1 1,700-4 O E
SEGMENT I SEGMENT 2 From Figure 7.4 for quality II, the re-
- L 2,270 quired length is 2,600 ft, which exceeds the
available 1,700 ft. However, Table 7.3 indi-
PLAN
cates that quality III is an acceptable mini-
1,700
mum level; this requires only 1,070 ft.
Therefore, the length of 1,700 ft is reason-
ably adequate for purposes of weaving.
420 For length 1,700 ft, from Figure 7.4, for
680 V55 +V 1 =(1/0.91)(900+ 150) = 1,155
pcph, k = 2.4. Similarly for V100 + V 02 =
(1/0.91)(510+360)=955 pcph,k=l.8.SV
(TRAFFIC VOLUMES IN VPH(
is acceptable, according to Table 7.1.
OVERALL WEAVING DIAGRAM
V+(k-1)V'105 *
Solution: N=
Sv
Weaving between AE and CD is propor- - 3,510+(1.4x 150+0.8 x 510*)
tional to L1 and L+; thus, 1,200
= 3.4.
Use 4 lanes.
VOII.7O0 II(A( VO 420
DI
2 60 .850 I \61 ". 00 I SEGMENT 2
10 V 0, + VICCU = (I / T L)( VW , + V) = (I / 0.91)
(170+ 120)=320.
I 910C 80.170
I VOI80 From Figure 7.4 for quality III, the re-
.GIO (0)
quired minimum length is 100 ft and the
(E)
desirable quality III length is 400 ft. The
INCREMENTAL WEAVING DIAGRAM available length of 570 ft is therefore ade-
quate for purposes of weaving.
For length 570 ft, k = 1.2.
Segment 1:
v (k—I )V 5
Movement CD = 680 x (1,700/2,270) N—
Sv
=5 10 vph I,660+(0.2x 120)
Movement AE = 480 x (1,700/2,270) 1,200
= 360 vph = 1.4.
Segment 2:
Movement CD=680-510=170 vph Use 2 lanes.
Movement AE=480-360= 120 vph Each weaving segment is longer than the
Note: See Example 7.5 for discussion of minimum required for level of service C.
movement represented by dashed line. Therefore, the whole weaving section is com-
patible with the remainder of the freeway.
For level of service C, from Table 7.3
the quality of flow desirably is II, and from VIr_' is not included in the calculations for length
Table 9.6 for passenger car equivalent of 3 and number of lanes because it is already included in
the main weaving movement. In the calculation for N.
and 5 percent trucks, the truck adjustment VIO ,' is therefore substituted, it being the lowest real
factor is T 1,=0.9I. number.
WEAVING 185
141 caving Under Other- Than-Freeway

Conditions
Thus far, this chapter has concentrated

principally on weaving as found on freeways,
where marginal frictions are largely absent.
Often, however, operations on more ordi-
nary highway types also involve weaving in
varying degrees. Such operation sometimes
entails many adverse influences, which may
prevent the high-caliber weaving associated
with freeways.
On ordinary highways other than free-
ways in rural areas, as long as reasonably
free flow is achieved, the procedures de-
scribed for freeways remain generally valid.
This applies to weaving along the highway
between reasonably closely spaced junctions,
as well as to weaving within well-designed
rotary intersections of adequate dimensions.
On the other hand, where certain design fea-
tures of low standard are prevalent within
the weaving section care should be exer-
cised to account for these inadequacies.
Usually this is accomplished by appropriate
reduction in the lane service volume or ca-
pacity. SV, in determining the number of
lanes.
On major streets in urban areas, disturb-
ing elements within the weaving section (such
as signals, driveways, exits and entrances
to business establishments, pedestrians, park-
This rotary includes a series of weaving sections:
ing, or vehicles stopping to pick up or
if serves as a collector road for freeway and
discharge passengers) can place severe limi- local traffic.
tations on the use of weaving sections. Al-
though the individual effects of these factors
cannot be evaluated directly, their influence
should be recognized in design and in analy-
sis of operation. First, the value of SV IV: or, if an operating level equivalent to
which determines the width should be ap- IV is desired the length might be selected
between curves IV and III. Thus, the addi-
propriately reduced to reflect these influ-
tional length would tend to compensate for
ences, as on any highway. Second, the ef-
the adverse conditions described. No rigid
fect of adverse conditions should be further rules or criteria can be given for such cases;
recognized through use of judgment in choos- good engineering judgment must be applied
ing the proper curve of Figure 7.4 for de- in solving such problems. In some cases,
termining the length: i.e., for any intended such as where a rotary of very limited di-
operating level a length greater than that mensions is involved or where traffic signals
represented in the chart should be selected. within or near the weaving section prevent
For example, if an operating level repre- free weaving, it may prove impossible to
sented by curve V is expected where fric- analyze the location as a weaving section.
tional elements are known to be present, the An example follows, to illustrate the
length chosen niiht be taken from curve method.
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTION-WEAVING covered in Chapter Ten, the effect of these

UNDER OTHER-THAN-FREEWAY CONDITIONS several frictional effects cannot be evalu-
ated directly, and to some extent is a matter
EXAMPLE 7.7
of experience and judgment. In this prob-
Problem: lem, which is illustrative only of application
The elongated rotary shown in the dia- of a service volume once obtained, the fig-
gram is located on an urban arterial street ure of 900 passenger cars per hour per lane
without control of access, with parking per- has been assumed as a reasonable value, and
mitted. There is commercial development found acceptable by Table 7.1. In actual
on the periphery of the rotary, involving problems, analysis of the entire urban street
pedestrian movements and local traffic move- system composing the rotary and its ap-
ments to and from commercial driveways proaches would be necessary to develop the
and entrances. The proportion of trucks in appropriate value.
the traffic flow is approximately 10 percent, From Table 10.6 for E=2 and 10 per-
with an assumed passenger car equivalent cent trucks, the truck adjustment factor=
of 2. Under these several restrictive condi- 0.91.
tions, a service volume of 900 passenger cars + V,1;e =(1/0.9 1)(400 + 350) = 825 pcph.
per hour per lane has been established as In Table 7.3 the desirable quality of flow
feasible, based on the approach and exiting is III for a desirable level of service A and
roadways. IV for a minimum level of service D.
For the peak-hour traffic volumes shown, Using Figure 7.4,
find both the desirable and the minimum for both cases, k=3.0.
length of and the number of lanes required for desirable level of service A, the
for the section marked "A". length of weaving section required = 380 ft.
for minimum level of service D, the
length of weaving section required= 120 ft.
SV is given as 900 pcph, therefore SV=
900 (0.91) =820 vph.
N
- v + ( k -I ) V
2
Sv
- 1,560+(3.0— 1.0)350
820
= 2.8.
Use 3 lanes for moving traffic, in addition
to any parking lanes required. (Caution:
Parking lanes must be 12 to 14 ft wide, in
average cases, to assure minimum influence
PLAN
on moving traffic. The service volume given
Vol • 550
for use in this problem presumably reflects
900 ' 950 the influence of parking in the particular
problem at hand.)
660 V02 260 6,0
WEAVING DIAGRAM
REFERENCES
Solution:
I. NORMANN, 0. K., "Operation of Weaving
The effect on traffic flow of pedestrians, Areas." HRB Bull. 167, pp. 38-41 (1957).
parking, and unlimited entering and exit Hess, J. W., Traffic Operation in Urban
movements, and other roadside frictional ef- Weaving Areas. Bureau of Public Roads
fects is to reduce sharply the service volume (1963 data, in preparation for publication).
of the through street as compared to the LEISCH, J. E. Unpublished studies (1958-
service volumes attainable on freeways. As 64).
CHAPTER EIGHT
RAMPS
INTRODUCTION though the expression "ramp capacity" is

frequently used, actually it is only in rela-
A ramp- s a roadway that permits traffic' tively special cases that the capacity of the
to transfer from one highway to another. It ramp proper (that is, the turning roadway)
is broadly defined as an interconnecting governs the amount of traffic carried. In the
roadway of a traffic interchange, or any con- great majority of cases, merging and diverg-
nection between highways at different levels ing conditions at the ramp termini control
or between parallel highways, on which ve- the volume carried. Hence, this chapter is
hicles may enter or leave a designated road- concerned primarily with determination of
way. More specifically, for the purposes of ramp junction service volumes and capaci-
this chapter, a length of roadway is assumed ties, rather than those of the ramp roadway.
to exist between terminals; that is, an open- Closely related to junction performance is
ing in a narrow outer separator could not be another important factor, the Y performance
analyzed accuratejy by means of the pro- of freeway lane 1, the right-hand through
cedures contained herein. lane in the ramp terminal area. Because the
The following discussion of ramp opera-• volume in freeway lane 1 will often control
lions and influences may be applied to all the ramp service volumes and capacity, close
multilane highways having ramp connec- consideration also is given to procedures for
tions, but because ramps are used primarily the determination of lane 1 volumes at
with freeways, this type of roadway is nor- critical locations under various conditions.
mally referred to in the text. The capacity and service volume deter-
The efficiency of traffic movement on .the mination procedures here presented are
through lanes of a freeway may be directly based on the analysis of a large number of
affected by the adequacy of the associated ramp junction studies conducte4 throughout
ramps. Inadequate entrance ramps can the nation,and are intended for both opera-
seriously limit the volume of traffic that can tional and design applications.
enter a freeway, with congestion resulting on They combine two recently developed
the through roadway lanes if the limiting service volume determination procedures
volume is exceeded. Inadequate exit ramps into a workable whole (1, 2, 3). Although
also can cause freeway congestion, due either either of these procedures could be utilized
to the basic inability of an exit ramp . to ac- in solving certain problems, the Committee
commodate traffic leaving the freeway or to has elected to specify those levels of service
a. backup from other .restrictive conditions for which each is considered most appIo-
farther along the ramp, such as insufficient priate. Both procedures are based on sub-
provision for traffic discharge into the neigh- stantial amounts of actual field data, but,
boring street system. The proper design and because much still remains to be learned
placement of ramps on high-volume high- about ramp and ramp terminal operations,
ways is, therefore, imperative if those high- there remain certain designs and special
ways are to offer fast, efficient, and safe problems not yet adequately covered. Study
operation. and understanding of the principles set forth
The development of such suitable designs in Chapters Seven and Eight should, how-
to provide for given volumes of traffic de- ever, assist the engineer in-solving -these spe-
pends to a great extent on the determination cial problems; approximate methods of han-
of ramp and ramp junction capacities. Al- dling several are described. References to
187
several other studies in this field are included for ramp junctions. Such knowledge is
at the end of the chapter (4, 5, 6, 7, 8). equally essential whether the problem in-
volves the design of an adequate ramp or the
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS analysis of an existing ramp. Hourly volume
data may be inadequate. The peak flow on
The following are some of the more im- one ramp may occur at a different time
portant factors which relate to design of within the hour than the peak flow on the
ramps and to traffic operations in connection freeway served.
therewith. These should be kept in mind In applying the procedures contained in
throughout any evaluation of the perform- this chapter to the solution of specific exist-
ance of an existing ramp and should be ing operational problems, then, peaking
similarly considered during the design of any characteristics within the hour may be found
new ramp-freeway junction. It should be critical, in which case a rate of flow based on
recognized that considerable reduction in a period of time shorter than one hour
level of service under high traffic flow condi- should be used. For design applications, on
tions can be expected if these factors are the other hand, the volumes used will nor-
disregarded. mally be the estimated design hour demand
Weaving Between Ramps for the future design year. This chapter in-
cludes discussion regarding application of
Where an on-ramp junction is followed a the peak-hour factor to ramp junction
relatively short distance downstream by an problems.
off-ramp junction, a case of one-sided weav-
ing, as described in Chapter Seven, usually influence of Design
exists. Research has shown the volume dis- The design of the entrance and exit ter-
tributions by lane at certain critical points in minals of ramps appears, by general observa-
the merging and diverging sections to be tion, to be an obvious factor influencing
significant. Also important in some cases is overall junction operations. Designs which
the rate at which weaving occurs. Allowance have sharp curvature adjacent to the free-
for these factors in design through applica- way, poor sight distance, inadequate length
tion of specified service volume criteria at for accomplishing merging, diverging, or
these selected checkpoints and specified speed-change functions, or poor delineation
maximum weaving rates, helps to assure pro- of vehicle paths, should be avoided, because
vision of an acceptable level of service for they tend to produce erratic operation. Ter-
the type of weaving found between on- and minal designs on new facilities should pro-
off-ramps. Auxiliary lane sections between vide easy, natural pathways with adequate
ramps also involve• consideration of these sight distance and good delineation. Inter-
service volume checkpoints and weaving change patterns should remain as simple and
limitations. as similar in operation as possible, consistent
Weaving between major roadways with with need and economy. Standardized exit
two or more lanes on all branches is not and entrance terminal designs, as proposed
covered in this chapter; reference should be by a number of investigators and designers,
made to Chapter Seven for such weaving. are being adopted in some areas in the field.
Generally, Chapter Seven is directed toward Nevertheless, many below-standard termini
weaving between the main lines of two or currently exist in the field, on highways built
more freeways, whereas the procedures in some years ago or fitted into very limited
this chapter are more appropriate for most rights-of-way. Detailed analyses of the many
weaving between successive ramps, with or field studies on which the procedures in this
without auxiliary lanes, on one side of a chapter are based have, unfortunately, failed
freeway. to provide positive quantitative indications of
the effect on ramp junction capacities of in-
Consideration of Peak-Period Volumes
adequacies such as those previously listed.
For no portion of a highway is it more Paradoxically, field studies frequently have
important to know the volume of traffic in shown that ramp-freeway terminals of sub-
various movements during peak periods than standard design on older, overloaded free-
RAMPS 189
ways have actually carried volumes com-

parable to those carried at terminals having
high design standards, where sufficient de-
mand existed. In any case, level of service
is considerably poorer at the substandard lo-
cations, with a resultant penalty to both the
ramp and the freeway stream, either up-
stream or downstream of the terminal area.
The specific adverse effects of various de-
sign inadequacies, therefore, cannot be pre-
sented on the basis of data currently avail-
able; they can be discussed only in general
terms. The computation procedures that fol-
low later in this chapter for the several levels
of service assume reasonably modern and
adequate designs. Research is currently
under way to provide more specific knowl-
edge of the effect of absence of acceleration
lanes. Adjustment factors for application to
such older designs may result from this
work.
Driver experience is important in inter-
change operation. Poor use of ramps may
be observed where unfamiliarity or lack of
experience play an important role. These
effects frequently appear to overshadow
those of design variations. Generally, the
most efficient operation is found in large
cities; these larger urban areas, which have
had considerable freeway mileage open for
relatively long periods of time, have a greater
proportion of experienced freeway drivers
than do smaller cities in which freeways have
been more recently introduced. Similarly,
interchanges carrying predominantly com- J1)oivntoin arca freeway, s/lowing ramps to and
muter traflic tend to have smoother operat- from cross streets.
ing characteristics than those carrying the
same volume of tourist or long-distance
traffic.
Hiciors Con trolling Ramp Capacity largely prevail, being utilized wherever prac-
GENERAL ticable.
Many terminals serving the surrounding
The overall capacity of a ramp is the least street system are, in effect, at-grade inter-
of three values: ( I ) the capacity of the sections, and capacity is calculated in ac-
terminal at the ramp-freeway junction, (2) cordance with the rules for calculating inter-
the capacity of the ramp proper, and (3) section capacity (see Chapter Six). It fre-
the capacity of the terminal at the junction quently will be found necessary to widen a
with the surrounding street system. Where typical one-lane exit ramp to two or even
two freeways intersect, of course, all ramp three lanes at its junction with a cross street
termini will he ramp-freeway junctions. in order to provide sufficient lanes on the
Single-lane entrance and exit ramps will approach to the signal to achieve a balance
between the capacity of the ramp roadway assistance by lane 1 vehicle drivers may be
and the ramp terminal, and to avoid a given in that some of these drivers may
back-up onto the freeway. Seldom, however, speed up or slow down to widen gaps, crowd
is there a need to provide a full-length two- over toward the left edge of lane .1 while in
lane ramp. the merging area, or even move into adjacent
The capacity of a single-lane ramp turning lane 2. Often such shifts into lane 2 will not
roadway between •termini can, under ideal be apparent to the ramp driver because the
conditions, reach 2,000 vehicles per hour, or move takes place somewhere upstream of
the same as a through roadway lane, if the the entrance ramp in anticipation of conflict
single-lane portion is short. Restricted in the merge area.
geometrics (grades, curvature, and the like) Occasionally, vehicles on a heavily-used
on most actual ramps, however, result in entrance ramp having excellent geometrics
considerably lower values in most cases. will, in effect, control the merge, with lane 1
Inasmuch as terminal capacities seldom vehicles tending to yield more than is cus-
reach this "ramp proper" value unless a lane tomary. Usually the freeway volumes are
is added to the freeway upstream of the exit light at such locations and the merge will
terminal or downstream of the entrance consist predominantly of ramp vehicles.
terminal, such volumes are seldom seen, and The critical element in evaluation of en-
one lane is generally adequate. trance ramp capabilities is the availability of
Two-lane ramps may be required, how- sufficient time-space in the lane 1 traffic
ever, where ramp volumes exceed the ca- stream. The cumulative time-space during a
pacity of the desired service volume level on short interval is essentially more important
single-lane entrances and exits. Also, if a than the size and distribution of individual
high-volume ramp roadway is more than headways or gaps, because drivers in both
1,000 ft long, or if it is on an upgrade and streams will make adjustments to allow indi-
handles appreciable volumes of trucks, two vidual vehicles to enter provided there is
lanes are necessary in order to provide for enough total time for both streams. In other
passing, breaking up of queues, and filling of words, the essential factor in ramp service
large gaps, which will permit higher speeds volume and capacity determination is the
and a more even rate of arrival at the merg- ability to estimate lane 1 volume at merging
ing terminal. A two-lane ramp may be areas, given the freeway and ramp volumes,
tapered to one lane at the freeway terminal and distances to and volumes on adjacent
provided the flow rate does not exceed ramps.
1,500 vph, or 30 veh per minute, over any
EXIT RAMP JUNCTIONS
peak 5-min period. If the volume exceeds
this amount, the ramp should not be In the case of exit ramps, estimation of
squeezed down to one lane, but a long lane 1 volume immediately upstream of the
parallel auxiliary lane should be provided, exit is the essential factor in ramp service
subject to capacity checks described in the volume and capacity determinations, be-
later portions of this chapter. cause the volume in lane 1 at such locations
At the ramp-freeway terminal, the volume will have a considerable effect on the level
of traffic in lane 1 of the freeway has a of service provided by the freeway. The
marked effect on merging and diverging problem areas associated with exit ramps can
operations and will usually control the ramp be separated into three categories, as fol-
service volumes and capacity that can be lows: (1) prevention of volume overloading
achieved. of lane 1 of the freeway immediately up-
stream from the exit, (2) provision of an
ENTRANCE RAMP JUNCTIONS efficient design for the exit ramp , and its
speed change area, and (3) provision of ade-
At entrance ramp junctions, with only quate design and capacity at the connecting
isolated exceptions, the ramp vehicle driver street terminal of the ramp. Although these
has the task of evaluating the freeway stream three categories are interrelated to some
and making speed adjustments necessary for degree, the emphasis in this chapter is on
merging into a chosen gap. Some limited the first mentioned, the determination of the
RAMPS 191
volume loading of lane I immediately up-

stream from the exit. This volume will have
a considerable effect on the speed and qual-
ity of operation found in the vicinity of the
exit ramp. The remaining factors, involving
design, also will have an effect on the speed
and quality of operation, but research has
not yet answered all the questions relating to
these elements. It is significant to note that
investigators making operational studies fre-
quently observe geometric elements that ap-
pear to have been adopted without proper
consideration of the results of previously
published research. Certainly, an essential
need is for a design which will provide ade-
quate distance for deceleration of exiting ve-
hicles after their divergence from the
through lane I of the freeway. It is im-
portant, too, that the driver be able to per-
ceive that the necessary speed reduction can
be accomplished after divergence. Ideally.
then, the speed of lane I vehicles upstream
from an exit ramp should be dependent on Depressed urban freeway section nit/i diamond
volume, rather than on geometries and sign- ramps leading to and from one-way
ing, as is often the case. frontage roads.
LEVELS OF SERVICE AT RAMP TERMINALS
Because ramps are the important input- the vicinity of ramp terminals than they
output elements of the freeway, the emphasis would on through sections, just as is the
in this chapter is on estimating volumes case in weaving sections. Characteristics of
which will result in an acceptable level of the merge and diverge operations are such
freeway flow in ramp terminal areas. that approximate level of service criteria can
The remainder of the chapter is concerned be assigned to them.
primarily with the description and computa- On the ramp turning roadway itself, the
tion of service volumes and capacity at free- situation is different and not yet fully under-
way terminals of entrance ramps and exit stood. At present, insufficient facts are
ramps and along the intervening freeway available to permit establishment of detailed
roadway where an entrance ramp is followed level of service criteria on the ramp proper.
by an exit ramp a short distance down- However, it is doubtful that rigid volume
stream. criteria could be established no matter how
Levels of service, as previously mentioned, many data were available, due to the greater
are qualitative measures of the effect of a significance of the merge and diverge con-
number of factors, including the degree of ditions.
driver satisfaction afforded. On through All sections of this manual dealing with
roadway sections, operating speeds are one service volumes and capacities of specific
measure of this factor throughout the range highway elements, other than basic long sec-
of operating levels. Speeds also have been tions of highway, attempt to specify condi-
used as the measure through "major" weav- tions that will be in harmony with the chosen
ing areas. At ramp junctions, however, the levels of service on the through highway it-
situation is more complex. On the freeway self. Thus, the operating levels for ramp ter-
lanes, speed remains a relatively good mea- minal conditions must relate to the volume
sure provided it is recognized that drivers found in lane I of the freeway in the vicinity
have somewhat less freedom to maneuver in of ramp terminals, if such balanced condi-
On the freeway at the merge or diverge

point, level of service A represents unre-
stricted operation. Entering and exiting
traffic has no appreciable effect on through
roadway flow, which, on the average, con-
tinues at its desired speeds. Entering traffic
merges smoothly, with little trouble in find-
ing gaps for merging. At this level under
ideal conditions, the total merge (lane I plus
ramp) does not exceed 1,000 vph. In the
case of 4-lane freeways, lanes I and 2 com-
bined do not exceed total volumes of 1,400
vph, at about 60 mph.
At level of service B, freeway drivers be-
come conscious of, and adjust for, slight con-
flicts at entrance ramps, but exit ramps still
present no particular problems. Entering
traffic must adjust speeds somewhat to fit
into freeway lane I gaps. Under ideal con-
ditions the total merge (lane I plus ramp)
does not exceed 1,200 vph. For a 4-lane
freeway, lanes I and 2 combined are carry-
Use of Iwo successice entrance ramps without
ing not more than 2,000 vph at speeds of
an exit ramp between.
about 55 mph. Operation at exit ramps has
little or no effect on the freeway stream, with
a diverge service volume of 1,300 vph as an
upper limit. Exceptions can occur at poorly
designed locations, with an increase in acci-
tions are to be maintained. It is the overall dents being a probable consequence.
terminal condition, rather than the separate Level of service C represents the limit of as-
conditions in lane I and on the ramp, that is sured free flow. It introduces the requirement
considered in detail in the discussion and for consideration of peaking within the peak
procedures that follow. Overall freeway hour, through use of a peak-hour factor. All
levels of service, over substantial lengths, arc drivers are well aware that they are operat-
covered in Chapter Nine. ing in a traffic interchange area, and are pre-
There are so many possible arrangements pared to adjust as necessary. They' may feel
and spacings of successive ramps of free- unduly restricted in rural situations, but
ways, both with and without auxiliary lanes operation in urban areas is still reasonably
between, that it is not feasible to define all acceptable. The maximum total merge (lane
levels of service for each specific combina- I plus ramp) varies from 1.300 to 1,550 vph
tion in this manual. Instead, the general dis- under ideal conditions, depending on the
cussion of level of service that follows de-
peak-hour factor used, with peak 5-min flow
scribes simple junctions where a one-lane
ramp connects with a freeway without rates equivalent to 1,700 vph. On four-lane
change in number of freeway lanes. Later freeways lanes I and 2 combined are carry-
in this chapter computational procedures are irig a maximum, depending on peak-hour
given for the several levels for the more com- factor, of 2,300 to 2,750 vph at speeds of
mon of the combinations found on 4-. 6-, about 50 mph. The diverge (lane 1 through
and 8-lane freeways. In adapting these pro- vehicles plus prospective exit-ramp vehicles)
cedures to combinations not included here, reaches an upper limit, depending on the
care should be taken to examine not only the peak-hour factor, of 1,400 to 1,650 vph at
specific junctions involved in the combina- this level, with peak 5-min flow rates equiva-
tion but also the entire area of influence up- lent to 1,800 vph. With good geometries this
stream and downstream. volume should be handled with little conflict.
RAMPS 193
Closely spaced braided' exit and entrance ramps on freeii'av ,iear central 1,usifless district; ilierging
and diverging predominate, there being little si'ea ving de,nand between left-hand on-ramps
and nearby righ t-lzand ofJ-ramps.
In many cases, in levels of service A, B, any appreciable length of the freeway up-
and C as described in the foregoing, the ac- stream or downstream of this location. The
ceptable merge for that level does not add remainder is governed only by the total vol-
sufficient traffic to the freeway to change the ume and overall operating speeds on the
level of service, or type of operation, radi- freeway. Of course, closely-spaced ramps
cally. At these freeway volume levels ramp can produce a near-continuous influence. Al-
volumes will often be correspondingly low. though it is desirable to provide, by design, a
Nevertheless, this is not always the case. uniform level of service over all sections of
Therefore, unless freeway volumes are very the freeway, this may not prove feasible for
low, there are quite distinct limits to the economic reasons. For instance, it may be
amount of ramp traffic that can be absorbed decided that level of service C can be toler-
without exceeding the maximum merge ser- ated at ramp terminals for a distance of
vice volumes for the selected level of service. 1,000 or 2,000 ft in the middle of a long
However, at these levels it must be remem- stretch of highway with level of service A or
bered that the merge level of service may be B.
applicable only in the near vicinity of the It should be recognized that with the free-
ramp or ramps involved, rather than along way operating at level of service A, B, or C
there will be an assigned ramp capacity com- range from 1,400 to 1,650 vph for merging
patible with the level of service chosen for and 1,500 to 1,750 vph for diverging.
balanced operation. If the ramp volume de- Capacity represents, for merging and di-
mand proves larger than that forecast, the verging just as for all other situations, the
excess ramp vehicles will be absorbed into maximum volume that has reasonable possi-
the freeway stream regardless, usually with- bility of occurring over a full hour. At a
out queuing on the ramp. The difference will number of ramp 'terminals in the larger
be that the level of service of the freeway cities, actual hourly merges and diverges of
will drop because of the overloading of the 2,000 to 2,100 passenger cars are regularly
merging and diverging sections, and possibly accomplished, usually in the 20-30 mph
the through lanes as well, if a predesignated speed range. These sometimes include 5-mm
service volume "across all freeway lanes" is rates up to an equivalent 2,300 vph. There-
exceeded. fore, the capacity of both a merging section
Levels of service D, E, and F present a and a diverging section has been established
different situation in that demand has be- as 2,000 vph. At this volume operation is at
come so high that the basic physical ability the limit of level of service E. This is not a
of the junction to handle increases in de- desirable type of operation, being too un-
mand, or even short-term fluctuations, must stable and subject to "breakdown," and hav-
be taken into account. ing intermittent queuing at on-ramps. To
Level of service D represents a condition obtain capacity merging, the upstream' vol-
which is approaching instability and incipi- ume must be less than the upper volume
ent congestion. As this condition is ap- limit of level E. That is, unbalanced opera-
proached, a shift in lane distribution from tion along the freeway is inevitable if sub-
that found at better levels takes place up- stantial merging is introduced at level E. If
stream of the ramp (see p. 234). Ramp vol- the approach is already at capacity, input of
umes considerably higher than those allowa- additional vehicles via on-ramps will in-
ble under procedures for level C can be evitably bring on a breakdown in traffic
obtained, provided total volume on the free- operation.
way does not exceed level D volumes. This Level F represents forced flow, which de-
being the case, it is .the level at which many velops following breakdown of merging.
highway administrators in major cities must Practically all lane 1 and on-ramp traffic is
work in getting the most out of their existing "stop-and-go," with adverse effects moving to
freeway networks, even though it is above other freeway lanes as well as drivers at-
desirable design levels. It is also at or close tempt to change lanes to avoid the merging
to the level which is established in certain section. Traffic characteristics vary widely,
electronic traffic surveillance procedures as as do merge and diverge volumes, which
that at which corrective actions should be may be any value below 2,000 vph. At exit
instituted to prevent "breakdown." Driving ramps, low speed and stop-and-go movement
conditions are such that reciprocal adjust- prevent effective accommodation of the de-
ments in speed and lane occupancy are made mand volume, with considerable delay to
by drivers on the freeway as well as on the drivers likely.
ramp, but freeway traffic continues to move At many locations where this situation has
at average speeds of about 40 mph. Queuing existed for some time, drivers tend' to adopt
occurs occasionally on the ramp when the an "alternate feed" (one from the ramp, one
ramp volume is relatively heavy. A peak from the freeway, and so on). This alternate
5-min merge rate equivalent to up to 1,800 feed, which usually develops voluntarily on
vph can be handled, depending on the size the part of motorists, is an interesting exam-
of the city, for satisfactory accommodation ple of motorists familiar with a difficult situ-
of short-term fluctuations. A diverge peak ation responding courteously in a group ef-
rate of 1,900 vph can be accommodated fort to keep traffic moving in both arriving
satisfactorily if geometrics are reasonably queues. In situations such as this, found on
good. The hourly volumes which will result crowded freeways, the ramp and lane 1 vol-
in these rates,, for various peaking factors, umes which can be carried are limited to
RAMPS 195
approximately 900 vph each. Whether such

operation is desirable or not depends on the
relative demands on the two approaches. If
they are relatively balanced, it may be quite
efficient. On the other hand, if they are un-
balanced undesirable advantage is given to
the lighter flow at the expense of the heavier.
This alternate feed is, in effect, a rudi-
mentary example of "metering" of traffic, a
procedure gradually coming into greater use.
In this simple case, driver courtesy consti-
tutes the metering device, producing the
fixed regular discharge pattern, regardless of
relative traffic demands. In the typical so-
phisticated electronic installation, on the
other hand, the relative demands on the two
or more approaches are continuously moni-
tored and interpreted. Vehicles entering the
freeway flow are pre-scheduled, by means of
controls along the entrance ramp, to reach
the merge "at speed" simultaneously with the
arrival of a gap in the main line lane I flow,
thus making optimum use of the merge area
with due consideration to the relative vol-
umes involved. Insufficient data are yet
available to permit presentation of service
volumes and capacities associated with such
This iizt"rcliaiige iflcorf)Grates it variety of ramp
controlled merges. types.
The basic descriptions of levels of service
just presented assume that no additional
width beyond the normal through roadway
width is provided at any point through the
merge or diverge areas. In practice, pro-
vision of an auxiliary lane outside the nor-
mal width can greatly improve operations it should not be used directly for capacity
where an off-ramp closely follows an on- and service volume computations without
ramp. In fact, this element is a key to main- reference to the procedures that are de-
tenance of a balanced level of service along scribed later in this chapter. The freeway
the freeway. The auxiliary lane provides the volume criteria in the table are from Chapter
pavement width and maneuvering space Nine.
When the values in this table are used in
necessary to accommodate the temporarily
conjunction with the procedures for levels
increased volume effectively, without lower-
A through C to determine on-ramp capabili-
ing the level of service due to increased vol- ties, there will be cases where the actual de-
umes in the through lanes. mand volume on the ramp is found to ex-
It is desirable that such auxiliary lanes he ceed that allowable at the given merge
surfaced in a contrasting pavement type, service volume level. In such cases, one
giving clear indication of their specialized apparent solution is addition of a freeway
purpose, to avoid their utilization by through lane at this point. Another solution is to
vehicles. provide more on-ramps, thus dividing up the
Table 8.1 summarizes the foregoing fun- load. However, this solution may result in
damental level of service criteria for simple ramps so close together that other unde-
merge and diverge situations. The table is sirable operating characteristics are intro-
presented for informational purposes only: duced. Where this occurs, alternate solu-
TABLE 8.1—SERVICE VOLUMESa AND CAPACITY IN VICINITY OF RAMP TERMINALS
(YPH OF MIXED TRAFFIC IN ONE DIRECTION, ASSUMING LEVEL TERRAIN AND NOT OVER 5% TRUCKS)
FREEWAY VOLUME, ONE DIRECTIONb (vph) CHECKPOINT VOLUME (vph)

LEVEL
OF WEAVING VOLUME' (vph)
SERVICE 4-LANE 6-LANE 8-LANE MERGE° DIVERGE4
A 1400 2400 3400 1000 1100 800

B 2000 3500 5000 1200 1300 1000
PEAK-HOUR 037 0.83 0.91 1.009 0.77 0.83 0.91 1.009 0.77 0.83 0.91 LOGs 0.77 083 0.91 LOOK 0.77 0.83 0.91 1.00z 0.77 0.83 0.91 LOGs
FACTOR1
C 2300 2500 2750 3000 3700 4000 4350 4800 5100 5500 6000 6600 1300 1400 1550 1700 1400 1500 1650 1800 1100 1200 1350 1450
D 2800 3000 3300 3600 4150 4500 4900 5400 5600 6000 6600 7200 1400 1500 1650 1800 1500 1600 1750 1900 1400 1500 1650 1800
Eb 4000 6000 8000 2000 2000 2000

F Widely Variable
Upper limit volume for each level of service.

To be used in making across all through freeway lanes" service volume checks between ramp-freeway termini and/or interchanges.
Represents the merge taking place, which is determined by the computed lane I volume plus the on-ramp volume
Represents the volume in lane I immediately upstream from an exit ramp; includes both through vehicles and prospective exit-ramp vehicles.
For weaving between on-ramps and off-ramps per 500 ft of roadway segment.
1 For freeways, the ratio of the whole-hour volume to the highest hourly rate of
flow occurring during a 5-mm interval within the peak hour.
A peak-hour factor of 1.00 is rarely attained; the values given should be considered as maximum average flow rates likely to be obtained during the peak 5-min interval within the peak hour.
h Capacity.
RAMPS 197
tions must be considered, keeping in mind

— —— —
— —— (-4-
that the specified level of service will be
applicable only in the near vicinity of the -... .4.V V...4—...:
ramp or ramps involved. This being the

case, the procedures for level D may be WEAVING
CHECK
TYPICAL ACROSS
FREEWAYLANE5
ALL
CHECKPOINT
adopted occasionally with reasonable assur-
VOLUME CHECKPOINT
ance that the level of service upstream or V VOLUME DIRECTLY COMPUTED BY PROCEDURES IN THIS
downstream will not be reduced significantly CHAPTER. (IN SOME CASES MUST HE ADDED To KNOWN
VOLUME TO OBTAIN CHECKPOINT VOLUME.)
unless the service volume on the main line
itself is exceeded. However, drivers will feel Figure 8.1. Critical points for volume
somewhat inconvenienced through the ramp determination in ramp junction analysis.
junction section.
As previously mentioned, provision of an
auxiliary lane may be highly valuable, where
an on-ramp precedes an off-ramp, particu-
larly when the ramps are relatively close. the bottleneck will be critical and queuing
The volume between, the on-ramp and the off- and speed reduction can be expected either
ramp is always greater than volumes on the on the ramp or on the through freeway
adjacent sections, and an auxiliary lane is an lanes, or both.
inexpensive way to reduce the likelihood that Determination of ramp junction service
this section will become a bottleneck. The volumes involves one of two basic proce-
auxiliary lane removes sufficient off-traffic dures, depending on the particular service
from.the freeway, while still carrying much of level involved. For typical design purposes,
the on-ramp traffic, to permit the freeway to or for any situation where assured free flow
maintain its intended level of service through at level C or better is required, the cal-
the interchange area. Under these conditions culation procedures of the first following sec-
the increased width offers considerably in- tion are suggested. For levels D and E,
creased flexibility for weaving maneuvers. such as in analysis of existing situations
(e.g., determining location and cause of
bottlenecks) and the checking of designs to
COMPUTATION PROCEDURES FOR
RAMP JUNCTIONS be sure that ramp junctions will not cause
queuing on the freeway, the calculation pro-
Procedures for determining acceptable cedures of the second following section
volumes at ramp junctions are based on the may be used. In most typical cases making
premise that if the demand volume does not use of these procedures, volumes can be con-
exceed the service volume at certain critical sidered as mixed traffic.
points, such as those shown in Figure 8.1, In the procedures for levels A through C,
which represents a typical junction, good equations (or nomographs representing these
operating conditions will result on both the equations graphically) are employed. As a
freeway and ramp and no further detailed group, these give consideration to (a) the
analysis is required. These critical point volume of the ramp under study, (b) the up-
checks include "across all freeway lane" stream freeway volume, and (c) the distance
checks and weaving checks, in addition to to and the volume on nearby adjacent ramps,
checks at specific points in specific lanes. both upstream and downstream. Not all of
Identification of the specific points to be con- these variables are used in each equation or
sidered is discussed later in the procedures nomograph, however. In the case of en-
section of this chapter. trance ramps these factors establish the ex-
If the demand volume somewhat exceeds pected merge, which consists of the sum of
the service volume for the desired level of the computed lane 1 volume on the freeway
service, but remains below capacity, the at the on-ramp nose and the assigned ramp
ramp will still operate, but at a poorer level volume. In the case of simple exit ramps the
of service. At the heavier volumes indica- same variables apply; they are used to deter-
tions of a bottleneck condition may develop. mine a lane I volume immediately upstream
If the demand volume exceeds the capacity from the exit ramp. This computed volume
includes lane 1 vehicles continuing on the ramp terminal, no significant speed reduc-
freeway past the exit ramp, as well as pro- tion on the through freeway lanes as a result
spective exit-ramp vehicles. of the ramp traffic being added, and-no sig-
Although a wide variety of combinations nificant effect on through traffic by exiting
of geometrics is covered by the equations and vehicles at off-ramps. This is not to say that
nomographs, not all possible designs are in- queuing and speed reduction would nevei
cluded, for lack of adequate study data. occur, as there is always a possibility, at an
Several such omissions are discussed, and on-ramp, of a queue of traffic arriving on the
rationalized computation procedures are sug- ramp at the same time that a queue occurs
gested. on the freeway. It is practically certain that
In the procedures for levels D and E, use this will happen at any ramp occasionally, at
is made of standard charts that establish lane almost any volume level, although not as
distribution criteria at various points along frequently at -the lower volumes. This type
the merge or diverge area, to establish vol- of operation at* ramps must be expected and
umes in lane 1 which can be compared with should not be considered an unsatisfactory
criteria for level of service D and capacity. freeway operation; it cannot be "designed
This procedure can be used for an isolated out" by assuming lower design volumes.
single-lane ramp or any combination of Failure occurs when the queue does not
single-lane ramps with or without auxiliary dissipate quickly but exists for several
lanes. minutes.
In both procedures, volumes are con- This section, then, discusses procedures
sidered as representing mixed traffic contain- for determination of the lane I volume and
ing not over 5 percent trucks, on relatively the resultant merge and diverge service vol-
level terrain with grades not over 3 percent. umes that can be handled at level C or bet-
This represents the average condition base ter. They are equally suitable for levels A,
upon which the methods were developed. B, and C. If preliminary analysis indicates
Where substantially greater truck volumes that operation at or near capacity is in-
or steeper grades are involved, the proce- volved, and if local conditions permit no
dures involving the equations and nomo- other alternative but such operation, then
graphs should still be carried out without operating conditions may be evaluated as
change; only the final result should be ad- outlined for levels D and E, later in this
justed for trucks and grades, as a final addi- chapter, instead of by this method.
tional step, as discussed later in this chapter The method involves calculation of vari-
under "Related Computational Devices." ous lane 1 volumes by means of equations
which were developed by multiple regres-
Calculation of Service Volumes, Levels A sion techniques for the purpose of estimating
Through C the probable traffic volume in lane 1 of a
GENERAL PROCEDURES freeway at selected checkpoints (1, 2). For
convenience of use these equations also are
In the usual case the engineer who is presented as nomógraphs.
evaluating either an existing interchange de-
The steps are as follows;
sign or a proposed new design.is given the
traffic demand for each of the movements in- I. Establish the geometrics of the location
volved. His need is to determine whether or under study, including number of freeway
not the design will operate satisfactorily at lanes and location and type of adjacent
the level of service he is considering. ramps upstream and downstream from the
In most cases a design will be considered junction under study. In the case of new de-
satisfactory if it permits operation at level C, signs, this may involve several trial designs.
representing relatively free flow, or better. (If necessary, compute the number of free-
Conditions which can be expected if the way lanes by means of the procedures given
demand volume does not exceed level C for in Chapter Nine.)
the merge or diverge include a good operat- 2. Establish the demand volumes for all
ing condition at the freeway terminal, no traffic movements involved.
significant queuing upstream of the entrance 3, Select the appropriate equation (or
RAMPS 199
nornograph) for the geometrics involved, and Table 8.1. Usually, the exit ramp volume is
compute the expected volume in lane I at an assigned volume, in which case the differ-
the appropriate checkpoint or points (or ence between the computed lane I volume
other dependent variable in certain designs). and the assigned exit ramp volume is the
4. Analyze the criteria assembled in the number of through vehicles. However, there
previous steps, as follows (adjusting for will also be cases where the designer wishes
trucks and grades as a final step, if necessary, to know how many vehicles can exit at a
by the procedure given under "Related ramp given a certain freeway volume ap-
Computational Devices" later in this chap- proaching the ramp and a lane 1 diverge
ter) service volume which must not be exceeded.
At a merge point—The anticipated In this type of problem, the dependent varia-
on-ramp volume is added to the computed
ble (the lane 1 volume) is already given, so
lane 1 volume at the nose to give an ex-
the allowable ramp volume for the chosen
pected merge, which is compared with the
level of service can be computed directly.
merge checkpoint maximum allowable ser-
vice volume given in Table 8.1. At a location with an auxiliary lane—
At a diverge point—The computed Where an auxiliary lane is added between an
lane I volume immediately upstream from entrance ramp and an exit ramp, lane 1 and
an exit ramp, which includes through ve- auxiliary lane volumes are calculated at se-
hicles remaining in this lane as well as ve- lected points between the ramps. These vol-
hicles about to exit, is compared to the umes are checked against the merge service
diverge checkpoint service volume from volume or the diverge service volume de-
..,.
. -=-.-.. ... . -..

. -
,
I:1fr' IVo
/1::.
VL i.!. k'
44
Left-side direct-connec- Iwn ramps as used together with right-side outer wilnc'ctwIls in this inter-
change between two free ways.
pending on the location of the checkpoints. Addition of an auxiliary lane.

These procedures are discussed in detail later Increase in the distance between
under "Auxiliary Lane Use." ramps or interchanges.
For weaving between closely spaced Separation of high-volume ramps into
ramps—Weaving service volume criteria are two ramps.
presented in Table 8.1. The assigned ramp Use of a collector-distributor road to
volumes are added and checked against the separate weaving from mainline traffic.
table value. If necessary, calculations can be Rearrangement of ramp sequence
performed to determine the weaving taking (possibly involving braiding of ramps).
place on any 500-ft segment of the weaving Addition of a freeway lane or lanes.
section.
For 2-lane ramps and major forks— VARIABLES CONSIDERED
The various merge and diverge volumes
which can be checked are compared with the The equations to be presented involve, as
appropriate standard merge and diverge ser- a group, a substantial number of factors and
vice volumes in Table 8.1. variables, although not all are used in any
one equation. These are here defined and
For "across all through freeway lanes"
described:
volumes—The total volume of traffic on the
freeway, excluding auxiliary lane volumes, is Lane Designations
checked against the freeway service volume Lane 1.—As defined throughout this
given in Table 8.1. In this procedure any manual, the right-hand through lane of the
auxiliary lane. is not counted as a freeway freeway.
lane. Ramp Lane A.—The ramp laneclosest to
5. Evaluate and interpret the results of the the freeway, in the case of a two-lane ramp.
analyses in Step 4, as'follows: In the case of a major fork, it would be the
lane of the merging or diverging roadway
Service volumes for the particular level of
closest to the adjacent roadway.
service selected should not be exceeded at
any point if full harmony of design is to be Ramp Lane B.—The ramp lane farthest
maintained. If they are not exceeded the de- from the freeway, in the case of a two-lane
sign is considered satisfactory for traffic ramp. In the case of a major fork, it would
operation at the selected level of service. If be the lane of the merging or diverging road-
service volumes are exceeded at one or more way farthest from the adjacent roadway.
points: Dependent Variables
In the case of a new design, redesign The equations for 4-, 6-, and 8-lane free-
if at all possible, or accept a poorer level of ways involve three separate dependent varia-
service. In considering the latter alternative, bles, all measures of volume. These give
remember that, although an occasional junc- volumes in vehicles per hour (vph) of mixed
tion operating somewhat below the desired traffic, containing up to 5 percent trucks.
level may be acceptable, the more often this However, if properly interpreted they can be
alternative is used the poorer will be the considered as hourly rates expanded from
overall level of service on the highway. short-period counts. The equations yield
In the case of an existing facility, con- estimates of lane 1 volumes which are sub-
sider reconstruction or accept a restricted ject to standard errors of estimate. The
level of service. At important locations, con- variables are as follows:
sider special metering or other control mea- V 1 = ( 1) for an on-ramp equation, the
sures capable of developing highly efficient lane 1 volume at the on-ramp
junction operations. nose just before the merge takes
The usual goal of redesign or reconstruc- place.
tion steps to be taken if service volumes are for an off-ramp equation, the
exceeded is to reduce checkpoint volumes to lane 1 volume upstream from
within the selected level of service ranges. the off-ramp nose, immediately
Examples of possible methods would in- before divergence takes place.
clude: for a 2-lane off-ramp or a major
RAMPS 201
fork, the lane 1 volume im- noses, this distance is identical to the
mediately downstream from the length of the auxiliary lane.
bifurcation. Ve= volume on an adjacent downstream
Vl+A= (1) For a 2-lane on-ramp, the ini- on-ramp or off-ramp.
tial merge volume of lane 1 ve-
hicles and ramp lane A vehicles COMPUTATIONAL EQUATIONS AND NOMO-
(i.e., the left ramp lane or lane GRAPHS, LEVELS A THROUGH C
closest to the freeway lanes).
(2) for a 2-lane off-ramp, the vol- Figures 8.2 through 8.19 present 18 equa-
ume in lane I of the combined tions and 18 equivalent nomographs for use
flow before the divergence takes in determining lane 1 volumes on 4-, 6-, and
place which splits the volume 8-lane freeways, primarily at levels of ser-
into freeway lane 1 and ramp vice A through C, given a variety of ramp-
lane A. freeway junction geometric layouts for
V= for a major fork on a 6-lane freeway, which sufficient data were available for
the volume in the center lane before analysis. To the extent found significant in
it splits into lane I and lane A of the any particular layout, these equations take
two fork legs, respectively. into account the distances to and the volumes
on adjacent upstream and downstream
3. Independent Variables ramps, as well as the freeway and ramp vol-
The seven independent variables used, as umes at the terminal for which the computa-
appropriate, in the several equations, follow. tions are being made. Special conditions and
Again, volumes are in vehicles per hour of limitations on use are shown in some cases.
mixed traffic, with up to 5 percent trucks. Detailed statistical data regarding the multi-
ple regression analyses employed to develop
J1,= foran on-ramp equation, the freeway these equations are given in Appendix C.
volume, total for all freeway lanes, in Where the method shows a given design
one direction immediately upstream to be unsatisfactory, the remedies involve
of the nose of the on-ramp before the largely exploratory analyses. No direct indi-
merge takes place. cation is given of what steps to take, but
V1 = for an off-ramp equation, the total other designs must be assumed and tested.
freeway volume, including prospec- Clues are provided, however, which the de-
tive off-ramp vehicles, upstream of signer can interpret as related to basic free-
(approaching) the off-ramp. way operating characteristics. He knows,
Vr (1) for an on-ramp equation, the for instance, that once he has made one
volume entering via the ramp computation which resulted in an unsatis-
being considered in the prospec- factory merge, he must revise the design
tive merge. (such as by providing an auxiliary lane or
for an off-ramp equation, the by moving a ramp), reduce the given vol-
volume exiting at the off-ramp
ume of ramp traffic (by providing other
under consideration.
for a major fork, the volume paths for part of the demand), or reduce
using the right-hand roadway. lane 1 volumes. Inasmuch as certain of the
D,= distance, in feet, measured as in factors covered by the equations will be con-
Figure 7.5, from the ramp under constant for the particular site under study, he
sideration to an adjacent upstream can, by inspection, quite rapidly ascertain
on-ramp or off-ramp. the alternatives open to him. For conveni-
V,,= volume on an adjacent upstream on- ence in these calculations, the series of
ramp or off-ramp. nomographs representing each of the equa-
Dd = distance, in feet, measured as in tions has been included. Instructions for the
Figure 7.5, from the ramp under con- use of each are given directly on the charts.
sideration to an adjacent downstream Their use will frequently expedite rapid
on-ramp or off-ramp. Where an evaluation of the several potential alterna-
auxiliary lane is added between ramp tives in a particular case.
For most purposes, as already indicated, be coun'ted as a lane and the volume on .the
the volumes as used and as computed in auxiliary lane should not be included 'in the
these procedures can be taken as mixed total volume considered.
traffic containing a few trucks (at least up to Figure 8.20 is an additional device used in
5 percent) without serious error. However, conjunction with the equations in the anal-
where grades are significant or truck vol- ysis of auxiliary lane locations. Its use per-
umes are substantial, allowance should be mits examination of the status of "on" and
made for them through adjustment of the "off" transitional movements at any point
final result by application of the truck along the auxiliary lane. It is intended for
equivalency factors presented in Chapter application to auxiliary lanes 1,400 ft or less
Nine. (Adjustments should not be made in in length, as covered by Figures 8.6, 8.7,
the intermediate computations; the mixed 8.11, 8.12, and 8.16. (If the auxiliary lane
traffic volumes should be used directly.) is longer than 1,400 ft, the distributions
Following the series of figures is a group shown in Case II of Figure 8.23 can be
of related computational devices to which applied.) The computational procedure used
reference must occasionally be made in using is as follows:
Certain of the figures. Also included is dis-
cussion of other geometric combinations for Determine lane I volume at the on-
which insufficient data were available for ramp nose by the use of the appropriate
development of specific equations. To the basic nomograph (Fig. 8.6, 8.7, 8.11, 8.12,
extent possible, approximate procedures for or 8.16). This lane I yolume will consist of
handling such cases are described. lane I through vehicles and vehicles intend-
Summary Table 8.2 is provided as a con- ing to exit at the next off-ramp downstream.
venient index to the geometric combinations For reasons of simplicity in figuring 'the lane
covered in the chapter, by means of either 1 through volume, 100 percent of the "in-
figure or discussion. tending to exit" off-ramp vehicles are con-
sidered to be in lane 1 at the on-ramp nose.
RELATED COMPUTATIONAL DEVICES
In practice, this is more likely to be approxi-
mately 95 percent, as there are always a few
Auxiliary Lane Use.—Figures 8.6, 8.7, "late decision," "blocked off," or "sleeping"
8.11, 8.12, and 8.16 are used for on-ramp prospective off-ramp drivers, who are still
locations having an auxiliary lane extending in lane 2 at the on-ramp nose.
to the adjacent downstream off-ramp. The Subtract the off-ramp volume from
presence of an auxiliary lane changes the the computed lane 1 volume to get the lane 1
computational procedures somewhat from
through volume.
those used in conventional merging and di-
verging situations. At auxiliary lane loca- Make several checks of lane 1 and
tions, the extended opportunity to weave or auxiliary lane volumes at points between the
change lanes between lane 1 and the auxili- ramps. The volumes consist of the follow-
ary lane makes necessary a computation of ing:
volume in each of these lanes at selected Lane 1 volume=Lane 1 'through+On-
points between the ramp noses. Also, checks ramp vehicles out of auxiliary lane
of weaving volume per 500 ft of roadway (Fig. 8.20, upper curve) +Off-ramp ve-
should be made. hicles still in lane 1 (Fig. 8.20, inter-
The computed lane 1 and auxiliary lane preted from lower curve).
volumes should be checked separately Auxiliary lane volume=On-ramp vehicles
against the service volume. If the check- still in auxiliary lane (Fig. 8.20, inter-
point is at one-half the distance between the preted from upper curve) + Off-ramp
ramps, or closer to the on-ramp, the merge vehicles which have moved onto the
service volume should be used. If closer to auxiliary lane (Fig. 8.20, lower curve).
the off-ramp, the diverge service volume
should be used. Because lane 1 carries through vehicles as
In making an "across all freeway lanes" well as ramp vehicles, it seems obvious that
volume check, the auxiliary lane should not it will usually be the critical lane in terms of
TABLE 8.2-INDEX TO GEOMETRIC COMBINATIONS DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER, FOR LEVELS OF SERVICE A
THROUGH C'
4-LANE FREEWAY 6-LANE FREEWAY 8-LANE FREEWAY

GEOMETRIC
ARRANGEMENT
(2 LANES EACH DIRECtioN)
- (3 LANES EACH DIRECTIoN) (4 LANES EACH DIRECTION)
ON-RAMP OFF-RAMP ON-RAMP OFF-RAMP ON-RAMP OFF-RAMP
ONE-LANE RAMPS
Ii
Fig. 8.2,
or
Fig. 8.8
- Fig. 8.13,
(or Fig. 8.9-
see (1),
- Fig. 8.14
or
Fig. 8.15
-
I
ç- (Fig. 8.2) - Fig. 8.9 - (Fig. 8.14
7 Fig. 8.15)
or
Fig. 8.3
Fig. 8.4
- Fig. 8.10
-
(Table 8.3
and
Fig. 8.24b)
Fig. 8.4 (Fig. 8.4) - - - - -

(( ) )•
(Fig. 8.6 (Fig. 8.11 (Table 8.3
_7 Fig. 8.6 and Fig. 8.11 and (Fig. 8.16) and
5) Fig. 8.20) Fig. 8.20) Fig. 8.24b)
Fig. 8.7 (Fig.'8.7 Fig. 8.12 (Fig. 8.12 Fig. 8.16 (Table 8.3
f and and and
/7 \\ Fig. 8.20) Fig. 8.20) Fig. 8.24b)
'I /
/sr 2ND
1st-Fig. 8.2
2nd-Fig. 8.8
or Fig. 8.2
- 1st-Fig. 8.9
2nd-Fig. 8.13
- (Table 8.3
and
Fig. 24b)
-
- lsI-(FIg. 8.4 and
1st-(Fig. 8.10 and (Table 8.3
- n(Fig.'8.l
top)
- and
Fig. 8.24b)
(Refs. 9 and 10)
TWO-LANE RAMPS
Not available Not available Fig. 8.17 - Not available Not available
Not available Not available - Fig. 8.18 Not available Not available
VARYING NUMBER OF LANES

(INCLUDING MAJOR JUNCTIONS AND FORKS)
ONE.LANE RAMPS
,p-
(Table 8.1-
see (a),
p. 226)
- (Table 8.1-
see (a), - (Table 8.1-
see (a),
p. 226)
-
- (Table 8.1-
see (a),
p. 226)
- (Table 8.1-
see (a),
p. 226)
- (Table 8.1-
see (a).
p. 226)
MAJOR JUNCTIONS AND FORDS
(Case I,
p. 226)_ - (Case I,
p. 226) - (Case J,
p. 226) - -
- Not available -- Fig. 8.19 - Not available
Entries in parentheses indicate suggested adaptations of criteria not developed specifically for the geomelrics shown, and/or references to dis-
tsion,
Specific ramp junctions under consideration are emphasized.
Acceleration or deceleration lanes not shown.
SOLUTION
Vf V.
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM yr
FREEWAY VOLUME LANE I VOLUME ON-RAMP VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH
30
100
oo -
3400
200 -
3200
200 -
300 -
3000
1100 -
2600 400 -
1000 -
2600
500 -
2400 900 -
CONDITIONS FOR USE
600 - To determine the lane I volume at an on-ramp nose before merging takes place. The ramp
2200 - can be of any single-lane type except cloverleaf loop (handled by Figs. 8.5 and 8.6). An accele-
600 ration lane may or may not be present.
If there is an adjacent upstream on-ramp within 2,000 ft. use Fig. 8.8.
700 -
2000
STEPS IN SOLUTION
700 Draw a line from V 5 value to V. value intersccling V on Solution Line. -
1600 800-
0 600
1600
900-
1400 500
1000 -
1200 -
400
1100-
000
300
200-
800
600 200 1300 -
400
400 -
Figure 8.2. Nomograph for determination of lane I volume upstream c f on-ramp junction. 4-lane freeway (not applicable to cloverleaf inner loop).
SOLUTION:
VI V.
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM Vr
FREEWAY VOLUME LANE I VOLUME OFF-RAMP VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH
4200
- I 1500 -.
4000 - 2300 -
1400 -
3800 -
2200 -
2100 300 -
3600 -
- 2000
3400 - 1200 -
-1900 -
3200 -
- 1800 1100 -
3000 -
- 1700 000
2800 -
- 1600
- 900
2600 -
- 500 CONDITIONS FOR USE
To determine the lane 1 volume upstream from an off-ramp just before divergence lakes
2400 - - 400 800 - place. The rump may or may not have a deceleration lane. If there is an adjacent upstream
on-rump within 3,200 It, Fig. 8.4 should be usediustead for greuter accuracy.
Note: See p. 222 for refinements possible in the use of this equation.
2200 - - 1300
700 - STEPS IN SOLUTION
2000 - -1200 - Draw a line from V value to V. value intersecting V on Solution Line.
600 -
1800 -
- 1100
1600 -
- 000 500 -
- 900
1400 - - 400-
- 800
1200 -
-700 300
1000 -
-600
200 -
800 -
-500 -
600 - 100 -
- 400
400 - -000 0-
Figure 8.3. Nomoj raph for determin ation of lane 1 volume upst, earn of off-ramp junction, 4-lane freeway (no upstream on-ramp within 3,200 ft of off-ramp).
Vt SOLUTION:
UPSTREAM V1
Vu
FREEWAY UPSTREAM Vr D
VOLUME VOLUME OF
LANE I VOLUME OFF-RAMP VOLUME DISTANCE TO UPSTREAM UPSTREAM
VPH VPH ON-RAMP
VPH ON-RAMP
4200 (FEET)
1600 VPH
700
r— 900
4000 800
1000
3800
r 2250 1400 000
I
2200
3600
2100 1300
9u (." 04 —•1••6•v,
3400
2000 V 202,0.362 V1 .0.4964,
1200 -0.069 D4 . 0.096 vu
3200 1900
STANDARD ERROR. 83VP6 1400
LIMITATIONS:
1000 -1100
3000. Vt : 70 - 4200 VPH
Vr 50- 1600 VPN
: 1700 vu : so- 900vPu 600
-- 000 700 - 3200
2800 I
1600
2600 1000 800
1400
2400 800
CONDITIONS FOR USE
2000
300
Same as for Fig. 8.3, eScept that there is an upstream, adjacent
2200
700 On-ramp within 3,200 ft.
1200
2200
2000 STEPS IN SOLUTION
1100
600
,( I) Draw a line from V value to V. value intersecting Turning Line t.
1800 1000 Draw a line from Step I intersection of Turning Line I to D. value,
intersecting Turning Line 2. 2400
—500
900 Draw a line from Step 2 intersection of Turning Line 2 to V. value.
1600 The intersection point of this line with the Solution Line is V.
800 400 2600
1400
700
300
1200 600 2000
000 200
1000
400 3000
800 too
300
700 200 25 3200
Figure 8.4. Nomograph or dete mination of lane I volume upstream of off-ramp junction, 4-lane freeway, with upstream on-ram p within 3,200 ft of off-ramp
auxiliary lane) -
SOLUTION (a) SOLUTION (b)
V1 Vf V1
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM UPSTREAM
LANE I FREEWAY Vr
LANE I
VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME ON-RAMP VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH VPH
730 - - 2000 600 -
900
700 - -
- 1800 800 -ir-- )

SOLUTIONIcI: RAMP VOLUME V 600 VPH
V1 166 • 0.260 V1
STANDARD ERROR 102 VPH
LIMITATION:
V1 600-2000 VPH
700 SOLUTION 161: RAMP VOLUME .600-ISOOVPH
V1 28 • 0.492 V1-0.301 Vr
- soo
STANDARD ERROR III VPH
600 LIMITATIONS:
VI: 600-2000 VPN
Vr600I200 VPH
600
1400 - --
- 500
CONDITIONS FOR USE
To determine the lane I volume at an inner loop on-ramp nose at a cIovcIeaf interchange
which lacks an auxiliary lane connecting the loop ramps. An acceleration lane may or may
not be present. This design, lacking an auxiliary lane, is infrequently found along mmlern free-
500 1200 ways, but a number of such interchanges are still in use on older freeways. Solution (a) is ap-
- 400 propriate where the on-ramp volume is less than 600 vph. Solution (b) is used where the on-
ramp volume is 600-1,200 vph.
STEPS IN SOLUTION
1000 -
Solution (a)
For ramp volumes less than 600 vph
1000 300 V,, on Solution Line (a), is horizontally to the left of l'I scale.
Solution (b)
For ramp volumes between 600 and 1200 vph
Draw a line from V, value to I', value intersecting I', on Solution Line (b).
400 200 1100

I I— 800
tL
100
335 600 55 1200 1

Figure 8.5. Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 4-lane freeway, at cloverleaf inner loop (no auxiliary lane).
SOLUTION:
V2
V1
UPSTREAM Vd
UPSTREAM Vr
FREEWAY VOLUME DOWNSTREAM
LANE I VOLUME
VPH ON-RAMP VOLUME OFF-RAMP VOLUME
VPH
3600 VPH VPH
525
no ,- 500
500
3400
200
1400
3200
300
1300
3000
400
200 400
2800
500
1100
2600
600
2400 - 000
700—
2200 W 900
300
C, Z
2 800
2000 CONDITIONS FOR USE
800
so To determine the lane I volume at an inner loop on-ramp nose at a cloverleaf Inter.
900 . change containing an auxiliary lane between the loops. The interchange may or may not have
1800 outer connections. Desirably, the distance between ramps should be 400 to 750 ft.
700 Assuming all prospective off-ramp vehicles are in lane I at the on-ramp nose, it is possible
to determine the number of through vehicles ii lane I by subtracting the off-ramp volume from
600
000 the computed lane I volume.
200 Note: Reference should be made to Figure 8.20 and related discussion on auxiliary lane
600 usage on p. 220 to check lane I and auxiliary lane volumes at points along the auxiliary lane.
These volumes should not exceed the service volumes for the level of service involved.
1400 1100
STEPS IN SOLUTION
500
( I ) Draw a line from V, value to V, value intersecting Turning Line I.
200 200 (2) Draw a line from Step I intersection of Turning Line I to V value. The intersection point
of this line with Solution Line is V,.
400
t000 300
o
300
800
1400
200
600
175 500 1,500
Figure 86. Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on- ramp junction, 4-1ane freeway, at cloverleaf inner loop with auxiliary lane.
V1 Dd VA
V
DISTANCE TO VOLUME OF
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
DOWNSTREAM
FREEWAY VOLUME LANE VOLUME OFF-RAMP
VPH VPH
1775
- F-RAMP
(FEET) VPH
1000
800
1700
:: i I I I
900
900—I
I I
280011 1500 -1
000 -1 i 800
1400 I
2600 1 I
L 700
1100
300
I600
2400
200 600 -
- 1200
2200 1100
CONDITIONS FOR USE
500 To determine the lane I volume at the nosc of an on-ramp where there is an auxiliary lane
- moo 300
extending to the adjacent downstream off-ramp. The equation is intended primarily for diamond
and similar flat angle entrance ramps, as distinguished from Figure 8.6, which is used for clover-
2000 leaf loop ramps.
Note: Lane I and auxiliary lanes operations shouldbe checked by means of Figure 8.20
900 400 and related procedures on p. 220.

(I) Draw a line from V, value to D value, intersecting Turning Line.
800 (2) Draw a line from Step t intersection of Turning Line I to V value. The intersection of
300 this line with Solution Line is V.
700 1500
600
200
600
400 600. ] —
500
00
200 400 1700 50
Figure 8.7. Noinograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction, .6-lane freeway, with adjacent off -ramps both upstream and downstream of
stream off-ramp.
SOLUTION:
Vt V
FREEWAY VOLUME LANE I VOLUME Vr

UPSTREAM OF UPSTREAM OF 2 ND ON-RAI2V'
2 ND ON-RAMP 2 ND ON-RAMP VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH
3600 1460 00
400
3400 200
3200
-1
300
3000
2800
2600—
I1 200
100
300
1000
400
500
600
I1
2400 700
900 -
x
2200 0 - 600
- CONDITIONS FOR USE
800 To determine the lane I volunte at the on-ramp nose of the second of successive on-ramps
'5
when the ramps are within 400 to 2.000 ft of each other (use Fig. 8.2 otherwise), and the
woo upstream on-rampvolumc does not exceed 1,000 vph. Not applicable to Situations where the
snn
upstream on-ramp volume. V. is near its masimuni of 1,000 vph, and the distance between
ramps, 0., is near its minimum of 400 ft. Thus, the variables V. and 0., while not directly incor-
700
porated in the equation, nevertheless must be within a specified range for accurate use of the
800 equation.
1000
STEPS IN SOLUTION
600 - Draw a line from V, value to V. value intersecting Solution Line at V.
1600
"no
500
1400
1200
1200 400
300
000 300 400
250
800 210 500
Figure 8.8. Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 4-lane freeway, at second of successive on-ramps.
SOLUTION:
V1
FREEWAY VOLUME VOLUME IN LANE I 64O) VA (SEE NOTE A) Vd (SEE NOTE B)
UPSTREAM OF Dd
UPSTREAM OF VOLUME OF ADJACENT VOLUME OF ADJACENT
ON- RAMP ON- RAMP DOWNSTREAM OFF-RAMP ISAMPLE PROBLEM INCLUDEDI
UPSTREAM OFF-RAMP
VPH VPH VPH
VPH
6200
-50
- 900 V
- 100 100
sAMPLE: 2500'
5800 - - 2100 - I.-0 _•1 D4
- - 800 100
200
V -121 0.044 V
-0.085 V. 640 1170 VPH

5400 300 LIMITATIONS:
- - 700 (00
V 2400-6000VPH
- 1600
Va
Vd
50- 1100 VPH
S0-I300VPH
400 V, 100- 700 VPH
5000 D' 900-5700
900-2600
400
- 'iAffo 600
500
4600
CONDITIONS FOR USE
- 500
500
- 600
- 1400 °00 '4
4
To determine the lane I volume at an on-ramp nose
before merging takes place. The ramp can be of any
single-lane type, except cloverleaf loop (see FIg. 8.11).
4200 -700 An acceleration lane ntay or may not be present. While
not incladed in the equation. the volume on the ransp
-400 under study and the distancc 10 the adjaceul upstream
1170 VPH
(SAMPLE PROBLEM)
- 700 - eoo off-ramp should be within the limits given.
3600 110 Notes: A. If there is no upstream off-ramp within
- 2,600 II. use 5000 the V.
scale when drawing Step I line.
- - 900 B. If there is no downstream off-ramp within 5,700 ft
and V, value does not exceed 5.000 vph. skip Step 2 and
-800 - use 5 on the (640) scale from which to draw Step 3
3400
- - 1000 line.
80\
0 200
Do - 900 . STEPS IN SOLUTION
3000 - 000 (I) Draw line from V, value to V. value, intersecting
00
- TurningLinel.
- - 600 - 100 - Draw line from V value through D0 value to inter-
- 1000 - 1200 sect (640
V) line.
0600 -
. 500
.400 - - Draw line from this value on (640 _i) line to
2400 - -1100 - .---

son e,
"P ,;,...,,f
ersec I inc. I
----
v"- The inter-
...........
section on the Solution Line is V.
Figure 8.9. Noinograph for deterntination of lane I volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 6-lane freeway, with adjacent oft-ramps both upstream and downstream of
on-ramp (no auxiliary lanes).
Vt VI VA
V.
FREEWAY VOLUME OF
LANE I OFF-RAMP
VOLUME (215\ UPSTREAM
VPH
VOLUME s D0 1 VOLUME ON-RAMP
VPH VPH VPH
6200 287 1800 so•
6000
5600
280
260
7001 L too
5600 2400 1600

5400 - 200
2300 240 500
5200 2200 -
5000
2100 220 - 1400 300
V, .94 .0.231 V1 ,0.473V,
4000
1300
- .215 V-
200 -
2000
4600
4400 -
1900 - 200
- 400 STANDARD ERROR • 128 VPH
4200
1800 180 -
tOO
4000 1700 - 0,a.
a
- 500
60-
'b 4lt,
600 000
3800
CONDITIONS FOR USE
- 600
3600 1500
40 - 900 To determine the lane I volume upstream of an off-ramp junc-
3400 0
z
0 1400 - 800
- tion with an upstream on-ramp within 5,700 ft of the off-ramp and
120 -
3200 - 700 no auxiliary lane provided.
1300
3000 700 - STEPS IN SOLUTION
1000
0800 too- ,00 - (I) Draw a line from V value to V. value intersecting Turning
2800
1100 I - 600
-
Line.
80 -
1000 ta.. (2) Draw a line from V. value through D. value until line inter-
2400 500
2200 900 - n 30oo 0 %

- 900 sects with (215 ..!!\ scale.
\ D/
60- 4% - (3) Draw a line from Step I intersection of the Turning Line to
2000 800
00% - 1000
300 the Step 2 intersection on the (215 .) scale. The inter-
1800 700
40 -
600 600 - 200
section of this third line with the Solution Line is V.
Note: If there is no upstream on-ramp within 5.700 ft. skip
400 1100
500 20-
00 Step 2 and use 2 on the (215 scale from which to draw the
1200
00
400 - Step 3 line.
360 20 200
Figure 8.10. Nomograph for determini ttion of lane 1 volume upstream of off-ramp junction, 6-lane freeway, with u1 sstream on-ramp within 5,700 ft of off-ramp (no
auxiliary lane).
SOLUTION:
V VI Vd
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM V2
DOWNSTREAM
FREEWAY VOLUME VOLUME IN LANE I ON-RAMP VOLUME OFF-RAMP VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH VPH
5000
(SAMPLE PRO8LEM INOJJDEDI
V
5200
Vow V. -.
Vr VA n
4000
II D
87* 0.225 5 0.140 V, + 0.500 V4 662 VPH

4400 LIMITATIONS
V 2000-5600VPH
V, 200-1500 VPH
0 ISO -1500 VPH
Od 400- 850
4000

To determine the lane I volume at the inner loop on-ramp nose at a cloverleaf interchange
containing an auxiliary lane between the loops. The interchange may or may not have outer
Connections. The equation does not consider their ellects and applies only to inner loop on-
ratnps. The inner loop off-ramp should be located between 400 and 850 ft downstream.
Reference should be made to Figure 8.20 and related discussion on auxiliary lane usage
3200 on p. 220 to check lane I and auxiliary lane volumes at points along the auxiliary lane.
These volumes should not exceed the service volumes for the level of service involved.
STEPS IN SOLUTION
( I ) Draw a line from V, value to V.
value intersecting Turning Line I.
(2) Draw a line from Step I intersection of Turning Line I to V
value. The intersection
2800 point of this line with Solution Line is V..
2400
2000
Figure 8.11. Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 6-lane freeway, at cloverleaf inner loop with auxiliary lane.
St ILUTION: Dd
V1 Vd
V1
DISTANCI V( LU ME,
UPSTREAM UF STREAM DOWNSTI EAM Dow STREAM
FREEWAY VOLUME VOLUN E IN LANE I OFF-RI MP OF -RAMP
VPH VPH IFEE PH
5600
300 - - 1000
2000
5200
1800
400 - - 900
4800
1600
- 800
Vf =
soo-
4400 - 700 9, '53+ 0283 V1 - 0402 O + 0.547 Va
1400
600 - STANDARD ERROR. 139 VPH
LIMITATIONS:
4000 V1 1900-5600 VPM

- 600
300- 1400
- 1200
Dd
9a 50-1000 VPH
700 -
3600 - 500
-1000 -
800- CONDITIONS FOR USE
3200 - - 400
To determine the lane I volume at the nose of an oIt.rantp where there is an auxiliary
- 800
-
lane extending to the adjacent downxtreonl off-ramp. The equation is printarity intended for
diamond and similar flat angle entrance ramps, as distinguished from Figure 8.11. which is used
for cloverleaf loop ramps. The equation IS derived from locations having auxiliary lanes 300
to 1,400 ft long. Although approximate extrapolation is perinissible. use of the equation for
2800 - 900 - -300 locations with longer auxiliary lanes may introduce an error into the calculation outside that
covered by the standard error.
- 800
-
Note: Lane I and auxiliary lane operations should be checked by means of Figure 8.20
and related procedures on p. 220.
STEPS IN SOLUTION
-200 ( I ) Draw a line from V, value to D value intersecting Tnrning Line I.
2400 - (2) Draw u line from Step I intersection of Turning Line I to V value. The intersection point
- 400 1000 - of this line with Solution Line is V.
- too
2000 -
- 200
1900 -
1100 - - 50
Figure 8.12. i romograph for determin TtiOn of lane I volun e upstream of on-ramp junction, 6-lane freeway, with auxiliary lane between on-ram p and adjacent down-
SOLUTION:
V8 V1 '.
FREEWAY VOLUME Vr D0
LANE I VOLUME v0
UPSTREAM OF UPSTREAM OF 2ND. ON-RAMP DISTANCE TO VOLUME UPSTREAM
2ND. ON-RAMP 2ND. ON-RAMP VOLUME UPSTREAM ON-RAMP
VPH VPH VPH ON-RAMP (FEET) VPH
WOO
- 1800 -100 - 500 - 1400
- 1700
-200
-1300
5000
1600 - -
- - - 300
1500 - -600
- 200
Vf
4600- - 1400 - 400 374 0.228 V

- -1100 -0.194 Si, - 0.714 Dv 0.274 V0
• - . 1300 STANDARD ERROR 142 VPR

- 500 - LIMITATIONS
4200 - - .1200
- -1000 V1 1 1800-5400 VPH
-700
- - 600
V, 100-1500 VPR
00 : 500-1000
- - .1100 V0 1 100-1400 VPH
- - -900
3800 - - 1000 -700 - -

- . -800
900
in 0
- -800 -800 in -
CONDITIONS FOR USE
3400- - - -
800 - -700 . To determine the lane I volume at the on-
- 900 rantp nose of the second of successive oit-rantps.
- - 700 - -
- - STEPS IN SOLUTION
-600
(II Draw it line front V1 value to V. valtie in-
-
.600 -1000
- tersecting Turning Line I
5000
- - - 900 Draw a lute froitt D. value to V. value ut-
- 500
- 1100 - tersecting Turning Line 2.
Draw a lAte Iroiti Step I intersection of
- Turning Line I to Step 2 intersection of
400 - Turning Line 2. The intersection point of
2600 - . - 400 this lAte wAIt the Solutissit Line is V at the
1200 . - nose of the 2nd on-rantp.
300
- -1000
200 - 1300 - 300
2200 -
100
- —1400 - -200
I
800 - - 1500 -1100 - 00

Figure 8.13. Nomograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ram p junction, 6-lane freeway, at second of successive on-ramps.
SOLUTION
Vt Vi
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM V1
FREEWAY LANE I ON-RAMP
VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH
7700 400 300
7400
J -1-1300 1200
7000
200
.1100
6600
1100
000
6200
000
5800 900 -

5400 Z . ro deleruiiirie lanic I voliiiiic al iIIeOii-F:illhl) lilise IIote ineioiiig lakes p1:1cc. ,ui:icccIera-
p - 800 louI I:iuicslioiikl IV preset. I'Iuereslioiikl tUe no adja,eni tuIl-raiuup unillnu .1.111111 II ikuuvuisl 11.1111.
3 1 Usc Fig. 8.15 svlicuu such atljaceult iulf-r:iuuij Is

5000
Dr:isna tine lisuni F, v:ulne to V, :tItuc ulIcisceling I', on lie Sohiulutun Lui'.
700
4600 700
600
4200 600 —
500
3800
500
3400 - 400
400
3000 330 300
Figure 8.14. Noniograph for determination of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 8-lane freeway (no downstream oft-ramp within 3,000 ft; no auxiliary lane).
- SOLUTION: . V4
Vt V1 VOLUME
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM OF ADJACENT Vr
FREEWAY LANE I DOWNSTREAM ONRAMP
VOLUME VOLUME . OFF-RAMP VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH
VPH
7100
800 300
7000 1400
T 1 1
1300
6800
400
700
1200
6200
300
1100
600
5800
bOO
600
5400
- 900 500
CONDITIONS FOR USE

I VirliulIle II lie ouu.i'arir) nurse lielore uiuer)uuuv
5000 700 lakes p:Iee. Au recelersiluuuui sure sliouukl he ireseull nut) litre
1- 800 sluuurkl he our :udjaeeuiu duiwuislre:uuli uulI-rauni 1.5110 to 31)1)11 II
1
0 :ur:uy. thedislanc, Iii lie :Idieenl doVuuSI resin uiIl-r:iIii)i I),.
5itb01tetl t uiuithIuiuu II .5111)-3llbllI (I). IIiuiIuOII no, urieuurpuir'u(ed
/ 400
rliueIIv Is 1 m'arrahle iii lie ecbbaiuuuui, I Use Fig. 5.14 seluenaulummeul -
4600 700 sIre:Iius raluip is moire than 1.1)11(1 I I array).
800
STEPS IN SOLUTION
I I I)ra bY a hire um'rsrnu I'. m':rlrue no F, e:iluie uuilerseelnlg Turning

600 Iiuue 1.
4200
121 t)r:nsva line from Sleir I iullerseel Intl ol Cnrnnuir I,iuue I Iii
300
caine, The iiuielseeljimii ,suiuui of this line With the Snilniluniri
900 line is
500
3800
400
200
1000
3400
300
300 230
100 1100
Figure 8.15. Nomograph for deter,nination of lane I volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 8-lane freeway, with downstream off-ramp within 1,500 to 3,000 ft (no
auxiliary lane).
80LU1IQN Vd Od
V1 V, V1 DOWNSTREAM DISTANCE TO
UPSTREAM UPSTREAM ON-RAMP OFF-RAMP DOWNSTREAM
FREEWAY VOLUME LANE I VOLUME VOLUME VOLUME OFF-RAMP
VPH VPH VPH VPH (FEET)
7500
500
[::
:::: E0°
I L I
F- 600
6600 1 ii 600 I- 000
400
I-
500
900 I
6200]
700
400 500
5—
- 800
5600
p1300
1700 300
600
700
1200
800
5400 - 0 700
CONDITIONS FOR USE
11) ilelerinine 11w SuIt I Voltinie 01 11w time of all oil-rail))) wlltie VIew is an auxiliary Stile
1100 600 eXIelIl)lllQ III Vie allJaeenl dolvuslrealu lI)l-raln)t illCet(1I1l)il)ll is prilnavilv ililelitleil for ili'_nninttl
11111 suilllar DIII tingle elllrallee ramps. allllilllgh it can lx llsetl',n lieu of all CqII:llilln fllr;Ie)l,Ver.
leaf (1111)1 rilIng on an K-bile freellly.
Now: l.;IIIC I and luxlllaly lIttle operaliolls sliimultl he tIjetted liv nleaiis of Figure 0.20
5000 10
800
500
Intl relalet) priieeduveson l 220.
- 900
STEPS IN SOLUTION
I I Draw a line front 11 value 10 11, value ilIlerseelirIg Turning lute 1.
900 900 (2) Dratv a lint iroiii SIC)) I inlerseellllnofiurning line I Ill I', value. illlers...ill2
ing fine 2.
4600 400 131 Draw a hue frill)) SIC)) 2 inlerseelillu of lurnillg line 2 it, 0, value. rlie
800
p11(111 of this ((lie lvi))) Ilk Solulioll Lite is I-'. -
1000
300 1000
4200 700
1100
600
200
3800
500 1"00 [."Do

3670
485 110
Figure 8.16. Nomograph for dezerminatiopi of lane 1 volume upstream of on-ramp junction, 8-lane freeway, with auxiliary lane between on-ramp and adjacent down-
SOLUTION (b)
SOLUTION ci V1 A
V2 Vr
V1 MERGE VOLUME
UPSTREAM TOTAL -
UPSTREAM v,,0
FREEWAY VOLUME
f LANE I
ON-RAMP LV, l-è ------- -8
LANE I VOLUME \RAMP LANE A
VPH VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH
3000 - 410 2380 3000 LONG
SOLUTION I, I
400
54* 0.070 V1 4 0.049 V,
STANDARD ERROR '99 VPR
LIMITATIONS:
2200
2800 v1 :600-3000 VPH
V, :1100 -30*0 VPH
2600 -
SOWTION
V. "I
2000 2600 - 205+ 0.287 V1 + 0.575 V,
350 STANDARD ERROR • 212 VPH
LIMITATIONS:
1
Vj 600-3000 VPH
0, :1100-3000 VPH
-1800 2400
2200 -
300 — -2200
ill (ICiCI'lIliIIC lilt' iIlill8i llIc'rge IblOt' I
: 1:11111) 1:111,' I\) ;1111) lilt
- rtIlllp blot' 11111111W (ilsIriblIlillIl II U ilt'I1'i:IIIC IIll-ralllp hill'illiT Ill 100010'
1800 - rtliioo 18110 III it'US1 $1111 it 1,1110. i'hcrc is nIl *Xlr:I blIlltUtIIit'li to lilt
o o
. Iitts*I5 lot 11115 CtlllliII*lIl. t'1I1I5i1171 *811111 itlIlt' A Vt'lliCit'5 Ill IlIt'*13'
- 2000
ciirt'Ciiy 1*1111 1:1110 I veilickS. AililIlIlilil S,lIIlCllIllt'S 115011. tills IiL'SIgll IS
o 1400
111)1 gelIcraily rt'cI,llllllclltk'ti t\..711 11111101' Silt'Cl8i I'IlilIlllt'CllIltiIltIlIlS.
- Soilllioll (7) is 115011 III tit'lt'*llljIIC I'.
II lilt' IllInllllil 111150. Allt'c
11, is Caht'llklit'tI. SollIlillIl Ihi is tot'tl 10 Cli011ialt' lilt' 111111:11
250
- tICStglltlIt'Ii V.., I ant' i I 5111171 hIlt' A). 'I lIt' SnAil i:IIIt' A 'IliIlllI1'
800
('all IX' 111111111 by Sllhi r:IcliIlO lilt' I', V:IiIIC IlillailICli Ill 0141111I111 181 IrtlIll
1400 - 1200 lilt' Sllilllioll (h) *051111 or V,.. 1(11111(1 ills' it l'IliIIlllt' IS IlIt'Il IlhIaIlIt'Ii
- by sllhlrat'lullg the *711111 hIlt' A S'IliIllllt' 1*11111 i'. lilt' 1111:11 IIII'l'alllil
VIlilIlIlt'. ItIllil V., 117110 i I r:IIllil hIlt' Al S'IlillllIt' and lilt' l';lllIil LIII,'
it S'IlilIlllt' SilIlIliti ht'CiIt't'kt'Ii 815111151 the Si' *1'It't' VIlilIlIlt' I'vel.
-1600 'lilt' 17111111 18111' It S't'ilit'It'S lIst' lilt' ;Icet'it'raIuIlII i:IIIt' and hart' III
nit'rgt' ll'ilil 11:1*1 of the ILIlIt' I ' r:llIIil i;Illt' A I Vt'iIIt'it'S l*illt'il lOSt'
1000
- :,irctI,iy Illt'171t'ti. S,,os' ,if lilt' i;IlIi'rvt'ilpei,'s. il,lss't'lcr. lI'lII 1111111'
200 ,llilt'* 1:11151 if lilt' fI4'C1I''l' ht'iort' lilt' ralllil 1:1111' it Vt'iIlt'it'S 1110*711' 1*1111
1000 - lilt' rellIajIltier.
- 1400
STEPS IN SOLUTION
800 a lin, 1111111 I ' VaiIlt' III I ' 0:111111IlIt'I'St't'lllIil 51411111111 I lots
(a I a,0 ibl.
(2)iilt'
( illlt'lSt'1'lillII If SlOp I (lIlt' II'llil SIlillIll i lIlt' 1:11 IS
- 1200 3 1The illIt'*St't'liIlIl of Slop I line 111111 SIlillIllIll I lIlt' (Il) IS I.,.
it'
(4) Ra1111, LIIIC A 011111115'
600 - ISO 1600 (S) i(81l1i1LIII,.' it VIlillIlIt' i' 2:111111 hIlt' A l'IlilllIIt'.
- 1100
Figure 8 17. Nomograph for etermination

1 f lane volume distribuj ion and merge, 6-lane freeway, at 2-lane on-ram p with acceleration lane.
SOLUTION )b) SOLUTION (a) Vr
V V1 V1,8
TOTAL
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM f LANE , \ OFF-RAMP
FREEWAY VOLUME LANE I VOLUME IRAMP LANE A) VOLUME
VPH VPH VPH VPH
600
6000
1 T I i 3000
1700 -
5600 -
- 2800
600 -
SOLUTION (0)
- - V1,' -158 +0035 V1 .0.0567 Vr
5200- SOLUTION (b)

1500 - - 2600 Vt ' .18 .0.060 Vt +0.072 V,
500 - STANDARD ERRORS: LIurrarloNs:

- (A) V.,- 181 VPH (80TH EOUATIONS)
8 LSNO VPH V1 2 00-60 0 VPPH
4800 - 400 - AMP EA V, 1100-6000
1 0
- 2400
300 -
4400 -
- 2200 CONDITIONS FOR USE
To determine (lane I + ramp lane A) volume, l',,, immedialely upstream from the
1200- - divergence poinl and lane I volume V just past the bifurcation at a Iwo-lane off-ramp having a
deceleration lane at least 700 ft long. No lane is dropped at the off-ramp, so the freeway con-
4000 - tinues to be three lanes downstream from the ramp. Ramp lane B vehicles use the deceleration
400 -
- 2000 lane for at least part of its length, while ramp lane A vehicles diverge directly from the freeway
1100- onlo the ramp. The importance ofan adequate deceleration lane cannot be overemphasized.
- Without an adequate deceleration lane, the ramp cannot be fed two lanes of traffic from the
freeway. To carry volumes over 2,000 vph, lane I vehicles should be moving into the decele-
3600 -
ration lane for exit in ramp lane B; simullancously, lane 2 vehicles will be moving into the
1000-
- woo vacated lane 1 spaces and most of these vehicles will exit in ramp lane A. The minimum length
of 700 It for use of the equations is not to be considered a design recommendation; design
standards should enceed this length.
Solution (a) is used to determine V,, while Solution (b) is used to calculate V, continuing
3200- 900 -
on past the ramp bifurcation. Ramp lane A volume can be determined by sublracting V
- 600 from V,.,. Ramp lane B volume can be calculated by subtracting ramp lane A volume from
the lolal off-ramp volume V,. The following volumes should be checked against the service
volume: Ramp lane B and V,,.
300 - 800
2800 -
STEPS IN SOLUTION
-1400 ( I ) Draw a line from V, value to l' value inlersecting Solution Lines (a) and (b).
700 (2) The intersection of Solution Line (a) gives V.,.
- (3) The inlerseclion of Solution Line (b) gives V,
2400- Ramp lane A volume= V,., (from Step 2)—V (from Step 3).
Ramp lane B volume= V, — ramp lane A volume.
600 -1200
2100 - 220 540 1100
Figure 8.18. Nomograph jo determination of lane volum e distri !,ution, 6-lane freeway, upstream of 2-lane off-ramp with deceleration lane.
Vr SOLUTION (b) SOLUTION In) Vr
TOTAL V1 V1 Vc TOTAL
OFF-RAMP VOLUME (A.B) DOWNSTREAM UPSTREAM (LANE I. LANE A) OFF-RAMP VOLUME (AeB)
FOR SOLUTION (8) LANE I VOLUME FREEWAY VOLUME VOLUME FOR SOLUTION (A)
VPH VPH VPH VPH VPH
300 1400 4500
2650
400 4400
26001
T1700
] t -i
600 1200
1600
2400
-
] I
1100 40001
1500
2200
1
800
1000
1400
-1I
000 900 3600__1
S
2000
-
1300
-1
800
800
I
1200 -I
z
700 32001
-
a.
200
-I
I
1400 600
Eu - 600—
i
I
1100
500 2800
1600 1400
400 1000 CONDITIONS FOR USE

To determine lane volumes at a major fork where three lanes split into two, two-lane road-
800 1000 ways, with relatively balanced use of the two. Specifically, using lanes I and 2 to denote one
300 2400
roadway and lane A and lane B to denote the other roadway, the lower-volume roadway should
carry at least one-third of the total volume arriving for the equation to be valid.
Solution (a) is used to calculate the center lane volume, V,, which is subject to divergence
200
1000 into lanes I and A at the nose of the bifurcation. Solution (b) is used to determine the lane I
2000
800 volume which continues on past the nose. Knowing the total volumes of each roadway, lane 2
and lane B volumes can be calculated by subtraction. The following volumes should be checked
too 2000
against the service volume: V. (lane 1 + lane A), lane 2, and lane B.
2200 800
Solution (a)
Draw a line from V, value to V. value on right side scale intersecting Solution Line (a).
2400 1600 600 600 The intersection point on this line is V,.
Solution (b)
Draw a line from V, value to V. value on left side scale intersecting Solution Line (b).
The intersection point on this line is V1 .
2600 500 400
2650
1200
300
Figure 8.19 Nomograph for determination of lane volume distribution, 6-1ane freeway, at major fork into two 4-1ane freeways.
00
NO
0
40
C-)
0.
>
4
0
20
NOSE ON-RAMP 2 4 6 8 NOSE OFF-RAMP
AUXILIARY LANE USED, 0.1 LENGTH -
Figure 8.20. Use of auxiliary lane between adjacent on- and oil-ramps.
potential overloading, as compared to the heavily traveled portion of lane 1 is the sec-
auxiliary lane which carries ramp vehicles tion from 0.5 to 0.6 of the distance along the
only. The most critical checkpoin.t between auxiliary lane. As a rule of thumb, a volume
the ramps can usually be ascertained by not- check at the 0.5 point will usually suffice,
ing the relative ramp volumes and the shape where the sum of the volumes in lane 1 and
of the curves in Figure 8.20. Examination of the on-ramp does not-exceed 150 percent of
the upper curve in Figure 8.20 discloses that the merge service volume taken from Table
the greatest movement by on-ramp vehicles 8.1, except where ramp volumes are quite
from the auxiliary lane to lane 1, over the high. Should the off-ramp volume be com-
available distance, occurs between the 0.3 paratively high, the lane 1 section just down-
and 0.6 points. Also, off-ramp vehicles tend stream from the on-ramp nose should be
to stay in lane 1 until the 0.5 point is reached, checked for overloading, say at the 0.2 point.
after which increased movement onto the This check is made against the merge service
auxiliary lane takes place up to the 0.8 point. volume. On the other hand, if the on-ramp
The foregoing suggest that the most volume is comparatively high, a volume
RAMPS 223
check of lane 1 should be made just up- the graph, the maximum percentage of al-
stream from the off-ramp, at possibly the lowable prospective off-ramp vehicles in the
0.8 point. This check is made against the freeway stream can be determined. For ex-
diverge service volume, because the check- ample, at level C with a peak-hour factor of
point is closer to the off-ramp than to the 0.83, when the maximum freeway volume of
on-ramp. 2,500 vph is being handled, all of the ramp
Refined Procedure for Use of Figure 8.3. volume percentage lines below 40 percent
—Figure 8.3 is used to determine the lane 1 ramp vehicles fall beneath the level C (0.83
volume immediately upstream from an exit PHF) line. Therefore, approximately 40 per-
ramp on 4-lane freeways if there is no adjacent of 2,500 vph, or about 1,000 off-ramp
cent upstream on-ramp within 3,200 ft. The vehicles, could be handled at the upper vol-
equation, which represents the best fit for a ume limit of level C (0.83 PHF).
considerable body of data taken at 19 Multiple regression equations developed
locations throughout the country, has a for the stratified data (2) proved quite con-
standard error of 131 vph, approximately clusively that the predictability of lane I
13 percent of the mean value of 1,022 vph volume upstream increases as the percentage
for the lane 1 volume from all locations. of ramp vehicles increases. In other words,
Considering the relative variability of traffic
the lines representing 0-9.9 percent and 10.0-
streams, this equation may be a reasonably
19.9 percent ramp vehicles are the least ac-
accurate aid as it stands. However, the large
number of data makes possible increased accurate of the five lines and the observations
curacy by allowing a stratification of the off- containing these percentages contributed
ramp volumes as percentages of the freeway more to the 13 1 -vph standard error of the
volume approaching the exit ramp. equation in Figure 8.3 than did the observa-
Figure 8.21 is the graphical presentation tions having higher ramp vehicles per-
of the stratified data. By following the di- centages. This is actually of advantage to
verge service volume lines horizontally across the designer because the greater concern and
4
.90.1
0
"" I
___
LEVEL OF SERVICE C (091 PU F) - 0'
LEVEL OF SERVICE C (0.83 P HF) .

LEVEL OFSERVICEC(O3TPHF)
LEVEL OF SERVICE 8
LEVEL OF SERVICE A
as
>0
LI
zC
0 I 2 3
LEVEL FREEWAY VOLUME (1,000 VPH) UPSTREAM FROM OFF-RAMP
OF 0.77PIIF
3ERVIC5,, C
4 8 8 4 14083 PH F
U t0.9IPHF
Figure 8.21. Lane 1 volume upstream from off ramp, related to freeway volume and percentage
'of off-ramp vehicles in freeway stream upstream from off-ramp on 4-lane freeways
(for use in conjunction with Fig. 8.3).
100
4-LANE FREEWAYS
6-LANE FREEWAYS
8-LANE FREEWAYS
20 30 40 00 60 10
FREEWAY VOLUME 100 VPH
Figure 8.22. Percentage 0/total trucks in lane 1 of 4-, 6-, and 8-lane freeways immediately
upstream from on-ramp entrances, or at the diverge point upstream from oft-ramps.
need for accuracy is at the high-volume exit the same adjustment can be applied to ramp
ramps. volumes where appropriate. This conversion
Adjustment for Trucks.—The procedures permits use of the values in Table 8.1 as the
that have been described are based on mixed fundamental set of comparison criteria, as
traffic containing up to 5 percent trucks in before. Typical example 8.1, Part 2, demon-
each flow involved, in relatively level terrain. strates the computations involved.
Reference to Chapter Nine shows that this
range represents a truck adjustment factor Note: This procedure is approximate, in
range of from 1.00 for no trucks down to that the adjustments in Chapter Nine were
0.91 for a full 5 percent. Because 5 percent not developed specifically for a single lane.
trucks is taken as the base point, although no
GEOMETRICS NOT REPRESENTED BY
correction for less than 5 percent is required,
EQUATIONS AND NOMOGRAPHS
the procedures provide a "safety factor" of
up to 1/0.9 1 = 1.10 where no trucks are As previously indicated, the equations and
present. the nomographs presented as Figures 8.2
On the other hand, where more than 5 per- through 8.19 do not fit all of the geometric
cent trucks are involved in any flow, or the conditions likely to be encountered in prac-
grade is significant, an adjustment for trucks tice. This section is included, therefore, to
should be made to that flow. Figure 8.22 is guide the user in adapting these methods, or
provided for use in making this adjustment. other procedures or references, to situations
It shows the percentage of trucks likely to be not directly covered.. The designs not cov-
in lane 1 at any given freeway volume level ered can be broken down into broad cate-
on 4-, 6-, and 8-lane freeways. Thus, the gories as follows: (1) left-hand ramps, (2)
number and percentage of trucks in V1 can certain types of right-hand one-lane ramps,
be determined, from which the passenger car both on and off, (3) certain types of two-lane
equivalent and truck adjustment factor can on-ramps, and (4) specialized designs some-
be determined by the methods of Chapter times needed for unusual traffic or topo-
Nine. Multiplication of the V1 value by the graphic conditions. Several potential alter-
factor 0.9 1/ (actual truck adjustment factor) nate methods exist for use in handling
converts the volume to the 5 percent base problems involving these additional geo-
inherent in the basic procedures. Similarly, metric layouts, as well as those involving
RAMPS 225
variable values outside the ranges of values 4-lane freeway—For the first ramp use
covered by the nomographs. The several Figure 8.2; for the second ramp use
possible methods, and the situations to which Figure 8.8 or Figure 8.2 directly.
each is best applied, are described in this sec- One-lane on-ramp on 6-lane freeway,
tion. To the extent possible, these applica- with adjacent upstream on-ramp--Use
tions are included in the procedural index Figure 8.13 where the upstream on-ramp
(Table 8.2). is within the limitation range specified.
Extrapolation of Existing Nomographs Otherwise, use Figure 8.9.
(Equations).—In cases where one or several One-lane inner loop off-ramp at
of the variables are somewhat outside the cloverleaf interchange on 6-lane freeway,
ranges given in the nomograph, extrapolation with auxiliary lane—Use Figure 8.11, to-
is often acceptable, where done with caution. gether with Figure 8.20.
For example, a particular layout may involve One-lane off-ramp at diamond-type
an auxiliary lane 2,600 ft long, where the interchange on 6-lane freeway, with auxil-
appropriate nomograph (equation) has an iary lane—Use Figure 8.12, together with
upper limit of 1,400 ft for length of auxiliary Figure 8.20.
lane, this limit largely based on the range of Successive one-lane on-ramps on 6-
data available for this condition. The equa- lane freeway—For the first ramp use Fig-
tion could be used, if examination of the ure 8.9; for the second ramp use Fig-
effect of the variable being extrapolated on ure 8.13.
the overall result of known levels indicated
One-lane on-ramp with adjacent up-
this was feasible. In one such case, a level-
stream off-ramp on 8-lane freeway—Use
ing off trend might be noted which would
Figure 8.14 or 8.15.
suggest use,. in the equation, of some value
short of the full 2,600 ft. In another in- One-lane inner loop on-ramp at
stance, however, engineering judgment might cloverleaf interchange on 8-lane freeway,
detect an unreasonable trend which would with auxiliary lane—Use Figure 8.16.
suggest that extrapolation not be attempted.
Use of Procedures Presented Later in
Substitution of an Equation Representing
Chapter for Application to Levels of Service
a Relatively Similar Layout.—This is often
D and E.—Although Table 8.3 and Figure
an appropriate method, because several
8.24 are developed for use with the higher
geometric layouts for which insufficient data
volumes encountered in level D, they can be
are available for specialized treatment ap-
applied approximately to levels B and C if no
pear to operate much the same as arrange-
other methods appear practicable either
ments for which data were available. In
alone or in conjunction with level B and C
such cases, use of the figure representing the
known case is recommended. equations.
(a) Successive one-lane off-ramps on 4-
The principal such cases are as follows:
lane freeway—For the first (upstream) off-
One-lane on-ramp with adjacent up- ramp, the critical checkpoint will be lane I
stream off-ramp on 4-lane freeway—Use upstream of the ramp, because some of
Figure 8.2. the off-ramp vehicles destined for the second
One-lane inner loop off-ramp at of the off-ramps will be in lane 1 at the first
cloverleaf interchange on 4-lane freeway off-ramp. Figure 8.3 or 8.4 can be used, but
(no auxiliary lane)—Use Figure 8.4. the off-ramp volume, V, used therein should
One-lane inner loop off-ramp at be the total combined off-ramp volumes of
cloverleaf interchange on 4-lane freeway, the two off-ramps if they are closely spaced
with auxiliary lane—Use Figure 8.6, to- (within 800 ft of each other, nose to nose).
gether with Figure 8.20. Where the distance between ramps is be-
One-lane off-ramp at diamond-type tween 800 and 4,000 ft, Figure 8.24b can be
interchange on 4-lane freeway, with auxil- used to determine the number of second off-
iary lane—Use Figure 8.7, together with ramp vehicles in lane 1 upstream of the first.
Figure 8.20. If spacing is more than 4,000 ft, conven-
Successive one-lane on-ramps on tional use of Figure 8.3 or 8.4 is recom-
226 HIGHWAY CAPACiTY
mended. For the second ramp use Fig- of a freeway lane and provides the outside
ure 8.3 directly. ramp lane (lane B) with direct entry into the
Successive one-lane off-ramps on 6- added freeway lane. The inside ramp lane
lane freeway—The procedure for the first (lane A) must merge into lane 1 of the free-
ramp is similar to that in (a) above for 4- way or lane B of the ramp. Research results
lane, but use Figure 8.10, together with Fig- regarding performance are not yet available;
ure 8.24b where appropriate. For the second estimates are, therefore, necessary. This de-
ramp use Figure 8.10 directly. sign approximates that of a major junction.
One-lane off-ramp on 8-lane freeway A suggested computation method makes
—Procedures for level D, including Table use of the assumption that ramp lane B,
8.3 and Figure 8.24b, give approximate solu- which adds the lane to the freeway, will carry
tions. the bulk of the traffic. The amount assigned
One-lane inner loop off-ramp at to this lane, should be the merge checkpoint
cloverleaf interchange on 8-lane freeway, volume from Table 8.1. The remainder of
with auxiliary lane—Procedures for level D, the ramp volume should be assigned to ramp
including Table 8.3 and Figure 8.24b, give lane A; this volume will merge with the lane
approximate solutions. 1 volume of the freeway. Depending on
One-lane off-ramp at diamond-type whether the freeway upstream of the ramp
interchange on 8-lane freeway, with auxil- has 2 lanes, 3 lanes, or 4 lanes, Figures 8.2,
iary lane—Procedures for level D, including 8.9, and 8.14, respectively, can be applied to
Table 8.3 and Figure 8.24b, give approxi- compute the lane 1 volume. In making the
mate solutions. lane 1 computation, the on-ramp volume
Successive one-lane on-ramps on 8- used will be that traversing ramp lane A.
lane freeways—Procedures for level* D, in- For example, in a level C design for 0.83
cluding Table 8.3 and Figure 8.24a, give ap- peak-hour factor, if the total ramp volume
proximate solutions. If the upstream on- were 1,900 vph, 1,400 vph would be assigned
ramp has light to moderate volume (not over to ramp lane B while 500 vph would use
600 vph), Figure 8.14 or 8.15 can be used. ramp lane A and merge with the lane 1 vol-
Successive one-lane off-ramps on 8- ume of the freeway. If the freeway volume
lane freeways—Procedures for level D, in- was 2,000 vph, using Figure 8.2, V1 would
cluding Table 8.3 and Figure 8.24b, give be 2,000 vph and V, would be 500 vph. The
approximate solutions. computed V1 volume added to the ramp
lane A volume would be checked against the
Use of General Merge and Diverge Cri- merge checkpoint volume of 1,400 vph for
teria in Table 8.1. level C (PHF 0.83), Table 8.1.
Lane added to the freeway at a 1-lane The total downstream volume, 3,900 vph,
on-ramp entrance, or dropped at a 1-lane off- would be similarly checked against the
ramp exit—The basic merge and diverge vol- allowable 4,000 vph, from Table 8.1, for
ume data in Table 8.1 may be interpreted as the given conditions.
limiting ramp volumes. Case Il—This design also requires the ad-
High-volume 2-lane entrance ramps, dition of a freeway lane. In this case, how-
and substitutes therefor—These fall into at ever, the inside ramp lane (lane A) is led
least four basic designs, designated as Cases directly into the added freeway lane and the
I-IV as sketched in the following:
outside ramp lane (lane B) is expected to
Case 1—This design requires the addition merge with lane A of the entrance into the
-
INNER LANE(S)
INNER LANE(S)
ADDED LANE
-- OO LANE - -
r(AMPS 227
added freeway lane. Again, research results distributions by lane have been derived; these
are unavailable. show lane 1 volumes based on freeway vol-
A general computational method for this ume only. Such curves can be used for gen-
type of design cannot be suggested, inasmuch eral approximations.
as marking practices can affect the paths
followed by ramp drivers. Also, it is not Use of Research Literature.—Reference to
known how many ramp lane A vehicles will the literature will show a variety of reports
move over into the adjacent left lane because which can be examined for insight into this
of pressure exerted by ramp lane B vehicles, subject or even complete solutions for certain
which must merge left into the added free- specific unusual layouts.
way lane. At the very least, the designer Left-side ramp problems, for which no
should make an "across all freeway lanes" generalized procedures are available for in-
check downstream from the merge just as clusion in this chapter, are discussed in two
he would for Case I. reports (9, 10) that cover extensive re-
Case 111—This design does not require an search into the operational characteristics
added freeway lane but does require a long
(including volume distributions and merging
and diverging capabilities) of several specific
INNER LANE(S)
left-side entrance and exit ramps.
As previously indicated, only limited re-
sults of research on 2-lane ramps are availa-
ble as yet. Figures 8.17 and 8.18 treat one
variety each of 2-lane entrance and exit
13 ramps on 6-lane freeways, and Figure 8.19
treats major forks, but other research results
on 2-lane ramps are largely lacking. The
acceleration lane or reduction of lanes over a literature should be reviewed periodically for
2,000- to 3,000-ft length. Its application is newer, more complete findings to supplement
mainly to the few points where upstream this manual.
freeway volumes are and will remain low. Local Field Sampling.—Occasionally, lo-
Figure 8.17 applies, approximately, to the cal on-site studies may prove the most feasi-
6-lane freeway case, but research results are ble means of determining operational char-
lacking for the 4-lane and 8-lane cases. acteristics on existing freeways, to establish
Case IV—This design would spread high
curves or approximate lane volume solutions.
entrance ramp volumes over two closely
Simulation by Digital Coin puter.—Use of
digital simulation of freeway traffic flow to
INNER LANE(S)
provide design solutions, and evaluation of
alternate solutions, is becoming more con-
venient and feasible as programs are de-
veloped.
FRONTAGE ROAO There remain certain highly specialized or

infrequently used designs for which few gen-
eral criteria can be offered at this time, due
spaced ramps. It requires a frontage road or to lack of research results. Included would
connecting surface street system. Figures 8.8 be designs especially fitted to the terrain or
and 8.13 apply for 4-lane and 6-lane free- local physical conditions, major forks, and
ways, respectively, whereas Figures 8.23 and designs incorporating varying numbers of
8.24 can be used for 8-lane freeways. lanes. Only application of good engineering
Use of General Lane 1 Volume Criteria judgment, coupled with use of local studies
(as Found in Appendix D and Other Litera- and simulations where feasible, as just men-
ture) .—A variety of curves showing volume tioned, can be suggested.
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTIONS-RAMP JUNC- Ramp jet. on freeway at 1/2 -mi

TIONS (LEVELS A THROUGH C METHOD) point on 3 percent upgrade; ramp
is ¼ mi long on 4 percent upgrade.
EXAMPLE 8.1
Truck volumes: 10 percent in
Problem: freeway flow, 4 percent in ramp
A simple on-ramp junction exists on a 4- flow.
lane freeway (two lanes in each direction) The procedure is carried out as
in a medium-size city where a peak-hour before insofar as use of the equa-
factor of 0.83 has been found applicable. tions and nomographs is con-
Traffic volumes are as shown in the sketch. cerned; no consideration is given
Geometrics can be considered ideal. to the trucks through that stage.
Conversionof V1 to basic 5 per-
cent trucks on level terrain:
Vf 1,500 From Fig. 8.22, for 1,500 vph
on 4-lane freeway, 70 percent of
trucks will be in lane 1, or 1,500
yr • 450 (0.10) (0.70) = 105 trucks in V1.
V1
% Trucks= Trucks in
Determine ( 1 ) the level of service being
provided by the junction, with no trucks or =105/ 602=pprox 17%.
grades present; and (2) the level of service
From Table 9.4, for 17 percent
provided if the junction is located at the
trucks on 3 percent grade ½ mi
½-mi point on a freeway upgrade of 3 per-
long, ET=4.
cent, with 10 percent trucks in the freeway
flow, and the ramp, carrying 4 percent From Table 9.6, for E=4 and
trucks, is on a 4 percent upgrade ¼ mi long. 17 percent trucks, TL =0.67.
V1= 602 (0.9 1/0.67)
Solution: - =818 equiV. vph.
(1) Level of service with no trucks or Conversion of Vr to basic 5 per-
grades. Figure 8.2 is applicable to cent trucks on level grade:
this design. Use of both methods, From Table 9.4, for 4 percent
equation and nomograph, will be trucks on 4 percent grade ¼ mi
shown.
long, ET = 10.
By use of equation: From Table 9.6, for E= 10 and
V,= 136 +0.345V1-0.1 15V,
4 percent trucks, TL =034.
=136+0.345(1,500)-0.115
(450) =602 vph. V,.=450(0.91/0.74)
Total merge = V1 + V = 602 + =553 equiv. vph.
450= 1,052 vph. Total equivalent merge.=818+553
From Table 8.1, for PHF= =1,371 equiv.vph.
0.83, this merge is within From Table 8.1 for PHF=0.83,
level of service B. this equivalent merge is between
By use of nomograph: 1,200 and 1,400, hence in level C.
Enter V1 scale at 1,500 point.
Draw line to 450 value on V,. EXAMPLE -82
scale.
Problem:
Intercept with solution line is
V1 value, approx. 600 vph. A cloverleaf interchange on a 4-lane free-
way (two lanes each direction) is 400 ft long
Remainder of solution same
as in (a). between inner loops. The total upstream
freeway volume is 1,800 vph. If level B
(2) Level of service, with substantial merge operation is to be maintained, what is
trucks and grades. the maximum volume that can be accommo-
RAMPS 229'
Vf Determine (1) if the volumes shown meet

i.00{ ____
level C service volumes with 0.91 PHF at the
numbered checkpoints marked with a circle,
(2) if the "across all freeway lanes" volume
VA 0
fl ) meets the freeway service volume limit set
for level C and 0.91 PHF as shown for a
6-lane freeway in Table 8.1, and (3) if weav-
ing criteria for level C are met as given in
dated at the on-ramp? Geometrics are ade- Table 8.1.
quate. If these conditions are not met, redesign,
if possible, to meet level C criteria.
SolutIon:
Figure 8.5 applies; use of equation is here Solution:
demonstrated. Step-by-step use of the equations will be
A choice of solutions exists, depending on demonstrated here, for familiarization pur-
the general volume level of V,.. poses. In practice, the nomographs could be
used in place of the equations for a faster
Assume that V, will be less than 600 vph;
graphic solution.
solution (a) applies.
V1= 166+0.280 V1= 166+0.280(1,800)= (a) Initial computations:
670 vph. The given conditions can be evaluated at
From Table 8.1, acceptable merge for the checkpoints by use of Figure 8.10 for, the
level B is 1,200 vph. diverge checkpoints and Figure 8.9 for the
merge checkpoint.
Vr = Acceptable merge - V = 1,200 -- 670 =
530 vph. At the first diverge checkpoint, using the
On-ramp can accommodate 530 vph. (This equation in Figure 8.10,
result being under 600 vph, assumption of V1= 94+ 0.23 1V
the appropriate, equation was correct. Had it +0.473V,+215( V,/D,)
been more than 600 vph, a recomputation = 94+0.231(4,300)
would be required using the solution (b) +0.473(650) +215(0)
equation, which gives Vr directly). = 1,395 vph.
Note: Downstream operation will be in level
1,395< 1,650, the level C diverge service
C, inasmuch as it exceeds 2,000 vph.
volume from Table 8.1, therefore the level
C service volume requirement is met and
EXAMPLE 8.3 the condition is sa.tisfactory.
Problem: At the second diverge checkpoint, using
On a 6-lane freeway in a large city, where the same equation,
a peak-hour factor of 0.91 applies, one sec- V1=94+0.231(4,450) +0.473(600)
tion has three ramp junctions in succession, +215 (800/1,100)
the first an off-ramp, the next an on-ramp, = 1,562 vph.
and finally another off-ramp. Traffic esti-
11 562< 1,650; thus the .level C require-
mates and geometrics are as shown in the
ment is met and the condition is satisfac-
sketch, with truck volumes under 5 percent
and grades near level. Level C operation is tory.
desired. At the merge checkpoint, using the equa-
tion in Figure 8.9, V1=-121+0.244V,
- 0.085VII + 640 Vd/D(I = - 121 + 0.244
2,000 1,100' (3,650) —0.085(650) + 640(600/1,100) =
1,064 vph.
3.650{ 3,850 Expected merge= 1,064 vph (V 2 , at nose
4300L
of on-ramp) +800 vph from on-ramp=
- o 1,864 vph.
1,864> 1,550, the level C merge service
volume from Table 8.1. Therefore, the 0.91 PHF), a check at the 0.5 point between
merge is considerably higher than level C the interchanges should suffice to determine
and does not meet the requirement. Not if the lane 1 volume and auxiliary lane vol-
satisfactory. ume meet separate checks against the service
At between-junction "across all freeway volume requirement of 1,550 vph, as fol-
lanes" checks: lows:
4,300<4,350 from Table 8.1; satisfactory.
Lane I Volume Calculated at the 0.5 Point
3,650<4,350 from Table 8.1; satisfactory.
4 1 450> 4,350 from Table 8.1; not satisfac- Between the Ramps:
tory. Lane I through=972 (Lane I calculated)
Weaving vehicles check: —600 (Off-ramp)=273 vph.
800 vph "on" + 600 vph "off" = 1,400 vph On-ramp volume merged onto lane 1 =
weaving in 1,100 ft. This obviously meets 0.58x800=464 vph (using Figure 8.20,
the level C criterion of not over 1,350 vph upper curve).
weaving per 500 ft satisfactorily. Off-ramp volume still in lane I = (1.00
The foregoing analyses indicate that the —0.25) x600=450 vph (using Figure 8.20,
proposed geometrics are deficient at the lower curve).
merge checkpoint, and "across the freeway Total in lane I at 0.5 point= 372 through
lanes" between the entrance and the down- +464 from on-ramp+450 destined to off-
stream exit ramps. ramp= 1,286 vph.
(b) Recomputations: 1,286< 1,550; lane I meets level C service
The most likely modification to investigate volume requirement.
in the hope of meeting level C requirements Auxiliary Lane Volume Calculated at the
is the addition of an auxiliary lane between 0.5 Point:
the entrance and exit ramp. This will pro- The auxiliary lane volume can be calcu-
vide additional maneuvering space and related using Figure 8.20, but it is perhaps
duce the number of vehicles in lane I be- easier to simply add the lane 1 volume at the
tween the ramps. nose to the on-ramp volume and subtract the
There is no change in operation at the first volume calculated to be in lane I at the 0.5
exit ramp, so no recomputation need be point.
made there. 972 (at nose)+800 (on-ramp)— 1,286
A volume check should be made at the (lane I at 0.5 point) =486 vph.
nose of the on-ramp using Figure 8.12 for 486< 1,550; auxiliary lane meets level C
lane location. V 1 = 53 + 0.283 V1 — O.4O2D,, service volume requirement.
+ 0.547V,1 = 53 + 0.283(3,650) - 0.402 There is also the need to check the "across
(1,100) +0.547(600) =972 vph at the nose all freeway lanes" volume to make sure it
of the on-ramp. now meets the 4,350 vph requirement. In
The lane I volume at any point between such checks, the auxiliary lane is not counted
the ramps will consist of through vehicles, as a lane and the volume carried on the auxil-
on-ramp vehicles, and off-ramp vehicles. The iary lane at the checkpoint is not counted in
number of through vehicles is determined by the freeway volume.
subtracting the off-ramp volume from the In this problem, there are 4,450 vph
computed lane I volume at the nose of the entering the section and 486 vph have been
on-ramp. All off-ramp vehicles are assumed calculated to be in the auxiliary lane at the
to be in lane 1 at the nose of the on-ramp for 0.5 point. There remain 3,964 vph on the
computational purposes. Figure 8.20 is used three through lanes.
to determine the lane volume distribution of 3,964<4,350; "across all freeway lanes"
the entrance and exit ramp vehicles between requirement for level C is met.
the ramps. A final check can be made to assure that
If the combined volume of the computed the service volume requirement for weaving
lane 1 volume, plus the on-ramp volume, is met. Inasmuch as the weaving criterion is
does not exceed 150 percent of the service 1,350 vph per 500 ft of roadway for level C
volume for one lane (1,550 vph for level C, (0.91 PHF), the weaving of 1,400 vph (800
RAMPS 231
+600) in 1,100 ft appears satisfactory. A For 700 ft between off-ramp noses:

check of the ramp volumes already calcu- Where off-ramps are 800 ft or less apart,
lated to have moved out of their "entering the ramp vehicles destined for the second off-
the section" lanes and to have completed ramp are assumed to be in lane 1 upstream
their weave, shows 464 on-ramp vehicles
of the first off-ramp.
have weaved with 150 off-ramp vehicles, for
a total weave of 614 vph over the first First off-ramp:
550 ft (0.5 of 1,100 ft) of the weaving V1 = + 94+0.231V 1 +0.473(Vr,+1"r)+
section. This is considerably less than the 2l5V31 /D = + 94 + 0.231(3,700) + 0.473
1,350 vph upper limit for 500 ft of roadway (500+900) +215(500/3,000) = 1,647 vph.
as given in Table 8.1. 1,647> 1,500, the level C diverge service vol-
The revised geometrics, shown with ex- ume from Table 8.1 for PHF=0.83, there-
pected volumes in the following sketch, now fore the service volume requirement is not
meet level C specifications. met.
Second off-ramp:
I, 100' 1 No calculation is needed. The' require-
2,000
— ment will be met if the first off-ramp require-
ments are met.
4.3001__.. 3,650 1:: 004ii }e5O
.395 J ___.i — 972 t..-.,.I.266
486
For 2,000 ft between off-ramp noses:
Where off-ramps are 800 to 4,000 ft apart,
Figure 8.23b is used to determine the num-
ber of vehicles destined for the second off-
ramp which will be in lane I upstream of the
first off-ramp.
EXAMPLE 8.4
First off-ramp:
Problem: From Table 8.23b, 63 percent of the
Six-lane freeway with geometrics and vol- second off-ramp vehicles will be in lane 1 at
umes as shown in the sketch. a point 2,000 ft upstream of that ramp.
V1 +94+0.231 Vt +0.473(Vr +0.63Vr )
+ 215(V,,/D31 ) = + 94 + 0.231(3,700) +
Vf"' Vt 1 - 0.473[500+0.63(900)]+215(500/3,000) =
3.201 5,70 3,200 1,489 vph.
LV I2r'
1,489< 1,500, therefore the level C re-
V" RAMP quirement is met.
700......J
(0)2,000'
T
RAMP Second off-ramp:
(2)5,000'
V1 = + 94+0.23lV,+0.473V1 +2151',,/
D,, = + 94 + 0.231 (3,200) +0.473(900) +
Given: Level C; peak-hour factor=0.83. 215(500/5,000) = 1,280 vph.
Truck volumes under 5 percent, grades under 1,280< 1,500, therefore the level C re-
2 percent. quirement is met.
Determine: Whether or not the diverge vol- For 5,000 ft between off-ramp noses:
umes (V1 ) upstream of the off-ramps meet Where off-ramps are more than 4,000 ft
level C requirements for the following three apart, the second off-ramp can be considered
conditions of distance between off-ramp to have no effect on the first off-ramp. Also,
noses: (a) 700 ft, (b) 2,000 ft, (c) 5,000 ft. an on-ramp upstream of the first off-ramp
Solution: would be disregarded in calculations for the
Figure 8.10 applies, in conjunction with second off-ramp.
Figure 8.23 in some cases. Use of the equa- First off-ramp:
tions is here demonstrated; nomographic V = + 94 + 0.231 V, + 0.4731/,. + 215V,/
solution would reduce the computational DII = + 94 + 0.231 (3,700) + 0.473(500) +
time. 215(500/3,000) = 1,221 vph.
1,221 < 1,500, therefore the level C re- the off-ramp and also 1,600 ft upstream to
quirement is met. check utilization of lane 1 just before the
Second off-ramp: deceleration lane begins.
V = +94+0.231V+0.473V,.+215v 2 / Provide an auxiliary lane between the
D,, = + 94 + 0.231 (3,200) + 0.473 (900) + upstream on-ramp and the first off-ramp.
215(0) = 1,259 vph. Obviously, this should remedy the situation;
1,259< 1,500, therefore the level C re- but if there is doubt, Figure 8.12 and 8.20
quirement is met. should be used to analyze lane 1 volumes at
several points between the on-ramp and the
The maximum between-junction "across
all freeway lanes" volume check is satisfac- off-ramp. (From a capacity standpoint, a
tory; 3,700<4,000 vph, limit for level C, continuation of this lane to the second ramp
0.83 PHF. probably would be found unnecessary; from
a safety standpoint, it might be found desira-
Weaving vehicles check:
ble, however).
The presence of one entrance and two
exits indicates that there will be at least rudi-
mentary multiple-weaving characteristics. In- EXAMPLE 8.5
asmuch as the on-ramp carrying 500 vph is Part a.
3,000 ft upstream, it is obvious that the level Problem:
C requirement of less than 1,200 vph weav-
ing in any 500 ft segment is met. Given: A two-lane on-ramp joins a 6-lane
freeway, and at the point of junction a lane
Conclusions: is added to form an 8-lane freeway down-
The several solutions above have shown stream (see sketch). Level of service C is
that with the given volumes, level C service desired, and PHF=0.91; geometrics are
volume requirements are not met upstream of adequate. The freeway is carrying 4,000 vph
the first off-ramp when only 700 ft separate approaching the on-ramp. The truck per-
the off-ramps. For the other distances of centage is under 5 and grades are near level.
2,000 and 5,000 ft, the design is satisfactory.
Alternates to consider, in 700-ft case:
There are several alternates to consider for 4,000 12
- -
Li v1 -.- -
the situation where only a 700-ft distance
exists between off-ramp noses.
Accept level of service D at the first
off-ramp.
Separate the off-ramps by a greater Determine: (1) Will the assigned vol-
distance. The solution for 2,000-ft distance umes as shown in the sketch meet level C
is shown to barely meet level C requirements. requirements? (2) What is the maximum
The off-ramps, then, should be at least allowable ramp volume for level C?
2,000 ft apart.
Provide a long parallel decelera- Solution:
tion lane upstream of the first off- ( 1 ) Check of assigned traffic volumes rela-
ramp so that the 500 vph destined for the tive to level C:
first off-ramp can be off the through lanes
From Table 8.1, the allowable upstream
before the majority of the 900 vph destined
freeway volume for a 6-lane freeway at level
for the second off-ramp have moved over C with PHF= 0.91 is 4,350 vph, whereas the
into lane 1. By use of Figures 8.10 and allowable downstream freeway volume for
8.23b it can be determined that the decelera- an 8-lane freeway at level C with PHF=0.91
tion lane should start at least 1,600 ft up- is 6,000 vph. The layout thus meets "across
stream of the first off-ramp. Assuming that all freeway lanes" checks, for level C.
the 500 vph will move onto the deceleration This is a 2-lane on-ramp, Case I design,
lane along the first 600 ft of its length, a lane as discussed on p. 226, because the freeway
1 check should be made 1,000 ft upstream of lane is added as a continuation of the right
RAMPS 233
ramp lane (ramp lane B). Because ramp

lane B has free access to the freeway, it is
.!L1L ..
---
---
assumed to carry the bulk of the volume and

is assigned 1,550 vph, the merge checkpoint
Vr
volume for level C, PHF=0.91, from Ta-
ble 8.1. The remainder of the ramp traffic
(1,800-1,550=250 vph) is assumed to
Solution:
merge with freeway lane 1 traffic, much as it
would in an ordinary merge (without an The ramp could conceivably carry 6,000-
auxiliary lane). Therefore, in order to find 3,200=2,800 vph based on "across all free-
the expected merge, Figure 8.9 can be used way lanes" volumes. However, the merge of
to find V 1 for the 6-lane freeway. ramp lane A with V1 of the freeway must be
checked for these new conditions.
V, = - 121 + 0.244V1 — 0.085V,, + 640V(//
V 1 = — 121+0.244V,-0.085V,,+640V/
Dd = — 121 + 0.244(4,000) —0.085(0) + 640
D,, = - 121 + 0.244(3,200) - 0.085(0) +
(0) =855 vph.
640(0) =660 vph.
Total merge=V1+Ramp lane A volume Total merge = V1 + Ramp lane A volume =
=855+250= 1,105 vph. 660+ (2,800— 1,550) = 1,910 vph.
1,105< 1,550, therefore the merge is sat- 1,910> 1,550, therefore the merge is not
isfactory for level C, PHF=0.91, from satisfactory.
Table 8.1 and the assigned ramp volume The maximum allowable ramp volume to
of 1,800 vph meets level C requirements. meet the level C requirement of 1,550 vph
(2) Maximum allowable ramp volume at merge is obtained as follows:
level C on freeway for given upstream vol- Maximum allowable merge=V1 + ( V,-
ume: 1,550 in lane B)
The maximum allowable freeway volume 1,550 vph merge =660+ (V,— 1,550)
Vr 2,440 vph, allowable ramp volume
is 6,000 vph downstream of the merge, from
at level C.
Table 8.1, for 8-lane freeway, level C,
PHF=0.91. Therefore, the maximum al- Evaluation:
lowable ramp volume, based on through Thus, the freeway downstream volume
freeway capabilities, is was the constraint in part (a), whereas the
V,.= V1 (allowable downstream) - V1 (ac- ramp volume was the constraint in part (b)
tual upstream) = 6,000 — 4,000 = 2,000 vph. where the freeway and ramp volumes are
more nearly equal.
Checking the merge in lane 1,
Total merge (vph) = V1 + Maximum pos- Calculation of Service Volumes, Levels D
sible ramp lane A volume= 855 + (2,000- and E (Capacity)
1,550) = 1,305 vph.
DIFFERENCES FROM BETTER LEVELS
1,305< 1,550, therefore the merge is sat-
isfactory, but the maximum allowable The preceding section of this chapter con-
ramp volume under level C is 2,000 vph siders operations at ramp-freeway junctions
as constrained by the allowable freeway at various service volumes providing free
volume downstream. flow. Equations and nomographs presented
in that section, although based on observa-
Part b.
tions of flow at all levels, are directed par-
Problem: ticularly toward level C, which represents
Given: Same layout and level of service merge volumes of 1,300 to 1,550 vph during
requirements as in Part (a). However, the a whole hour, implying short-term (5-mm)
freeway is carrying 3,200 vph approaching. peak rates of 1,700 vph. Under some condi-
the on-ramp. tions of relative traffic movements (on, off,
Determine: The allowable ramp volume and through), these might approach the
under level C. maximum values for stable flow.
234 1-IIGI-IWAY CAPACITY
In most cases, however, on reasonably change lanes before suffering reduced speed
well-designed freeways, stability extends well or stoppage. This is particularly true when
into level D, and it is in this area that the most of the drivers are repeat users, or
practicing traffic engineer is most interested. "commuters," as is the case at most locations
Desirable though it would be to operate all where capacity is a problem.
highways at level C or better, this cannot yet The procedures previously described for
be done in most cities. As a result, the traffic levels A through C can be applied to level D
engineer is forced to think in terms of "how and, approximately, to level E, in the same
many can I consistently get through" in way that they are applied to the better levels,
many peak-period situations. through selection of the appropriate control
Unlike mainline flow, there is a considera- values from Table 8.1. Occasionally, for
ble range in workable ramp junction volumes certain special geometric situations, this may
within level D, before level E is reached. be necessary. However, other procedures are
This is true because mainline traffic not only available, for most typical geometric ar-
distributes itself (by lanes) differently under rangements, which apply specifically to the
conditions of incipient congestion, but also level D case; they can be used to approxi-
distributes itself in a variety of ways depend- mate level E also (3). These are next de-
ing on the specific combination of geometrics scribed.
at any particular site. The criteria in Ta-
ble 8.1 show the upper limit of merging or COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES-LEVEL D
diverging volume (or volume in any one
lane) as 2,000 passenger cars in a whole Table 8.3 and Figure 8.23 are the prin-
hour, but the lane distribution changes result cipal computational devices reflecting typical
in relatively less traffic in lane 1, and more in driver behavior at level of service D. Ta-
the remaining lanes. It is therefore possible ble 8.3 gives the percentage of through traffic
with this type of operation to obtain greater likely to remain in lane 1 through the ramp
ramp volumes than those obtained at the junction area at level D on 4-, 6-, and 8-
high-volume end of level C. lane freeways. Similarly, Figure 8.23 shows
As an example, suppose that there are the percentages of on-ramp and off-ramp
3,000 vph on a 6-lane freeway upstream of traffic likely to be in lane 1 (as well as in the
an on-ramp with geometrics as shown in auxiliary lane, if one is present) through the
Figure 8.9. The adjacent ramps are an up- same area, on freeways of any normal num-
stream off-ramp carrying 400 vph and an off- ber of lanes. It is derived from Figures 8.24
ramp 4,000 ft downstream carrying 500 vph. and 8.25.
The nomographic solution (Fig. 8.9) shows Workable ramp volumes at the high-vol-
that 660 vph of the 3,000 vph are in lane 1 ume end of level of service D can be deter-
and at the upper volume limit of level C only mined by means of procedures making use
640 vph (for 0.77 PHF), 740 vph (for of Table 8.3 and Figure 8.23. Allowance has
0.83 PHF), or 890 vph (for 0.91 PHF) can been made for peaking within the hour, and
enter from the on-ramp at this location with- for normal variation in other unmeasured
out exceeding the merge limits. If the actual conditions. If the check point volumes do
demand at the on-ramp happens to be at not exceed those associated with level D,
capacity will seldom, if ever, be exceeded;
these volumes or slightly lower, this is a true
hence, queues will not form. These values,
solution, and merging will take place at
then, represent the highest volumes that can
level C. However, it will be seen that the be consistently carried with little likelihood
average lane volume in lanes 2 and 3 under of a flow "breakdown." Conditions, however,
these stipulated conditions would be only may seem restricted to many drivers.
(3,000-660)/2= 1,170 vph. If the on-ramp This procedure and these values should be
volume is greater than the 640 vph, 740 vph, used to check operational problems on exist-
or 890 vph stated above, queuing in the right ing freeways and can be used in design to
lane will be incipient, but queues will not check critical locations to ensure that they
form because there is so much room in lanes will not become bottlenecks which would
2 and 3 that some drivers in lane 1 will affect level of service at upstream locations.
RAMPS 235
Briefly the procedural steps are as follows TABLE 8.3—APPROXIMATE PERCENT-

AGE OF THROUGHa TRAFFIC
(a) Establish the geometrics of the loca- REMAINING IN LANE I IN THE
tion under study, including number of free- VICINITY OF RAMP TERMINALS AT
way lanes, location of all ramps within a dis- LEVEL OF SERVICE D
tance of 4,000 ft upstream and downstream
of the ramp or point under study, and the
existence or absence of auxiliary lanes. THROUGH TRAFFIC REMAINING
TOTAL VOLUME IN LANE
(b) Establish the demand volumes for all OF THROUGH
movements involved. TRAFFIC, ONE
(c) Determine flow by lanes in the section DIRECTION 8-LANE" 6-LANE' 4-LANE"
under consideration at critical points such as (vph) FREEWAY FREEWAY FREEWAY
shown in Figure 8.1 and at 500-ft intervals
through the critical section, using Table 8.3 6500 and over 10 - -
and Figure 8.23. Check these flows against 6000-6499 10 - -
control values, as follows: 5500-5999 ' 10 ,, - -
The merge volume in lane 1 or the 5000-5499 9 - -
4500-4999 9 18 -
auxiliary lane at any point cannot exceed the
4000-4499 8 14 -
value listed in Table 8.1 for the level of ser- 3500-3999 8 10 -
vice selected; it ranges from 1,400 to 3000-3499 8 6 40
1,650 vph for level D, depending on the 2500-2999 8 6 35
peak-hour factor selected. Similarly, the 2000-2499 8 ' 6 30
1500-1999 8 6 25
diverge volume (total volume before splitting 6 20
Upto1499 8
into through and off flows) at a point in
lane I or the auxiliary lane just upstream of
Trafficnot involved in a ramp movement within 4,000 ft
an off -ramp cannot exceed the value listed in in either direction.
4 lanes one way.
Table 8.1 for the level selected; for Level D 3 lanes one way.
2 lanes one way.
this ranges from 1,500 to 1,750 vph, also
depending on peak-hour factor. The volume
at critical locations, such as shown in Fig-
ure 8.1, should be checked against these
values. Inspection of Figure 8.23 will assist
in determining where critical points exist. volves use of Table 8.3 and Figure 8.23. A
clear understanding of this step requires
The total volume across all freeway knowledge of the derivation of Figure 8.23,
lanes (excluding an auxiliary lane, if one is which is based principally on Figures 8.24
present, and the volume in that lane) should and 8.25. Figure 8.24 represents Case I,
not exceed the limiting volume given in Ta- where no auxiliary lane is present; Fig-
ble 8.1 for the level of service desired on the ure 8.25 represents Case II, where an auxil-
mainline freeway, if balanced flow is to be iary lane exists. -
maintained.
Considering Case I first, Figure 8.24a
The number of weaving vehicles applies to on-ramps without a downstream
should not exceed from 1,400to 1,650 vph auxiliary lane. It indicates the probable vol-
on any 500-ft segment of a weaving section ume of on-ramp traffic in the right lane at
(again depending on the peak-hour 'factor any point downstream of the on-ramp. For
selected, as given in Table 8.1). example, 500 ft downstream of the on-ramp
(d) Evaluate the results of the examina- nose, 100 percent of the ramp traffic will
tion in Step (c). If unsatisfactory, consider have at least encroached on the right-hand
possible corrective measures. freeway lane (lane 1). The whole vehicle
may not yet be in the right lane, but the left
Step (c), as listed above, is the principal side will be close enough to create a headway
determination step in this procedure; it in- unit in it. Downstream 1,000 ft from the
'236 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
CASE I - SINGLE-LANE ON- AND OFF-RAMPS WITHOUT AUXILLIARY LANE

(THIS CHART MAY BE USED REGARDLESS OF ACTUAL SPACING BETWEEN
ON- AND OFF-RAMPS, BUT AS NOTED BELOW*CAUTION MUST BE
EXERCISED IN USING THESE VALUES.)
- -
I6 - 29 46 6 31 19 - 95(I - Ioo- 10 -- -
0 500' I, 000' I, 50d 2,000' 2, 500' 3,500'

3,1000' 4,1000'
4,000 3500' 3,000 2,500 2,000' 1,500' 1,000' 500' 0
CASE fl- SINGLE-LANE ON- AND OFF- RAMPS WITH AUXILLIARY LANE so
(A) L (LENGTH OF AUX. LANE BETWEEN NOSES) = 1,000'
EXAMPLE OF USE OF FIGURE 8.23

-..__9.& - - " -.RC HT
(SUMMARY OF EXAMPLE 8.61 - - LANE
GIVEN L'I,OOO'
PORTION OFV1 THROUGH (FROM 10 150_
_O___ oo'
TABLE 8.3) z 475 VPH 1,000' 500' 0
ON-RAMP' 1,000 VPH
OFF- RAMP z 1,200 VPH
ON- RAMP TO OFF- RAMP' 0
FIND: Vt (VOL. IN LANE I) @500''
475 + (0.80)(I,000) (0.24)(1,200)'
1,563 VPH
(B)L' 1,500'
, ii 0 1500
12
1 ,1000
1E
1,1 500
1,500' 1,000 500' 0
(C) L 2,000'
29(QJ -I9t) 8 ()30
cir"76(I4'r 92(3')
"1150500' 1,1000' 1,1500' 2,I0
2,00d 1,500' 1,000' 500' 0
(0) L' 2,500

- 26
- 37
- 19
- 60(2
- I9( - - 8
76(9) - 92(3
--
- Ib1"
I5oO' I,lOO' I,I 60' 2,I6
2,500' 2,000' 11500' 1,000' 500' 0
(E)Lr3oOO
23(751-
j 0
M
I
J
0 500 1, 1000 1, 1500 2,1000 2,1500 ' 3,1000
3,000' 2,500' 2,000' 1,500' 1,000' 500' 0
CIRCLED VALUES(INDICATE PERCENTAGE OF ON-RAMP TRAFFIC IN LANE SHOWN. UNCIRCLED

VALUES INDICATE PERCENTAGE OF OFF-RAMP TRAFFIC IN LANE SHOWN. (REMAINING PORTION OF
TRAFFIC IS IN LANE(S) TO LEFT OF LANE I.)
THESE PERCENTAGES ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE' DISTRIBUTIONS UNDER FREE FLOW OR
LIGHT RAMP TRAFFIC, BUT UNDER PRESSURE OF HIGH VOLUMES IN THE RIGHT LANES AT THE
POINT BEING CONSIDERED AND WITH ROOM AVAILABLE IN OTHER LANES.
MINIMUM % IN RIGHT LANE CANNOT BE LESS THAN % OF THROUGH TRAFFIC IN RIGHT
LANE AS DETERMINED FROM TABLE 8.3 (SEE NOTE, FIG. 8.24).
SEE FIGURE 7.5 FOR METHOD OF MEASURING LENGTH L.
Figure 8.23. Percentage distribution of 'on- and off-ramp traffic in lane 1 and auxiliary lane
RAMPS 237
I
bC
*
80
(A) ON-RAMP TRAFFIC
SEE NOTE
40
(B) OFF-RAMP TRAFFIC
20
-
0 I 2 3
DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM OF ON-RAMP NOSE (1,000 FT) DISTANCE UPSTREAM OF OFF-RAMP NOSE (1,000 Fl)
EXAMPLE OF USE OF FIGURE 8.24 (SUMMARY OF EXAMPLE 8.7)
11,600' -
NORMAL GALA-CATION B- CHECK CALCULATION

LANESONE-WAY BECAUSE % IN LANE I AT 1,500 IS BELOW DASHED LINE.
"THROUGH TRAFFIC' 2,400 VPH •. RECALCULATE ASSUMING ON-RAMP TRAFFIC IS THROUGH
"ON-RAMP" 800 VPH TRAFFIC.
AMOUNT IN LANE I AT 5. AMOUNT IN LANE I ATGJ.
THROUGH (FROM TABLE 8.3) • O.30X 2,400 720 THROUGH (FROM TU8LE 8.3) 0.40X 3,200' I,280
ON-RAMP I FIG. 6.24A1 O.3OX 800.240 SINCE CALCULATION U 11,2801 IS GREATER THAN
960 CALCULATION A 19601 USE I.280.
THESE PERCENTAGES ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE DISTRIBUTIONS UNDER

FREE FLOW OH LIGHT RAMP TRAFFIC. BUT UNDER PRESSUGE OF HIUH VOLUMES
IN THE RIGHT LANES AT THE LOCUTION BEING CONSIDERED AND WITH
AVAILABLE ROOM IN OTHER LANES.
NOTE IF RAMP PERCENTAGE IN LANE I AT POINT UNDER CONSIDERATION IS

BELOW DASHED LINE. THEN AMOUNT IN LANE I SHOULD RE RECALCULATED
ASSUMING RAMP TRAFFIC IS THROUGH TRAFFIC. USE WISHER VALUE. SEE
EXAMPLE ABOVE.
Figure 8.24. Percentage of ramp traffic in lane / (no auxiliary lane).
nose 60 percent will be in the right lane, with in connection with an ordinary off-ramp.
the other 40 percent having moved over to Inasmuch as there is always some through
the left if there is room in the other lane and traffic in the right lane, it would never be
if there is a reason to avoid lane 1 (such as 'a possible to supply the capacity. volume of a
downstream merge conflict). full lane to an off-ramp even though the
Figure 8.24b applies to off-ramps not pre- ramp itself might be able to accommodate it.
ceded by an auxiliary lane. It indicates the If a parallel auxiliary lane-is added, however,
average volume of off-ramp traffic in the the capacity of a full lane can be supplied to
right lane (lane 1) at any distance upstream a ramp. Thus, under high volume conditions
of the ramp nose. It is shown, for example, provision of a parallel lane increases the
that in the case of a conventional off-ramp capacity of off-ramps although a simple taper
(no auxiliary lane, standard .taper) 100 per- is adequate under lower volume conditions.
cent of the off-ramp traffic will be in the A typical example of use of the charts is
right lane (lane 1) at a point 500 ft upstream included in Figure 8.24; it involves, a check
of the off-ramp nose. At a point 2,000 ft up- of operation at a point 1,500 ft downstream
stream of the nose 63 percent of the off-ramp of an on-ramp entering a 4-lane freeway
traffic will still be in lane 2, provided there is (2 lanes in each direction).
a reason (congestion) to stay out of lane 1 A.t locations classed as Case II, involving
as long as possible yet there is room to move an on-ramp connected by an auxiliary lane
into lane 1 downstream before the off-ramp to a downstream off-ramp, distributions of•
is reached. on-ramp traffic differ; typical distributions
This figure illustrates an important point are shown in FigUre 8.25. For example, .the
z
00
F4Air
o traffic that has not yet moved right from
lane 2.)
In measuring the distances between noses,
4 60 again the method outlined in Figure 7.5
should be used. Obviously, in actual prac-
IFIAA__
4 tice there are few weaving sections whose
lengths are exact multiples of 500 ft; how-
60 ever, the length of the section under investi-
0 gation can be rounded to the nearest 500 ft
. IJ :.._ for the purpose of using Figure 8.23 without
z loom
0
0
40
exceeding allowable error in estimating the
acceptability of traffic operation.
4
In carrying out procedural step (c) to de-
II
I-
a-
termine lane 1 volumes in Case I where no
C
20 auxiliary lane is present, Table 8.3 is first
0 used to determine the percentage of through
traffic (defined for purposes of this section
as traffic not involved in a ramp movement
500 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 within 4,000 ft in either direction) that will
DISTANCE, FT probably remain in lane 1 throughout the
entire merging and weaving section, at level
EXAMPLE
D. The total directional through volume is
= - 1,000'
= = = = then multiplied by the percentage just se-
(UX.LANE-J lected from Table 8.3 to obtain the through
1,200 L - 2,000'
(non-weaving) volume in lane 1. Next, to
1,000' DOWNSTREAM OF NOSE 66% OF 1,200 ON.RAMP
VEHICLES WILL RE OUT OF THE AUXILIARY LANE.
this volume is added the on-ramp traffic
which has entered lane 1, as well as the off-
Figure 8.25. Percentage of on-ramp traffic ramp traffic which has not yet left lane 1, as
leaving auxiliary lane at any point for determined from Figure 8.23a. The sum is
a given length of auxiliary lane, L.
the total volume in lane 1 at the particular
point.
In Case II where 'there is an auxiliary lane,
Figure 8.23b is employed in a similar man-
figure indicates that if a 2,000-ft auxiliary ner. Here, however, the auxiliary lane vol-
lane is provided, 86 percent of the on-ramp umes, consisting of on-ramp vehicles still in
traffic will be out of the auxiliary lane that lane plus off-ramp vehicles which have
1,000 ft downstream of the on-ramp. already entered it, must also be determined.
For general computational use, Fig- In either case, as previously described the
ure 8.23 combines data from these several lane volumes obtained must be checked
figures. It shows, for several representative against control values.
distances between ramp junctions, including The method can be utilized for a wide -
both locations with and without auxiliary variety of geometr-ics, as is demonstrated in
lanes, the distribution of ramp traffic at the sample problems which follow. • In par-
500-ft intervals. That is, it shows the per-
ticular, it can be adapted to cases where a
centages of both the traffic entering from the
pair of on- or off-ramps exists, as shown in
on-ramp and that preparing to exit at the
Example 8.9. In such cases, the flow to or
off-ramp which will be found in the auxiliary
lane and in lane 1 at these 500-ft points. from the outermost ramp of the pair should
(Although not required for computational be examined for its influence on lane' 1, both
purposes, the difference between the total as an individual ramp flow and as part of the
of the percentages in lane 1 and the auxiliary through flow past the next ramp; .the result
lane and 100 percent represents on-ramp selected should be that producing the largest
traffic that has reached lane 2, or off-ramp volume contribution to. lane 1,
RAMPS 239
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTIONS-RAMP JUNC- be expected. This example illustrates the

TIONS (LEVEL D METHOD) undesirability of having noses of high-vol-
ume successive on- and off-ramps as close
EXAMPLE 8.6 (Showing use of Fig. 8.23) together, as 1,000 ft, even with an auxiliary
(Note: Figure 8.23 incorporates a sum- lane.
mary of this simple example of the basic
Conclusion:
procedure covered in Case II of the figure.)
Problem: Level D requirements are not fully, but
very nearly, met.
As shown in the figure, assume a 4-lane
freeway (two lanes in each direction) having
on- and off-ramps 1,000 ft apart with an EXAMPLE 8.7 (Showing use of Fig. 8.24)
auxiliary lane between them, a peak-hour
(Note: Figure 8.24 incorporates a sum-
mary of this simple example of the basic
3.100
(1.900
1 - - - - procedure involved in use of Figure 8.24.)
,jE Ti
1 00000 !L- - -
Problem:
1,006 1,200 The given design is a 4-lane freeway (two
lanes in each direction) with a 1-lane on-
ramp entering (see sketch). The upstream
factor of 0.91, and the following traffic pat-
tern: Upstream freeway volume= 3,100 vph,
of which 1,900 are through vehicles, on- 2,400
ramp volume= 1,000 vph, off-ramp volume I. V1- LANEI B
= 1,200 vph, and no on-ramp to off-ramp
traffic. Geometrics are ideal.
Determine whether or not this pair of
junctions meets level D requirements. freeway volume is 2,400 vph and the on-
Solution: ramp volume is 800 vph. Geometrics are
On this relatively short section the center, ideal.
or 500-ft, point appears to be the critical Determine volume of on-ramp traffic still
point. Table 8.3 indicates that at this point in lane 1 at point @ 1,500 ft downstream of
lane I will be handling 25 percent of the the junction.
through traffic, or 0.25 x 1,900=475 vph.
Case 11(a) of Figure 8.23 indicates that Solution:
80 percent of the on-ramp traffic (0.80x Basic calculation.
1,000), or 800 vph, will be in lane 1, as will From Table 8.3, for the given
24percent of the off-ramp traffic. (0.24x through volume of 2,400 vph, 30 per-
1,200), or 288 vph, for a total of 475+ cent is likely to stay in lane 1.
800+288= 1,563 vph in lane L Using Ta- 2,400x 0.30=720 vph.
ble 8.1, this is found to be satis1actory when At point 0, from Figure 8.23a for
compared to the merge control value of distance= 1,500 ft, 30 percent of the
1,650 vph for level D, PHF=0.91. on-ramp traffic will be in lane 1.
The eaving that takes place in a 500-ft (Caution: It is found that Note 2 on
section must also be determined. In the the figure must be considered before
same example, it can be seen that in the the problem is complete, as the in-
first 500 ft 80 percent of the on-ramp traffic tercept is below the .dashed line.)
will weave with 76 percent of the off-ramp 800x 0.30=240 vph. .
traffic. This would be 0.80x 1,000+0.76x 720+240=960 vph like to be in
1,200=approx. 1,700 vph. Inasmuch as this lane lat®.
is sLihtly more than the allowable weave Check calculation, applying Nofe 2.
given in Table 8.1 of 1,650 vph per 500 ft Consider ramp traffic as through
of roadway for level D, some turbulence can traffic.
240 HIGRWAY CAPACITY
Through traffic = 2,400 + 800 = Conclusion:

3,200 vph. Overloaded for level D, as the
From Table 8.3, for 3,200 vph, geometric and traffic pattern is not
40 percent of the traffic will stay satisfactory. (See proposed rede-
in lane 1. signs, Examples 8.9 and 8.10).
3,200x0.40=1,280 •vph likely
to be in lane 1 at
(c) Conclusion: EXAMPLE 8.9
Procedure (b) gives greater result Problem:
than (a) (1,280 vs 960), so use Given: Same conditions as Example 8.8,
1,280 vph. except that an additional upstream on-ramp
is added, as shown.
Traffic: A-13=4,200 vph; A-Y=500 vph;
EXAMPLE 8.8 X1-B=500 vph; X?-B=700 vph; X1-Y=
0 vph; X2-Y=0 vph; total= 5,900 vph be-
Problem: tween on- and off-ramps.
Given: 8-lane freeway with 4 lanes one
way and no auxiliary lane.
Normal percentage trucks, no excessive
grades or curvature.
On- and off-ramps, 2,000 ft between noses; 500
no other ramps within 4,000 ft.

Peak-hour factor = 0.83.
Traffic: A-B=4,200 vph; A7Y=500 vph; 000 - 2,009'
X-13=1,200 vph; X-Y=0 vph; total=
Determine whether or not this redesign
5,900 vph between ramps. satisfies the requirements for level of ser-
vice D at point (1
3.
Solution:
Volume across through freeway lanes
500 = 5,900 vph.
5,900< 6,000, from Table 8.1; satis-
factory.
2,000
Jy Lane 1 volume at
Traffic in right lane from upstream
Determine whether or not the design satis- of ramp X, (test two alternate meth-lh
fies the requirements for level of service D ods; use the larger result).
at point C13. Alternate 1:
Through traffic in right lane (Ta-
Solution: ble8.3)=0.08x4,200=336
Volume across through freeway lanes X2 on-ramp traffic in right lane
= 5,900 vph. (Fig. 8.23a) =0.30x 700=210
5,900<6,000 vph, from Table 8.1; Total=546 (use).
satisfactory. Alternate 2:
Lane 1 volume at13. Consider X2 on-ramp traffic as
Through traffic in right lane (Ta- through (Table 8.3) = 0.09 x 4,900
ble 8.3) =0.08 x 4,200=336. =440 (reject). •
On-ramp traffic in right lane (Fig. X. on-ramp traffic in right lane
8.23a) = 1.00x 1,200=1,200. (Fig. 8.23a)=l.00x5OO=500.
Off-ramp traffic in right lane (Fig. Off-ramp Y traffic in right lane
8.23a) =0.79x500=395. (Fig; 8.23a) = 0.79 x 500 = 395.
Total'= 1,931 > 1,500, from Ta- Total= 1,441 <1,500, from Ta-
ble 8.1; unsatisfactory. ble 8.1; satisfactory.
RAMPS 241
(c) Weaving in 500 ft (Fig. 8.23a). Off-ramp traffic (Fig. 8.23b) =

On-ramp X1=(L00--L00)(500) 0.29 x500= 145.
=0. Total, lane 1 = 1,081 < 1,500,
On.ramp X2 =(0.60-0.30)(700) from Table 8.1; satisfactory.
=210. •. (b) Auxiliary lane:
Off-ramp = (0.79 - 0.63) (500) On-ramp traffic =0.50x 1,200=
=80. •: 600.
Total weave=270< 1,500, from Off-ramp traffic =0.50x500=
Table 8.1; satisfactory. 250.
(d) Conclusion: Meets level D require- Total, auxiliary lane = 850
ments; satisfactory. Thus, the un- <1,500, from Table 2.1; satis-
satisfactory condition in Exam- factory.
pIe' 8.8, which has a single high- Volume across all freeway lanes:
volume on-ramp 2,000 ft from a 5,900 (Total volume) - 850
500-vph off-ramp, can be made ac- (Volume in auxiliary lane) =
ceptable if conditions are such that 5,050.
the on-ramp can be split into two 5,050<6,000, from Table 8.1;
on-ramps so that some X2 on-ramp satisfactory.
traffic can distribute into available Weaving volume in 500-ft '.seg-
gaps in the left lanes before the X1 ment:
on-ramp traffic enters. From Fig. 8.23b, On-rarnp=
0.50x 1,200=600.
'Off-ramp=0.50x 500=250.
EXAMPLE 8.10 Total weave=850< 1,500, from
Problem: Table 8.1; satisfactory.
Given: Same conditions as Example 8.8, Conclusion: Conditions for
except that an auxiliary lane is provided. level D are met; the design- is
Traffic: A-B=4,200 vph; A-Y=500 vph; satisfactory at
X-B = 1,200 vph; X-Y= 0 vph; total = (2) Point ® (1,000 ft downstream of on-
5,900 vph between ramps. ramp):
• Lane!:
Through traffic (Table 8.3)=
336.
-A-- - - - - - On-ramp traffic (Fig. 8.23b) =
- - - - - - - 2
0.66x 1,200=792.
• Off-ramp traffic (Fig. 8.23b) =
- 422 LANE
500
0.19x500=95.
Total, lane 1 = 1,223 < 1,500,
from Table 8.1; satisfactory.
Determine whether or not the design
Auxiliary lane:
satisfies the requirements for level D at
On-ramp traffic = 0. 14 x 1,200=
points® and®.
168.
Solution: Off-ramp traffic=0.76 x 5.00=
(1) Point (i3 (500 ft downstream of on- 380.
ramp): Total, auxiliary lane = 548
(a) Lane 1: <1,500, from Table 8.1; satis-
Through traffic (Table 8.3) = factory.
0.08 x4,200=336. Volume across all freeway lanes:
On-ramp traffic (Fig. 8.23b) = 5,900-548 (Volume in auxil-
0.50x 1,200=600. 'iary lane) = 5,352.
Ra,np co,np/ex in high-density lu/lan area.
5,352<6,000, from Table 8.1; COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES - LEVEL E

satisfactory. (CAPACITY)
Maximum weave occurs in 1st
500 ft: further check is unneces- Level of service E, or capacity, involves
sary, since it was satisfactory. still greater volumes, at a poorer quality of
Conclusion: Conditions for service, than the level D operation on which
level D are met: the design is the foregoing procedures have been based.
satisfactory at As discussed earlier in this chapter, many
(3) Overall conclusion: The unsatisfac- ramp-freeway merges and diverges have con-
tory condition in Example 8.8 can sistently shown a maximum volume that has
thus he made acceptable by adding reasonable possibility of occurring over a
an auxiliary lane between the on- full hour of 2.000 to 2,100 vph. This occurs
and the off-ramp. with sufficient frequency to justify the listing
RAMPS 243
of 2,000 vph as merge and diverge capacity of 2,000 vph per lane is likely to be unre-
in Table 8.1; liable. If there are any unusual conditions,
Nevertheless, the specific conditions of the 2,000-vph rate may not be attained.
geometric design and traffic characteristics Unstable flow exists at level of service E,
which permit the consistent attainment of with "breakdown" likely. Further demand
2,100 vph are not well identified as yet. It is increase will exceed the capacity of the merg-
neither feasible nor wise, therefore, to pre- ing or diverging area. The result will be
sent procedures to predict operation at this forced flow operation, level of service F.
level. An estimate can be made by substitut- Long queues may develop, with accompany-
ing a 2,000-vph rate for the 1,800-vph rate ing delays to motorists. At most locations,
assumed as a maximum rate of flow for ser- particularly those where drivers have long
vice level D, but operation with volume rates experience in congested freeway driving,
TABLE 8.4-EXAMPLES OF SERVICE VOLUMES, LEVELS C AND D

(PEAK-HOUR FACTOR = 0.83)
ESTIMATED NUMBER ALLOWABLE

OF VEHICLES IN ALLOWABLE RAMP DOWNSTREAM FREEWAY
LANE 1 AT ®b VOLUME VOLUME
(vph) (vph) (vph) ..
GEOMETRIC AND
TRAFFIC PATTERN0
SERVICE SERVICE
I SERVICE SERVICE
-
SERVICE
SERVICE
LEVEL D, LEVEL C, LEVEL D, LEVEL C, LEVEL 0,
LEVEL C,
MERGE MERGE MERGE MERGE MERGE
MERGE
1,400 1,500 1,400 1,500 1,400 1,500
vph vph vph vph vph vph
3.000
690 180 710 1,320 3,710 4,320

RPM VPH
3,000
2. 610 180 790 1,320 3,790 4,320
300 RAMP
\
200
3,000. A 755 500 645 1,000 3,645 4 000

-'s, RAMP
'\
800
300
625 260 775 1,240 3,775 4,240

500 RAMP ZOO
5.O0.Af•__
840 760 560 740 3,560 3,740
300 ROMP 2,00d MOO
650 320 750 1,180 3,750 4,180

300 RAMP 2,000'
715 370 685 1,130 3,685 4,130

200
300 RAMP
__________ 560 00 500' 4,000o 4,500d

1,000
\ (i-si'oo.i\
300 RAMP 800
All examples are three lanes in one direction, without auxiliary lane.
I, Excluding on-ramp vehicles.
Maximum total freeway volume is 4,000, so maximum ramp volume isO vph.
Maximum total freeway volume is 4500, so maximum ramp volume is 500 vph.
only part of the excess will normally be de- to 200), whereas service volume D of the
ducted from the on-ramp volumes; the on-ramp is increased by 440 vph. By com-
remainder of the loss will be in the freeway paring cases 1 and 5, it is seen that service
flow. Suppose, for example, that an on-ramp volume C of the on-ramp is increased by
demand is 1,200 vph, but that the capacity as only 150 vph when the distance to a down-
calculated in this section is only 600 vph. stream off-ramp is increased from 2,000 ft to
This does not mean that only 600 vph will 5,000 ft, whereas service volume D is in-
get on the freeway at this location. With a creased by 580 vph.
demand of 1,200 vph, the difference of
600 vph will be partly waiting in a REFERENCES
queue on the ramp, and partly in a queue
on the freeway. The freeway flow will have Hess, J. W., "Capacities and Characteris-
"broken down" with long irregular queuing, tics of Ramp-Freeway Connections." High-
mostly in the right lane but with spill-over way Research Record No. 27, pp. 69-115
queuing and stop-and-go operation in adja- (1963).
Hess, J. W., "Ramp-Freeway Terminal
cent lanes. This type of operation results in
Operation as Related to Freeway Lane
hazardous lane-changing upstream. Further, Volume Distribution and Adjacent Ramp
the ramp volume under "stop-and-go" opera- Influence." Highway Research Record No.
tion, which is level of service F, will be 99, pp. 81-116 (1965).
limited, in many cases, to a maximum of MosioWrrz, K., and NEWMAN, L., "Traffic
about 900 vph. This is because, as discussed Bulletin No. 4—Notes on Freeway Capac-
earlier, lane I vehicles will alternate with ity." Calif,. Div. of Highways (July 1962);
ramp vehicles entering the merging area, and Highway Research Record No. 27,
pp. 44-68. (1963).
which has a capacity of approximately
FUKUTOME, I., and MosKowlTz, K.,
1,800 vph under these conditions. Actual "Traffic Behavior and On-Ramp Design."
volumes carried at any specific location may HRB Bull. 235, pp. 38-72 (1959).
well be considerably less, depending on other KEEsE, C. J., PINNELL, C., and MCCAS-
local conditions. LAND, W. R., "A Study of Freeway Traffic
Operation." HRB Bull. 235, pp. 73-132
Comparison of Level C and (1959).
Level D Calculations CAPELLE, D. G., and PINNELL, C., "Capa-
city Study of Signalized Diamond Inter-
In order to aid the reader in comparing changes." HRB Bull. 291, pp. 1-25.
the essential differences between the nomo- (1961).
graphic solution for level of service C or PINNELL, C., "Driver Requirements in
better, as outlined earlier in this chapter, and Freeway Entrance Ramp Design." Traffic
the chart solution for level D just outlined, Eng., Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 11-17, 54 (Dec.
Table 8.4 has been prepared to show ex- 1960).
PINNELL, C., and CAPELLE, D. G., "Opera-
amples of variations in results.
tional Study of Diamond Interchanges."
It should be noted that the change in ser- HRB Bull. 324, pp. 38-72 (1962).
vice volume D of the on-ramp is grea.ter than BERRY, D. S., Ross, G. L. D., and PFEFER,
the change in service volume C as the dis- R. C., "A Study of Left-Hand Exit Ramps
tance between the on-ramp and the next on Freeways." Highway Research Record
dOwnstream off-ramp decreases, or as the No. 21, pp. 1-16 (1963).
volume at the off-ramp decreases. By com- WORRALL, R.D., DRAKE, J. S., BUHR, J. H.,
paring cases 5 and 6 in Table 8.4, it is seen SOLTMAN, T. J., and BERRY, D. S., "Opera-
tional Characterislics of Left-Hand En-
that service volume C of the on-ramp is
trance and Exit Ramps on Urban Free-
increased only 190 vph when the off-ramp
ways." Highway Research Record No. 99,
volume is decreased by 600 vph (from 800 pp. 244-273 (1965).
CHAPTER NINE
FREEWAYS AND OTHER EXPRESSWAYS
Freeways and other expressways are in- it may limit the level of service over a sub-
'tended to provide a generally high level of stantial portion of the freeway section; there-
service to their users and to the communities fore, every element must be in proper bal-
which they serve, offering rapid traffic move- ance with all other elements, with due regard
ment without outside interference. They ac- for the traffic variations along the seëtion
complish this by eliminating direct service to caused by entering and leaving traffic. This
abutting properties in favor of exclusive ser- balance does not necessarily imply identical
vice to moving traffic. This results in high operating speeds or conditions throughout.
user demand for these highways. Conse- Drivers will accept somewhat lower speeds
quently, in some cases, particularly in urban through critical sections such as steep grades,
areas where freeway networks remain incom- weaving areas, and ramp junctions, as well
plete, soon after their completion these high- as through intersections on expressways, than
ways have experienced peak-period traffic they will elsewhere, for any given level of
demands which equal or exceed their ca- service.
pacities: This early congestion, although This chapter furnishes, either directly or
evidence that at least certain components of through reference to other chapters, informa-
these highways are not providing their in- tion and procedures sufficient to permit
tended level of service during peak periods, evaluation of the capacities and levels of
does not detract from the value of the high service of complete sections of freeways and
level of service provided during the remain- other expressways, both rural and urban, in-
ing periods of the day when as much as volving not only the through lanes, but also
80 percent of the daily traffic is served. critical areas of operation, including up-
It is important to understand both the grades, weaving areas, ramp entrances and
fundamental operational characteristics of exits, and, in the case of other expressways,
basic sections of freeways and expressways, intersections at grade.
unencumbered by entrance or exit points and Only multilane freeways are considered in
other outside influences, and the influence of this chapter. Two-lane highways with full
elements such as ramp' junctions, weaving control of access are handled by the methods
sections, and other restrictions on this opera- described in Chapter Ten.
tion. The primary purpose of this chapter is
to present basic procedures for determination
of service volumes and capacities of basic BASIC LEVELS OF SERVICE
sections of freeways and expressways. How-
ever, considerable emphasis is also placed on The objective of modern freeways and
steps which will minimize the possibility of other expressways is to provide good service
"spot" or temporary overloading at any for high volumes of 'traffic. Because free-
point, whatever the cause may he. In direct ways are high-type highways, many have, or
use, given the traffic demand, this engineer- approach, ideal geometrics. That is, free-
ing approach involves selection of the desired ways come the closest of any highway type to
level of service, followed by design of all por- duplicating the "ideal" geometric conditions
tions and features of the highway in con- for vehicular operation defined in Chapter
sonance with that level. Four, including 12-ft lanes, adequate lateral
If one element of a freeway functions at a clearances and shoulders, and alinement for
lower level than the selected level of service, 70-mph average highway speed. The "ideal"
245
traffic condition of no trucks is seldom at- curves in Chapter Three do not correctly
tained, however. The controlled-access fea- represent such highways. Therefore, they
tures and one-way roadways provided by should not be used for computational pur-
these divided highways reduce potential re- poses.
strictions, conflicts and hazards to traffic flow Level of service, by definition based on
from external influences, permit higher levels pcaljecessjty, must apply to a section of
of service for given traffic volumes, and usu- It reflects the average operating
ally allow greater capacity per lane. conditions in tke section uriciejspnsidera-
The capacity under "ideal" conditions for In Chapter Four, the factors con-
average multilane facilities is given in Chap- sidered in determining levels of service were
ter Four as 2,000 passenger cars per lane per set forth, and it was concluded that two fac-
hour, average or all lanes at about 30 mph. tors—a measure of travel speed and the ratio
For freeways this capacity is generally at- of demand or service volume to capacity—
tained at the somewhat higher speed of were most feasible for use in identifying
35 mph. In fact, on a very few freeways an these levels. In this chapter, therefore, op-
optimum average volume per lane of erating speeds, as related to ratios between
2,100 pcph at 40 mph has been attained on demand volumes or service volumes and
occasion. Because it can be attained only capacity (v/c ratios), are used as the de-
under very special circumstances, this aver- terminants of level of service.
age is not considered a "reasonably attaina- Operating speed has been defined as the
ble" volume, in terms of the definition of maximum safe speed for given traffic condi-
capacity contained in Chapter Two. tions that an individual vehicle can travel if
High-type parkways with freeway geo- the driver so desires, without exceeding the
metrics in level terrain may be entirely ideal, design speed at any point. It represents a
for all practical purposes, because they carry basically theoretical speed unlikely to be
no trucks; thus, traffic conditions as well as identified in actual traffic, although un-
geometric conditions are "ideal." Hence, it doubtedly occasionally approximated by a
is entirely possible for a parkway to have a few of the faster, though not reckless, driv-
capacity of 2,000 vehicles (all passenger ers. A given freeway or expressway will
cars) per lane per hour. Similarly, a modern have a free-flow operating speed, or a maxi-
freeway may well have close to that capacity, mum safe speed at extremely low volumes,
the only downward adjustments being for the governed by the physical characteristics of
trucks present in the flow, and for grades, if the roadway. As volumes increase, operating
present. Thus, the typical freeway speed dis- speeds will drop, through the complete range
tributions and speed-volume relationships for of levels of service up to capacity. An ex-
ideal conditions which were shown in Chap- pressway's operating speed will, in addition,
ter Three (as Fig. 3.23 and as Figs. 3.35, be influenced by infrequent traffic interrup-
3.38, and 3.41, respectively) may represent tions, such as high-type at-grade intersec-
actual operation on a substantial number of tions. A series of operating speed values de-
freeways. fine the limits of the several levels of service
Nevertheless, many older and lower-stand- from a speed standpoint.
ard freeways and parkways exist and con- The v/c ratio values used to define the
tinue to provide good service. On these, ac- second fundamental scale of level of service
count must be taken of several of the remain- limits in the descriptions that follow are
ing factors discussed in Chapter Five, such as based on ideal alinement, 70-mph average
lane width and lateral clearance, presence of highway speeds, and .two lanes in one direc-
shoulders, and average highway speed. In tion. The basic ratios thus established are
some cases the effect varies, depending on independent limits, developed from a volume
the level of service involved. Due to the standpoint alone. In practice, however, their
lower design standards, a few of these high- application to problems involving highways
ways may be incapable of providing service of lower design standards is unrealistic and
at level A, and in extreme cases level B may of little use, because they usually would rep-
be unattainable. The previously mentioned resent service volume levels considerably
FREEWAYS AND OTHER EXPRESSWAYS 247
Rural freeway in rolling terrain, showing independent roadway design.
higher than could be attained while the basic differences between rural and urban
operating speed limit for the same level of freeway capacity and level of service deter-
service was being met. Hence, in the pro- mination procedures, but only differences in
cedures that follow, approximate working the applications made of them.
v/c limits for lower average highway speeds Operating characteristics at the several
are also given. Somewhat larger basic v/c levels of service are next described.
ratio limits apply in many cases where more
than two lanes exist in a given direction. Level of Service A
The traffic volume seldom remains con- Free-flow operation is defined as that flow
stant over any appreciable distance. Instead, condition in which a vehicle essentially is not
it changes at entrance and exit points. affected by other vehicles in the traffic
Therefore, the ratio of demand volume to stream, and selection of speed is based on the
any selected service volume or to capacity individual driver's choice and on roadway
will vary along the expressway. Each road- design features.
way section and each critical capacity loca- Level of service A is defined as free-flow
tion must be examined in relation to the operation, with operating speeds at or
selected level of service and the design de- greater than 60 mph. This is equivalent to a
veloped accordingly, so that operating condi- requirement that operating speeds be not
tions will be balanced. If the demand ex- more than 10 mph below those possible with
ceeds the capacity at any location, this will ideal geometries under very low volume con-
be a critical point, and the level of service ditions. The service volume at this level is
may be adversely influenced for a long dis- 1,400 passenger cars per hour total for two
tance upstream. Where demand exceeds lanes in one direction under ideal conditions,
only some designated service volume lower (or an average of 700 passenger cars per
than capacity, on the other hand, the area lane per hour). Free flow may occur even
affected upstream and downstream of a on expressways with relatively poor aline-
single restriction may be very small. ment, provided the volume is sufficiently
The same criteria apply to all freeways, low. However, such operation necessarily
whether rural or urban, but differing levels occurs at lower speeds. Where free-flow
of service may well be chosen for design pur- operating speeds for through traffic fall
poses in the two cases. That is, there are no below 60 mph, the quality of service does not
meet the requirements for levelA; conse- somewhat larger percentages of capacity at-
quently, that level will never be attained on tamed, as compared to the 35 percent for
the particular highway involved. Average the two lanes in one direction.
speeds are most likely to be affected by speed. J
limits at level A. Level of Service B
On four-lane freeways with two lanes in Level of service B is in the higher speed
each direction, it has been found that speed range of stable flow. For freeways and ex-
adjustments made necessary by other traffic, pressways, it is defined by the requirements
rather than by choice, become significant at that operating speeds be at or greater than
volumes of approximately 35 percent, or 55 mph and that the service volume on two
one third, of capacity. The faster group of lanes in one direction not exceed 50 percent
drivers begins to be reluctant to use the right of capacity. This gives a maximum service
lane for fear of being "trapped" in that lane volume of 2,000 passenger cars per hour
behind a slow vehicle while a platoon of fast total for two lanes in one direction under
vehicles develops and passes the slow vehicle. ideal conditions (or an average of 1,000
Curves showing speed versus traffic vol- passengers cars per lane per hour). If an
ume may not be sensitive enough to pin- operating speed of 55 mph for through traffic
point this effect. The fast platoons in the cannot be maintained for this service vol-
left lane may still be traveling at speeds near ume, the quality of service does not meet the
the desired operating speeds, but the in- requirement for level B.
herently slower drivers, as well as those that At this volume level of 50 percent of ca-
are "trapped" in the right lane with them, pacity, the possibility of free-flow operation
will be traveling somewhat slower. At these has been further reduced. There continue to
volumes of about 35 percent of capacity be significant speed differences between
there may be long intervals when only iso- lanes, but the highest operating speed a
lated single vehicles are passing, all such ve- driver can maintain is now in the range of
hicles being "free-moving," while at other 75 to 90 percent of that attainable under free
times platoons with accompanying short flow. Speed has now become primarily a
headways may exist in both lanes. About function of traffic densities. This defines the
one-half of the vehicles will still be under dividing line between level of service B and
free-flow conditions, but the remainder of level of service C, which is described as the
the drivers will be influenced by the presence limit of level B.
of other traffic. This type of operation rep- Again, as was true for level A, each addi-
resents the transition between free and stable tional lane above two in one direction pro-
flow, and defines the dividing line between vides about 1.5 times the average service
level of service A and level of service B, volume per lane of two lanes, here about
which is described as the limit of level o\ 1,500 passenger cars per lane per hour.
service A.
\
Where, as on 6-lane and 8-lane freeways, Level of Service C
there are three or more lanes in one direc-
Further increases in demand volume are
tion, the influence of slow vehicles on the
accompanied by a resultant decrease in
traffic stream as a whole is diminished. The
operating speeds, into level of service C.
probability of slower vehicles obstructing the Operation at this level, although still in the
traffic stream traveling abreast is greatly re- range of stable flow, is critical enough so
duced and freedom to maneuver and pass is that, unlike levels A and B, rates of flow
greatly increased. At level A, therefore, with within a period shorter than an hour must
three or more lanes in one direction, each be considered. For freeways, a 5-min short
additional lane provided above two will re- period has been adopted as the standard. In
sult in a one-way service volume increase of general, the requirements for level of ser-
about 1,000 passenger cars per hour, which vice C are an operating speed of at least
is approximately 1.5 times the average vol- 50 mph and a service flow rate on two lanes
ume per lane of two lanes in one direction. in one direction not exceeding 75 percent of
This increase in efficiency is reflected in the capacity rate, with service volumes de-
veloped from these rates through application

of the appropriate peak-hour factor. Fur-
ther, under ideal conditions for two lanes in
one direction, the peak 5-min flow rate can- ',-- .
not exceed 3,000 passenger cars per hour
- -- -
total for one direction (an average of 1,500
passenger cars per lane per hour).
Variations in uninterrupted traffic flow
within the peak hour have been discussed in
Chapters Three, Five, and Eight. It has been
indicated that the rate of flow for the highest
5-min interval of an hour is always higher
than the rate of flow for the whole hour.
This is due to a natural statistical variability
among the twelve 5-min intervals, as well as
to a variation in demand. For freeways and
expressways the peak-hour factor has been
described as the ratio of the whole-hour vol-
ume to the highest rate of flow occurring
during a 5-min interval within the peak hour
(that is. to 12 times the actual 5-min flow).
In large metropolitan areas of over a mil-
lion population, the rate of flow for a whole
hour will be about 0.1 of the peak 5-mm
rate of flow within the hour. For areas be-
tween 500,000 and 1,000,000 population, a
peak-hour factor of 0.83 is suggested, while
in areas under 500,000 population, a peak-
hour factor of 0.77 has been found to be
satisfactory.
It follows that if the level C peak-flow rate
of 3,000 vph total in one direction on a
4-lane freeway is not to be exceeded in any
5-min peak period within the peak hour in a iviajor elevated urban freenav network.
large metropolitan area (PHF=0.91), the
volume in one direction cannot exceed
2,750 passenger cars in a whole hour (3,000
xO.91): in a smaller area (PHF0.77)
that volume cannot exceed 2.300 passenger
cars in one direction in a whole hour (3,000 tinuous use of the left lane, where he will
xO.77). At both locations the probability tolerate average headways of approximately
of failure to meet level C flow limits will be 2 sec. Traffic is now approaching the maxi-
about the same if the computed volumes are mum volume that can be maintained for ex-
exceeded. When volumes reach about tended periods of time, with continuing
75 percent of capacity on freeways and other capability for recovery from momentary con-
expressways, with due allowance for peak- flicts and obstructions without undue delay.
ing, operating speeds are about two-thirds of This condition defines the dividing line be-
those attainable during free-flow conditions. tween level of service C and level of ser-
The differences in speed and volume between vice D.
lanes are still significant, in the order of With only two lanes available in one direc-
5 mph and up to several hundred vehicles tion, the slower drivers generally will con-
per hour. A drivers desire to maximize tinue to use the right lane. However, given
operating speed may require almost con- three or more lanes, even some of the slower
drivers may now be hesitant about using the 1,800 vehicles per hour per lane across all
right-hand lane, fearing possible conflicts freeway lanes (90 percent of the overall one-
with entering and leaving traffic. They may directional capacity), regardless of the num-
move into adjoining lanes to avoid such con- ber of lanes; additional lanes above two no
flicts. At level C, therefore, on highways with longer improve average efficiency per lane.
more than .two lanes in one direction, the in- Traffic densities in all lanes are fairly uni-
crease in efficiency provided by the addi- form, regardless of the number of lanes, with
tional lanes is somewhat reduced as com- the somewhat higher speeds in the left lanes
pared to levels A and B; each additional lane providing higher lane service volumes. This
will provide a one-way peak flow rate in- represents a tolerable limitation on the uni-
crease of approximately 1.2 times the aver- form functioning of .the expressway through-
age peak flow rate per lane of two lanes n out the time period. These limits define the
one direction, or 1,800 passenger cars p division between level of service D and level
\ hour. of service E, or the dividing point between
stable and unstable flow.
Level of Service D
For level of service D, as for level of ser- Level of Service E
vice C, any discussion of freeway volume
Level of service E is the area of unstable
must be qualified by consideration of the flow, involving overall operating speeds of
peak-hour factor.
about 30-35 mph, and involving volumes ap-
In level D, which is in the lower speed proaching and at capacity, or about 2,000
range of stable flow with volumes higher passenger cars per lane per hour under ideal
than in level C, traffic operation approaches conditions. Service volume is almost strictly
instability and becomes very susceptible to regulated by the capacity at critical loca-
changing operating conditions. Operating tions, with traffic being metered through each
speeds generally are in the neighborhood of restriction, but demand does not greatly ex-
40 mph, and service flow rates do not exceed ceed capacity, so long backups do not de-
0.90 of capacity rates (with service volumes velop upstream. Operating conditions may
again obtained through application of the involve either fairly uniform speeds of about
appropriate peak-hour factor). Under ideal 50 percent of free-flow operating speed
conditions on a four-lane freeway the peak through the entire section, or a more inter-
5-min flow rate cannot exceed 3,600 passen- mittent type of operation upstream from a
ger cars per hour, total for one direction (an constriction where storage is taking place;
average of 1,800 passenger cars per lane per such constrictions may be either permanent
hour). (inherent in the geometrics), or temporary,
Except in those cases where a fully bal- such as minor accidents or broken-down
anced design has been attained, potential con- vehicles.
flict points begin to have a much greater effect Traffic flow within the hour will, there-
on operations. Traffic may operate near ca- fore, show relatively little fluctuation, inas-
pacity at these points, although at least par- much as traffic is in effect being successively
tial freedom of movement may well remain metered along the highway; but still there
between them. These conflict points, or po- will be variations. Until it becomes extreme
tential bottlenecks, begin to meter. the flow this fluctuating traffic movement along the
throughout the entire roadway section.
highway can be accommodated, but the
Therefore, new designs normally would not
public considers this to be very poor service;
be based on this level. as actual stoppages become more frequent
A basic fact about traffic flow appears to be their effect tends to be cumulative, increas-
that when average headways of less than 2 sec ingly detrimental, and finally constant, with
occur over sustained periods, the momentary traffic operations reverting to forced-flow
fluctuations or obstructions which almost conditions. This marks the division between
certainly will occur will have a detrimental level of service E and level of service F.
effect on operating conditions. This is Although level E operation is unstable, it
equivalent to an average flow rate of is found on many freeways under peak-
,I coniplex urbon interchange between two freeways.
period conditions, particularly where de- peak flow rates, and capacities for various
mand increases gradually. Design at this numbers of lanes under ideal uninterrupted
level should never be attenipted, however. flow conditions, are summarized in Ta-
ble 9.1.
Level of Service F
This level describes a forced-flow condi- CRITICAL ELEMENTS REQUIRING
tion in which the expressway acts as storage CONSIDERATION
for vehicles hacking up from a downstream
bottleneck. Operating speeds range down- The previous section has analyzed levels
ward from those at capacity (at or near of traffic service on freeways and express-
30 mph) to those during stop-and-go type ways primarily from the standpoint of a
operation, and can drop to zero in the ex- basic through roadway section, level, with
treme case of a complete jam. Volumes vary excellent geometries and alinement, free of
widely, depending principally on down- entrance and exit ramps and other special
stream capacity. This service is unaccepta- features, and carrying passenger cars only.
ble. It presents an overall evaluation of the ser-
Very often, where a sudden demand surge vice provided, making only brief mention of
occurs, operation may by-pass level E com- the need for harmony among the elements
pletely, passing directly (that is "breaking making up the section.
down") from level D into this forced flow Actual roadway and traffic conditions at
level F. various points along the highway will not be
Descriptions of the several levels of ser- constant, although on most freeways rela-
vice on freeways and expressways of various tively high geometric standards can be ex-
numbers of lanes, including limiting operat- pected throughout. During moderate to
ing speeds and v/c ratios, both for ideal and heavy volumes. operating conditions vary
restricted alinement, together with corre- along the roadway, fluctuating due to
sponding actual maximum service volumes, changes in physical roadway conditions,
TABLE 9.1—LEVELS OF SERVICE AND MAXIMUM SERVICE VOLUMES FOR
TRAFFIC FLOW CONDITIONS SERVICE VOLUME/CAPACITY (v/c) RATIOx
BASIC LIMITING VALUE FOR AVERAGE HIGHWAY APPROXIMATE WORKING VALUE

LEVEL SPEED (AHS) OF 70 MPH, FOR: FOR ANY NUMBER OF LANES
OF OPERATING ____________ FOR RESTRICTED AVERAGE
SERVICE DESCRIPTION SPEED' HIGHWAY SPEED OF
(MPH) 4-LANE 6-LANE 8-LANE
FREEWAY FREEWAY FREEWAY
(2 LANES/ (3 LANES! (4 LANES!
DIRECTION) DIRECTION) DIRECTION) 60 MPH 50 MPH
A Free flow 560 0.35 0.40 043 -

Stable flow
B (upper speed 555 0.50 0.58 0.63 0.25
range)
Peak-Hour Factor (PHF),
C Stable flow 550 0.75 (PHF) 0.80 (PHF) 0.83 (PHF) 0.45 (PHF) _b
Approaching
D unstable 540 0.90 (PHF) 0.80 (PHF) 0.45 (PHF)
flow
E1 Unstable flow 30-35° 1.00
F Forced flow <30° ( Not meaningful 30
Operating speed and basic V/C ratio are independent measures of level of service; both limits must be satisfied in any determination of level.
Operating speed required for this level is not attainable even at low volumes.
Peak-hour factor for freeways is the ratio of the whole-hour volume to the highest rate of flow occurring during a 5-min interval within the
peak hour.
A peak-hour factor of l.00is seldom attained; the values listed here should be considered as maximum average flow rates likely to be obtained
during the peak 5-min interval within the peak hour.
Approximately.
Capacity.
Variations in demand volume, intervehicular fall below the desired level of service, often
conflicts at weaving and merging areas, and for extended distances. In the extreme,
the influences of traffic control features. The where operation at capacity is required, any
operating characteristics at each such loca- restrictions will be capacity limitations (bot-
tion must be investigated for the effect on tienecks) preventing full use of the re-
roadway capacity and level of service. Un- mainder of the section. An approach to
less the adopted level of service is met as a freeway level of service thus requires analy-
minimum at every point on a highway, the sis of each potential restriction or bottleneck
restrictions will cause traffic operations to within the roadway section.
FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS UNDER UNINTERRUPTED FLOW CONDITIONS
MAXIMUM SERVICE VOLUME UNDER IDEAL CONDITIONS, INCLUDING 70-MPH AVERAGE HIGHWAY SPEED
(TOTAL PASSENGER CARS PER HOUR, ONE DIRECTION)
4-LANE FREEWAY 6-LANE FREEWAY 8-LANE FREEWAY EACH ADDITIONAL

(2 LANES (3 LANES (4 LANES LANE ABOVE FOUR
ONE DIRECTION) ONE DIRECTION) ONE DIRECTION) IN ONE DIRECTION
1400 2400 3400 1000
2000 3500 . 5000 1500
0.77 0.83 0.91 1.00" 0.77 0.83 0.91 1 ØØd 0.77 0.83 0.91 1 .00d 0.77 0.83 0.91 1 Ød
2300 2500 2750 3000 3700 4000 4350 4800 5100 5500 6000 6600 1400 1500 1650 1800
2800 3000 3300 3600 4150 4500 4900 5400 5600 6000 6600 7200 1400 1500 1650 1800
4000° 6000e 8000° 2000'
Widely variable (0 to capacity) 30
The traffic operating characteristics at, created such that at each critical location
and therefore the design of, each critical sec- operating levels will at least equal the mini-
tion should be in harmony with the level of mum level of service adopted. This means
service adopted as a minimum for the road- that portions of the section will have a level
way as a whole. Ideally, harmony would re-
of service somewhat higher than the re-
quire total uniformity in level of service at
all points, but this is not always feasible in stricted points, although not necessarily suffi-
practice. Instead, an average level of service oiently higher to fall in a different level of
throughout the roadway section must be service classification. Never should the
Restricted geornetrics, including su/,sta,idard lateral clearances, adversely influence operation on

this section of an older urban freeway.
variation between adjoining subsections ex- "below standard" location (i.e., one that is
ceed one level. below the adopted level of service), is to
The following situations are among the adjust the design or conditions so that the
common ones which require testing and desired level of service will be provided. In
analysis: Sudden increases in traffic demand such adjustment, the first consideration must
(at on-ramps or weaving areas): creation of be that demand volumes never exceed service
intervehicular conflicts within the traffic volumes for the adopted level of service, if
stream by changing roadway conditions (at that level is to be obtained throughout. Oc-
points of reduction in number of traffic lanes, casionally it may appear unfeasible to pro-
off-ramps, grades, weaving areas); varia- vide the basically-adopted level through
tion in nature of traffic demand (varying per- some specific restriction within the section.
centages of trucks); adverse influence of Although traffic will continue to move with-
restricted alinement (sharp curves); and en- out a backup as long as demand does not
forced changes in traffic conditions (at inter- exceed capacity at any point, it will un-
sections on expressways). Many of these are avoidably move at a poorer level of service
investigated here for their effect. The list is than that originally specified, at least for a
not complete; any special geometric feature, limited distance. In the ultimate, however,
traffic control device, or other element along when the traffic volume input exceeds the
the roadway which changes or influences the capacity of a roadway element, the roadway
traffic pattern in any way should be con- upstream from such a bottleneck becomes a
sidered. For instance, long underpasses on storage area and calculated service volumes
freeways, which give drivers a "tunnel on that roadway section, within the area of
effect," have been known to have an adverse influence of the bottleneck, have no meaning.
effect on freeway traffic flow. The level of service and the highest attain-
The main problem, after identifying a able service volumes in this upstream zone
are independent of the geometric conditions 8-lane as compared to 4-lane freeways (due
at this location because they are bound to be to the greater potential for restricted clear-
governed by the capacity and operating re- ances between vehicles in adjacent lanes).
strictions at the bottleneck. However, because 6- and 8-lane freeways
Intervehicular conflicts should not be such show fundamentally greater average capaci-
as to cause a sudden change in operating ties• per lane under ideal capacities than do
characteristics of the traffic stream. The 4-lane, this slightly greater restrictive effect
necessity for lowered speeds or stopping usually will not be apparent in practice, in
during high volume conditions has a cumula- final problem results.
tive adverse effect on traffic flow. When Caution should be exercised in applying
traffic backs up from a bottleneck and is re- these adjustments to the situation sometimes
quired to stop, the act of stopping creates a found, particularly on older freeways, where
moving bottleneck in the form of minimum the lateral clearance to a continuous median
headways between vehicles departing from a barrier in a narrow median, or sometimes to
stop condition. Therefore, it is important to a right-side guardrail, is less than the 6 ft
recognize locations potentially critical in this normally required for maximum capacity.
respect during the design period and make As mentioned in Chapter Five, it appears
design adjustments that will minimize the that drivers regularly using a freeway rapidly
effect. adjust to the presence of such a continuous
At-grade intersections, found occasionally lateral obstruction, so that the adjustments
on expressways though never on freeways, shown in Table 9.2 become excessive. That
exemplify fixed traffic interruptions created is, although use of the full adjustment ap-
of necessity. The maximum volume that can pears appropriate for "surprise"-type or dan-
be carried through the uninterrupted portion gerous elements, a lesser adjustment based
of an expressway section between at-grade on judgment may be suitable for continuous
intersections can never exceed the capacity elements specifically designed and installed
of the intersection approach at its down- for traffic safety.
stream end, assuming that no other exits
exist along the section. Neither can this por- Trucks, Buses, and Grades on Freeways
tion carry more traffic than can be supplied
Trucks and buses, being larger .than pas-
by the next upstream intersection, provided
senger cars, take up more space, even in level
there are no intermediate entrances. (It is,
terrain; hence, their influence on freeway
of course, possible for more to enter at the
service volumes and capacity must always
upstream end than can leave at the down-
be considered. Although their influence on
stream end, thus producing a back-up in the
level highways is relatively small, on grades
section).
it becomes significant
Lane Width and Lateral Clearance As discussed in Chapter Five, the prin-
cipal criterion for evaluating gradients on
Restrictive lane width and lateral clear- freeways and expressways, from a service
ances, discussed in Chapter Five, are not a volume and capacity standpoint, is their ef-
consideration on most modern high-type fect on the operating characteristics of trucks
freeways and expressways, because their de- and buses. The overall effect of trucks and
sign standards exceed those required for buses over an extended freeway section
maximum capacity. Nevertheless, restric- differs from that on any specific grade within
tions do exist on certain older freeways in that section.
such forms as 10- or 11-ft lanes, and abut- Table 9.3a presents average generalized
ments or other obstructions close -to the passenger car equivalents of trucks over ex-
traveled way. Table 9.2 presents adjustment tended lengths of freeways and expressways
factors which should be applied as multi- for various terrain conditions. These apply
pliers to correct for any such limitations. alike to all levels of service except level A,
These adjustment factors, considered for which no overall equivalents are feasible.
alone, indicate slightly greater adverse in- Normally, bus volumes are too small to war-
fluence of clearance restrictions on 6- and rant their separate consideration in these
256 }IIGHWAY CAPACITY
overall reviews. However, separate approxi- is not appropriate. Rather, the equivalents
mate equivalents for buses also are given, for for buses given in Table 9.3a should be used
use where volumes are significant. in conjunction with Table 9.6 to obtain
Table 9.3b provides general overall ad- separate adjustment factors.
justment factors for conversion of mixed de- Adjustment of service volumes and ca-
mand volumes of trucks and passenger cars pacity to reflect the influence of trucks and
over extended lengths of freeway into equiv- buses on specific sustained upgrades is more
alent passenger vehicles per hour, based on selective. There is always a certain amount
these overall passenger car equivalents. of platooning, or grouping of vehicles, even
These factors can be used in overall analyses on level roads at relatively low volume levels.
of the capabilities of substantial lengths of Often, a truck heads the platoon. When an
freeway, which include downgrades and upgrade is introduced under such conditions
level portions as well as upgrades, but they speeds are reduced and these platoons be-
should not be used for detailed analyses of come more serious influences on service vol-
specific individual grades.. As just men- umes and capacity. Their effect becomes
tioned, in these overall computations sepa- more pronounced as volume -increases. The
rate consideration normally need not be frequency of platoons, and the speed at
given to buses. Where separate considera- which they move, and hence the service
tion appears necessary, however, Table 9.3b volumes and capacity of the roadway, are
TABLE 9.2-COMBINED EFFECT OF LANE WIDTH AND RESTRICFED LATERAL

CLEARANCE ON CAPACITY AND SERVICE VOLUMES OF DIVIDED
FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS WITH UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR, W, FOR LANE WIDTH AND LATERAL CLEARANCE
DISTANCE FROM
TRAFFIC LANE EDGE OBSTRUCTION ON ONE SIDE OF OBSTRUCTIONS ON BOTH SIDES OF
TO OBSTRUCTION ONE-DIRECTION ROADWAY ONE-DIRECTION ROADWAY
(vr)
12-vt li-vt 10-vt 9-vt 12-vt 11-yr 10-vt 9-yr

LANES LANES I LANES LANES I LANES LANES I LANES I LANES
(a) 4-LANE DIVIDED FREEWAY, ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
6 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.81 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.81

4 0.99 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.98 0.95 0.89 0.79
2 0.97 0.94 0.88 0.79 0.94 -- 0.91 0.86 0.76
0 0.90 0.87 0.82 0.73 0.81 0.79 0.74 0.66
(b) 6- AND 8-LANE DIVIDED FREEWAY, ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
6 1.00 0.96 0.89 0.78 1.00 0.96 0.89 0.78

4 0.99 0.95 0.88 0.77 0.98 0.94 0.87 0.77
2 0.97 0.93 0.87 - 0.76 0.96 0.92 0.85 0.75
0 0.94 0.91 0.85 0.74 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.70
Same adjustments for capacity and all levels of service.

TABLE 9.3a-AVERAGE GENERALIZED PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF

TRUCKS AND BUSES ON FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS, OVER EXTENDED
SECTION LENGTHS (INCLUDING UPGRADES, DOWNGRADES, AND LEVEL
SUBSECTIONS)
EQUIVALENT, E, FOR:
LEVEL OF SERVICE
LEVEL ROLLING MOUNTAINOUS
TERRAIN TERRAIN TERRAIN
Widely variable; one or more trucks have same total

A effect, causing other traffic to shift to other lanes. Use
equivalent for remaining levels in problems.
ET, for trucks 2 4 8

B through E
E8, for buses 1.6 3 5
Separate consideration not warranted in most problems; use only where bus volumes are significant.
TABLE 9.3b-AVERAGE GENERALIZED ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR TRUCKSb

ON FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS, OVER EXTENDED SECTION LENGTHS
FACTOR, T, FOR ALL LEVELS OF SERVICE

PERCENTAGE OF
TRUCKS, PT
LEVEL TERRAIN ROLLING TERRAIN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN
0.99 0.97 0.93

2 0:9..._----- 0.94 0.88
3097 0.92 0.83
4 0.96 0.89 0.78
5, 0.95 0.87 0.74
6 0.94 .LL.85 0.70
7 0.93 0.83 0.67
8 0.93 0.81 0.64
9 0.92 0.79 0.61
10 0.91 0.77 0.59
12 . 0.89 0.74. 0.54
14 0.88 0.70 0.51
16 0.86 0.68 0.47
18 0.85 0.65 0.44
20 0.83 0.63 0.42
b Not applicable to buses where they are given separate specific consideration; use instead Table 9.3a in conjunction with
Table 9.6.
TABLE 9.4-PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF TRUCKS ON FREEWAYS AND
EXPRESSWAYS, ON SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL SUBSECFIONS OR GRADES
PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT, E7.
LENGTH
GRADE OF LEVELS OF SERVICE A THROUGH C FOR: LEVELS OF SERVICE 0 AND E (CAPACITY) FOR:
(%) GRADE
(MI)
3% 5% 10% 15% 20% 3% 5% 10% 15% . 20%
TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS
0-1 All 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3%-3/ 5 4 4 3 3 5 4 4 3 3
4-1
3 7 5 5 4 4 7 5 5 4 4
13/2-2 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6
3-4 7 7 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 8
3 3% 10 8 5 4 3 10 8 5 .4 3
10 8 5 4 4 10 8 5 4 4
34 10 8 6 5 5 10 8 5 4 5
1 10 8 6 5 6 10 8 6 5 6
10 9 7 7 7 10 9 7 7 7
2 10 9 8 8 8 .10 9 8 8 8
3 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
4 10 10 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 11
4 3% 12 9 5 4 3 13 9 5 4 3.
12 9 5 5 5 13 9 5 5 5
3% 12 9 7 7 7 13 9 7 7 7
1 12 10 8 8 8 13 10 8 8 8
13/ 12 11 10 10 10 13 11 10 10 10
2 12 11 11 11 11 13 12 11 11 11
3 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14
4 12 13 15 15 14 13 14 16 16 15
5 3% 13 10 6 4 3 14 10 6 4 3
13 11 7 7 7 14 11 '7 7 7
'. 13 11 9 8 8 14 11 9 8 8
I . 13 12 10 10 10 14 13 10 10 10
13/i 13 13 12 12 12 14 14 13 13 13
2 13 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15
3 13 15 16 16 15 14 17 17 17 17
4,,..... 15 17 1 19 17 16 19 22 21 19
6 3% 14 10 6 4 3 15 10 6 4 3
14 11 8 8 8 15 11 8 8 8
3% 14 12 10 10 10 15 12 10 10 10
1 14 13 12 . 12 11 15 14 13 13 11
13/ 14 14 14 14 13 15 16 15 15 14
2 14 15 16 16 15 15 18 18 18 16
3 14 16 18 18 17 15 20 20 20 19
4 19 19 20 20 20 20 23 23 . 23 23
functions of (a) the number of slow vehi- demand volume anticipated for the design
cles, (b) the rate of grade, and (c) the hour exceeds the total service volume, the
length of grade. If volumes are low, the decision must be made whether to provide an
grade is short, and there are few trucks, there additional lane on the upgrade or to accept
is relatively small probability that any given a lower level of service through this critical
vehicle will encounter trucks on the grade. section. This decision must be primarily an
If the grade is longer, there is a greater prob- economic one, usually between level B and
ability that trucks will be encountered on the level C on rural freeways, and between C
grade. Also, if the grade is steeper (and thus and D on urban freeways. However, in no
trucks slower), trucks will be on the grade a case can the demand volume exceed the
greater portion of the time. As indicated maximum service volume for level E (ca-
earlier in Chapter Five, only limited research pacity) on the grade, if back-ups are to be
linking these variables has been reported; avoided. Where such a situation would
much remains to be learned. otherwise exist, it is essential that an addi-
It is assumed that freeway grades of less tional upgrade lane be provided to prevent
than 2 percent which are less than one-half breakdown into level F and storage of flow
mile long will have little effect on operations. on the approach to the grade.
Grades in the neighborhood of 2 percent Table 9.4 presents the detailed passenger
may produce queues, but the queues will car equivalency factors which represent the
move fast enough so that high rates of flow extent to which capacity and service volumes
can be maintained; significant accumulations will be adversely affected, on the average
of vehicles are not likely to develop if the across all lanes, on individual sustained free-
grade is less than one-half mile long. Never- way upgrades where an additional truck
theless, the speed of trucks will be substan- climbing lane is not introduced.
tially reduced and the exposure to rear-end As was mentioned in Chapter Five, inter-
collisions increased. city bus volumes usually are quite low in
On sustained grades, normally the right- freeway traffic flows. This fact, coupled with
hand lane will be pre-empted by trucks, with their relatively good performance on most
operating speeds in this lane controlled by typical grades, makes varying adjustment for
the climbing ability of the trucks; passenger buses unnecessary in most cases; the general
cars will avoid this lane if conditions are equivalent of 1.6, mentioned in Chapter
better in the remaining lanes. If all trucks Five, can be used for most purposes. How-
are traveling in the righ.t-hand lane, then all ever, where the grade involved is long and
passenger cars (or all vehicles that can main- steep, and/or volumes of buses are heavy,
tain the adopted operating levels achieved on special consideration may be desirable. Ta-
level terrain) must be in the remaining lanes ble 9.5 presents passenger car equivalents for
if no passenger car is to be influenced ad- buses under such conditions.
versely by trucks. It follows that, to main- in most practical applications, as de-
tain a level of service to passenger cars on scribed in the later procedural section of this
the grade equal to that on level terrain, it chapter, the equivalency factors for trucks
will be necessary to add a climbing lane and buses presented in Tables 9.4 and 9.5
whenever volumes in the remaining lanes are not used directly. Rather, they are used
increase to the point where passenger car to select appropriate truck adjustment fac-
speeds would otherwise fall below that for tors from Table 9.6, which considers both
the adopted level of service. If it is not pos- passenger car equivalency and percentage of
sible to keep all passenger cars out of lane 1, trucks or buses in the traffic stream, as re-
or if trucks travel in other than lane I, it may lated to grade characteristics; these are ap-
be necessary to add additional climbing lanes plied as multipliers.
to maintain the desired level of service. On most flat to intermediate downgrades
In practice, because of economic factors passenger car equivalents and truck factors
it may not always be feasible to provide the can be considered the same as those on level
desired level of service at every point. If, in ground without appreciable error. On heavy
any case, for a selected level of service, the downgrades, however, where trucks descend
in a low gear for safety, special consideration veloped so that the adopted level of service
may need to be given. If an average speed can be attained at all points. As mentioned
can be determined for downgrade trucks, earlier, this does not necessarily mean the
then by reference to the truck performance same speed throughout; slightly slower
curves in Chapter Five the downgrade per- speeds are acceptable through critical loca-
formance can be approximately related to tions, including weaving sections.
equivalent upgrade performance for which Direct reference should be made to Chap-
adjustments are available. ters Seven and Eight for the procedural steps
to be folldwed in computing service volumes
Weaving Areas and capacities of weaving sections found
Operations at weaving areas have been along any freeway section under considera-
analyzed in Chapter Seven for the funda- tion.
mental case where two or more important
Ramp Terminals
through roadways join for a certain distance
then diverge again into separate roadways, as The operating characteristics of on- and
well as in Chapter Eight for those situations off-ramp junctions have been analyzed in
where the weaving between an on-ramp junc- detail in Chapter Eight. On freeways and
tion and a successive off-ramp junction is most other expressways the location of these
being analyzed. Usually, on a freeway, any ramps and the traffic demand on them are
weaving sections involved are relatively criti- the chief determinants of the varying de-
cal locations which must be analyzed for mand volumes along the through roadway
their overall effect on the roadway section. section.
Although traffic flow may be maintained, un- The problem at on-ramps is primarily one
satisfactory operating conditions at weaving of blending into one flow traffic introduced
areas will greatly affect the operating char- from two sources. Intervehicular conflicts
acteristics of the main roadways upstream are numerous, and the geometric layout at
and downstream from the weaving area for the junction, as well as that junction's rela-
substantial distances. It is essential, there- tion to other nearby junctions, is extremely
fore, that the weaving section design be de- important. Aside from the effects of any
TABLE 9.5—PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF INTERCITY BUSES ON

FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS, ON SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL SUBSECTIONS
OR GRADES
PASSENGER CAR EQIJIVALENT,' E8
GRADES (%)
LEVELS OF SERVICE LEVELS OF SERVICE

A THROUGH C 0 AND E (CAPACITY)
0-4 1.6 1.6
51 4 2
6c 7 4
7c 12 10
All lengths.
For all percentages of buses.
Use generally restricted to grades over 1/2 nile long.
adverse geometrics, on-ramps may create two The problem at off-ramps is primarily one
conflicts with the maintenance of the of dividing a single flow of traffic into two
adopted level of service of 'a roadway sec- paths, one continuing through and the other
tion. First, the additional ramp traffic may exiting. A conflict area may be created due
cause operational changes in and/or tem- to (a) high demand, for use of the right-
porary overloading of the right-hand lane at hand lane, and consequent speed reduction,
the merge. Second, the additional ramp vol- caused by exiting vehicles superimposed on
ume may change the operating conditions the through flow in lane 1, and (b) backup
across the entire roadway downstream from from the off-ramp onto the main roadway
the on-ramp. proper. Most of these exit ramp problems
TABLE 9.6-ADJUSTMENT FACTORS' FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON INDIVIDUAL

ROADWAY SUBSECTIONS OR GRADES ON FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS
(INCORPORATING PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT AND PERCENTAGE OF
TRUCKS OR BUSES) b
PASSEN- TRUCK ADJUSTMENT FACTOR T OR TL (B OR BL FOR BUSES) d

GER
CAR
PB) ot:
EQUIvA-
LENT,
ET OR
- - PERCENTAGE OF TRUCKS,
-_ Pr (OR OF BUSES,
EBC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
2 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0:83
3 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
4 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63
5 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56
6 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50
7 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
16 0.87 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.25
17 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24
18 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.54 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23
JI 0.85 0.74 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 Q.3,. 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22
20 0.84 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.51 0.47 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.21
21 0.83 0.71 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20
22 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19
23 0.82 0.69 0.60 0.53 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.19
24 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.18
25 0.80 0.67 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17
Computed by 100/(100 - Pr + ErPr), or 1001(100 - P + EBPB), as presented in Chapter Five. Use this formula for
larger percentages.
Used to convert equivalent passenger car volumes to actual mixed traffic; use reciprocal of these values to convert mixed
traffic to equivalent passenger cars.
'From Table 9.4 or Table 9.5.
Trucks and buses should not be combined in entering this table where separate consideration of buses has been estab.
lished as required, because passenger car equivalents differ.
can be solved by using adequate geometric an expressway sets the maximum attainable
design features—signing, transition areas, service volume upstream from the intersec-
additional lanes or ramps, and vehicular tion, at least to the next intersection, but
storage—provided ramps are not too closely there are occasional exceptions on lower-
spaced and the surrounding highway system class expressways where access is only par-
is basically adequate to absorb the load. tially controlled and other access points exist.
Thus, the traffic volume on a freeway or Downstream from the intersection, the maxi-
other expressway changes at every entrance mum traffic demand will be limited to the
and exit ramp, with corresponding variations capacity of the through lanes of the inter-
in roadway operating conditions. Because it section approach plus additional traffic enter-
is impossible to design a highway so that ing by turns from the cross road or other
demand volumes remain constant, the most access points.
critical point of analysis will be where vol- Rural expressways generally have rela-
umes are a maximum, including the merge tively few such intersections, and those
point just downstream from a ramp entrance which are present usually serve very light
and the diverge point just upstream from a traffic volumes, under stop sign control.
ramp exit. Grade separations rather than signals are
Direct reference should be made to Chap- typically provided at the more heavily
ter Eight for procedures to be followed in traveled crossings. On such highways oper-
determining service volumes and capacities ating conditions may approach those for full
of ramp terminals. It includes recommended freeways for capacity and service volume
maximum service volumes allowable at these determination purposes, provided that a
previously mentioned critical points if a de- reasonable degree of access control exists be-
sired level of service on the through lanes is tween intersections. Actually, at typical
to be maintained. levels of service on such a rural expressway
the only major difference is the potential ac-
A linemen: cident hazard.
Adverse alinement is relatively unusual on Where a significant degree of control of
freeways and expressways. Where it exists, access has not been maintained and "ribbon"
however, its effect is reflected in the lowered or "strip" business development has occurred
average highway speeds resulting. As previ- along the roadside, expressway criteria
ously mentioned, only approximate data are should no longer be applied; the highway
available regarding the influence of these should be analyzed by the methods given in
lowered average highway speeds on freeway Chapter Ten for ordinary highways.
operating speeds and volumes carried. These Suburban and urban expressways, on the
are incorporated directly into the computa-
other hand, have a somewhat different con-
tional criteria that follow.
notation. Typically they are very high-type
Traffic Interruptions (Intersections at. arterials with all or nearly all midblock
Grade) access points (such as from "ribbon" de-
velopment) eliminated, but with relatively
Intersections at grade, absent by design on
frequent signalized intersections, usually in-
full freeways, are permissible on expressways
terconnected for progressive operation. This
under certain conditions. They are the key
identifying features distinguishing express- signalization may well be the only interrup-
ways from full freeways, although in addition-producing feature on the expressway.
tion some expressways have only partial con- Signalization will obviously produce a ca-
trol of access between intersections. The pacity loss, as compared to uninterrupted
analysis of signalized intersection approach flow, on a per-hour basis. The influence of
capacities and service volumes has been dis- signalization on service volumes, however,
cussed in Chapter Six; the procedures there depends on the type of operation desired. If
described are generally applicable to at-grade occasional stops at signals can be tolerated
intersections on expressways. Basically, and the percentage of red time is relatively
the capacity of an intersection approach on small, the approaches and exits often can be
widened sufficiently to accommodate, during not exist, where speed limits are 40 mph or
the green time, as much traffic as the road- below, or where higher speed limits seldom
way ahead can absorb on a continuous basis can be attained because of friction due to
at a reasonable operating level. Overall level ribbon development, the expressway should
of service will be reduced somewhat due to be analyzed as an urban arterial by the meth-
the occasional stops, but more effective use ods in Chapter Ten.
of the iuidblock sections results. Such
widening is sometimes found on urban COMPUTATION PROCEDURES FOR
expressways. FREEWAYS AND EXPRESSWAYS
Theoretically, where near-perfect progres-
sion is attained on expressways, then, on a In Chapter Four the generalized pro-
per-hour-of-green basis, it is possible for full cedure for determination of level of service
freeway capacity and service volume deter- for uninterrupted flow conditions was de-
mination criteria to apply directly at all scribed. In this section, capacity and service
levels. That is, the vehicles in the progres- volume determination procedures, and the
sive platoons move just as they would on level of service procedure previously de-
freeways; the only difference is that enforced scribed, are applied first to basic freeway and
gaps exist between platoons. Obviously, the expressway sections, then to combined sec-
actual per-hour.capacity and - service volumes tions composed of several different elements.
of the system, obtained by applying the GIC The first step shown in the general pro-
ratio to the per-hour-of-green values, will be cedures for all highway types involves the
less than the equivalent freeway values, the subdivision of the roadway under considera-
reduction being proportional to the percent- tion into subsections having reasonably uni-
age of red time. Here, where all cars are form conditions from the standpoint of ca-
kept moving, level of service will be uniform pacity. In the case of modern freeways,
throughout, but the time between moving which are designed to high uniform stan-
platoons (approximately equal to the sum of dards, there are many situations, particularly
the signal red and yellow times) is entirely in rural areas, where such subdivision is not
lost to through traffic at every level, along necessary to determine the capacity, service
the midblock sections just as much as at the volumes, or level of service of even relatively
intersection. Widening at intersections will long sections. Only where a ramp junction,
serve primarily as a "safety factor." The weaving section, significant grade, or other
special characteristics of near-perfect pro- special design feature is present will sub-
gressions are discussed in more detail in section analyses be necessary. On older free-
Chapter Ten. ways there may be other restricting elements,
In general, if an expressway has signals such as Substandard alinement with sharp
spaced more than I mile apart, an attainable curvature, which require separate subsection
speed limit of at least 45 mph between analysis.
signals at low volumes, and reasonable con-
trol of access between signals, it is con- Basic Uniform Freeway and
sidered acceptable to base determination of Expressway Sections
its capabilities on full freeway criteria for The. initial procedures described here
uninterrupted flow. This, in effect, assumes apply to a simple basic uniform freeway
that the signals will stop relatively few ve- section without entrance or exit points; it
hicles. At poorer levels of service, this as- may range from a few hundred feet to many
sumption will become relatively invalid and miles long. As used here, "freeway capac-
the capacity of controlling signalized inter- ity" and "freeway service volumes" will refer
sections, as related to the lowered operating to the total volumes in one direction. Aver-
speeds resulting from stops, may have, to be age "by lane" capacities and service volumes
taken into account in establishing capabili- can be obtained by dividing "total in one
ties. direction" values by the number of lanes.
Where signalized intersections are closer However, such average values should be used
than 1 mile apart and good progression does with caution, because they do not reflect the
actual distribution of traffic by lanes; their highway, of any number of lanes, for which
use can cause undesirable misinterpretations. the capacity can be determined, regardless of
As discussed in Chapter Four, operating whether or not 'the associated conditions are
speed and service or demand volume/ca- ideal. Occasionally, problems involving in-
pacity ratio (v/c ratio) are the basic mea- terpolation can be handled more conve-
sures used in making level of service deter- niently through use of the figure than by use
minations on freeways and expressways. The of the basic Table 9.1. The figure is also
limitations defining the several levels of ser- convenient for quick visual analyses, or
vice have been described at the start of this checks of results. The basic limiting values
chapter and summarized in Table 9.1, which of operating speed and v/c ratio which iden-
serves as the base for most computations. tify the several levels of service are shown
Figure 9.1 presents these basic relation- on the chart.
ships graphically. Although similar in appear- Direct determination of capacities of ac-
ance to the typical operating speed-volume tual freeways having less-than-ideal' condi-
chart presented earlier in Figure 3.35, the tions involves simply application of one or
service or demand volume/capacity ratio is more adjustment factors to the basic value
substituted for the absolute volume along the under ideal conditions of 2,000 passenger
abscissa. Hence, it can be applied to any cars per lane per hour times the number of
1 70
-60
40
APPROG. SO
20
10
N0.O
LANES V/C RATIO . ' ' PHF
BASIC 4 A B C
INDEPENDENT
LEVEL 0.81
C1_•t-_ '•' -. O.S.
OF - I_ E E
SERVICE 6 -A Nfl 8 - C 'I 0 '-k E8 4.00
RANGES E -0.91
.-.+—o-t-
C0 E '
A 1.00
'F'- c o _0 091
0.83
0.77
Figure 9.1. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, in one direction of travel, on
freeways and expressways, under uninterrupted flow conditions.
lanes, as tabulated for level E in Table 9.1. due consideration for the prevailingyge
Determination of service volumes and of highway speed.
levels of service is somewhat more involved, Computed Directly from Capacity under
making use of the operating speed-v/c ratio Ideal Conditions.—The procedure is a modi-
relationships in Table 9.1 (or Fig. 9.1). The fication of that described previously for
procedures follow. capacity. Again 2,000 passenger cars per
lane per hour is multiplied by the number of
CAPACITY (TOTAL FOR ONE DIRECTION) lanes and appropriate adjustments. How-
UNDER PREVAILING CONDITIONS ever, the adjustment for trucks must be that
Determine directly, by the standard for the appropriate level of service, rather
method for uninterrupted flow. This in- than that for capacity. The appropriate
volves multiplying the appropriate level E v/c ratio must be applied for the level of
volume value in Table 9.1 (that is, the service desired and the number of lanes pro-
appropriate multiple of 2,000 passenger cars vided in one direction. Where ideal aline-
per lane per hour) by the appliàable adjustment is not present, meaning that the aver-
ment factors among those included in Ta- age highway speed is below 70 mph, use of
bles 9.2 and 9.6. Often, only the adjustment the applicable v/c ratio as given in Ta-
for trucks will be required, because modern ble 9.1, rather than the basic limiting ratio,
freeway geometrics are not often substan- will help to assure a result in balance with
dard from a capacity standpoint. The truck the operating speed limitations. Or, the ap-
adjustment used must be that for capacity, propriate average highway speed curve in
not for a level of service. Figure 9.1 can be referred to, to achieve a
balance. In levels C and D, selection of the
c=2,000NW'T
v/c ratio also involves consideration of the
in which peak-hour factor as a multiplier.
c= capacity (mixed vehicles per hour,
total for one direction); SV=2,000N-- WT L
c
N=number of lanes (in one direction);
W= adjustment for lane width and lateral in which
clearance from Table 9.2. (This ad-
SV= service volume (total for one di-
justment must be used with discretion
rection);
in freeway capacity computations.
See also possible shoulder adjustment N= number, of lanes (mixed ve-
in Chapter Five); and hicles per hour, in one direc-
tion);
T= truck factor at capacity,' from Ta-
ble 9.3b for Overall highway sections v/c= volume to capacity ratio, ob-
or Table 9.6 for specific individual tained from Table 9.1 (or Fig.
- grades. (Intercity bus factor, B, 9.1);
may be applied separately; see text). W=a'djustment for lane width and
lateral clearance, from Table 9.2
SERVICE VOLUMES (TOTAL FOR (shoulder adjustment may be
ONE DIRECTION) necessary, see Chapter Five);
and
Several different procedures are available
= Truck factor at given level of
for use in determining .the service volume for
service, from Table 9.3b for
a given level of service on actual highways
overall highway sections, or Ta-
having less-than-ideal conditions. Selection
ble 9.6 for specific individual
of the appropriate method depends on the
grades (Intercity bus factor, BL,
data already at hand in any particular case.
may be applied separately; see
Regardless of which method is employed, it
is important to check the result by means of text).
Table 9.1 (or Fig. 9.1) to confirm that
the operatingpçd and the volume criteria Confirm attainment of desired level of ser-
for the desired level of service are met, with vice by using Figure 9.1 to check the result-
ing operating speed, for the given average specified level of service has been established
highway speed, to make sure that it meets re- in advance, service volumes in passenger
quirements for that level. cars per hour can be read directly from
Computed from Maximum Service Vol- Table 9.1, provided conditions are largely
ume for Ideal Conditions.—This procedure, ideal (as they might well be on a freeway
which is suitable only where the alinement is carrying only a few trucks). Where aline-
ideal (that is, average highway speed is ment is not ideal (average highway speed is
70 mph), is identical to the foregoing pro- less than 70 mph) or conditions are other-
cedure except that the maximum service wise less than ideal, Table 9.1 can be used to
volume for the level of service (and PHF, determine the limiting v/c ratio. From the
for levels C and D) desired, obtained from
controlling ratio, the service volume can be
Table 9.1, is used in place of the basic value
adjusted by a v/c ratio. determined once capacity is computed. (Fig.
9.1 can also be used.)
SV=MSV W T Where a proposed design is already under
in which MSV is the maximum service vol- consideration, the v/c ratio here obtained
ume, in passenger cars per hour, for -the can be compared with that for the proposed
appropriate number of lanes (and PHF, if design to determine its adequacy.
appropriate), from Table 9.1; and SV, W,
and TL are defined as before. LEVEL OF SERVICE
Confirm attainment of desired level of Determination of the level of service pro-
service by using Figure 9.1 to check the re-
vided by any freeway or expressway design,
suIting operating speed. Caution: Use of
existing or proposed, under uninterrupted
this method is not appropriate where re-
stricted average highway speeds exist, be- flow operation while accommodating a given
cause it does not make use of the v/c ratio, demand volume, is often the problem at
in which the influence of average highway hand. This can be done approximately by
speed restrictions is incorporated. inspection of Table 9.1, if operating speed,
Computed from Capacity under Pre vail- volume, peak-hour factor, and average high-
ing Conditions.—Multiply the capacity ob- way speed are known, and the influence of
tained under prevailing conditions by the trucks can be neglected. However, a refined
v/c ratio obtained from Table 9.1 (or computation considering trucks and peaking
Fig. 9.1) for the appropriate number of characteristics involves complications which
lanes and level of service (and PHF, if level make a partially "trial-and-error" solution
C and D) desired. As for ideal conditions, unavoidable. Although knowledge of the
consider use of a working v/c ratio where level of service is needed in order to choose
average highway speed is restricted. Also, the truck factor and to establish whether or
convert the truck adjustment, if used, to that not consideration of the peak-hour factor is
for the level of service involved, rather than required, it is the unknown. Therefore, a
capacity. level must be assumed in advance, usually by
inspection of Table 9.1, and reconiputations
c T, carried out if the results prove the assump-
tion incorrect.
in which c is the capacity (mixed vehicles
per hour, total for one direction) as com- The steps are as follows:
puted under prevailing conditions, and v/c, (a) Establish a "base volume" for level
Tb, and T as defined as before. of service determination through the same
Confirm attainment of desired level of procedure as described in the preceding
service by checking the resulting operating section on "Service Volumes; Computed
speed, from Figure 9.1, for the given aver- Directly from Capacity under Ideal Con-
age highway speed. ditions," except that no v/c ratio is ap-
Determined from Level of Serice Limits. plied. (Base volume" for the prevailing
—In the design of a new freeway, where a conditions differs from capacity only in
that the truck factor is that for the as- as previously determined, to the overall op-
sumed level of service, rather than for eration of the section.
capacity.) First, the matter of units must be con-
sidered. Whereas the basic maximum free-
Base volume = 2,000 N W TL
way volume values for ideal conditions con-
in which N and W are as before and TL is tained in this chapter are in terms of passen-
the assumed truck factor. ger cars per hour, it will be noted that the
Divide the average demand vol- procedures in Chapters Seven and Eight for
ume by the "base volume" obtained in weaving section and ramp junction operation
(a) to determine the approximate v/c are basically in terms of average mixed
ratio. (Conversion of demand volume to traffic (although the actual weaving move-
equivalent passenger cars is not necessary, ment' in Chapter Eight is converted to
inasmuch as use of the truck factor in equivalent passenger cars). This seeming in-
Step (a) has converted the base to mixed congruity results from the differing bases on
traffic.) which the several research studies involved
Reinspect Table 9.1 or Figure 9.1 were developed.
if operating speed was known in advance, Because it is relatively easy to convert the
to establish level of service from con- basic "through freeway" procedures to
trolling factor, operating speed or basic mixed traffic, as done in the procedures just
v/c ratio, with due consideration of the presented, but rather unfeasible to convert
the ramps procedures to equivalent passen-
P1-IF applicable to the level assumed.
If operating speed was not known, enter ger cars, it is recommended that actual prob-
Table 9.1 for the appropriate conditions lems involving a series of freeway elements
and determine operating speed. Or, enter be carried out in terms of mixed traffic. This
Figure 9.1 on the v/c ratio scale, select procedure has the added advantage of dis-
the appropriate curve for the number of cussing actually existing traffic volumes,
lanes in one direction and the average rather than artificial equivalent volumes. In
highway speed under consideration, and any case, caution should be exercised in all
read the operating speed. Establish level comparisons with other analysis results, to
of service from controlling factor, operat- confirm consistency of units.
ing speed or basic v/c ratio. Typically, one of two problems exists..
Recompute, using revised choice of Either an existing freeway requires analysis
truck factor and PHF, based on different to determine whether or not it has "weak
assumed level of service, if initial assump- links" which have lower traffic-carrying
tion proves incorrect. capabilities than the remainder, or a new
freeway is being designed with the goal of
fully balanced design. In the former case,
Combined Analysis of Elements Composing
geome.trics and demand volumes will usually
Freeway and Expressway Sections
be known and levels of service are required.
As previously mentioned, the procedures In the latter, demand volumes and level of
described so far, which apply to a single service normally will be specified, and geo-
uniform roadway section, will suffice to es- metrics are required. In practice, however,
tablish the characteristics of a long section of trial designs will often be developed so that
freeway, provided the section is free of any the actual computations will parallel those
restrictive elements. However, in most situa- for existing highways.
tions there will be a variety of elements, such Certainly, an all-important goal of any
as grades, ramp junctions, weaving sections, new design is to create a balanced level of
or sections with differing number of lanes, service throughout. It isimportant to recog-
along any freeway segment of significant nize, however, that where total balance is
length, which produce nonuniform charac- impossible, a freeway designed generally to
teristics. Balanced operation of the complete provide a certain basic level of service but
freeway section demands the relating of .the having one or two restricted subsections
operation of eachof these separate elements, somewhat below that level, will nevertheless
provide far better service than a similar free- useful only for generalizations regarding the
way with many such restricted subsections, relationship of demand to overall capabili-
as long as demand does not exceed capacity ties, because as long as capacity is not ex-
at any point. That is, the finding that attain- ceeded at any point along a section the as-
ment of the desired level appears unfeasible signed demand volume will be accommo-
at one or two points should not be used as dated •throughout, regardless of how this
justification for overall lowering of stan- demand volume relates to specified service
dards. volume limits. Level of service may, of
Generally speaking, the type of problem course, vary substantially.
likely to be encountered can best be demon- On the other hand, a "weighted level of
strated by means of actual examples rather service," as described earlier in the general
than by discussion; this is done in the section procedures presented in Chapter Four, often
on typical problem solutions, which follows. has considerable value as a measure of the
However, certain observations regarding the overall performance of a freeway section of
feasibility of overall or "weighted" values some length. This weighting of operating
deserve mention here. As long as fully bal- speeds and v/c ratios, the indicators of
anced design is attained, "weighting" is, of levels of service, is done in terms of the rela-
course, superfluous, inasmuch as the level is tive lengths of the sections involved, or their
identical at all points. Nevertheless, the fact relative influence areas. Wherever precise
remains that many existing freeways are not weighting is involved, therefore, at least ap-
of balanced design and cannot be balanced proximate length increments, operating
without major reconstruction. On such free- speeds, and v/c ratios must be known.
ways, as well as on the previously mentioned In practice, the procedure is not always as
new designs of less than perfect balance, simple as is demonstrated in the sample
therefore, for traffic operations, planning, problem in Chapter Four. There, only easily
and economic study purposes it is desirable identified basic roadway sections were in-
to develop some general measure of average volved; in such cases, operating speeds and
overall performance. v/c ratios are either at hand or can be
Any highway section, including a freeway, determined without difficulty. Where, on the
can have only one capacity between a par- other hand, elements such as ramp junctions
ticular point of entrance and the next exit; and weaving sections are included in the
namely, the capacity of the most restrictive section under consideration, the problem is
subsection within that section. Between any more difficult because only approximate op-
two terminal points A and B, with entrances erating speeds, which differ from through
and exits at intermediate points, the con- roadway speeds, are identified with several
trolling capacity is less well defined. Here, levels of service, and v/c ratios are not
there will still be a limiting capacity some- directly used. In the extreme, where at-grade
where between A and B, but it may not affect intersections are involved, no speed measure
all traffic at all points, depending on the pat- exists at all. In such cases direct weighted
tern of intermediate entrance and exit de- averages would be incorrect, even if operat-
mands. It can be seen, therefore, that choice ing speeds and v/c ratios were known, be-
of terminal points will have an important cause differing scales would be involved.
bearing on ability to identify a controlling Similarly, for some freeway elements
capacity. Where, as in a suburb-to-down- lengths of section are obvious. For others,
town case, entering traffic predominates, however, the influence area for use in weight-
such identification is easier than in the case ing is not readily apparent. In particular,
where entrance and exit volumes fluctuate ramp junctions do not have "lengths" as
randomly with no such overall trend. In any such. Interpretation of the material in Chap-
case, a "weighted capacity" value would be ter Eight indicates that, as a rule of thumb, a
largely meaningless, except for specialized ramp junction influence distance totaling
interpretations over relatively consistent sec- 3,000 ft can be assumed. In the on-ramp
tions. case this is composed of about 500 ft up-
Similarly, a "weighted service volume" is stream and 2,500 ft downstream; in the off-
-<'-.
.•-_; - i- ••_-__ -..'.---:
A nerdl freetUv intersecting a local high nay.
ramp case it consists of 2.500 ft upstream Rather, a general idea of the level is needed.
and 500 ft downstream. (Where an overlap Therefore, determination of a weighted level
occurs, the poorer of the two sets of operat- by precise methods is usually limited to cases
ing conditions should be considered as appli- where operating speeds, v/c ratios, and
cable to the overlap area.) For weaving sec- lengths are readily available, and the level of
tions, an influence distance of about 1,000 ft service scales are uniform throughout. The
in addition to the section length (500 ft up- procedure follows.
stream and 500 ft downstream) may be as- First, compute the weighted average of the
sumed. Seldom, on freeways, are significant operating speeds obtained for each subsec-
lateral clearance restrictions encountered. tion, by multiplying the length of each sec-
Where they are, their influence distances tion by its operating speed, summing the
should be determined as described in Chap- several results, and dividing by the over-
ter Ten for ordinary multilane highways. all length. Similarly, compute the weighted
In practice, precise determination of the average of the v/c ratios, in the same man-
average overall level of service over a long ner if the number of lanes is the same
section of roadway is seldom required. throughout. However, where the number of
lanes varies, the limiting v/c ratios will

vary. Hence, the weighted average for each
width category should be developed sepa-
rately. Finally, using these average operat-
ing speed and v/c ratio values, determine
the resulting overall average level of service
for the section, using Table 9.1 (or Fig. 9.1).
As a check of the feasibility of the average
operation 'thus developed, it is necessary to
relate the weighted average operating speed
to the most critical v/c ratio to make sure 5 percent trucks.
that capacity is not exceeded at any point. 1 percent intercity buses.
Or, if a predetermined controlling level of Determine:
service has been established, use this check Service volumes for levels B and E
to assure that this limit is not exceeded. (capacity).
In other cases, where ramp junctions,
Solution:
weaving sections, and at-grade intersections
are involved, an approximate weighting by A review of the given conditions shows
inspection of the letier designations is ade- them to be largely ideal. No adjustment for
quate for most purposes, and more feasible lane width and lateral clearance is required;
than attempting to develop and combine they meet requirements. However, even in
values based on differing criteria. A graphi- this case,,the tabulated values for ideal con-
cal plot, as shown in Example 9.8b, is a conditions in Table 9.1 cannot be used directly;
venient aid. In effect, this is a substitute for adjustments for traffic factors (trucks and
the impossible task of weighting measures buses) must be considered.
taken from an alphabetical scale. For the long section under consideration,
It should be emphasized again that the use Table 9.3b applies. The few buses can be
of weighted averages to quantify a freeway considered as passenger cars for this level
operation should not obviate the concept of terrain case.
balanced design discussed throughout this Adjustment factor T for 5 percent trucks
chapter. Each critical location should be. in level terrain= 0.95.
examined in relation to the selected level of N, number of lanes in one direction=2.
service and every effort made to correct the Capacity:
design at substandard points, so that operat- C=2,000 N W T=2,000x2x 1.00x
ing conditions will not cause any element to 0.95 = 3,800 vph, total for one direction.
function appreciably below, this level. Service Volume B (three methods demon-
Example 9.8 in the typical problems which strated)
follow demonstrates the procedures for both SV1 =2,000 N (v/c) W TL (where
the numerical and the approximate methods. v/c from Table 9.1 0.50)=2,O00x2x
0.50 x 1.00 x 0.95 = 1,900 vph, total for one
TYPICAL PROBLEM SOLUTIONS-FREEWAYS
direction.
AND EXPRESSWAYS SV J =c(v/c)(TL/TC ) ( where c is as
computed above and TL/ Te cancels out in
EXAMPLE 9.1 this overall freeway case where T is identical
Problem: for all levels)=3,800x0.50=1,900 vph,
Given: total for one direction.
Rural 4-lane freeway. Caution: This method is applicable only
12ft lanes. where ideal geometrics exist, as is the case
10-ft shoulder on right; 3-ft on left; here.
and 36-ft wide median. SV 11=MSV W TL (where MSV is
Overall long section, in level terrain. from Table 9.1) =2,000x 1.00x 0.95=1,900
Ideal' alinement; average highway vph, total for one direction..
speed =70 mph.' All methods produce the same result.
EXAMPLE 9.2 Service Volume C:

Problem: N=3.
W=0.99, as before.
Given: T1. From Table 9.4, E=8
Urban 6-lane freeway. From Table 9.6, T L =0.74
12-ft lanes. v/c. Limiting value 0.80 (PHF)
10-ft shoulders on right, with ob- Practical working value
structions at shoulder edge; 2-ft on 0.45(PHF).
left; and 5-ft median with barrier
Test of basic limiting SV (for demonstra-
in center.
tion purposes only; normally use working
Individual grade, 3 percent, 1 mile v/c ratio directly):
long.
Limiting SV=2,000 N (v/c) W TL=
Alinement for 60-mph average high-
2,000 x 3 x(0.80x 0.91)x 0.99 x 0.74= 3,200
way speed. vph, total for one direction.
5 percent trucks. (A check of Fig. 9.1 for the given v/c
1 percent intercity buses.
ratio (0.80 x 0.91=0.73), and AHS=60
PHF= 0.9 1.
mph, shows that level C operating speeds
could not be attained at this volume under
to!
the given restricted average highway speed
conditions.)
8ARRIER MEDIAN -.
2 $ ------- — — —
3 ------- — —
Application of working SV:
to- Working SV= 2,000 x 3 x (0.45 x 0.91) x
0.99x0.74= 1,880 vph, total for one direc-
tion, to provide level C operating speed of
__-3% GRADE
50 mph.
Determine: Service volumes for levels EXAMPLE 9.3

C and E (capacity).
Problem.
Solution: Given:
Capacity: Rural 6-lane freeway.
N=3. 12-ft lanes, adequate shoulders and
W, for obstruction at 10 ft on right clearances.
and approx. 4 ft on left (2-ft Individual grade, 4 percent, 11/2 mi
shoulder plus approx. 2 ft to long.
median barrier), from Table 9.2= Alinement for 70-mph average high-
0.99. way speed.
(Basis: Obstruction 4 ft from 3 percent trucks.
pavement edge on one side only). Negligible buses.
T(., for 5 percent trucks on 3 percent PHF=0.77 in levels C and D.
grade 1 mi long, at capacity: Demand volume=2,700 vph, total in
From Table 9.4, E=8 heavier direction, upgrade.
From Table 9.6, T=0.74
(The small volume of buses can be
considered as passenger cars). 36
x
0.74=4,396 vph, total for one di-
rection.
2.?OO( 36
Note: Where a commuter route is VPHI I
involved, and the barrier is con-
tinuous, the W factor might ap-
proach 1.00.
Determine: Level of service being pro-

vided on this upgrade.
Solution:
Inspection of Table 9.1, given 6-lane free-
way with PHF=0.77, indicates that opera-
tion probably is in level B or C.
,I,IIIIJ',
Restricted alinement; average high-
Assume level C for use in selecting adjust-
way speed =50 mph.
ments dependent on a known level.
No trucks or buses.
Base volume= 2,000 N W T1
where: Determine: Service volumes for levels
N=3. B and E (capacity) andevaluate the re-
sults.
W=1.00 (from Table 9.2 for ideal con-
ditions). Solution:
T1; From Table 9.4, for level C, given Capacity:
3 percent trucks on 4 percent 1 ½ - c=2,000N WT
mi grade, ET= 12. where:
From Table 9.6, for E7 = 12 and P N=2.
=3,T1,=0.75. W: From Table 9.2, for 10-ft lanes,
Base volume = 2,000 x 3 x 1.00 x 0.75 W for obstruction at 5 ft on both
= 4,500 vph. sides=0.90 (by. interpolation
v/c ratio = 2,700/4,500 = 0.60. between 4 ft and 6 ft).
Inspection of Table 9.1 shows this value to W for obstruction at 2 ft on both
be slightly beyond level B limits. To check sides = 0.86.
level C, convert ratio, which here includes Use average factor, W=0.88.
influence of PHF, to basic form. T,.: No trucks; no adjustment re-
0.60= (Basic v/c ratio) (PHF) quired.
Basic v/c ratio = 0.60/PHF = 0.60/0.77 c= 2,000 x 2 x 0.88 x 1.00= 3,520 vph.
= 0.78. Note: Length of section not significant
0.78 (PHF) <0.80 (PHF); result is here, because no trucks are involved.
within level C for 6-lane freeway. Service Volume B:
Table 9.1 indicates that operating speed SVj=c(v/c)(TjjT)
for this ratio will be at or slightly above T,/ T(. can be omitted because there
55 mph, the limit for level C. are no trucks.
(Similarly, Figure 9.1, for v/c ratio of v/c, in Table 9.1, for level B and
0.60, indicates that operating speed of AHS=50 mph, is found to be a
55 mph will be attained.) blank.
Assumption of level was correct; recom-
putation is not necessary. Conclusion: This parkway, with its re-
Result: Level of service=C. stricted alinement, is not capable of pro-
viding level B service. In fact, inspection
of Table 9.1 shows that it could not pro-
EXAMPLE 9.4
vide level C service. In other words, it
cannot provide high-speed operation, re-
Problem: V
gardless ofvolumes.
Given:
Rural 4-lane divided parkway of early
design. EXAMPLE 9.5
10-ft lanes.
2-ft shoulders on right; none on left; Problem:
- 8-ft median. Given:
Obstructions within 5 ft of pavement Urban 4-lane expressway.
edge on right; 2 ft onleft. 11-ft lanes.
Overall long section, in rolling ter- Curbed, with 6-in, curbs at pavement
rain. edge; 12-ft median.
v/c, from Table 9.1,=0.90 (PHF).

v/c=0.90x 0.91 =0.82
SV=3,360(0.82) =2,755 vph.
EXAMPLE 9.6
Obstructions 2 ft from pavement Problem:.
edge on right; none on left. Given: Urban freeway with proposed
Level 1-mile subsection under con- design as in sketch.
sideration; at-grade intersections Conditions:
involved, and little roadside fric- Fully adequate freeway geometrics,
tion. including 12-ft lanes, clearances
8 percent trucks. well over 6 ft, level terrain, ideal
6 percent intercity buses. through alinement for 70-mph
PHF= 0.9 1. AHS, and well-designed ramp
Determine: Service volumes for levels junctions.
D and E (capacity). Demand volumes as shown in sketch.
Trucks negligible except as shown in
Solution: • sketch.
Capacity: Buses negligible.
c=2,000NWT, PHF= 0.9 1.
where: Each line in sketch represents a
N=2. proposed traffic lane.
W: From Table 9.2, for li-ft lanes Level of service C desired.
with obstructions on one side Determine:
only at 2 ft, W=0.94. Adequacy of proposed design, in
(Note: Curb is not high enough relation to desired level of ser-
to be a lateral obstruction). vice C witl' given peak-hour
T: From Table 9.4, for 8 percent factor.
trucks on 1-mi subsection, Desirable revisions of design.
ET=2.
From Table 9.6, for E=2 Solution:
and T=8, T(.=0.93. (a) Adequacy of design for level C:
B( : Bus volumes are relatively Freeway subsection 0-1:
high, so are considered Given conditions are ideal; service
separately. volume can be read directly from
From Table 9.5, E1 = 1.6. Table 9.1.
From Table 9.6, for E,= 1.6 SV( =2,750 pcph, from Table 9.1.
and B=6, B(.=0.96 (by No conversion for trucks necessary;
interpolation). trucks negligible. Then, SV=
c = 2,000 x 2 x 0.94 x 0.93 x 0.96 2,750 vph.
= 3,360 vph. Given V=2,100 vph, with negligible
Service Volume D: trucks.
All of above adjustments are the 2,100< 21 750; satisfactory.
same at level D as at capacity. Ramp 1:
SV I) —c(v/c)(T L/Tc) Figure 8.2 applies; negligible trucks.
TL / T term can be omitted because V1 136+0.345 V1 0.115 Vr 136
adjustments are the same. +(0.345 x 2,100)—(0.1 15 x 600)=
792 vph.
1.700
3%TRUCKS -
V01.900
$ 1,700 1,000
0 2.000{
fl® •fl® I
©oo'
r_.®
300 700I 600 moo0j
(3%
TRUCK
2000
NO OPST$EON 60 DOWNOTNEON (I
Dod 7.000' 1,200 VØ2,200
RAMPS NEARBY RAMPS NEARBY TRUC21% TRUCKS)
I
Merge = 792 + 600 = 1,392 vph. Demand V = 3,100 — 600 = 2,500 vph.
1,392< 1,550, from Table 8.1; sat- 2,500< 2,750; satisfactory.
isfactory. Ramp 5:
Freeway subsection 1-2: Figure 8.2 applies.
As before, from Table 9.1, for given V 1=136+0.345 V,-0.115 V,.=136
ideal conditions including negli- +(0.345 x 2,500) — (0.115 x 400)=
gible trucks, 953 vph.
SVçj = 2,750 vph. Merge=953+400= 1,353 vph.
Given V2,100+600=2,700 vph. 1,353<1,550, from Table 8.1; sat-
2,700< 2,750; satisfactory. isfactory.
Ramp 2: Note: 4 percent trucks is under the
Figure 8.3 applies; negligible trucks. 5 percent limit for trucks for this
V1= 165 + 0.345 V + 0.520 V,.= 165 procedure, so adjustment of final
+ (0.345 x 2,700) + (0.520 x 300) = result for trucks is not necessary.
1,253 vph.
Freeway subsection 5-6:
Diverge= 1,253 vph.
1,253<1,650, from Table 8.1; SVc remains 2,750 pcph, but trucks
satisfactory. must here be considered.
Demand V = 2,500 + 400 = 2,900 vph.
Freeway subsection 2-3: 4 percent trucks in 400-vph flow=
SV remains 2,750 vph, given negli- 16 trucks.
gible trucks. 16/2,900=0.006; say 1 percent
Demand V = 2,700 — 300 = 2,400 vph trucks.
2,400< 2,750; satisfactory. From Table 9.4 for level terrain, E7
=2.
Ramp 3:
From Table 9.6 for E7 =2 and 1 per-
Figure 8.2 applies; negligible trucks. cent trucks, TL =0.99.
V 1=136+0.345 V1 0.115 V r =136 SV=2,75Ox 0.99=2,723 vph.
+0.345 x 2,400)—(0. 115 x 700)= 2,900>2,723; not satisfactory.
884 vph.
Merge = 884 + 700= 1,584 vph. Weaving section 6-7
1,584> 1,550, from Table 8.1; not Figure 7.4 applies.
satisfactory for level C. Length (using graphical chart):
Freeway subsection 3-4: V.: From Table 9.4, ET=2.
SVc remains 2,750 vph, given negli- From Table 9.6, for E7,=2
gible trucks. and 6 percent trucks, TL=
0.94. = 800/0.94 = 851
Demand V2,400+700 = 3,100 vph.
3,100>2,750; not satisfactory. pcph.
V1 ,: No adjustment necessary; no
Ramp 4: trucks.
Figure 8.4 applies; negligible trucks V,,,. + V iru 851 + 700 = 1,551
V1 = 202 + 0.36217, + 0.49617, - pcph.
0.069 D,,+0.096 V,,=202+(0.362 For Vi +V,ce =l,551 pcph and
x 3,110) +(0.496 x 600)—(0.069 L = 1,200 ft, using chart, quality
x l,lOO)+(0.096x700)= 1,613 of flow=III with k=3.0 (used
vph, diverge. to nearest tenth).
1,613< 1,650, from Table 8.1; satis- From Table 7.3, for freeways, this
factory but borderline. is acceptable, though minimum,
level C.
Freeway subsection 4-5:
SV remains 2,750 vph, given negli- Width (using formula):
gible trucks. Average SV0 on approaches:
Average percent trucks probably would correct deficiencies 1, 2, and

1,700x0.03= 51 3, above. Test this proposal:
2,900x0.01= 29 Ramp 3:
1,600x0.00= 0 Figure 8.7 applies, with related use of
2,200x0.01= 22 Figure 8.20.
800x0.06= 48 V1 =281+0.400 V1 -0.225D,1 +
9,200 150 0.394 Vd =281 + (0.400x 2,400)
—(0.225 x 1,100) + (0.394 x
150/9,200=0.0162 2 per- 600)= 1,230 vph.
cent trucks. Lane 1 through volume=V1 —
For ET=2 and 2 percent trucks, Ramp 4 volume= 1,230-600=
TL =O.98. 630.
Average SVc = 2,750 x 0.98 = Check at midpoint of auxiliary
2,695 vph for 2 lanes. lane using Figure 8.20.
2,695/2= 1,348 vph per lane. Lane 1 volume=Through vol-
N = [V+(k-1)(V,,,,)]/SVc = ume+Vehicles entered+ Ve-
hicles not yet exited=630+
[1,700 + 2,900 + (3.0 - 1.0)
(0.57x700)+(0.25x600)=
(700)]/1,348=4.5 lanes.
1,179 vph.
The proposed 3 lanes are not ade- 1,179< 1,550, from Table 8. 1;
quate. satisfactory.
Freeway subsection 7-8: Auxiliary lane volume:
SVc remains 2,750 pcph, and no V1(upstream) + V,(on) - V
trucks are in this subsection, so this (midpoint) = 1,23.0+700-
again becomes equivalent to 2,750 1,179=751 vph, obviously
vph. satisfactory.
Demand V= 1,600 vph. Weavingin 500 ft: Obviously
1,600< 2,750; satisfactory. satisfactory.
Across-all-freeway-lanes check, in
Note: The criteria employed should subsection 3-4:
assure that the operating speed cri- V (upstream) + Vr(Ofl) - V (auxil.
teria have been met, if volume re- lane) = 2,400 + 700 - 751 =
quirements are met, in all subsection 2,349 vph.
checks above, but Figure 9.1 can be 2,349<2,750; satisfactory.
used for a final check. Ramp 4: Previous check of ramp 3
has shown that operation approach-
(b) Desirable revisions of design: ing ramp 4 will now be fully accepta-
A review of the findings in Part (a) indi- ble.
cates satisfactory conditions with the follow- Result: Auxiliary lane 3-4 corrects
ing exceptions: deficiencies 1, 2, and 3.
Ramp 3 merge is excessive. Subsection 5-6:
Freeway subsection 3-4 is inade- Simple case of inadequate width.
quate. Revise to 3 lanes.
SV 4,350 X 0.99=4,310.
Ramp 4 diverge is borderline.
2,900<4,310; satisfactory.
Freeway subsection 5-6 is inade-
Weaving section 6-7:
quate. Requires additionallanes.
Weaving section 6-7 is of inadequate Revise to 5 lanes.
width.
Conclusions:
Point 3 to Point 4: Revisions necessary-
It appears that an auxiliary lane between 1. Add auxiliary lane, on-ramp 3 to
ramp junctions 3 and 4 would be desirable; it off-ramp 4.
276 IHGHWAY CAPACITY
Widen subsection 5-6 to three

lanes each direction.
Widen weaving section 6-7 to five o
lanes. GPO
(R% TRUCKS,
NO BUSES)
ft.. .lffk_o! '-.JllI
(NO TRUCKS OR ROSES IN ENTERING TRUFFlE
UT INTERSECTIONS)
EXAMPLE 9.7
IMI 3M) ZMl
Pro blem:
Given: Rural expressway (west-to-east
flow under consideration, see sketch). Determine: Service volume B of each
4-lane divided expressway, with wide element and relationship of demand
median. volume to that service volume. Also,
11-ft through lanes. evaluate results.
Lateral clearances adequate. Solution.'
No significant grades.
Good alinement. No. of passenger cars and trucks enter-
Little roadside friction. ing at point 0:
Each line on sketch indicates a lane. 1,300 x 0.08 = 104 trucks.
Average rural conditions. 1,300-104=1,196 passenger cars.
Demand volumes: As shown on sketch. Expressway subsection 0-1:
Intersection 1: SV J) =2,000N (v/c) W T L
Minor crossroad. where
Total cycle time =90 sec. N=2.
Expressway green time=60 sec.
v/c=0.50,from Table 9.1.
Right turns=3%.
W=0.97, frdm Table 9.2.
Left turns=2% (These do not cross
T,,: From Table 9.4, ET _ — 2.
opposing traffic; storage is availa-
From Table 9.6, TL=0.93.
ble after turning to wait for cross-
road green.) SV 1 = 2,000 x 2 x 0.50 x 0.97 x 0.93
= 1,805 vph.
Intersection 2:
Major crossroad. Demand volume= 1,300 vph.
Total cycle time=90 sec. 1,300< 1,805; satisfactory.
Expressway green time: Intersection 1:
Through and right=33 sec.
Figure 6.10 applies.
Left (separate) = 15 sec;
(Right turn does not move during Approach width=22 ft.
left time),. L.F. for intersection level B=0.1.
Chart volume= 1,500 vphg.
Right turns= 15%.
Adjustments:
Left turns=12%, using separate G/C ratio=60/9OzO.67.
added turn lane 10 ft wide.
Right turns, 3% (Table 6.4) =
Intersection 3 (widened to 3 11-ft lanes 1.035.
through intersection):
Crossroad minor, but widens to 4 Left turns, 2% (Table 6.4, since
lanes so requires only short green influence is like that on one-
time. way) = 1.04.
Total cycle time=60 sec. Trucks, 8% (Table 6.6) 0.97.
SV 15 = 1,500 x 0.67 x 1.035 x 1.04 x
Expressway green time = 42 sec,
0.97 = 1,050 vph.
simultaneous for all movements.
1,300> 1,050; not satisfactory.
Right turns =4%.
Left turns=3% (Again, these do not Expressway subsection 1-2:
cross opposing traffic; storage is Demand volume = 1,300 + 50 + 40 =
available after turning to wait for 1,390 vph.
crossroad green). 104/1,390=0.075; say 7% trucks.
No change in factors. Adjustments:

SV11 remains 1,805 vph. GIG ratio=42I60=0.70.
1,390< 1,805; satisfactory. Right turns, 4% (Table 6.4) =
Intersection 2: 1.015
Figure 6.10 applies. Left turns, 3% (Table 6.4, for
Through and right movements: one-way type influence) = 1.015
Approach width for through and Trucks, 5% (Table 6.6)= 1.00
right=22 ft. SV8 = 2,200 x 0.70x 1.015 x 1.015x
L.F.=0.1. 1.00= 11 587 vph.
Chart volume= 1,500 vphg. 1,940> 1,587; not satisfactory.
Adjustments:
GIC ratio=33/90=0.37 Evaluation of results:
Right turns, 15% (Table 6.4) =
It is found that none of the intersections
0.975.
meet intersection level of service B criteria,
Left turns, 0% for this step
and that freeway section 2-3 does not meet
(Table 6.4) = 1.10.
level B requirements.
Trucks, 8% = 0.97.
It is important to remember, however, that
1,500 x 0.37 x 0.975 x 1.050 x 0.97
intersection levels of service do not relate
=551 vph, through and right.
directly to uninterrupted flow levels; the cri-
Left turns: teria differ. It must be expected that a
GIG ratio=15/90=0.17.
typical intersection, which interrupts smooth
8% trucks (Table 6.6) = 0.97. flow, will not provide service equal to -the
For level B, and no trucks, 800 design level of the through highway unless
xO.17x0.97= 132 vph, left. the intersection is widened. It is essential,
Overall service volume, assuming that however that its capacity at least equal the
through and right control: design service
' volume.
5511(1.00-0.12)=627 vph, to- At intersection 1, using Figure 6.10, the
tal vehicles arriving. capacity is found to be (2,00011,500) x
With given demand distribution, 1,050=1,400 vph.
left turns=627x0.12=75. 1,300< 1,400; satisfactory.
75< 132; satisfactory left turns Intersection I will thus delay some traffic be-
relative to through and right yond one signal cycle, but will not produce a
movements. continuing back-up.
1,390> 627; not satisfactory for in- At intersection 2 the situation is more
tersection level B. critical. Here, so much green time is re-
quired for the cross road, as well as for the
Expressway subsection 2-3:
separate turning movement, that the two
Demand volume = 1,390 + 200 + 350 through lanes cannot handle the through
= 1,940 vph. highway's design volume in the time availa-
10411,940=5.3%, say 5% trucks.
ble. Depending on the volume of opposing
From Table 9.4, ET=2.
left-turn movements, a "leading green" for
From Table 9.6, TL = 0.93.
left turns might give some additional time
SV1 = 2,000 x 2 x 0.50 x 0.97 x
0.93 = 1,805 vph. for the W-to-E through flow. But with the
heavy cross traffic, only major widening or
1,940> 1,805; not satisfactory.
grade separation can fully correct this loca-
Intersection 3: tibn.
Figure 6.10 applies. At intersection 3 conditions are reasonably
Approach width = 33 ft. good because the cross road has been wid-
L.F.=0.1. ened sufficiently to accommodate its traffic in
Chart value =2,200 vphg. a short period of time, and the expressway
278 HIC,HVAY CAPACITY
A ,lwjor fork on a freeway lie! ITO/k
itself has been widened to make up for much Solution:

of that lost time. v/c weighting:
On expressway subsection 2-3 the heavy 0.45 x 2=0.90
influx of traffic from the cross road has 0.50x4=2.00
caused operation to fall somewhat into level 0.66x2= 1.32
C. Widening to 3 lanes will be required if 0.45x3= 1.35
level B is to be attained. 0.55 x 2 = 1.10
13 6.67
EXAMPLE 9.8 6.67/13 = 0.51, weighted v/c
Part (a) ratio: in level C.
Problem: Determine the weighted level Operating speed weighting:
of service for the 4-lane freeway section
shown, which has already-determined level 57x 2=114
of service measures as shown (PHF= 58 x 4= 232
0.77). 43x2= 86
61 x3= 183
53x2= 106
13 721
721/13=55.5 mph, weighted
operating speed; in level B.
F CUVVNG CURVING TANGENT CURVING
RC&TVIGTEG FULL WIDTH TESTRICTEU FULL WIDTH FULL WIDTH Overall level of service is C, gov-
WIDTII,LEVEL ROLLING WIDTH ROLLING MoUnrUIwous
NUUNTA I NOUN erned by v/c ratio.
V/C. oso v/CURT V/C.045 U/GIG,,
u/CIa 45
00 69 5T 0967 Re OP SP..43 0959.61 0069 • 53 (This is only slightly into level C,
however, as shown by v/c only overall level of service for the freeway and
0.01 over the dividing line while expressway section shown, which has a
operating speed is slightly better variety of elements without readily availa-
than limit of level B). ble numerical level of service measures.
(PHF=0.83, geometrics are ideal, and no
Part (b)
trucks).
Problem: Determine the approximate
Solution:
AT - GRADE
ON-RAMP WEAVING OFF-RAMP ON-RAMP INTERSECTION
SECTION I
JUNCTION
2 50' 3,500 1,500 5,000
'* 7,000 4000'
POINTS
F00. 5Od __
J 500' _ 500'
I NFLUENCETHRU
LZP3,OOO 2 5OO' 3,000' 6,000' 3,000' 150 • 500
AREA
SIT U AT ION RGETHRU WEAVE "trHRu I DIVERGE THRU MERGE 'kHR THRUh
GIVEN I I
DEMAND1,9001 1,100 2,400 1,300 12,100 1,400
VOLUME I II I
1,500 I
I
1,200I,9O J ,8OO
(VPII) I .1 I I I I I
B B I CI C C C B B I
B EIB
2,000 1,200 2,500 2,000 2,500 1,500 2,000 1,200 290(12,01
NEAREST (EXACT
SERVICE
VOLUME 1,400 1,000 2900 1,100 2900 1,300 1,400 ,1,8 I4(
LIMITS' A A B I B B B A 0 A
LEVEL
OF C
SERVICE
'DEMAND VOLUMES AND SURROUNDING SERVICE VOLUME LIMITS ARE DIRECTLY

AVAILABLE FROM SUBSECTION - BY- SUBSECTION ANALYSIS OF ELEMENTS.
t WEAVE LIMITS TAKEN FROM CHAP. SEVEN FOR MAJOR WEAVES; IN FIGURE 7.4,
"
NUMBER OF WEAVING VEHICLES RATHER THAN NUMBER OF LANES FOUND TO
CONTROL.
Conclusion: Average overall level of ser- restriction is so far "out of line" with the
vice is approximately the limit of B, with remaining operation that it should be re-
the exception of the at-grade intersection, ported separately, rather than being
which is very close to capacity. This point averaged.
CHAPTER TEN
STREETS AND HIGHWAYS WITHOUT

ACCESS CONTROL
The previous chapter has discussed traffic of these sections pertain primarily to rural
operations on freeways and other express- conditions, where the number of intersec-
ways, or highway facilities designed for the tions and access points is few to moderate.
primary purpose of the rapid movement of Fourth, urban arterial streets are covered
traffic. Relatively isolated from outside in- separately, inasmuch as the influence of
fluences except at specific locations, the inurban traffic regulations, controls, and fre-
ternal traffic stream characteristics are the quent access points results in a considerably
major determinants of the traffic service pro- different type of operation. Finally, major
vided. streets in the central business district are
However, the vast majority of rural high- discussed.
ways and city streets do not fall into this
category. On most highways, the initial pur-
GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF LEVELS OF
pose of swift, efficient movement is compro-
SERVICE AND SERVICE VOLUMES
mised by provision of direct access to and
from adjacent roads, streets, and abutting For the remaining types of highways,
properties. Sometimes the access is essential; levels of service differ from those for free-
in other cases, gaining access control simply ways and expressways; further, they differ
is not economically feasible. The typical from each other, depending on the particular
street or highway thus fulfills a multiple type of highway involved. For rural multi-
function of traffic service and land use ser- lane highways, they are very similar to those
vice, and, in the process, the description of for freeways; and for rural 2-lane highways
traffic operations becomes more complex. they are reasonably similar. However, values
In contrast with typical uninterrupted flow for urban arterials are quite different, as is
experiencing only occasional potential con- the concept itself, and at the other extreme
flict areas (as on expressways), traffic flow (downtown streets) they are very different
on the majority of streets and highways can and not yet well defined.
be thought of as an almost continual succes-
Thus, absolute measures of level of service
sion of potential conflicts from internal and
are meaningful only within a given highway
external influences, whose effects produce
somewhat different analysis criteria from category, because by definition each cate-
those presented in the previous chapter. This gory has its own range of levels of service,
chapter describes these differing procedures including its own "best" level of service.
for streets and highways without access con- Conditions at this "best" level of service to a
trol. large degree are controlled by external in-
Because of the widely varying operating fluences rather than internal traffic stream
characteristics and factors which may apply, characteristics. Level of service must, then,
this chapter gives separate consideration to apply to a section of roadway of a given
five different highway types. First, multilane type, representing the average effect of
highways which are without access control operating levels at each point along that
and/or undivided are considered. Second, section. Differing types should not be com-
2-lane highways are covered, followed by bined for analysis; for instance, a highway
(third) brief mention of 3-lane roads. All which is partly 4-lane and partly 2-lane
280
HIGHWAYS WITHOUT ACCESS CONTROL 281
should be divided into and reported as two limited by: ( I ) the physical characteristics
separate sections, as a minimum. of the roadway, and (2) the frequency and
Evaluation of the interacting effects of duration of the infrequent fixed traffic inter-
level of service and maximum service vol- ruptions (Speed limits may legally prevent
ume on highways other than expressways attainment of low-volume operating speeds,
involves many factors. External influences as defined.) Operating speeds at any given
have more effect on traffic flow on ordinary level of service, then, reflect the influence of
highways than on freeways at all volume the volume at that level. The discussions of
levels because of their proximity and in- multilane and 2-lane highways, covering
creased frequency. This effect is reflected basically rural conditions, therefore normally
primarily in reduced speeds as compared to relate volumes, as represented by the v/c
freeways, at any given volume. These speed ratio, to operating speeds.
changes thus differ in their effect from those As in the freeway case discussed in Chap-
resulting from a speed limit intentionally ter Nine, the basic v/c ratio limits here de-
applied for safety or other reasons. Such fining the several levels of service on multi-
posted speed limits, when lower than those lane and 2-lane highways with uninterrupted
shown attainable by the appropriate speed- flow, from a volume standpoint, apply to
volume curves, can be maintained with little ideal alinement, or 70-mph average highway
change until the volume shown for that speed speeds. Again, as in the freeway case, these
is reached. limits are generally unrealistic when applied
In this chapter, as in Chapter Nine, speed to highways of lower design standards, be-
cause they indicate volumes higher than
is used, together with v/c ratio, in defining
could be attained at the operating speed
levels of service. As before, a series of speed
value also defining the particular level of
values are designated as limits of the several
levels of service. However, two forms of service. Working v/c ratios more appro-
speed measurement are used, operating speed priate for lower average highway speeds are
and average overall travel speed, the par- therefore included in the procedures that
ticular one employed for any given highway follow. These are approximate, in the case
type depending on the research studies used of multilane highways. However, in the
as references and the particular significance 2-lane case, where they are an important,
that each has for the type of roadway under frequently used consideration, they are based
consideration. Operating speed, as before, on rather detailed studies.
represents the maximum safe speed for given On urban streets in well-developed areas,
traffic conditions that an individual vehicle on the other hand, there may be frequent
can travel if the driver so desires, without ex- traffic interruptions, and speed limits may
ceeding the design speed at any point. Aver- relate more to safety to the general public
age overall travel speed is the average of in- than to optimum traffic flow. On such streets
dividual vehicular speeds over a length of and on other highways having frequent
traffic interruptions or arbitrary speed limits
highway, and represents what all vehicles,
for safety, average overall travel speed is a
acting as a group, can be expected to do. It
more suitable criterion. The range between
can be obtained from the average travel
possible and actual average speeds diminishes
times of a group of vehicles passing through
rapidly, with lower speed limits and in-
the section. creased frequency of. traffic interruptions.
When dealing with essentially uninter- Alinement is seldom a significant considera-
rupted flow conditions, normally associated tion except in extreme cases. Traffic char-
with rural highways, operating speed will acteristics tend to become based on group,
normally be the speed criterion! As before, rather than individual, vehicle operations.
it indicates the highest feasible speeds at a When considering (11) city streets, (2) road-
given volume, and eliminates the variability ways with frequent traffic signalization or
in observed speeds caused by individual stop controls, or (3) routes with relatively
driver desires. A given highway or street will low speed limits in relation to geometric con-
have a free-flow operating speed, or a maxi- ditions, it is recommended that analysis be
mum safe speed at extremely low volumes, made by the methods given later in this
chapter, for urban arterials and downtown cause the restrictive effects of the relatively
streets, on the basis of average overall travel large number of frictional elements has been
speeds. Here, only approximate v/c ratio considered to mask or damp the effects of
criteria can be established, inasmuch as peaking. Where, in a specific problem, an
urban highway capacities are widely variable. ordinary rural highway is. encountered which
In this chapter, it will be noted that no approaches freeway characteristics or on
specific application of peak-hour factors is which peaking is evident, judgment should
made to uninterrupted flows. Little research be exercised in the possible adaptation of the
has been conducted regarding peaking on peak-hour factors presented in Chapter Nine
ordinary rural highways; this may be be- to the case at hand.
MULTILANE RURAL HIGHWAYS

This section covers multilane highways tion, regardless of the number of lanes in
that cannot be classified as freeways or ex- that direction. Operating speeds reflect the
pressways because they are undivided, or be- average conditions in all lanes.
cause they lack significant control of access Even under very light demand, traffic vol-
features, or both. Although freeways and umes have a measurable effect on operating
expressways are also multilaned, with few speeds. Unlike the freeway case, vehicles
exceptions, their unique characteristics with entering, leaving and crossing the main road-
regard to access control and design features way at a multitude of points, as well as those
warrant their separate consideration in Chap- traveling in the opposing traffic flow, are
ter Nine. present and may have a significant adverse
On ordinary multilane highways in rural effect on traffic operations. Increased traffic
areas, just as on freeways, relatively uninter- volumes produce a corresponding reduction
rupted flow is usually found, even though a in operating speeds.
variety of interferences exist which may Ideal conditions for ordinary multilane
adversely affect flow as compared to freeway highways without access control are much
flow. However, because of the many dif- the same as for freeways, including 12-ft
ferent types of conditions that may be found lanes, fully adequate lateral clearances and
on particular highways, uninterrupted flow shoulders, alinement for 70-mph average
cannot always be maintained. Therefore, in
highway speed, and no commercial vehicles.
this section level of service is first discussed
for uninterrupted flow conditions, following Their average per lane capacities, under ideal
which the effects of fixed traffic interruptions conditions, are also the same-2,000 passen-
or restrictive conditions are considered. ger vehicles per hour. However, the likeli-
An important difference between ordinary hood of ideal conditions is considerably less;
multilane and freeway operation, as de- hence, in many cases there must be sub-
scribed in this manual, is that the presence of stantial application of the adjustment factors
more than two lanes in one direction on an discussed in Chapter Five and included in
uncontrolled multilane highway does not this section.
necessarily produce the same predictable in- In Chapter Three, typical speed distribu-
crease in efficiency that has been shown to tions and speed-volume relationships have
occur at intermediate volume levels on free- been shown for ordinary multilane highways
ways and expressways. Often, the inner under ideal conditions as Figure 3.24 and
lanes are as adversely influenced by medial Figures 3.36 and 3.39, respectively. Because,
friction and by turns to and from the left side as just mentioned, relatively few ordinary
of the road as the outer lanes are by slow multilane highways have ideal prevailing
traffic and right-side frictions. For the pur- conditions, these curves would seldom rep-
poses of analysis, therefore, ordinary multi- resent an actual highway's performance cor-
lane highways are considered to carry the rectly; they should not be used for computa-
same service volumes per lane in one directional purposes.
LEVELS OF SERVICE
For ordinary multilane highways under

uninterrupted-flow conditions, the charac-
teristics of the several levels of service are
niuch the same as those for freeways, pre-
sented in Chapter Nine. The main differ-
ences are somewhat lower operating speeds
~VDZi
- .-,. .--
at most volume levels, which result in slightly

different operating speed and v/c ratio limits
for certain of the levels.
Described briefly, starting from the zero-
volume condition, free flow, level A extends
as before to the point where the operating
speeds are decreased not more than 10 mph
below free-flow operating speeds at very low
volumes; here, volumes will not exceed
30 percent of capacity. Its limit, under
ideal conditions, is 600 passenger cars per
lane per hour at an operating speed of
60 mph. In this level, average speeds are
likely to be influenced by speed limits.
Level B. marking the beginning of the stable
flow area, represents the volume at which
most of the drivers are traveling at headways API ordinary ,nulii!ane highway without access
control.
where the actions of the preceding vehicle
have some influence on them; it will not ex-
ceed 50 percent of capacity. This is 1,000
passenger cars per lane per hour, at a 55-
mph operating speed, under ideal conditions. hour factors are not directly considered on
Level C represents a continuation of stable ordinary highways, it may be assumed that
flow to a volume not exceeding 75 percent the maximum service volumes given for
of capacity, or 1,500 passenger cars per lane levels C and D approximately represent the
per hour under ideal conditions, maintaining maximum volumes that can be sustained for
at least a 45-mph operating speed. Level D long (level C) or short (level D) periods of
approaches unstable flow, at volumes up to time without undue restriction, delay or
90 percent of capacity, but accommodates likelihood of breakdown of flow.
1,800 passenger cars per lane per hour at an Table 10.1 summarizes these relationships
operating speed of about 35 mph under ideal between levels of service, operating speeds,
conditions. Level E, of course, represents and v/c ratios on ordinary multilane high-
ways (as normally found in rural areas),
capacity. or 2,000 passenger cars per lane
both for ideal and restricted alinenient, and
per hour under ideal conditions, with operat- also shows maximum service volumes and
ing speeds of about 30 mph, somewhat capacity under ideal conditions.
under one-half of free-flow operating speed.
Finally, level F is a forced-flow, congested
CRITICAL ELEMENTS REQUIRING
condition with widely varying volume char-
CONSIDERATION
acteristics and operating speed capabilities
falling below 30 mph. Often, on ordinary An ordinary multilane highway with ideal
multilane highways, level F is reached di- conditions (12-ft lanes, adequate shoulders,
rectly from level D, as trafllc demand rises no commercial vehicles, and good aline-
and volumes increase, the extremely unstable ment) is the exception rather than the rule.
level E being bypassed entirely. Normally, a typical highway will have, to a
Although, as previously mentioned, peak- greater or lesser degree, restricting elements
TABLE 10.1—LEVELS OF SERVICE AND MAXIMUM SERVICE VOLUMES FOR MULTILANE HIGHWAYS, UNDIVIDED AND/OR
WITHOUT ACCESS CONTROL, UNDER UNINTERRUPTED FLOW CONDITIONS
(NORMALLY REPRESENTATIVE OF RURAL OPERATION)
TRAFFIC FLOW CONDITIONS SERVICE VOLUME/CAPACITY (v/c) RATIO MAXIMUM SERVICE VOLUME UNDER IDEAL CONDITIONS,
INCLUDING 70-MPH AHS
LEVEL
(TOTAL PASSENGER CARS PER HOUR, ONE DIRECTION)
OF APPROXIMATE WORKINGVALUE FOR
SERVICE OPERATING BASIC LIMITING RESTRICTED AHS OF
DESCRIPTION SPEEDS VALUES FOR AHS 4-LANE HWY. 6-LANE HWY. EACH
(MPH) OF 70 MPH S (2 LANES (3 LANES ADDITIONAL
60 MPH 50 MPH ONE DIRECTION) ONE DIRECTION) LANE
A Free flow 560 0.30 _b 1200 1800 600
Stable flow
B (upper speed 555 0.50 0.20 _" 2000 3000 1000
range)
C Stable flow 545 0.75 0.50 0.25 3000 4500 1500
Approaching
D unstable flow 535 0.90 0.85 0.70 3600 5400 1800
EC Unstable flow 30" 1.00 4000 6000 2000
F Forced flow <30" Not Meaningful'S Widely variable (0 to capacity)

operating speed and basic i/c ratio are independent measures of level of service; both limits must be satisfied in any determination of level.
"Operating speed required for this level is not attainable even at low volumes.
Capacity.
Approximately. -
Demand volume/capacity ratio may well exceed 1.00, indicating overloading
which must be taken into account before its strictions in the light of local conditions, may
true ability to carry traffic can be deter- prove a more useful approach.
mined. Hence, the maximum values given
in Table 10.1 can seldom be used directly. Lane Width and Lateral Clearance
Many typical highways are totally unable to As discussed in Chapter Five, many
provide service at level A, and level B may
ordinary multilane highways, particularly if
be unattainable on a significant number. In
relatively old, have lane widths of less than
the computation procedures that follow, the the ideal 12 it, and lateral clearances from
adverse effects of restricted alinement are the edge of the traveled way to obstructions
"built into" the criteria for restricted average of less than the ideal 6 ft. Further, in most
highway speed conditions, whereas those of cases they are undivided; consequently, ve-
several other restrictive factors are handled hicles in the center lanes in each direction are
by means of adjustment factors there pre- restricted laterally by vehicles moving in the
sented. opposing direction. Table 10.2 presents ad-
In addition to those elements covered by justment factors which reflect the combined
specific adjustments, there are several other influence of these several factors on un-
factors along ordinary multilane highways divided multilane highways (Table 9.2
which may adversely affect their ability to should be used for divided highways).
offer uniform service throughout. These in- Generally, the significant lateral restric-
clude rudimentary weaving areas, ramp junctions encountered on this class of highway
tions, at-grade intersections, business and will be more critical, and more abrupt in
private roadside development and associated nature, than those few that are found on
access points, and a variety of other potential freeways. However, if any long continuous
traffic interruptions. obstructions are present, the cautions dis-
The differences in effect of these various cussed under this category in Chapter Nine
influences on ordinary multilane highways should be considered. It should be noted, in
from those on freeways and expressways are Table 10.2, that the adjustments for "ob-
primarily differences in scope and degree. struction on right side only" already in-
On freeways, only occasional impediments corporate the effect of opposing traffic; no
are likely to be encountered, although the further adjustment is needed. Therefore, the
effect of a restriction may be noted for long adjustments for "obstruction on both sides"
should be used only where some physical
distances if volumes are near the capacity of
obstruction encroaches on the center of the
the restriction. On ordinary multilane high-
roadway, closer than would the opposing
ways impediments are likely to be found flow of traffic; such obstructions would in-
more frequen.tly. In rural areas their effects clude centerline barriers, bridge structural
may, again, extend for substantial distances. elements, piers, and similar encroachments.
However, their zones of influence may be less
in suburban areas because, with access un- Trucks, Buses, and Grades
controlled, a restriction at one point may be
The interrelated effects of trucks, buses,
more easily bypassed or avoided entirely by and grades on service volumes and capacities
nearby local traffic, which continues to of highways of all types have been discussed
make effective use of the remainder of the in Chapter Five, and the limited knowledge
highway. of these effects on service volumes and the
Hence, on ordinary multilane highways capacity of multilane highways has been
having a substantial number of minor im- applied in detail to freeways and expressways
pediments, but only an occasional major one, in Chapter Nine. Although minor differ-
it may sometimes prove unfeasible to quote ences probably exist in actuality between the
an overall level of service including all specific effects on freeways and those on
adverse influences. Rather, development of ordinary multilane highways, available re-
a controlling level reflecting the minor research results do not yet justify such refine-
strictions, together with special analyses of ment. Therefore, the discussion and adjust-
the real influence of the apparent major re- ments presented in that chapter can be
considered to be equally applicable to ordi- do Tables 9.3 through 9.6, respectively, for
nary multilane highways, except in those spe- freeways.
cial cases where a traffic-interrupting feature
Weaving A reas
exists on the grade; reference should be made
to that section for general discussion. Chapter Seven covers major weaving,
For computational convenience, Tables which is most commonly associated with
10.3 through 10.6 are included here; they freeways, and Chapter Eight considers "one-
contain the same truck and bus adjustment sided" weaving. There are many instances,
factors for ordinary multilane highways as however, where a weaving section is used in
TABLE 10.2-COMBINED EFFECT OF LANE WIDTH AND RESTRICTED LATERAL

CLEARANCE ON CAPACITY AND SERVICE VOLUME OF UNDIVIDED
MULTILANE HIGHWAYS WITH UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR,a W, FOR LATERAL CLEARANCE AND LANE WIDTH
DISTANCE FROM OBSTRUCTION ON RIGHT SIDE ONLY,

TRAFFIC LANE EDGE OF ONE-DIRECTION TRAVELED WAY OBSTRUCTIONS ON BOTHSIDES OF
TO OBSTRUCTION (INCLUDES ALLOWANCE FOR ONE-DIRECTION TRAVELED WAYb.O
(Fr) OPPOSING TRAFFIC ON LEFT)
12-Fr 11-FT I 10-FT I 9-Fr I 12-FT I il-FT I 10-Fr I 9-Fr

LANES I LANES I LANES I LANES LANES LANES I LANES I LANES
4-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAY, ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
6 1.00 0.95 1 0.89 0.77 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

4 0.98 0.94 0.88 0.76 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
2 0.95 0.92 0.86 0.75 0.94 0.91 0.86 N.A.
0 0.88 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.81 0.79 0.74 0.66
6-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAY, ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
6 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.77 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

4 0.99 0.94 0.88 0.76 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
2 0.97 0.93 0.86 0.75 0.96 0.92 0.85 N.A.
0 0.94 0.90 0.83 0.72 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.70
DIVIDED HIGHWAYS, ONE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
Use adjustment factors from Table 9.2
Same adjustments for capacity and all levels of service.

Appropriate for use only where normally undivided roadway is temporarily separated into two roadways by obstructions
such as centerline barrier, bridge structural elements, piers, and the like, which are closer than would be the opposing traffic.
N.A. = Not applicable; use adjustment for obstruction on right side only. (In these cases, clearance is temporarily greater
than the usual separation from opposing traffic, but adjustment for this temporary improvement is not feasible).

TRUCKS AND BUSES ON ORDINARY MULTILANE HIGHWAYS, OVER
EXTENDED SECTION LENGTHS
(INCLUDING UPGRADES, DOWNGRADES, AND LEVEL SUBSECTIONS)
EQUIVALENT, E, FOR:
LEVEL OF SERVICE
Widely variable; one or more trucks have same total

A effect, causing other traffic to shift to other lanes. Use
equivalent for remaining levels in problems.
ET, for trucks 2 4 8

B through E
E8, for buses' 1.6 3 5
TABLE 10.3b-AVERAGE GENERALIZED ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR TRUCKS"

ON ORDINARY MULTILANE HIGHWAYS, OVER EXTENDED
SECTION LENGTHS
FACTOR, T, FOR ALL LEVELS OF SERVICE

PERCENTAGE OF
TRUCKS, P2
LEVEL TERRAIN ROLLING TERRAIN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN
1 0.99 0.97 0.93

2 0.98 0.94 0.88
3 0.97 0.92 0.83
4 0.96 0.89 0.78
5 0-9-5- 0.87 0.74
6 0.94 0.85 0.70
7 0.93 0.83 0.67
8 0.93 0.81 0.64
9 0.92 0.79 0.61
10 0.91 0.77 0.59
12 0.89 0.74 0.54
14 0.88 0.70 0.51
16 0.86 0.68 0.47
18 0.85 0.65 0.44
20 0.83 0.63 0.42
Table 10.6.
TABLE 10.4-PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF TRUCKS ON ORDINARY

MULTILANE HIGHWAYS, ON SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL SUBSECTIONS
OR GRADES
PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT, ET
LENGTH
GRADE OF LEVELS OF SERVICE A THROUGH C FOR: LEVELS OF SERVICE 0 AND E (CAPACITY) FOR:
(%) GRADE
(Ml)
3% 5% 10% 15% 20% 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS TRUCKS
0-1 All 2 .2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3%-3/ 5 4 4 3 3 5 4 4 3 3
34-1 7 5 5 4 4 7 5 5 4 4
1 3/2-2 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6
3-4 7 7 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 8
3 3% 10 8 5 4 3 10 8 '5 4 3
10 8 5 4 4 .10 8 5 4 4
3% 10 8 .6 5 5 10 8 5 4 5
1 10 8 6 5 6 10 8 6 5 6
13/2 10 9 7 7 7 10 9 7 7 7
2 10 9 8 8 8 10 9 8 8 8
3 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
4 10 10 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 11
4 3% 12 9 5 4 3 13 9 5 4 3
12 9 5 5 5 13 9 5 5 5
3% 12 9 7 7 7 13 9 7 7 7
1 12 10 8 8 8 13 10 8 8 8
13/ 12 11 10 10 10 13 11 10 10 10
2 12 11 11 11 11 13 12 11 11 11
3. 12 12 13 13 . 13 13 13 14 14 14
4 12 13 15 15 14 13 14 16 16 15
5 3% 13 10 6 4 3 14 10 6 4 3
13 11 7 7 7 14 11 7 7 7
3% 13 11 9 8 8 14 11 9 8 8
1 13 12 10 10 10 14 13 10 10 10
13/i 13 13 12 12 12 14 14 13 . 13 13
2 13 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15
3 13 .15 16 16 15 14 17 17 17 17
4 15 17 19 19 17 16 19 22 21 19
6 3% 14 10 6 4 3 15 10 6 4 3
14 11 8 8 8 15 11 8 8 8
3% 14 12 10 10 10 15 12 10 10 10
1 . 14 13 12 12 11 15 14 13 '13 11
13/3 14 14 14 14 13 15 16 15 15 14
2 14 15 16 16 15 15 18 18 18 16
3 14 16 18 18 17 15 20 20 20 19
4 19 19 20 20 20 20 23 23 23 23
HIGHWAYS WITHOUT ACCESS CONTROL
TABLE 10.5—PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF INTERCITY BUSES ON

ORDINARY MULTILANE HIGHWAYS, ON SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL
SUBSECTIONS OR GRADES
PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT, b ER
GRADE' ('L
LEVELS OF SERVICE LEVELS OF SERVICE
A THROUGH C I D AND E (CAPACITY)
0-4 1.6 1.6
4 2
7 4
7c 12 10
All lengths.
b For all percentages of buses.
'Use generally restricted to grades over 1/2 mile long.
connection with highways having no access acteristics may still govern the very limited
control or where weaving occurs even if not capacity. Such capacities cannot be com-
by design. These range from maneuvers of puted by means of procedures in this
traffic entering from a cross street on one manual; they must be determined through
side of a flow and leaving via another cross local study.
street on the other side in a short distance,
Ramp Entrances or Exits
through rotaries of low design, to fully ade-
quate weaving sections. In the latter case, Chapter Eight discusses capacity deter-
the weaving area of the roadway takes on mination for ramps, butthe procedures there
the characteristics of an access-controlled described apply principally to a high-type
roadway in that little or no side friction is ramp terminal linking the ramp turning road-
normally present. Therefore, such weaving way with a control led-access freeway. In
area capacity computations can be accom- some cases, both ends of a ramp turning
plished as if the section truly had controlled roadway may be junctions with freeways,
access, in accordance with the procedures but more often, only one terminal is at
established in Chapter Seven and further a freeway, the other being a link to a
applied in Chapter Nine. However, in the non-controlled- or partially-controlled-access
remaining cases the influence of a variety of highway. Any such lower-standard junction
frictional elements must be considered. should be analyzed asa connection to an
Where sections have become encumbered expressway, or to an ordinary highway or
with traffic signals in the section or on the street, as the case may be.
approach legs, usually because the sections
CLOVERLEAF AND DIRECT CONNECTION
had insufficient capacity to handle the un-
INTERCHANGES
controlled demand, those signalized inter-
sections normally govern. They are analyzed The ramps on these types of interchanges
by means of the procedures in Chapter Six. generally require the same type of freeway
In the more difficult cases, however, even ramp junction capacity analysis at both
signalization may be insufficient to control termini, regardless of the fact that one road-
the section, and the section's inherent char- way may be a freeway and the other a non-
controlled-access facility. This is true applicable. In practice, if the interchange is

because, through the interchange, the non- relatively close to signalized intersections
controlled-access roadway takes on the same traffic past the ramp junction will be in
controlled-access characteristics as the con- platoons to a greater degree than on a free-
trolled roadway. Therefore, Chapters Seven way; hence, ramp operation may be some-
and Eight, as they apply to diverging and what more on a queue-and-clear basis than
merging traffic in cloverleaf interchanges, are would be true at a freeway junction.
TABLE 10.6-ADJUSTMENT FACTORSx FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON

INDIVIDUAL HIGHWAY SUBSECTIONS OR GRADES ON ORDINARY
MULTILANE HIGHWAYS
(INCORPORATING PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT AND PERCENTAGE
OF TRUCKS OR BUSES)"
PASSEN- TRUCK ADJUSTMENT FACTOR T,, OR TL (B,, OR BL FOR BUSES)"

GER
CAR
EQUIVA- PERCENTAGE OF TRUCKS, P (OR OF BUSES, PB) oi':
LENT,
ETOR
EB 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 12 1 14 1 16 1 18120
2 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83
3 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
4 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63
5 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56
6 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 069 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50
7 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
16 0.87 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.25
17 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24
18 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.54 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23
19 0.85 0.74 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.48.0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22
20 0.84 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.51 0.47 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.21
21 0.83 0.71 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20
22 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.28' 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19
23 0.82 0.69 0.60 0.53 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.19
24 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.18
25 0.80 0.67 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17
Computed by 1001(100 - P + ETPT), or 100/(100 - Pn + EBPB), as presented in Chapter Five. Use this formula for
larger percentages.
'From Table 10.4 or Table 10.5.
Trucks and buses should not be combined in entering this table where separate consideration of buses has been estab-
lished as required, because passenger car equivalents differ.
DIAMOND INTERCHANGES AND service volume is quite low in relation to

CROSS CONNECTIONS through roadway capacity, to provide an
Where the interchange is a diamond type, acceptable level of service for rural condi-
the ramp connection with the local systems tions, and the signalized intersection often
of roads may well control the ramp's overall has a very low percentage of the green time
capacity. It normally is analyzed as an inter- assigned to the cross road, reducing to a
section at grade, in accordance with pro- minimum the number of vehicles that are
cedures outlined in Chapter Six. This will detained by it.
also be the case with cross connections to Where full access control does not exist,
and from parallel service roads. roadside development will occur to a greater
or lesser extent. Many highways having
A linemen: partial, rather than complete, access control
Restrictive alinement may well exist on are classed as expressways. These roads,
ordinary multilane highways, its effect being mostly built in recent years, still allow a
reflected in lower average highway speeds. small number of highway entrances and
As in the freeway case, only approximate intersections at grade at low-volume points,
measures are available of the influence of but few permit significant access from road-
this factor on operating speeds and volumes side businesses and other properties. Such
carried; they are incorporated directly into highways fall within the scope of Chapter
the computational criteria. Nine.
On the other hand, where significant road-
Traffic interruptions and interferences side development exists which has direct
By definition, traffic on all highways ex- access to and from the roadway, a different
cept freeways is subject to interruption, al- situation exists. It is generally agreed that
though the degree varies widely. Fixed numerous friction points along a roadway
traffic interruptions obviously will influence bring about reduction in the traffic-carrying
both operating speeds and capacity ad- capabilities of the route. Level of service
versely. These fixed traffic interruptions on certainly is adversely affected. The findings
the roadway include signalized intersections, of one recent study (1) of the delay and con-
stop signs, railroad grade crossings, and the gestion caused by commercial roadside de-
like. Even under free-flow conditions, all of velopment indicate that both average and
the vehicles will be required to stop at the operating speed on a commercially developed
stop signs, and many will have to stop for section can be predicted in terms of roadway
the other interruptions; this stopping or slow- traffic volume. However, insufficient data
ing creates significantly different operating have been gathered as yet to accurately pre-
conditions, if present to an appreciable de- dict the loss of capacity, if any, because of
gree. Alongside the roadway, a variety of the lack of access control. Often, enforced
other elements, such as strip development, low speed limits are established on such high-
may produce additional interference. ways for safety reasons. Such limits, if lower
Every fixed interruption accommodates a than drivers would tend to establish them-
certain maximum amount of traffic. In selves, may permit a larger traffic volume to
particular, every signalized intersection at move, but at a poorer level of service than
grade has a capacity based on normal inter- might occur without the speed control. It
section considerations, as discussed in Chap- may be that capacity, which by definition is
ter Six. However, where intersections at obtained under restricted operation at about
grade occur infrequently along a noncon- 30 mph, is little affected if roadside develop-
trolled-access multilane road their restrictive ment is relatively light; here the development
effect generally is relatively small (much less is mainly a hazard to safety. On the other
than on a typical urban arterial street) ç be- hand, where development is continuous,
cause their capacity almost always exceeds operation may be much like that on a city
the through roadway service volume level street. The influence of this roadside friction
being considered in any practical problem. on selection of the traffic determination pro-
This is true for two main reasons—the cedures used depends on its severity, in
terms of its frequency and its effect on out detailed consideration of the interrup-
speeds. tions. Admittedly, the true capacity at the
In general, on multilane highway sections interruption point of such a roadway section
where the number of fixed traffic interrup- is reduced in proportion to the amount of
tions are few (greater than 1 mile apart) interruption time in the total time available.
and other interferences between are largely For instance, even where only a single signal
absent, the presence of these interruptions is present on a long section, the capacity at
influences the operating speeds and the maxi- that point is reduced in proportion -to the
mum service volumes over the section chiefly amount of red time in the total cycle time.
in terms of restricted flow at or near the in- But such effects are generally localized on
terruptions. Operating conditions between ordinary highways, due to the influence of
fixed interruptions generally retain the char- traffic entering and leaving at other nearby
acteristics of uninterrupted flow. For the unsignalized points, and do not seriously
entire highway section, the major conse- restrict the section as a whole. At typical
quences are as follows: (1) operating design levels of service their influence on
speeds at all volume levels are somewhat speed is relatively small, volumes carried are
lower than for uninterrupted flow because of little affected, and few if any drivers en-
the necessity for traffic to slow or stop, and counter undue delay. At the other extreme
(2) more of the traffic travels in platoons, a typical rural railroad grade crossing may
caused by their grouping at the interruptions. be a serious impediment to all traffic for
These platoons may be of regular or ir- several minutes, producing considerable
regular sequence and size, depending on the delay to drivers arriving during that period,
nature of the interruption. Maximum vol- but over the hour's time on which these
umes are limited by the capacity of the most criteria are based, again may produce little
critical point (normally the traffic interrup- apparent overall effect.
tion), although the influence distance of in- If, however, there are obviously significant
dividual interruptions may be relatively and continuously occurring slowdowns in a
limited. particular section, it becomes essential to
In a relative sense, volume has been found give special consideration to the capacity of
to have the same effect on operating condi- that section and to consider the capabilities
tions for this somewhat interrupted flow as for of nearby sections as related to those capaci-
uninterrupted flow. Although each highway ties. For example, where the highway in
would have its own specific speed-volume question crosses a more important highway,
relationship, differing from a typical fully- and has less than half of the total signal time
uninterrupted-flow relationship, the same
as green time as a result, a significant restric-
scale of levels of service is used as for in-
tion might exist. Or, where a regularly
terrupted flow; hence, Table 10.1 continues
occurring train movement at a grade crossing
to apply. Operating speed and service vol-
umes must again be expressed in terms of a conflicts with a peak-period traffic flow
value relative to a common maximum. For which occurs simultaneously, the effect on
speeds, the maximum remains the free-flow level of service for a short period may be
operating speed. For service volumes, the greatly magnified and require special con-
maximum remains the capacity. sideration.
Where fixed interruptions are frequent
In normal practice, for typical design or
(more than one per mile), or if speed limits
operational problems where the fixed inter-
must be restricted to 35 mph or below, indi-
ruptions (primarily signalized intersections)
cating substantial roadside interference, the
average more than 1 mile apart and/or characteristics of the traffic flow are changed
where speed limits are 40 mph or greater too completely for uninterrupted-flow cri-
between interruptions (and attainable, indi- teria to be applicable even in modified form.
cating that the influence of roadside develop- The restrictive nature of the operation, pro-
ment is not great), it is generally considered duced by frequent signals and other interrup-
reasonable to apply the procedures which tions normally associated with a highway
follow for uninterrupted flow directly, with- requiring signalization, results in entirely
Traffic interruptions from roa(ls,de development and intersections on this thvu/ed highway without
control of access restrict service volumes.
different, and less consistent, speed-volume Basic Unifor,n Multilane Subsections

relationships. Such highways should he Just as was the case for freeways in Chap-
analyzed as urban arterials, as covered later ter Nine, operating speed and the service or
in this chapter. Suburban highways with demand volume/capacity ratio (v/c ratio)
"strip" development frequently fall into this are the basic measures used to identify levels
category. of service on ordinary highways with un-
interrupted flow. Table 10.1 summarizes
COMPUTATION PROCEDURES FOR limiting values of these measures defining
MULTILANE HIGHWAYS WITHOUT levels of service; these provide the base for
ACCESS CONTROL most computations.
Figure 10.1 shows these basic relation-
The generalized procedures first described ships graphically. It is similar to the typical
in Chapter Four, and applied to freeways in operating speed-volume chart shown earlier.
Chapter Nine, are equally applicable to more in Figure 3.36, except that the abscissa here
ordinary highways. Again, the procedure represents the service or demand volume/
must he divided into two parts involving, capacity ratio rather than absolute volume.
first, determination of capacities, service vol- Therefore, it can he used for any highway
umes, and levels of service of basic individ- whose capacity can he computed, rather than
ual near-uniform highway subsections, fol- representing only highways with ideal condi-
lowed by development of overall measures tions. It is useful in problems where inter-
for sections of substantial length formed by polation is involved and where a quick visual
several subsections combined. analysis, or a check of results, is needed. The
Mai
MENOMONEE
MEN
30
APP,
ii••uii••••uu•uuuiui
BASIC Oi 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.0
+INOEPENDENTI V/C RATIO
1I LEVEL
I or
SERVICE
RANGES
A I B
•
C
I
.
0
I
LI
I
Figure /0.1. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, in one direction of travel, on
multilane rural highways, under uninterrupted flow conditions.
basic limiting values of operating speed and multiply 2,000 passenger cars per lane per
v/c ratio which identify the several levels of hour by the number of lanes and by the
service are shown on the chart. applicable adjustment factors. The truck
Capacity, service volume, and level of ser- adjustment used must be that for capacity.
vice determination procedures for ordinary Consider intercity buses separately if vol-
multilane highways are nearly identical with times are large or grades are heavy.
those for freeways, the differences lying pri-
c=2,000 Al W T
marily in the basic criteria used, rather than
in the methods of use. The procedure is in which
somewhat simplified as compared to that for
c= capacity (mixed vehicles per hour,
freeways in that per-lane volumes remain the
total for one direction);
same no matter how many lanes there may
N= number of lanes (in one direction);
be. However, because lower design stan-
W = adjustment for lane width and lateral.
dards are likely, greater use of adjustment
clearance, from Table 10.2 (shoulder
factors can be expected. Use is made of
adjustment may be necessary, see
Table 10.1 (or Fig. 10.1). The procedures
are as follows: Chapter Five);and
T= truck factor at capacity, from Table
CAPACITY (TOTAL FOR ONE DIRECTION) 10.3b for overall highway section, or
UNDER PREVAILING CONDITIONS Table 10.6 for specific individual
Determine directly, by the standard grades (intercity bus factor, B0, may
method for uninterrupted flow. That is, be applied separately, see text).
SERVICE VOLUMES (TOTAL FOR ONE average highway speed.) The procedure is
DIRECTION) identical with the preceding, except that the
"maximum service volume" for the number
As before, several different procedures are of lanes and level of service desired (from
available for use in determining the service Table 10.1) is used in place of the basic
volume for a given level of service; selection value adjusted by a v/c ratio.
of the appropriate method depends on the
particular data already at hand. In any case, SV=MSV W TL
it is important to check the results to con-
firm that both the volume and operating in which MSV is the maximum service vol-
speed criteria for the desired level of service ume, in passenger cars per hour, from Ta-
are met, with due consideration for the pre- ble 10.1; and SV, W and TL are as before.
vailing average highway speed. Confirm attainment of the desired level of
service by checking the resulting operating
Computed Directly from Capacity Under
speed from Figure 10.1, for the given aver-
Ideal Conditions.—Follow the same pro-
cedure as that for capacity under prevailing age highway speed.
CAUTION: Use of this method is not ap-
conditions with two exceptions; namely,
propriate where restricted average highway
(1) utilize the adjustments for the appro-
speeds exist, because it does not make use of
priate level of service, where different from
the v/c ratio in which the influence of such
those for capacity, and (2) apply the appro-
restrictions is incorporated.
priate v/c ratio for the level of service
desired. (Where alinement is less than ideal, Computed from Capacity Under Prevail-
use of the applicable working v/c ratio ing Conditions—Multiply the capacity ob-
from Table 10.1, or reference to the appro- tained under ideal conditions by the v/c
priate average highway speed curve in Fig- ratio •obtained from Table 10.1 (or Fig.
ure 10.1, will help to assure a balance with 10.1) for the level of service desired. (As
the operating speed limitation.) for ideal conditions, consider use of the
working v/c ratio where average highway
SV=200f(v/c) W T1,
speed is restricted.) Also, convert the truck
in which adjustment, if used, to that for the level of
SV= service volume (mixed vehicles per service involved, rather than capacity.
hour, total for one direction); SV=c (v/c) (T L/TC )
N=number of lanes (in one direction); in which c is the capacity (mixed vehicles
volume-capacity ratio, obtained per hour, total for one direction), as com-
from Table 10.1 (or Fig. 10.1); puted for ideal conditions, and SV, v/c, TL,
Wz adjustment for lane width and lat- and T are as before.
eraI' clearance, from Table 10.2 Confirm attainment of the desired level of
(shoulder adjustment may be neces- service by checking the resulting operating
sary, see Chapter Five); and speed from Figure 10.1, for given average
TL = truck factor at given level of ser- highway speed.
vice, from Table 10.3b for overall
Determined from Level of Service Limits.
highway sections, or Table 10.6 for
—In the design of a new multilane highway,
specific individual grades (intercity
where a specific level of service has been
bus factor, BL, may be applied
established in advance, service volumes in
separately, see text).
passenger cars per hour can be read directly
Confirm attainment of desired level of from Table 10.1, provided design conditions
service by checking resulting operating speed are to be ideal. In the more typical case,
from Figure 10.1, for the given average high- where alinement or other conditions are
way speed, to make sure that the requirement less than ideal, Table 10.1 can be used to
for the given level is met. determine the limiting v/c ratio. From the
Computed from Maximum Service Vol- controlling ratio, the service volume can be
ume for Ideal Conditions.—(Suitable only determined once capacity is computed (Fig.
where alinement is ideal; that is, for 70-mph 10.1 can also be used).
Where a proposed design is already under Combined Analysis of Subsections Compos-

consideration, the v/c ratio here obtained ing Ordinary Multilane Highway Sections
can be compared with that for the proposed Without Access Control
design, to determine its adequacy. On ordinary multilane highways, un-
LEVEL OF SERVICE
divided and/or without access control, the
likelihood of variations in characteristics
Determination of the level of service pro- over any substantial distance is considerably
vided by any uncontrolled-access multilane greater than is the case with modern free-
highway, existing or proposed, under un- ways. Hence, the need to establish weighted
interrupted flow conditions, while accom- average levels of service, combining the in-
modating a given demand volume, requires fluence of several subsections of differing
the same partially "trial-and-error" pro- characteristics, may develop more fre-
cedure as described in Chapter Nine for free- quently. In overall concept the procedures
ways. Here, however, the only "problem" described in Chapter Nine are appropriate
element whose value is dependent on the here as well; reference, therefore, should be
unknown, level of service, is the truck factor. made to them. However, certain modifica-
The steps are as follows: tions are required; these are described here.
Establish a "base volume" for level First, regarding units, most problems can
of service determination, through the same be computed equally well in terms of either
passenger cars per hour or mixed vehicles
procedure as described under "Service Vol-
per hour. Only where ramp junctions or
umes—Computed Directly from Capacity
weaving sections are involved (a more un-
Under Ideal Conditions," except that no likely situation than on freeways) does the
v/c ratio is applied. mixed traffic approach seem more desirable;
Base volume=2,000 N W T L most restrictions typically found on ordinary
multilane highways, including at-grade inter-
in which N and W are as before and TL is sections, can be handled equally well either
the assumed truck factor. way. The important consideration is that
Divide the average demand volume consistency be maintained throughout any
by the "base volume" obtained in (a) to de- problem and any comparisons with other
termine the approximate v/c ratio. (Con- analysis results.
version of demand volume to equivalent pas- The same two typical problems exist:
senger cars is not necessary, because Step either examination of an existing highway to
(a) has converted the base to mixed traffic.) see if it contains relatively restrictive points,
or design of a new highway free of such
Reinspect Table 10.1 (or Fig. 10.1),
restrictions. As before, the desirable goal is
if the operating speed was known in advance, balanced quality of operation throughout.
to establish the level of service from the con- Because of the many potential restrictions
trolling factor, either operating speed or involved throughout, however, this goal is
basic v/c ratio. less likely to be fully attained. As before, as
If the operating speed was not known, long as capacity is not exceeded by demand
enterTable 10.1 for the appropriate condi- at any point, overall level of service will be
tions and determine operating speed. Or, better on a highway with only one or a few
enter Figure 10.1 on the v/c ratio scale, service volume restrictions than on one with
many.
select the appropriate curve for the given
Typical examples of the procedure used
average highway speed under consideration,
follow in the next section. It should be noted
and read the operating speed. Establish the
that although "weighted capacity" values re-
level of service from the controlling factor, main largely meaningless within any pre-
either operating speed or basic v/c ratio. established section, the fact that variation
Recompute, using the revised choice exists which would suggest weighting may
of truck factor, if the initial assumption of make it desirable to reexamine the propriety
level of service proves incorrect. of the section limits. That is, if difficulty is
I.
I.1 •: -
\Iultihwc highway without access control, fulfilling function of both traffic and land use service, is
subject to the frictions characteristic of strip or 'ribbon' development.
experienced in describing the overall ca- where signals occur infrequently, and usually
pacity of a section, it may well be because so have adequate capacity to handle typical
many access points exist (including im- rural service volumes without difficulty, they
portant intersecting highways) between the usually can be omitted from the weighting
preestablished terminal points that analysis procedure and interpreted separately to de-
as one section is, in itself, unfeasihie. Again. termine whether they meet the level of the
"weighted service volumes" may have some neighboring highway. Where, however, any
utility for specialized purposes. signal or other point restriction is significant,
Wherever overall analysis does appear an approximate length should be assigned
feasible, a "weighted level of service" can be based on the apparent influence distance. In
developed. This follows the same general the case of point or short-distance lateral
steps as described in Chapter Nine for free- clearance restrictions, such as narrow
ways. Where feasible, weighted average bridges, in the absence of more specific
operating speeds and v/c ratios are de- knowledge. an influence distance equivalent
veloped for the section, from those for the to 5 sec travel time plus the actual length of
component subsections, with weighting pro- the restriction can be assumed. For instance,
portional to subsection length. These are a narrow bridge on a highway with a 50-mph
then compared with limiting values in Ta- operating speed would have an advance in-
ble 10.1 (or Fig. 10.1). and a further check fluence distance of 50 x 1.467 x 5 = 367 ft.
is made, using the most critical v/c ratio, to Where feasible, it is acceptable to develop
make sure that capacity is not exceeded at an overall weighted level of service for a
any point. Where v/c ratios and operating multilane section containing subsections of
speeds are not conveniently available, the differing numbers of lanes: each such subsec-
graphical method described in Chapter Nine tion must have a minimum of four lanes
will be more suitable. (two in each direction). The sample weight-
In the case of signalized intersections and ing problems shown in Example 9.8 are
other "point" restrictions, no length is avail- equally representative of the ordinary multi-
able for use in weighting. In the rural case, lane case.
Typical Problem Solutions—Ordinary Multi- where:

lane Highways
N = 2.
EXAMPLE 10.1 v/c= 0.20, working value from
Table 10.1 for level B, AHS=
Problem: 60 mph.
Given: W, as before=0,88.
Rural 4-lane highway, undivided and TL, as before =0.83.
without access control. SV II = 2,000 x 2 x 0.20 x 0.88 x 0.83
10-ft lanes. =585 vph, total for one direction.
2-ft shoulders on right; lateral ob- Operating speed requirement met
structions 2 ft from edge of by using working v/c value.
shoulder.
Overall long section, in rolling ter- EXAMPLE 10.2
rain.
Alinement provides 60-mph average Problem:
highway speed. Given:
7% trucks. Rural 4-1ane highway, undivided and
Negligible intercity buses. withoutaccess control.
Major intersections are infrequent 11-ft lanes.
and speeds over 45 mph are possi- No shoulders; obstructions located at
ble at low volumes. pavement edge.
Individual grade, 6%, 1 mile long.
Alinement provides 50-mph AHS.
7% trucks.
3% intercity buses.
Demand volume=2,100 vph, in up-
grade direction.
Determine: Service volumes for levels B

and E (capacity).
Solution:
(Note: Procedure is similar to that fo,-
freeways, the main difference usually '
being application of more restrictive
adjustment factors to correct for con-
ditions less nearly ideal.)
Capacity: Determine: Level of service being
c=2,000 N W T provided on this upgrade.
where: Solution:
N=2. Inspection of Table 10.1, given ordi-
W, from Table 10.2 for 10-ft lanes nary 4-lane highway on heavy grade,
with 4-ft clearance, one side= indicates that operation probably is
0.88. in level D or poorer.
T0, from Table 10.3b for 7% Assume level D for use in selecting ad-
trucks in rolling terrain=0.83. justments dependent upon a known
c=2,000 x 2 x 0.88 x 0.83=2,920 level.
vph, total for one direction. On this heavy grade, buses should be
considered separately, using bus ad-
Service Volume B: justment factor, BL.
SVu =2,000N(v/c) WTL Base volume= 2,000 N W T L BL
where: Base volume = 2,000 x 2 x 0.85 x 0.52 x

N=2. 0.92= 1,627 vph.
W, from Table 10.2 for 11-ft lanes v/c ratio= 2,100/ 1,627 = 1.29.
with 0-ft clearance, one side= That is, the highway would be over-
0.85. loaded; it could not operate at level D.
TL : From Table 10.4, for level D, A computation assuming level E would
given 7% trucks on 6%,
1-mi grade, E9 = 14. make no change, because all factors
From Table 10.6, for E= 14 used for level D would be the same at
and P=7, TL=0.52; E; overloading would remain.
B,: From Table 10.5, for level D, Hence, level of service is F.
given 3% buses on 6%, Correction would involve provision
I-mi grade, EB =4. of a climbing lane for the heavy truck
From Table 10.6, for E1 =4 volume.
and P,=3, B1 =0.92.
TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
At least two lanes for traffic movement, Although the great majority of 2-lane
one in each direction, represent the minimum highways do not have control of access,
highway installation normally provided. The 2-lane highways with access control are by
decision to provide a 2-lane highway many no means rare. Operationally they are not
times is not justified on demand and capacity greatly different from uncontrolled highways,
requirements alone, therefore, but on mini- except for freedom from the adverse effects
mum level of service requirements which of roadside development, because passing
justify at least one travel lane, in each direc- and associated potential head-on conflicts
tion for safety, convenience, and tolerable remain. In this manual, therefore, no sepa-
operating conditions. In terms of mileage, rate criteria are presented; such sections are
2-lane highways constitute a majority of the considered as equivalent to high-type 2-lane
rural main highway system. roads withou:t access control.
Two basic characteristics differentiate On high-type 2-lane rural highways having
traffic operations on 2-lane highways from uninterrupted flow, the adverse effect of in-
multilane facilities. First, distribution of creasing volume on operating speeds is
traffic by direction has practically no effect significant even at low volumes and even
on operating conditions, at any given total though ample passing sight distance may be
volume level. Therefore, the capacity and available throughout the roadway section.
service volumes of 2-lane highways are ex- On 2-lane highways of lower design stan-
pressed in total vehicles per hour, regardless dards, this effect is less pronounced, but only
of the distribution of traffic by direction. because the poorer designs do not permit
Second, overtaking and passing maneuvers high speeds even at low volumes.
must be made in the traffic lane normally In Chapter Three, typical speed distribu-
occupied by opposing traffic. Inasmuch as
lions for 2-lane roads are shown in Fig-
the maintenance of a desired speed requires
ure 3.25. Also, typical speed-volume rela-
passing maneuvers, the. volume of traffic plus
the highway geometries, which establish tionships for a range of types of 2-lane roads,
available passing sight distance, have a much with differing average highway speeds and
more significant effect on operating speeds typical related passing sight distance con-
than is the case on multilane roads. There- ditions, but otherwise ideal conditions, are
fore, whenever service volumes are con- shown in Figures 3.37 and 3.40. Those
sidered for 2-lane roads the corresponding curyes, like the criteria in this section, are
range in available passing sight distance based on curves developed in the mid-
(1,500 ft or greater) must also be con- 1950's (2), but have been modified to re-
sidered. flect the current higher speeds of even the
can be made with little or no delay, the main

deterrent, of course, being vehicles traveling
in the opposite direction.
Level of service B marks the beginning of
stable flow. At the maximum volume limit of
this level most of the drivers must govern
their speeds according to volume conditions.
In terms of passing maneuvers, the average
driver may wish to increase the number of
passings, but cannot do so due to increased
traffic densities. Therefore, most drivers are
allected by other vehicles in the traffic
stream, although this effect is not yet un-
reasonable. Operating speeds are 50 mph or
above, and volumes may reach 45 percent
of capacity with continuous passing sight
distance. Volumes of 900 passenger cars per
hour, total for both directions, are carried
under ideal conditions.
Further increases in volume have a direct
effect on operating speeds, independent of
highway alinement features. In the limit of
level of service C, still stable flow, operating
speeds for uninterrupted flow on all 2-lane
Wjnd,n' 2-lane rural road nit/i sleep grades and highways are 40 mph or above, with total
carrying sigiufuant track volume has volume for both directions reaching 70 per-
greatly restricted capaztv. cent of capacity with continuous passing
sight distance, or 1.400 passenger cars per
hour, under ideal conditions.
slowest vehicles, made evident by speed Unstable flow is approached as operating
trends studies of recent years (3). It should speeds fall to 35 mph. Volumes carried, total
be noted that, unlike the straight-line speed- for both directions, may reach 85 percent of
volume relationships for freeways and multi- capacity with continuous passing sight dis-
lane highways. 2-lane operating speed-vol- tance. or 1.700 passenger cars per hour,
time relationships take a somewhat wavy under ideal conditions. This represents the
form. limiting conditions for level of service D. or
the highest volume that can be maintained
for short periods of time without a high
LEVELS OF SERVICE probability of breakdown in flow.
At level of service E, or capacity, actual
Two-lane highway geonletrics primarily
operating speeds will usually be in the neigh-
affect operating speeds during the free flow
horhood of 30 mph, but may vary con-
representative of level of service A. their
effects becoming less significant by the time siderably. Volumes, total for both directions.
the maximum volume in this level is reached. under ideal conditions, will be 2,000 passen-
Average speeds are most influenced by speed ger cars per hour. Again, as with other high-
limits in this level also. Within level A, way types. level F represents forced, con-
operating speeds must be 60 mph or higher. gested flow with relatively unpredictable
If passing sight distance is always available characteristics. Operating speeds are less
volumes may reach 30 percent of capacity. than 30 mph, and volumes are under 2,000
Under ideal conditions a service volume of passenger cars total for both directions. Fre-
400 passenger cars per hour, total for both quently, level E is never attained as volume
directions, may be achieved. Approximately builds up; instead, a transition into level F
75 percent of the desired passing maneuvers occurs directly from level D.
The effect of restricted passing sight dis- Trucks, Buses, and Grades
tance' can be considered in two ways'. A
highway' with restricted passing provides The effect of trucks, buses, and grades on
lower operating speeds at the same volume 2-lane highways has been discussed in detail
than one with unrestricted passing. Con- in Chapter Five. As on multilane highways,
versely, maintaining a comparable operating trucks and buses have an influence which
speed when passing is restricted requires must be considered, even in the case of level
lower service volumes. ,The latter concept terrain. However, the influence becomes
is used for 2-lane highways, inasmuch as much greater on grades. It is pointed out in
level of service is expressed consistently Chapter Five that most typical grades influ-
throughout this manual mainly in terms of ence operations only when trucks (and some-
operating speed as the governing control, times interci.ty buses) are present, and also
with the volume limitation as a supple- states that' the effect varies with the length
and steepness of the grade as well as the level
mentary control. At any given level of ser
of service under consideration. It further
vice limit, operating speeds are equal. The
indicates that the average effect of trucks and
effect of passing sight distance restrictions is buses over a highway section of substantial'
to lower the service volume at that given length differs from that on most individual
level of service. Restricted alinement grades.
(lower than, ideal average highway speed) Table 10.9a gives average generalized
also produces this same effect, while also passenger car equivalents of trucks over ex-
restricting or totally eliminating the ability tended lengths of 2-lane highways, for vari-
to attain the higher levels of service. ous terrain conditions and levels of service.
Table 10.7. gives the scale of operating Although bus volumes seldom warrant sepa-
characteristics established for the various rate consideration, separate equivalents 'for
levels of service on 2-lane highways and buses are also given for use where such
summarizes general level of service criteria volumes are significant.
during uninterrupted flow conditions. In- Table 10.9b gives general overall adjust-
cluded, in addition to operating speeds and ment factors for conversion of mixed de-
basic volume/capacity ratios for ideal aline- mand volumes of trucks and passenger cars
ment, are approximate measures of the in- over extended lengths of 2-lane highway into
fluence of passing sight distance, expressed equivalent passenger vehicles per hour, based
as a percentage of the total section that is on these overall passenger car equivalents.
adequate (greater than 1,500 ft), and of These can be used in overall analyses of the
average highway speeds, on working v/c capabilities of substantial lengths of 2-lane
highways, which include downgrades and
ratios.
level portions, as well is upgrades. Where
separate consideration of buses appears
CRITICAL ELEMENTS REQUIRING necessary, Table 10.9b is not appropriate.
CONSIDERATION Rather, the equivalents for buses given in
Table 10.9a should be used in conjunction
Lane Width and Lateral Clearance with Table 10.12 to obtain separate adjust-
ment factors.
In the case of 2-lane highways, current Where the need is to determine the influ-
design standards vary considerably. Certain ence of trucks and buses on specific individ-
modern 2-lane roads, intended for only low ual upgrades, the process ismore selective.
volumes, may have lane widths of only 10 ft, From criteria described in Chapter Five,
rather than the 12-ft ideal value. Some older Table 10.10 has been prepared, to present
highways may have only 9-ft lanes, together detailed passenger car equivalency factors
with restricted lateral clearances. Table 10.8 for trucks at capacity and the several levels
gives adjustment factors reflecting the com- of service, on two-lane highways where no
bined adverse influence of restricted lane climbing lane is provided. Table 10.11
width and lateral clearance on 2-lane high- similarly presents passenger car equivalency
ways. factors for intercity buses, for use in those
TABLE 10.7-LEVELS OF SERVICE AND MAXIMUM SERVICE VOLUMES ON TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS UNDER UNINTERRUPTED
FLOW CONDITIONS
(NORMALLY REPRESENTATIVE OF RURAL OPERATION)
TRAFFIC FLOW CONDITIONS SERVICE VOLUME/CAPACITY (v/c) RATIO MAXIMUM SERVICE

VOLUME UNDER
IDEAL CONDITIONS,
LEVEL PASSING SIGHT BASIC WORKING VALUE FOR RESTRICTED INCLUDING
OF OPERATING DISTANCE LIMITING AVERAGE HIGHWAY SPEEDb OF 70-MPH AHS
SERVICE DESCRIPTION SPEEDS >1,500 FT VALUE FOR (PASSENGER CARS,
• (MPH) (%) AHS OF TOTAL, BOTH
70 60 50 45 40 35 DIRECTIONS,
MPH MPH MPH MPH MPH MPH PER HOUR)
A Free flow 560 100 0.20 - - - - - 400

80 0.18 - - - - -
60 0.15 - - - - -
40 0.12 - - - - -,
20 0.08 - - - - -
0 0.04 - - - - -
< <
B Stable flow 550 100 _0.45 0.40 - - - - 900
(upper speed range)
• 80 0.42 0.35 - - - -
60 0.38 0.30 - - - -
40i 0.34 0.24 - - -
20 0.30 0.18 - - - -
0 0.24 0.12 - - - -
C Stable flow • 540 100 0.70 0.66 0.56 0.51 - • - 1400
80 0.68 0.61 0.53 0.46 - -
60 0.65 0.56, 0.47 0:41. - -
• 40 0.62 0.51 0.38. 0.32 - -
20 0.59 0.45 0.28 0.22 - -
• 0 • 0.54 038 0.18 0.12 - -
D Approaching 535 100 0.85 0.83 0.75 0.67 0.58 - 1700
unstable flow 80 0.84 0.81 0.72 0.62 0.55 -
60 0.83 0.79 0.69 0.57 0. 51 -
40 0.82 0.76 0.66 0.52 0.45 -
20 0.81 0.71 0.61 0.44 0.35 -
• 0 0.80 0.66 0.51 0.30 0.19 -
Ec Unstable flow 30l Not applicablee 1.00 2000
F Forced flow <30" Not applicablee Not Meaningfult Widely variable

(0 to capacity)
Operating speed and basic v/c ratio are independent measures of level of service; both limits must be satisfied in any determination of level.
I. Where no entry appears, operaling speed required for this level is unattainable even at low volumes.
Capacity.
Approximately.
No passing.
Demand volume/capacity ratio may well exceed 1.00, indicating overloading.
TABLE 10.8-COMBINED EFFECT OF LANE WIDTH AND RESTRICTED LATERAL CLEARANCE ON CAPACITY AND SERVICE VOLUMES OF
TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS WITH UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
ADJUSTMENT FACTORS WL AND W FOR LATERAL CLEARANCE AND LANE WIDTH'
OBSTRUCTION ON ONE SIDE ONLYb OBSTRUCTIONS ON BOTH SIDESt'

DISTANCE FROM
TRAFFIC LANE EDGE
TO OBSTRUCTION 12-i'r 11-n 10-FT • 9-yr 12-FT 11-FT 10-FT 9-FT
(FT) LANES LANES LANES LANES LANES LANES LANES LANES
LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL
B Ec B Ec B Ec B E° B Ex B Ec B E° B
6 1.00 1.00 0.86 0.88 0.77 0.81 0.70 0.76 1.00 1.00 0.86 0.88 0.77 0.81 0.70 0.76
4 0.96 0.97 0.83 0.85 0.74 0.79 0.68 0.74 0.92 0.94 0.79 0.83 0.71 0.76 0.65 0.71
2 0.91 -- 0.93 0.78 0.81 0.70 0.75 0.64 0.70 • - 0L,.0.85-. 0.70 0.75 0.63 0.69 0.57 0.65
0 085 0.88 0.73 0.77 0.66 0.71 0.60 0.66 0.70 0.76 0.60 0.67 0.54 0.62 0.49 0.58
Adjustment W, given for level E, capacity, and Wi. for level B; interpolale for olhers.
Includes allowance for opposing IraffIc.
Capacity.

TRUCKS AND BUSES ON TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS, OVER EXTENDED
SECTION LENGTHS
(INCLUDING UPGRADES, DOWNGRADES, AND LEVEL SUBSECTIONS)
EQUIVALENT, FOR:
EQUIVALENT LEVEL OF SERVICE

ET, for trucks A 3 4 7
BandC 2.5 5 10
DandE 2 5 12
EB, for buses All levels 2 4 6
TABLE 10.9b-AVERAGE GENERALIZED ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR TRUCKSb

ON TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS, OVER EXTENDED SECTION LENGTHS
TRUCK ADJUSTMENT FACTOR, T
PERCENTAGE I LEVEL TERRAIN ROLLING TERRAIN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN

OF TRUCKS, PT I -
LEVEL OF LEVELS OF LEVELS OF LEVEL OF LEVELS OF LEVELS OF1 LEVEL OF ILEVELS OF LEVELS OF
SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE I SERVICE
A B AND C D AND E° A B AND C D AND EC A B AND C 10 AND E°
1 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90

2 _0.9 0.97 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.82
3 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.89 0.85 0:79 0.75
4 0.93 0.95 0.96 0.89 0.86 0.86 0.81 0.74 0.69
5 0.91 0.93 O9 0.87 0.83 0.83 0.77 0.69 0.65
6 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.85 0.81 0.81 0.74 0.65 0.60
7 0.88 0.91 0.2_ 0.83 0.78 0.78 0.70 0.61 0.57
8 0.86 0.90 0.93 0.81 0.76 0.76 0.68 0.58 0.53
9 0.85 0.89 - 0.92 0.79 0.74 0.74 0.65 0.55 0.50
10 00.87 ThTF 0.77 0.71' 0.71 0.63 0.53 0.48
12 0.81 0.85 0.89 0.74 0.68 0.68. 0.58 0.48 0.43
14 0.78 0.83 0.88 0.70 0.64 0.64 0.54 0.44 0.39
16 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.68 0.61 0.61 0.51 0.41 0.36
18 0.74 0.80 '0.85 0:65 0.58 0.58 0.48 0.38 0.34
20 0.71 0.77 0.83 0.63 0.56 0.56 0.45 0.36 0.31
Table 10.12.
Capacity.
TABLE .10.10-PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF TRU(KS ON TWO-LANE

HIGHWAYS, ON SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL' SUBSECTIONS OR GRADES
PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT, Er

LENGTH OF (FoR ALL PERCENTAGES OF TRUCKS)
GRADE GRADE
(%) . . (xi)
LEVELS OF SERVICE LEVEL OF SERVICE LEVELS OF SERVICE
A AND B C D AND E (CAPACITY)
0-2 All .2 . 2 . 2,
3 , 3/ 5. . 3 2
34 10 10 ' 7
3% 14 , 16 14
1 17 21 20
1 3/2 19 25 . 26
2 '21 27 29
3 22 ' 29 31
4 23 31 , ' 32
4 3% 7 6 3
34 16 20 ' 20
3% 22 30 32'
1 26 35 39
134 28 39 44
2 30 42 ' . 47
3 ' 31 44 50
4 ' '32' 46 . ' 52,
5 1% 10 10 . 7
34 .24 33 ' 37
3% 29 . , 42 . 47
I '' 33 47 . . 54..
134 35 51 59
2 37 54 63
.3 ' 39 56 66
4 . . 40 57 68
6 34 .14 ' 17 16
34 33 47 54
3% 39 56 , , .65
1 41 59 70
134 44 . 62 75
2 46 65 80
3 48 68 ' 84
4 , 50 ' ' 71 ' 87.
7 3%' 24 32 ' , 35
34 . . 44 63 . .75
3% 50 71 84
1 53 74 ' , 90
134 ' , 56 79 95
2 58 ' 82' ' 100
3 ' 60 85 104
'4' ' '62 87 ' 108
TABLE 10:11—PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS OF INTERCITY BUSES ON

TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS, ON SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL SUBSECTIONS
OR GRADES
PASSENGER CAR EQLJIVALENTb, E8

GRADE°
(%)
LEVELS OF SERVICE LEVEL OF SERVICE LEVELS OF SERVICE
A AND B C D AND E (CAPACITY)
0-4 2 2 2
5° 0 4 3 2
6° 7 6 4
7° 12 12 10
° All lengths.
For all percentages of buses.
Use generally restricted to grades over 34 mile long.
few cases where bus volumes are heavy The following generalizations may be
and/or grades are heavy made:
In practice, the values from these tables I. On flat grades, the effect of trucks in
normally are not used directly in computa- upgrade and downgrade flows can be taken
tions, but are used to enter Table 10.12, as the same without appreciable error, al-
which provides truck factors that consider though the adverse effect on downgrades is
both the passenger car equivalent and the probably actually less.
percentage of trucks in the traffic stream. On individual heavy downgrades,
The procedures are described later in this where trucks must descend in a low gear for
section. safety, there is increasing feeling that trucks
As described in Chapter Five, these truck produce nearly as great an adverse effect as
procedures and adjustments assume "average on an equivalent upgrade.
trucks." Where such an assumption is not
Where the demand volume is reported
valid, special analyses making use of data in
separately for each direction of flow, but
Chapter Five may be necessary to obtain a
only an overall percentage of trucks is given,
passenger. car equivalency factor from Fig-
it can be assumed that the percentage applies
ure 5.6 for use in entering Table 10.12.
to both directions individually as well.
Downgrades are of special significance in
the case of 2-lane highways, because they are Therefore, it can be concluded that only
so closely interrelated with upgrades. An on intermediate grades of about 2 to 4 per-
upgrade for one direction of flow is, of cent, or at locations where the percentage of
course, a downgrade for the other direction. trucks in the two directions differs widely, is
Because capacities and service volumes can a significant error possibly introduced into
be quoted only as total volumes for both the computations if a single truck factor is
directions, the effects of the opposing down- applied.
grade are necessarily included in any con- Where local observations indicate that
sideration of a particular upgrade. However, such an error would be introduced, and
the specific, nature of these effects has not available data (particularly average truck
yet beçn established, speeds downgrade) permit .retlnement, sepa-
HIGHWAYS WiTHOUT ACCESS CONTROL 307
TABLE 10.12-ADJUSTMENT FACTORS' FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON

INDIVIDUAL ROADWAY SUBSECTIONS OR GRADES ON
TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
(INCORPORATING PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENT AND PERCENTAGE OF
TRUCKS OR BUSES)"
PASSEN- TRUCK ADJUSTMENT FACTOR 7', OR TL (B, OR BL FOR BUSES)d
(iIK
CAR
EQUIVA- PERCENTAGE OF TRUCKS, Pr (OR OF BUSES, F8) OF:
LENT,
Er OR
20
EB' 1 2 3 1 4 1 5 6 1 7 1 8 9 10 12 14 16 18
2 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83
3 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
4 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63
5 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56
6 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50
7 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
16 0.87 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.25
17 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24
18 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.54 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23
19 0.85 0.74 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22
20 0.84 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.51 0.47 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.21
22 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19
24 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.18
26 0.80 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17
28 0.79 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16
0.15
30 . 0.78 0.63 0.53 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.13
35 0.75 0.60 0.49 0.42 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.14
40 0.72 0.56 0.46 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11
45 0.69 0.53 0.43 0.36 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10
50 0.67 0.51 0.40 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09
55 0.65 0.48 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08
60 0.63 0.46 0.36 0.30 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.10 0:09 0.08
65 0.61 0.44 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07
70 0.59 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07
75 0.57 0.40 0.31 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06
80 0.56 0.39 0.30 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.06
90 0.53 0.36 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05
100 0.50 0.34 0.25 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05
as presented in Chapter Five. Use this formula for

Computed by 1007000 - Pr + ErPr), or 100/(100 - P8 + E8P8),
larger percentages.
From Table 10.10 or Table 10.11.
Trucks and buses should not be combined in entering this table where separate consideration of buses has been established
as required, because passenger car equivalents differ.
rate truck factors can be introduced into the materially affect the better levels of service
computation for the two directions of flow. on rural 2-lane roads, because relatively few
When this is done it is important that both cars are stopped and the intersection capac-
truck volume percentages used be of the ity, as computed by the methods of Chapter
total flow, not of the separate directional Six, greatly exceeds the service volumes asso-
flows. Reference to the procedures in Chap- ciàted with these better levels. Where vol-
ter Five will here be necessary to develop a umes are greater, or intersections are located
passenger car. equivalent for the downgrade close together, the effect may become
flow, based on average downgrade speeds. significant.
Example 10.5 includes a demonstration of Noncontrol of access and roadside de-
this procedure. velopment are significant interferences on
2-lane roads. Although some controlled-
Ramp Entrances and Exits
access 2-lane highways have been con-
Many, diamond •interchange ramps and structed, roadside frictions are present along
cross connections have entrance or exit almost all 2-lane roads. Their effects, al-
terminals on a 2-lane, noncontrolled-access though similar to those prevously described
roadway, the junction forming either a 90° for multilane highways, are likely to be more
angle or at least an appreciable angle. Such serious on 2-lane facilities because the road-
ramp terminals, often signalized, will per- side lanes, typically most influenced by
form the same as a normal street intersec- turbulence, are the only lanes.
tion. Therefore, such ramp entrances and Where interruptions and interferences are
exits should be analyzed as. simple street present, but are not restrictive enough to
intersections in accordance with the pro- result in signalized intersections closer than
cedures established in Chapter Six. 1 mile apart, or in speed limits or attainable
Occasional cloverleaf or direct connection speeds between interruptions below 35 mph,
ramps, however, may connect to 2-lane the procedures described here for uninter-
highways at "flat" angles. Such junctions rupted flow are considered appropriate in
should be analyzed by the methods in Chap- the typical case. Where these limits are not
ter Eight, with consideration given to the fact met, the highway normally should be
that, because by-lane capacities cannot be analyzed as an urban arterial street, as de-
quoted for 2-lane roads, assumptions regard- scribed later. Again, as with multilane high-
ing traffic distribution between directions ways, there are exceptions to this general
will be necessary. rule where judgment must be used to deter-
mine the significance to the average driver of
A linement the interruptions present in the particular
On 2-lane highways the adverse effects of case.
alinement may be substantial, because many One important point should be noted,
such existing highways, and even some new however. On 2-lane highways interruptions
designs, involve rather low standards. As due to momentary stops, stalling, vehicular
before, this effect is reflected in the average breakdowns, accidents, and the like, may
highway speed. For 2-lane highways, this well have a much greater effect on opera-
effect has been studied in some detail. The tions than would similar incidents on multi-
influence on operating speeds and volumes lane facilities, because the chance of com-
carried is incorporated directly into the complete blockage of one or both directions of
putational criteria. flow is much greater. The average overall
effect of the more common of such impedi-
Traffic Interruptions and Interferences
ments, most of which are of brief duration
Just as is the case with multilane high- and occur daily, is reflected in the level of
ways, fixed traffic interruptions have an service data that have been presented. The
adverse effect on 2-lane highway operation, consequences of a complete blockage should
and must be considered if present to an be considered seriously, however, in weigh-
appreciable extent. As before, an occasional ing the advantages of a 2-lane versus a 4-lane
signalized intersection at grade will not design under borderline conditions,
HIGHWAYS WITHOUT ACCESS CONTROL
COMPUTATION PROCEDURES FOR to chart; it may fall as low as about 25 mph

TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS under the poorest alinement conditions.
Procedures for determination of capacity
The generalized procedures described in
and service volumes for 2-lane highways, for
Chapter Four are fully as applicable to
establishment of level of service provided,
2-lane as to multilane highways. Because of
and for related determinations, are similar in
the several inherent variables involved in
concept to those for multilane highways.
2-lane highway operation, as well as the
However, those involving levels of service
effect of external influences, the several sub-
are necessarily somewhat more complex, due
sections composing a typical 2-lane highway
to the influence of available passing sight dis-
are likely to have significant variation in
tance and to the increased likelihood of
prevailing conditions. Again, then, pro-
restricted alinement. Also, there are more
cedures are required for determining both
cases of variation between adjustment fac-
the basic capabilities of individual sections
tors for capacity and for levels of service.
and the overall capabilities of their com-
The procedural steps are as follows.
binations into sections of appreciable length.
CAPACITY (TOTAL IN BOTH DIRECTIONS)
Basic Uniform Two-Lane Subsections
UNDER PREVAILING CONDITIONS
As with higher types of highways previ- Determined directly, by the standard
ously described, the service or demand method for all highway types. Here specifi-
volume/capacity ratio remains the basic vol- cally, multiply 2,000 passenger cars total for
ume measure which is related to operating both directions by the several appropriate
speed and equivalent level of service, on two- adjustment factors, including those for lane
lane highways. Because of the influence of width and lateral clearance, shoulders, and
percentage of available passing sight dis- trucks on grades. Consider intercity buses
tance, and of the wide range of possible separately where their volumes are large or
average highway speeds, the fundamental grades are heavy. Where adjustment factors
Table 10.7 is more complex than the similar differ for capacity and for service volumes,
tables for higher types of highways. Here, make sure that the capacity adjustment is
therefore, graphical charts are often useful; utilized. (No adjustment for available pass-
however, no single chart can serve as the all- ing sight distance is required because passing
inclusive fundamental base for computa-
is not feasible at capacity.)
tions. Instead, a series of charts is necessary,
relating the service or demand volume/ c=2,000 W. T
capacity ratio to operating speed for a in which
variety of highway types, as presented in c= capacity (mixed vehicles per hour,
Figures 10.2a through 10.2f. total in both directions);
Each of the charts represents a specific W = adjustment for lane width and lateral
average highway speed, and includes clearance at capacity, from Table
coverage of the full range of percentages of 10.8 (shoulder adjustment may be
available passing sight distance. Thus, necessary, see Chapter Five); and
average highway speed is the control used in T0= truck factor at capacity, from Ta-
selection of the proper chart for a specific ble 10.9b for overall highway sec-
problem. tions, or Table 10.12 for specific in-
The basic values of both the v/c •ratio dividual grades (intercity bus factor,
and the operating speed which establish the BL, may be applied, see text).
limits of the several levels of service are
shown in Figure 10.2a, which includes the SERVICE VOLUMES (TOTAL IN BOTH
DIRECTIONS)
curve of ideal conditions. On the remaining
charts only the operating speed values are Again, as with higher types of highways,
shown, inasmuch as they control. It should several different procedures are available for
be noted that the value shown for the ap- use in determining the .service volume for a
proximate limit of level E varies from chart given level of service; selection of the ap-,
3/0
J :IIASIC 01 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.9 .0
I DEPENDENT I v/c RATIO
LEVEL
OF R B B C 0
ERVICE
RANGES
Figure 10.2a. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
travel, on two-lane rural highways with average highway speed of 70 mph, under uninterrupted
flow conditions.
T 7 °
6O
so
—40
APPROX. E
U,
z
I-. 20
0.
10
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
CONTROLLING°
LEVEL V/C RATIO
OF
SERVICE
RANGES
Figure 10.2b. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
flow conditions.
1uu•••••uu•iiu•uuuiu•
u•u•u•u••••u•••uui•u
A PP RI
IMMMMMMMMMMMMEMMMMME
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
êCONTROLLINO°
MMUMMUMMMEMMEMMEMEMM
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 .0
LEVEL V/C RATIO
I OF
SERVICE
RANGES
Figure I0.2c. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
travel, on two-lane rural high ways with average highway speed of 50 mph, under uninterrupted
flow conditions.
1CONTROLLINGO 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 A7 0.8 0.9 1.0
LEVEL v/C RATIO
OF
SERVICE
RANGES
Figure 10.2d. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
flow conditions.
I ..
E -
APPROG. - -
-
20
—
IC -
- ----- --
O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.0
CONTROLLING
LEVEL V/C RATIO
OF
SERVICE
RANGES
Figure 10.2e. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
travel, on two-lane rural highways with average high way speed of 40 mph, under uninterrupted
__ flow conditions.
f GsoO
- d4C --. - - --
0 IA
2C-- 77
APP000. - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
1
---.----------- 1
-.,
F -- - - - --
IC - ----. - - - - - -
O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 . 0.5 0.6 07 0.9 0.9 1.0

ICONTROILING
LEVEL V/C RATIO
OF
SERVICE
RANGES
Figure 10.2/. Relationships between v/c ratio and operating speed, overall for both directions of
flow conditions,
propriate method depends on the particular SV=MSV W L T L

data already at hand. No matter which in which MSV is the maximum service vol-
method is employed, it is important to ume, in passenger cars per hour, from
check the result by means of Figure 10.2 to Table 10.7, and SV, WL and T L are as
confirm that both the volume and operating before.
speed criteria for the desired level of service Confirm attainment of the desired level of
are met, with due consideration for the service, by checking the resulting operating
average highway speed involved. speed from the appropriate chart in Fig-
Computed Directly from Capacity Under ure 10.2 for the given average highway
Ideal Conditions.—Follow the same pro speed.
cedure as for capacity under ideal condi- CAUTION: Use of this method is not
tions, with two exceptions; namely, (1) appropriate where restricted average high-
utilize the adjustments for the appropriate way speeds or restricted passing sight dis-
level of service, where different from those tances exist, because it does not make use of
for capacity, and (2) apply the appropriate the v/c ratio in which the influence of these
v/c ratio for the level of service desired, restrictions is incorporated.
the designated percentage of available pass-
ing sight distance, and (for typical practical Computed from Capacity Under Prevail-
problems) the specified average highway ing Conditions—Multiply the capacity ob-
speed. tained under prevailing conditions by the
appropriate v/c ratio obtained from Ta-
SV= 2,000 (v/c) W L T L
ble 10.7 for the level of service desired, the
in which appropriate percentage of available passing
SV= service volume (mixed vehicles per sight distance, and (for practical applica-
hour, total for both directions); tions) the appropriate average highway
v/c= volume to capacity ratio, obtained speed. Also, convert adjustment factors for
from Table 10.7 (or Fig. 10.2); lane width and lateral clearance and for
trucks, both of which are different for levels
WL= adjustment for lane width and
lateral clearance at given level of of service than for capacity.
service from Table 10.8 (shoulder SV=c (v/c) (WjW0 ) ( T L/TC )
adjustment may be necessary, see in which c is the capacity (mixed vehicles
Chapter Five); and per hour, total in both directions) as com-
T,=truck factor at given level of ser- puted for the prevailing conditions, and the
vice, from Table 10.9b for overall other variables are as before.
highway sections, or Table 10.12 Confirm attainment of the desired level of
for specific individual grades (inter- service by checking the resulting operating
city buses may have to be con- speed from the appropriate chart in Fig-
sidered separately, see text). ure 10.2 for the given average highway
Confirm attainment of the desired level speed.
of service by checking the resulting operating
speed from the appropriate chart in Fig- Determined from Level of Service Limits.
ure 10.2 for the given average highway —In the design of a new 2-lane highway,
speed, to make sure that the level of service where a specific level of service has been
requirement has been met. established in advance, service volumes in
Computed from Maximum Service Vol- passenger cars per hour can be read directly
ume for Ideal Conditions.—(Suitable only from Table 10.7, provided the design is high-
where alinement is ideal; that is, 70-mph type, with near-ideal prevailing conditions.
average highway speed and 100 percent pass- More often than not, however, the design is
ing sight distance.) The procedure is identi- less than ideal. Where average highway
cal to the preceding except that the "maxi- speed, percentage of available passing sight.
mum service volume" for the level ofservice distance, or other conditions are less than
desired (from Table 10.7) is used in place ideal, Table 10.7 can be used to determine
of the basic value adjusted by a v/c ratio. the limiting v/c ratio. From the controlling
ratio, the service volume can be determined Recompute, using the revised choice
once the capacity is computed. (The appro- of clearance and truck factors, based on a
priate chart in Fig. 10.2 can also be used.) different assumed level of service, if the
If a proposed design is already under con- initial assumption proves incorrect.
sideration, the. v/c ratio obtained can be
compared with..that for the proposed design, Combined Analysis of Subsections Com-
to determine whether or not the design is posing Two-Lane Highway Sections
adequate. As with the previously described highway
types, if a relatively long section of highway
LEVEL OF SERVICE is being examined there will undoubtedly be
Determination of the level of service pro- variations in geometrics and other conditions
vided by any 2-lane highway section with within the section.. Therefore, it may be
uninterrupted flow, when accommodating a desirable to establish weighted average over-
given demand volume, can be done approxi- all levels of service. The procedures de-
mately by use of Table 10.7. However, a scribed previously for ordinary multilane
refined determination again involves "trial- highways remain generally applicable to
and-error" procedures, as described earlier 2-lane highways as well, with the obvious
for higher types. Here, both the lane width exception that Table 10.7 and the charts in
and lateral clearance correction and the Figure 10.2 should be used rather •than
truck factor are dependent on the unknown, Table 10.1 and Figure 10.1, as there dis-
level of service. cussed.
In this connection, one important caution
The steps are as follows:
is necessary. An overall level of service can-
Establish a "base volume" for level of not easily be developed numerically for a
service determination, through the same pro- highway section composed partly of 2-lane
cedure as described under "Service Volume and partly of.4-lane subsections, because of
—Computed Directly from Capacity Under the differing scales involved. Where nu-
Ideal Conditions," except that no v/c ratio merical weighted averages are being devel-
is applied. oped, therefore, each should be reported.
separately. Where the graphical method is
Base volume=2,000 WL TL
used, an approximate overall level can be
Divide the given demand volume by determined. Three-lane sections, to be dis-
the "base volume" thus computed to obtain cussed briefly next, can be combined with
the approximate v/c ratio. (Conversion of 2-lane sections for such purposes. -
demand volume to equivalent passenger cars
is not necessary, because Step (a) has con- Typical Problem Solutions—Two-Lane
verted the base .to mixed traffic. ) Highways
Establish the percentage of available
EXAMPLE 10.3
passing sight distance greater than 1,500 ft,
and .the average highway speed. Problem:
Reinspect Table 10.7 (or the appro- Given:
priate chart in Fig. 10.2), if the operating Rural 2-lane limited-access highway.
speed was known in advance, to establish 12-ft lanes.
the level of service from the controlling 10-ft shoulders.
factor, operating speed or basic v/c ratio. Overall long section, in level terrain.
If the operating speed was not known, Ideal alinement; AHS=70 mph.
enter the appropriate chart in Figure 10.2 100% passing sight distance.
for the given average highway speed, com- 5% trucks.
1 % intercity buses.
puted v/c ratio, and the known percentage
of passing sight distance, and read the result-
ing operating speed. Establish the level of I0•
service from the controlling factor, operating 24
speed or basic v/c ratio, 10'

HIGHWAYS WiTHOUT ACCESS CONTROL 315
Determine: Service volumes for levels Solution:

B and E (capacity). Capacity:
Solution: c=2,000 W T B
Capacity:
where:
c=2,000 W T1;
W, from Table 10.8, for 10-ft
where: lanes with 2-ft clearances on one
W, from Table 10.8= 1.00, for side = 0.75.
ideal geometrics. T(.: From Table 10.10, for capac-
T, from Table 10.9b, for 5% ity on 5% grade 11/2 mi
trucks in level terrain=0.95. long, ET =59.
(Buses can be neglected; con- From Table 10.12, for 7%
sider as passenger cars.) trucks and ET =59, T=
c=2,000x 1.00x0.95= 1,900 vph, 0.19.
total for both directions. B(.: (Substantial bus volume on
Service Volume B: heavy grade warrants sepa-
rate consideration.)
S171 =2,000 (v/c) WL T 1 From Table 10.11, for 5%
where: grade, EB=2.
v/c=0.45, from Table 10.7, for From Table 10.12, for 3%
level B with ideal geometrics. buses and EB=2, B= 0.97.
W 1 = 1.00, from Table 10.8. c = 2,000 x 0.75 x 0.19 x. 0.97 =
TL=0.93, from Table 10.9b, for 276 vph.
5% trucks in level terrain. Service Volume C:
SV= 2,000 x 0.45 x 1.00 x 0.93 =
837 vph, total for both directions. SV=2,000 (v/c) W1 TB
Operating speed requirement met, by where:
means of the criteria used. v/c (working value), for AHS=
EXAMPLE 10.4 50 mph and 40% passing sight
distance=0.38.
Problem:
W L, from Table 10.8=0.71 (by
Given: interpolation).
Rural 2-lane highway of low-class T0: From Table lO.lO,ET =Sl.
design. From Table 10.12, Tr=0.23.
10-ft lanes. B: From Table 10.11, EB =3.
No shoulders; obstructions 2 ft from From Table 10.12, B=0.94.
pavement edge on one side; ade- SV. = 2,000 x 0.38 x 0.71 x 0.23 x
quate clearance on other side. 0.94=117 vph.
Individual grade of 5%, 11/2 miles Operating speed requirement is met
long. by use of working v/c value.
Restricted alinement; AHS=50 mph. Note: On this heavy grade, the truck
Passing sight distance=40%. effect is. considered to be the same
7% trucks. in both directions.
3% intercity buses.
EXAMPLE 10.5
Problem:
Given:
Rural 2-lane highway of intermediate
design.
10-ft lanes.
Determine: Service volumes for levels 6-ft paved shoulders; no nearby ob-
C and E (capacity). structions.
NO PASSING I?NPAS
PASSING
BOTH
EITHER DIR No DIREC
700 ONLY io
PASSING
MEASURES
SPEED
D.S.-
so
oio ACTUAL
3,600,
GEOMETRICS P v® - OO
INFLUENC ® '.TRANSITION ©
GEOMETRICS TRANSITION
Individual 3% grade, upgrade EB, Percentage of Passing Sight Dis-

7,700 ft long (1.5 mile), starting tance:
at left end of sketch. For the purposes of this problem,
Alinement as shown in sketch. zones where no passing is possible in
Demand volumes: 300 vph, with either direction, as shown by the passing
/5% trucks, EB; 200 vph, with distance scale above the sketch, are
12% trucks, WB. taken as those portions of the roadway
Negligible buses. in the sketch which have a double solid
Determine: centerline. In actual problems, they
would be established as those portions
Average highway speed.
not having 1,500-ft passing sight dis-
Percentage of passing sight dis-
tance in either direction, regardless of
tance.
markings.
Level of service being provided.
Available 1,500-ft passing sight dis-
Solution: tance, eastbound:
(a) Average Highway Speed:
Subsection 1 None
Use the approximate method de-
Subsection 2 None
scribed in Chapter Five, in which each 3,600— 1,500= 2,100
Subsection 3
curve and related transitions are as- Subsection 4 None
signed an average influence distance of Subsection 5 1,400
800 ft, at the design speed of the curve,
regardless of the actual length and de- 3,500
gree of curvature. The resulting in-
fluence distances are shown in the The available passing sight distance
sketch. in the opposing direction is nearly the
same, as is true in most typical prob-
Sub- Influence Design lems; seldom will it justify separate
section Distance Speed consideration or averaging.
1 1,050 (70)= 73500 Percentage of passing sight dist. =
2 800 (50)= 40,000 3,500/7,700=0.45, or 45%.
3 3,600 (70)=252,000
4 800 (60)= 48,000 Level of Service:
5 1,450 (70)=101,500
Assumption of level must be made
7,700 515,000 before certain adjustment factors can
be selected.
515,000/7,700=67 mph, approx. AHS. Given 500 vehicles with significant
HIGHWAYS WITHOUT ACCESS CONTJWL 317
number of trucks on relatively long Base volume = 2,000 W L

grade, experience with other prob- (TL(Il)) "T(up) + TL( d fl) 'T(du)
lems indicates that service prob-
ably will be in level C or D. As- "T(tOt)
sume factors for level D for use in where:
trial computations. WL, from Table 10.8, for 11-ft
Lanes can be considered as 11 ft equivalent lanes and adequate
wide (from Chapter Five, lanes clearance, at level D=0.87.
narrower than 12 ft can be con-
sidered 1 ft wider if a paved TL(IP): From Table 10.10, for level
D, given 3% trucks on
shoulder 4 ft or more wide is 3% grade 11/2 mi long,
present). ET=26.
Here, an intermediate grade exists,
From Table 10.12, for ET =
as do unbalanced percentages of
26 and 3% trucks, TL=
trucks. Data permit refinement of
procedure to consider upgrade and 0.57.
downgrade effects separately. TL( d I) : From Table 10.12, for ET =
5% of 300= 15 trucks upgrade. 10 and 5% trucks, TL=
12% of 200=24 trucks downgrade. 0.69.
Base volume = 2,000 x 0.87
500
(0.57 x 3+0.69x5\ = 1,122
15/500=3% of total volume; up-
grade trucks. 8 1
24/500=4.85% of total volume; v/c ratio = 500/1,122 = 0.45.
downgrade trucks.
From Table 10.7, for AHS=67 mph
Local observations of downgrade
and 45% passing sight distance, ser-
truck speeds, applied to Chap. Five
procedures, have determined pas- vice is in level C. Assumption of
senger car equivalent E7, of 10 level was incorrect; recompute for
downgrade. level C for final check.
THREE-LANE HIGHWAYS
Three-lane highways are seldom, if ever, Little or no recent research has been con-
designed and built in the United States today, ducted on the subject of 3-lane roads.
due to marginal safety considerations and to Several of the more pertinent conclusions
the fact that they are not a logical step in contained in the original edition of this
stage construction directed ultimately toward manual are, therefore, repeated here; they
a 4-lane divided highway. Nevertheless, are considered to be the most valid available.
some are still in operation. Although this At anypoint on a 3-lane highway, rela-
chapter does not discuss such highways in tively few vehicles travel in the center lane.
detail, this section briefly discusses the capa- The maximum number that can be in the
bilities of 3-lane roads. center lane is about 300 per hour, regardless
Basic operational characteristics of 3-1ane of the total traffic volume, when up to 70.
highways are similar to those of 2-lane roads. percent of the total traffic is traveling in one
For all practical purposes, directional dis- direction.
tribution of traffic is not significant in defin- Although there is a marked drop in
ing operating conditions, although its influ- the average speed of traffic in the outside
ence occasionally can be detected. Hence, lanes with an increase in volume, there is no
again, capacity and service volumes are given drop in the speeds of vehicles in the center
as totals for both:directions. lane.
As long as the hourly traffic volume aging about 40 mph, 2,000 passenger cars
traveling in one direction does not exceed 70 per hour, total for both directions, can be
percent of the total traffic, the center lane carried under ideal conditions, whereas level
will be used by vehicles traveling in both B operating speeds of about 50 mph can be
directions. attained only when volumes do not exceed
The average speed of all vehicles and 1,500 passenger cars per hour, total for both
the capacity of a 3-lane road are slightly directions under ideal conditions.
higher when the traffic is nearly evenly di- Seldom, however, are conditions ideal on
vided than when two-thirds or more travel 3-lane roads. Generally speaking, the ad-
in one direction. justment factors and procedures previously
At places where sight distance is re- described for 2-lane highways should be
stricted, use of the center lane for passing is applied, as appropriate, to the foregoing ideal
dangerous; so, in effect, a 3-lane highway capacity and service volume values. This
will carry only twolanes of traffic at such includes consideration of the criteria for
points. percentage of available passing sight dis-
A 3-lane highway having even one re- tance, because, even though a passing lane
stricted sight distance cannot carry more exists, it cannot be safely used without ade-
vehicles per hour in one direction than the quate sight distance.
number that can crowd into one traffic lane Currently, many 3-lane highways in sub-
—2,000 passenger cars per hour under ideal urban or urban areas are operating under
conditions. special traffic engineering controls. For
instance, the center lane may be utilized re-
Ideally, then, the capacity of a 3-lane high- versibly by means of lane control signals, or
way under ideal conditions is about 4,000 it may be reserved for left-turn movements
passenger cars per hour, total for both direc- only. The general capacity criteria described
tions, occurring with operating speeds re- previously do not apply to such specialized
stricted to about 30 mph. If level of service applications; each such specialized case re-
C is desired, involving operating speeds aver- quires local analysis.
URBAN AND SUBURBAN ARTERIALS
The previous sections of this chapter have velopment. Separate consideration is given
covered highway facilities operating' under later in this chapter to major streets within
essentially rural conditions, with infrequent the central business district.
fixed traffic interruptions and relatively high
speeds during free-flow conditions. Fully as LEVELS OF SERVICE
important is a large amount of highway
mileage located within an essentially urban Methods of determining and improving
or suburban environment, where adjacent the capacity of many different specific bot-
development has necessitated a closer con- tleneck locations on urban or suburban sys-
trol of traffic operations through the use of tems are well known to traffic engineers and
signalization at intersections and/or low have been widely applied. However, the
speed limits in relation to the quality of coordinated application of such. methods to
alinement. For the purposes of this manual, entire urban routes has not been widely
urban and suburban arterials are defined as attempted.
major streets and highways' outside the cen- Points of traffic interruption, such as in-
tral business district having either, (1) inter- tersections, provide logical breakpoints for
section signalization at an average spacing section analysis. Hence, intersection ap-
of 1 mile or less, or (2) speed limits of 35 proach capacity has generally been used as
mph or less due to extensive , roadside de- the primary measure of urban capacity.
However, when general service to traffic over speed-volume curve for urban arterials, rep-
the street as a whole is considered, it be- resenting actual volumes obtained under
comes unrealistic to analyze an urban ar- ideal conditions, as was done in Chapter
terial by means of a series of separate iso- Three for the previous highway types de-
lated intersection studies alone. Also, such scribed. Where interrupted flow is involved,
a procedure would not be in harmony with "ideals" cannot be readily defined, because
those described in previous sections of this too many variables are involved and a com-
chapter for other roadway types. bination of them which is ideal in one case
In this manual, therefore, the determina- may be totally out of place in another.
tion of levels of service for both urban and Neither can any single speed-v/c ratio
suburban arterials involves relatively long curve, or group of curves, represent urban.
street sections. First, each potential bottle- arterial operations all-inclusively, as was.
neck location, usually but not necessarily an done for other highway types; only typical
intersection, is investigated for its effect on curves can be shown.
and possible control over traffic operations Figure 10.3 shows two such representa-
along the entire roadway segment under tive average overall travel speed-v/c ratio
study. The overall street is then analyzed for curves, representing perhaps the maximum
overall level of service-capacity relation- (Curve I) and typical (Curve II) average
ships. From these two steps, the true na- overall travel speeds that are likely to be
ture of the operational conditions encount- found on typical urban arterials at various
ered by drivers using the street can be volume/capacity ratios. Curve I represents
determined. essentially an uninterrupted flow condition,
As discussed in Chapter Four, the speed found on unsignalized suburban arterials
measure used in urban arterial analyses is with 35-mph speed limits or on signalized
the average overall travel speed, rather than urban arterials with reasonably good signal
the operating speed, which has been used progression where stops for red signals are
under uninterrupted-flow conditions. This relatively infrequent. Free-flow speed ap-
modification is necessary because operating proximates the established speed limit, and
speed is difficult to define where a variety
average overall travel speeds are only
of random interruptions exist, whereas the
average of the overall speeds of traffic slightly less at low volumes.
through the complete section is quite easily Curve II, on the other hand, represents
estimated. typical interrupted flow conditions. Traffic
During low to moderate volumes, maxi- signals are typically spaced at ½-mile inter-
mum travel speeds on urban arterials are a vals or less and are not interconnected for
function of such factors as speed limits, mid- progression; i.e., vehicle arrivals at any in-
block frictions, intersectional frictions at tersection are random or nearly so. Free-
unsignalized intersections or during green flow speed is represented by the speed
phases at signalized intersections, and the attained in midblock, in most cases the estab-
frequency and duration of rçd phases at sig- lished speed limit (25 mph in the example
nalized intersections together with the num- represented by Curve II), but seldom can
ber of such intersections. Increasingly as this speed be maintained over an appre-
higher volumes develop, intervehicular fric- ciable distance, due to interruptions.
tion restricts attainable speeds. Quality of Theoretically, at least, a .third curve (for
alinement has relatively little effect, except example,. Curve III in Figure 10.3) could
in pronounced cases such as at "doglegs,"
be drawn to represent a perfect progression,
diagonal underpasses, and similar obvious
carrying near-capacity volumes in regular
impediments, hence the concept of average
highway speed is not applicable. Conse- platoons at the speed limit, which is equal
quently, speed-volume relationships for to the speed of progression, here 30mph.
urban arterials are significantly different Progressive signal systems will be discussed
from those on highways having largely unin further detail later in this section. Suffice
interrupted flow. it to say, at this point, that in practice per-
It is not feasible to show any "typical" fect progression is rarely found, although at
70
60 MENEEMEMMEMEMEMEMEN
EMMMEMMEMMMMMMMMEMMO
EMMENMMEMMMMMMEMEEME
...U......
..................
VE I UNINTERRUPTED FLOW OR GOOD PROGRESSION
uuu•uusuu••uiu•
LEVEL
OF
SERVICE
0
ONERNEME
-=f-
0I 02 0.3
a
0.4 0.5
V/C RATIO
0.6 0.7
C
0.8
Figure /0.3. Typical relationships between v/c ratio and average overall travel speed, in one
direction of travel, on urban and suburban arterial streets.
D
0.9 -
E
.0
least one progression closely, approaching during which the highway in question has a
this ideal has been studied in detail (4). green signal indication, or is free of other
Before describing levels of service, and in predictable interruptions. Although a high-
particular to avoid misinterpretation of the type urban strcet may carry traffic at flow
1.00 v/c ratio limit in Figure 10.3, it is im- rates approaching uninterrupted flow values
portant to define what is meant by capacity while traffic is moving on a green signal
on urban arterials. For uninterrupted flow, indication, there are . many periods when
infrequently found, capacity is identical in traffic does not move or, in the case of
concept, and often in absolute value, to progressive systems, when long gaps exist
those capacities previously discussed; namely, between platoons of vehicles. The capacity
the maximum number of vehicles past a in actual vehicles passing per hour, then, is
point in an hour with continuous flow. For far less than with uninterrupted flow.
interrupted flow, however, capacity nor-
Chapter Six has given methods of evaluat-
mally is not controlled by roadway geomet-
rics, except in special cases such as the ing individual intersections. When a section
presence of a narrow underpass. Rather, it of urban arterial of reasonably consistent
is usually governed by the traffic control geometries contains several signalized inter-
features and physical conditions at or near sections, and no radical differences in signal
the signalized intersections. Occasionally phase timing exist at the several locations,
midblock interruptions and interferences are an average condition or level of service (ex-
so significant that they govern instead. cept level E) can be developed to apply to
Fundamentally, capacity represents maxi- the entire section, as thus defined. . How-
mum utilization of that portion of the hour ever, where maximum volume (level E, Ca-
pacity) is being considered, the capacity at Also, before describing urban arterial
the most critical point cannot be exceeded. levels of service, it is important to mention
Caution must be exercised in defining sec- the average overall travel speed limitations
tion lengths and limits, as related to capacity which appear in the descriptions. These are
restriction points present within them. Be- largely rationalized values which, in the
cause access is not controlled, the sphere of opinion of the Committee, are most com-
influence of this critical point is sometimes monly associated with the levels as described.
less than it may at first appear. The signifi- These limits are based primarily on judg-
cant numbers of access and egress points ment, rather than detailed studies, inasmuch
often found between signals makes invalid as inadequate field data are available on
the broad assumption that the most critical operation over appreciable lengths of arte-
intersection necessarily controls the overall rials to relate delays and resulting travel
capabilities of any arbitrarily-chosen street times and speeds to the drivers' feelings of
section containing that intersection. Often satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The Commit-
this is the case, but whether or not such con- tee considers the listed values and relation-
trol exists depends on the nature of the local ships to be representative of the probable
traffic demand. Sometimes, such control opinions of drivers in most cities. It recog-
exists only to the next points on either side nizes, however, that local economic prob-
where turning movements are significant, if lems also must be considered in establishing
these turns happen to produce traffic patterns the level of service that is feasible in any
such that the limiting point regularly receives particular city.
a lighter demand than neighboring subsec- Levels of service on urban arterials may
tions. Often, therefore, it will prove more be analyzed in a manner similar to that on
useful to establish the section limits at points other highways, here using average overall
of known significant demand change than to travel speed and the v/c ratio as criteria.
place them at known capacity limitation This involves detection and analysis of op-
points; the latter procedure tends to hide the erating levels of all potential restrictions,
nature of the limitation by splitting it into and overall analysis of the street. Although
two parts. bottleneck locations are normally intersec-
Capacities of individual intersection ap- tion approaches, they may also occur at
proaches, and hence of midblock locations midblock locations. Levels of service are
upstream of them, are determined by means measured relative to operation of high-type
of the methods shown in Chapter Six. In arterials with good progression, as represented
the absence of more detailed local knowl- by Curve I, Figure 10.3. Hence, many ar-
edge, those methods assume a load factor of terials never offer average overall travel
0.85 and a peak-hour factor of 0.85. Very speeds high enough to provide the higher
levels A and B. On the other hand, in the
generally, the capacity of 12-ft lanes on high-
type two-way urban arterials, as thus deter- unusual case of perfect progression, the v/c
mined, may range from about 1,000 to ratio limitation on level of service is some-
what unrealistic to enforce, because speeds
1,700 vehicles per lane for each hour of
remain consistently high throughout nearly
green time, under ideal conditions (no park-
ing, no left or right turns, hence little conflict the entire range of volumes.
between vehicles and pedestrians, and no The scale of levels of service can be ap-
commercial vehicles), depending on city proximately related to load factor (used as
size, location within the city, and total num- the measure of level of service for individual
ber of lanes. These values should not be intersections), as well as to the likely peak-
used as the basis for computations. The hour factor. However, it should be realized
magnitude of the range, even with such im- that, in theory, any peak-hour factor can
portant factors as turns and truck percent- occur at any given level, because PHF is
ages removed as variables, serves to show dependent on the degree of uniformity of
how important it is 'to consider fully every demand rather than on its magnitude.
adjustment shown in the intersection capac- Referring again to Figure 10.3, it can be
ity procedures. seen that speed reductions on high-type ur-
ban arterials are slight until the volume/ street reaches what is considered a reason-
capacity ratio exceeds 0.50. The chance of able limit by most drivers. Operating condi-
signal loading (vehicles waiting more than tions at most intersections approximate a
one signal cycle) occurring at any intersec- load factor of 0.3; the peak-hour factor is
tion is negligible below this value, with vehi- likely to be about 0.85.
cular platoons, when released at a signal, Further increases in volume, in level D,
moving out and accelerating with minimum begin to tax the capabilities of the street
delay and restriction. This could be con- systen-i. Service volumes approach 0.90 of
sidered "free flow" for urban arterials, with capacity, with average overall travel speeds
speeds controlled chiefly by signal progres-
down to 15 mph. Delays at critical locations,
sion and regulatory speed limits. Short- such as crossings of other major arterials,
term volume fluctuations may reach 1.5 may become extensive, with some vehicles
times the hourly rate over several cycles, but occasionally waiting two or more signal cy-
have little adverse effect. This assumes free cles to pass through the intersection. De-
midblock operation, unencumbered by un-
mand variations are attenuated, with signals
controlled double parking, backups from in effect storing excess demand. Many of
driveways and parking areas, and similar in- the signalized intersections may reach condi-
terferences. On such high-type arterials, at tions described by a load factor of 0.7, with
a volume/capacity ratio of 0.60, average
the peak-hour factor likely to be about 0.90.
overall travel speed should be 30 mph or
more, and service volumes at most intersec- These conditions may be tolerable for short
tions will approximate those found with a periods of time or at occasional bottlenecks,
load factor near the limit of the 0.0 range. but create unacceptable delay when they
This is considered the limit of level of exist for a considerable portion of the peak
service A. Typically, though not necessarily, hour along an entire section of street. A
the peak-hour factor will be about 0.70. (For properly coordinated progressive signal sys-
instance, if demand were uniform through- tem will improve operating conditions to a
out the entire peak hour at a flow rate reasonable basis, unless entering volumes at
equivalent to this v/c ratio, not quite heavy cross streets become great enough to break
enough to load any cycle at any intersection, down the progression.
level A could exist with PHF = 1.00. In prac- At capacity, operations on most signalized
tice, this combination of conditions is not streets have similar characteristics, regard-
often found.) less of the type of signalization, uncoordi-
As volumes reach 0.70 of capacity, occa- nated or a typical progression, because traf-
sional signal loading may develop. Average fic flow has become too unstable for any
overall speeds start dropping due to intersec- predetermined signal timing to be consist-
tion delay and intervehicular conflicts, but ently correct. Average overall travel speed
remain at 25 mph or above; delay is not un- is variable, but in the area of 15 mph, inter-
reasonable. Service volumes at most intersections along the street operate at a load
sections at this, the limit of level B, will ap- factor in the range between 0.7 and 1.0, and
proximate conditions when the load factor the peak-hour factor is likely to be about
is 0.1. The peak-hour factor is likely to be 0.95. Continuous backup occurs on the ap-
about 0.80 at this level. proaches to most intersections, with traffic
Level C extends to service volumes of flows determined by the maximum discharge
about 0.80 of capacity. For typical uninter- rates at each intersection. Traffic entering
rupted flow on non-signalized streets with from cross streets supplies enough extra de-
commercial development, and for good pro- mand to keep most approaches loaded.
gressively-signalized operation, average over- Traffic seeking to enter or cross from drive-
all travel speeds have dropped to below 80 ways or minor streets can enter only when
percent of free-flow speeds, but are at least traffic is stopped upstream at a signal, and
20 mph. On streets with typical non-perfect even then the maneuver may be difficult.
progression, the frequency and duration of Under typical interrupted flow operation
loaded signal cycles encountered along the on signalized urban arterials, the condition
of forced flow (level F) is reached somewhat tend back through an upstream signalized in-
more gradUally than' under uninterrupted tersection and its approaches.' This upstream
flow. Flow interruptions are regularly in- signal and approaches are then operating
duced at traffic signals throughout the under forced flow, with resulting lowered
length of the arterial, which in turn meter volumes at a decreased level of service to the
the traffic into the next downstream section. motorist.
Storage of excess demand over capacity is Table 10.13 presents the foregoing rela-
therefore distributed throughout the section, tionships. in consolidated form.
as an inherent condition producing capacity. For the unusual case of urban uninter-
This storage gradually increases, but forced rupted flow at capacity, conditions are quite
flow is reached on signalized arterials only similar to those found on rural facilities also
when the downstream section cannot accom- at capacity, with intermittent stoppages, low
modate the vehicles discharged by a signal, speeds, and possible breakdown to forced
and vehicular backups from one signal ex- flow.
TABLE 10.13—LEVELS OF SERVICE FOR URBAN AND SUBURBAN

ARTERIAL STREETS
TRAFFIC FLOW CONDITIONS

(TYPICAL APPROXIMATIONS, NOT RIGID CRITERIA)
SERVICE
LEVEL VOLUME/
OF AVERAGE" CAPACITY
SERVICE OVERALL LOAD" LIKELY RATIO`0
DESCRIPTION TRAVEL FACTOR PEAK-HOUR
SPEED FACTORb
(MPH)
A ' Free flow 530 0.0 0.70 7,0.60

(relatively) ' (0.80)
B Stable flow 525 0.1 ' 0.80 0.70

(slight delay) ' (0.85)
C Stable flow ' 520 0.3 0.85 0.80

(acceptable delay) (0.90)
D Approaching unstable flow 515 7,0.7 O.90 0.90

(tolerable delay) ' (0.95)
E' Unstable flow Approx. 1.0 (0.85 70.95 71.00

(congestion; intolerable delay) 15 typical)'
F Forced flow , <15 (Not (Not (Not

(jammed) meaningful) meaningful) meaningful)
"Operating speed and v/c ratio are independent measures of level of service; both limits should be satisfied in any determina-
lion of levels, with due consideration given to the fact that they are largely rationalizations. Load factor, a measure of individual
intersection level of service, can be used as a supplemental criterion where necessary.
b This is the peak-hour factor commonly associated with the specified conditions; in practice, considerable variation is possible.
Values in parenthesis refer to near-perfect progression.
Load factor of 1.0 is infrequently found, even under capacity operation, due to inherent fluctuations in traffic flow.
Capacity.
Demand volume/capacity ratio may well exceed 1.00, indicating overloading.
CRITICAL ELEMENTS REQUIRING operation can be attained. Such high-volume

CONSIDERATION operation is always in delicate7balance, how-
ever, and is subject to total breakdown
On an urban arterial street, the type of
whenever any abnormality in the traffic flow
operation provided (signalized, or signalized
develops. A load factor of 0.95 and a peak-
with progression, and two-way vs one-way) hour factor of 0.95 may be suitable for in-
must be considered. In addition, a variety of tersection capacity computations under
potential impediments to free flow of traffic these conditions. Here, the LF=0.95 has a
exist, resulting primarily from the needs to
special meaning, indicating that nearly all
serve adjacent land uses and to cross other
cycles were almost, but not quite, fully uti-
traffic flows frequently.
lized. This interpretation applies to perfect
Signalization progression only. In this connection, refer-
ence to Curve III, Figure 10.3 will demon-
As previously discussed, signalized inter- strate the incongruity involved in enforcing
sections are such important restrictions that the general v/c limits rigidly, under pro-
most of Chapter Six is devoted to them. gressive operation. For example, speed stays
They must be considered as fundamental within level A limits for such a great per-
elements in any determination of the capac- centage of the total range, as shown in the
ity of an arterial section, using the methods figure, that it is unlikely that drivers would
described in that chapter. in most cases, find volumes objectionable until a v/c ratio
further direct computational consideration of possibly 0.75 to 0.80 was reached.
of the several factors considered in the in- Widening of intersection approaches and
tersection procedures is not necessary to exits, to provide more lanes for through
determine their influence on midblock oper- traffic there than in midblock, is a procedure
ation. However, judgment should be exer- sometimes followed to offset capacity loss
cised. Where, for instance, a heavy grade due to "getaway" delays at intersections with
exists in midblock, further consideration of ordinary signalization. Where progression is
trucks might be called for. being maintained successfully, such lanes, if
provided, are likeTy to be used only by turn-
Signalization with Progression
ing traffic. Because the traffic moves in pla-
As mentioned earlier in this Chapter and toons, with few vehicles having to stop,
in Chaçters Six and Nine, a perfect or near- drivers would seldom find need to move into
perfect signal progression, infrequently ob- the extra lanes and would find it difficult to
tained, is a special case which can produce merge back into the moving platoon if they
uite different operating characteristics. did move out of it. Nevertheless, such lanes
Near-perfect progression can be obtained may well be a desirable "safety factor" in
only in one direction at a time on two-way that they permit turning vehicles to move
streets, except in very rare instances. In es- out of the through flow before slowing down,
sence, the fundamental difference in the and stand ready for use to maintain capacity
perfect case is that no vehicles ever stop due (if not level of service) whenever breakdown
to a red signal indication, thus permitting of the progressive flow occurs.
flow rates up to 2,000 passenger cars per In those more usual cases where effective
hour of green. This type of operation can be but not perfect progression exists, a certain
attained at high volumes only if the follow- degree of stop-and-start operation remains
ing conditions can be established: (I) there but delays are much reduced. Capacity is
are relatively few turning movements (and increased only slightly, if at all, above its
those few onto the street largely balance level without progression, but travel time
those few off); (2) the demand per cycle through the section is greatly reduced. That
can be held slightly under the capacity per is, progression is highly attractive to indi-
cycle to allow a little slack for flexibility vidual drivers using the route, providing a
within the traffic platoons, and (3) midblock better overall level of service at any given
frictional elements are largely absent so volume below capacity, in terms of average
that, for all practical purposes, limited-access overall travel speed. However, there may be
little benefit in terms of additional vehicles streets converted to a one-way pair, or "cou-
moved. plet," an accurate comparison must analyze
the overall traffic-carrying capabilities in
One-Way vs Two-Way Operation both directions "after" with those "before."
Seldom does a two-way street attain full uti-
The subject of the relative efficiencies of lization in both directions simultaneously.
one-way and two-way operation of urban Therefore, it would be incorrect to make a
streets has elicited much discussion in recent comparison of an individual street's opera-
years, partly because, although early criteria tion during a given peak period under such
showed substantial benefits in one-way over unbalanced utilization "before" with full
two-way operation, later interim intersection utilization as a one-way street "after," with-
capacity criteria of the late 1950's showed out consideration of the other half of the
somewhat contradictory relationships. Vari- pair which frequently would be well below
ous "before" and "after" study results have capacity at the same time.
also shown differing results. In this section,
Beyond this point, the conditions which
an attempt is made to reconcile these differ-
are required for valid comparisons depend
ences. on the purpose of the comparison.
One-way operation of a given street width
For research purposes, valid comparisons
is generally more efficient than two-way
further require that the following conditions
operation of the same width, in terms of ac-
be equivalent "before" and "after": (1) traf-
tual vehicles carried per hour, judging by
fic demand and composition (sufficient to
study data currently available (primarily the
make full use of all lanes simultançously);
intersection capacity data described in Chap-
(2) pavement condition; (3) parking con-
ter Six). However, the degree of one-way
trols; (4) application of traffic engineering
superiority varies considerably, depending on
devices; (5) environmental characteristics;
the particular situation under study. Under and (6) overall turning movements in the
many conditions one-way operation is shown system. For some research purposes, equal
by the intersection capacity curves to be
lane widths may also be required.
markedly superior to two-way, whereas in
Often, in practice, these conditions are
other cases little difference is shown.
not maintained equal during conversion from
One exception exists to the foregoing gen- two-way to one-way operation. Instead, the
eral rule; this involves relatively narrow
tendency is to convert ordinary "as is" two-
streets without pavement markings, having
way streets to one-way operation mainly in
parking on both sides and space between
conjunction with broad upgrading programs
just sufficient for 'two moving lanes of traf-
which include modernized signalization, new
fic. On such streets there is evidence that
signs and markings, more rigid parking con-
somewhat more vehicles are carried with
trols, reconstruction, and sometimes revised
two-way operation than with one-way. (The
traffic patterns which route more traffic to
flow per moving lane is less under two-way
the upgraded streets. "Before" and "after"
operation, but the total flow is more.) Ap-
studies of such conversions have great value
parently, under such one-way operation,
drivers show a tendency to queue up into in showing the overall worth of the improve-
one lane, rather than accept a "tight" 2-lane ments. However, if they fail to indicate that
flow, whereas with two-way operation, two- other elements were involved in addition to
lane flow continues because no such choice the change to one-way operation, the com-
is available. parison can be misleading from a capacity
Care must be exercised in comparing one- and service volume standpoint. Similarly,
way vs two-way operation. Any meaningful many reported studies of early one-way op-
comparison generally requires analysis of eration very likely came from more upgraded
the complete "after" system of streets, as sites than did typical two-way studies. Hence,
compared to the complete "before"; a direct past studies may well have indicated some-
"before-and-after" study of an individual what greater superiority of one-way over
street is difficult and seldom fully valid. For two-way operation than is actually the case,
instance, in the simple case of two, two-way "all other things equal."
The foregoing is not meant to detract from Insufficient data are available to attempt
the value of one-way operation, but only to to develop detailed correction factors for
draw attention to potential inconsistencies these various elements. In fact, there is
involved in its consideration. On the con- serious doubt that meaningful individual fac-
trary, it should be stressed that even in those tors could be developed, because these im-
occasional cases where the charts indicate pediments are generally closely interrelated,
that one-way is little or no better than twc- functioning together as a "team." One ma-
way on a per-hour-of-green basis, one-way jor restriction shrouds the effect of the
operation will generally move substantially others; correction of this major one may be
more vehicles per actual clock hour at the of little benefit by itself, merely exposing
same level of service, particularly if com- another.
plete grids of streets are involved, or the Instead, general problem areas first must
same number of vehicles at a better level of be identified by both type and location
service. This is so because simple two-phase through on-site investigations. Then deci-
signalization usually is adequate, thus avoid- sions must be made as to whether or not
ing the time losses due to the extra phases, certain features of these areas are signifi-
including extra yellow and/or clearance pe- cantly restricting capacity or level of service,
riods characteristic of the multiphase sig- through adaptation of the available analysis
nalization often required with two-way procedures and criteria previously estab-
operation. Another benefit of one-way opera- lished to the problem at hand. In the case of
tion is that signal progression is easier to frequently used midblock driveways and
establish. alleys, for example, it might prove best to
Although one-way operation generally is analyze them as if they were signalized in-
highly desirable, much can be done to up- tersections, with assumed cycle times. Fi-
grade two-way operation to more closely nally, administrative decisions become neces-
approximate one-way capabilities, where
sary regarding the feasibility of eliminating
conversion to one-way does not appear to be
the restrictions.
feasible.
With reference to turning movements, it
Other Interruptions and Interferences is important to remember that any "blanket"
prohibition of all left turns, in midblock as
Along most arterials there exists a variety well as at intersections, without careful con-
of other factors which sometimes impede the sideration of alternate paths available to fül-
smooth flow of traffic. Several studies have fill the desired movements, can sometimes
investigated this broad subject area. In par- defeat its own purpose, due to resulting er-
ticular, the "Wisconsin Avenue Study" in
ratic driving (while searching for alternates)
Washington, D.C., (5) was a comprehensive
and longer routes. Where periodic gaps ap-
investigation of urban arterial operating
pear in the opposing traffic stream due to
problems. That study report serves as a
guidebook in this area. signalization upstream, an effective com-
Problem elements likely to be encoun- promise often consists of protected left.4urn
tered include the following: bays or a continuous left-turn lane; drivers
can safely wait until a break occurs in oppos-
I. Unsignalized intersections. ing traffic.
Midblock driveways and related turn- Where transit routes are operated on ur-
ing movements. ban arterial streets, they too have an effect on
Curb parking in midblock. the capacity of the street. Insofar as capacity
Offstreet parking in midblock. calculations are concerned, their effects are
Inadequate signs and markings. incorporated into the intersection capacity
Lack of channelization. determination procedures described in
Restricted lateral clearances. Chapter Six. No additional adjustments
Pedestrian interferences. need be made for local bus transit, although
Transit operations. the overall subject of transit operations is
Non-enforcement of regulations. further discussed in Chapter Eleven.
COMPUTATION PROCEDURES FOR URBAN the service or demand volume/capacity ratio

ARTERIAL STREETS and average overall travel speed which has
been accepted as representative of conditions
Determination of the overall level of over significant distances on typical high-
service provided by very high-type urban type arterials. Table 10.13, which summa-
arterials may be possible by the methods in rizes the limiting values of the v/c ratio
Chapter Nine for expressways, if the condi- and the average overall travel speed which
tions there specified are met. Procedures for define levels of service, is based on this curve.
determining overall levels of service for more Although either can be used as a guide for
ordinary sections of urban arterials of appre- computations applying to such streets, they
ciable length, not including downtown should not be considered fundamental for
streets, are different and less specific than all urban arterial conditions in the same
those for the highway types previously dis- sense as similar criteria for uninterrupted
cussed. They make use of certain of the flow. Instead,'each user may find it neces-
procedures previously described, but also re- sary to develop local curves similar to Curve
quire application of good judgment. In par- 11(0 represent typical conditions in his own
ticular, basic building blocks in the form of locality.
uniform subsections are largely lacking, or The following general steps are suggested.
at least are masked by point restrictions
within them. Rigid all-inclusive criteria, CAPACITY
therefore, cannot be presented regarding Make an overall review of the street
speed-v/c ratio relationships, making care- section under study, and establish the ele-
ful consideration of findings necessary for ments that may influence the capacity; Usu-
meaningful interpretations. ally, these elements will include: all sig-
nalized intersections; midblock locations
Basic Components restricted either by geometries, traffic inter-
Usually, it is not feasible to divide an ur- ferences such as at entrances or exits, or spe-
/ ban arterial into several subsections for anal- cial traffic controls; and, occasionally, a rel-
ysis, in the same manner as is done on atively uninterrupted-flow section existing
rural highways; too many variables are in- between two signals spaced more than 1 mile
volved. In practice, in the past, individual apart. (It should be noted that sometimes
intersection capacities and service volumes signalized intersections are present which do
were the primary measures used in consider- not influence capacity, such as those provided
ing urban street capacities. Gradually, how- to permit pedestrians or minor side street
ever, more thought has been given to the en- traffic to cross a heavy flow occasionally.
tire street as a unit; this overall approach is Such signals often have such short green pe-
used here. riods for the cross movement that they do
For the purposes of this manual, there- not appreciably affect capacity, although they
fore, in any detailed urban arterial study the influence level of service. On the other hand,
capabilities of each important intersection some signals handling heavy pedestrian
are determined by the methods of Chapter volumes may be capacity bottlenecks because
Six, whereas those of significant midblock re- timing is governed by pedestrian, rather than
strictions are estimated by adaptations of vehicular, needs.)
basic methods. Also average overall travel Compute the capacities of significant
speeds through the section
' are determined by intersection approaches by the methods
test runs or estimated by comparison with given in Chapter Six, and of any uninter-
known speeds on similar type streets. Thus, rupted-flow sections by the methods de-
point capacities and service volumes, and av- scribed earlier in this chapter. Analyze each
erage overall travel speeds, are the primary significant midblock restriction as a special
building blocks available. case. No specific procedures can be de-
scribed for these analyses; procedures already
Overall Analysis of Urban Arterial Streets covered in this manual must be adapted to
Curve I of Figure 10.3, as previously men- each particular case. Very often, intersec-
tioned, represents the relationship between tion capacity determination procedures can
trolling value of the remainder of the sec-

tion. If this is not possible, these points will
govern capacity, at least in their immediate
area. However, because many entrance and
exit points exist, it is possible that other less
restricted sections of the street will actually
handle more traffic than can pass through
the bottleneck. This point is discussed fur-
ther under "Level of Service" below. Hence,
the controlling value will apply elsewhere.
}RVICE VOLUMES
tallow the same steps as just described

far capacity determination, substituting
service volume determination criteria for
capacity criteria, up to the point of interpre-
tation of the results.
In interpreting the results, it should be
remembered that a highway element's ina-
bility to meet a service volume criterion is
not as critical as its inability to meet the
capacity level of the section as a whole. To a
degree it will still be a bottleneck, providing
poorer service than the remainder of the sec-
tion, but it usually can carry the load,
LEVEl. OF SERVICE
In any typical problem, the desirable goal

is determination of an overall level of service
for an entire arterial or at least a major sec-
Special signalized "jug-handle' turning lanes tion thereof. Analysis, however, generally
niiniinize intersectional friction on this sub- requires subdivision; the procedure is as
urban arterial street. Note frontage
road on right !nininizing land use
follows:
interference and conflicts from Make an initial overall review of the
land use on left. street, to determine those points at which
traffic composition quite obviously changes
markedly due to turning movements at cross
streets, ramps, or other entrances and exits.
be so adapted to represent the influences of
These points should be established as section
lost time and/or restricted width, or the geo-
limits for the purposes of further analysis.
nietric factors covered in Chapter Five may
be applicable. (Where traffic composition does not change
Interpret the results of the foregoing widely along an arterial, but where intersec-
analyses to establish (a) obvious bottleneck tion problems are significant, it is sometimes
locations having capacities considerably less wise to establish midblock control points,
than the street as a whole, and (b) a capacity rather than points at intersections, so that all
level for the remainder of the section, exclu- of the problems connected with any one in-
sive of the bottlenecks, governed by the tersection will be included within the same
minimum capacity of the remaining sections. control section.)
Desirably, make an effort to increase Through use of the procedures de-
the capacity of the bottlenecks to the con- scribed in Chapter Six, determine the capaci-
ties of all intersections and other elements section, is a typical problem demonstrating
within the section which offer any possibility use of the methods.
of influencing the operation of the arteriál, Conversely, to make an approximate de-
as just described under "Capacity." As done termination of the service volume provided
there, separate obviously abnormal restric- by asectiori of urban arterial, given the level
tions, and determine the controlling capacity of service or average overall speed desired,
of the remainder of the section. enter Figure 10.3 or locally-prepared equiva-
Determine whether or not the overall lent for the basic type of street operation in-
demand volume exceeds the controlling.ca- volved, and read the v/c ratio. Then, apply
pacity of the section. Where this capacity is. this to the controlling capacity of the section,
not exceeded, check further to determine determined as just described, to determine
whether any of the abnormal locations, sepa- the service volume (or demand that can be
rated for individual analysis have limiting handled on this street at this level).
capacities less than the demand volume. It should be emphasized that all of the
Where Step 3 does not produce a limit- foregoing procedures for urban arterials are
ing capacity, divide the demand volume by approximate, suitable only as guidelines for
the controlling capacity to obtain the aver- general application. Where an. arterial is be-
age v/c ratio for the section. From Figure ing examined prior to costly improvements,
10.3, or an equivalent chart developed lo- far more detailed procedures should be em-
cally to better fit prevailing conditions, ob- ployed to consider carefully the many po-
tain the typical average overall speed for the tential problems ,existiiig at 'critical areas.
basic type of street. involved and determine
the corresponding overall general level of Typical Problem Solutiohs—Urban Arterial
service from the figure, or Table 10.13 or Streets
local equivalent.
EXAMPLE 10.6
Where abnormal restrictions are present,
though not capacity limitations, consider Problem:
each in sufficient detail to establish a point Given:
level of service. Often this is done by the Urban' signalized two-way arterial
methods of Chapter Six, directly in the case street segment.
of intersections or adapted for other inter- Widths as shown in sketch.
ruptions, but, through-roadway methods Curbed (6-in, curbs).
sometimes are more suitable. Interpret those Level.
point levels in terms of. the number of such No parking. ,
restrictions, local acceptability in relation to 3% trucks throughout.
the controlling level obtained over the re- 30 locál'buses per hour; stop as shown
mainder of the section, and the feasibility of in sketch;
modifications to raise the level provided. Outlying business district.
Then establish a final level of service for City 'size= 500,000 population.
the section by approximate. weighting in PHF=0.85..
Pe'destrian interference negligible.
terms of restriction influence distances.
Intersection and turning movement
Where Step 3 produces a limiting ca-
characteris'tic,s as shown.
pacity, make more detailed analyses of the Timed runs indicate average' overall
limiting point to ascertain the ex.tent of its travel speed of 19 mph.
influence; that is, determine whether it has Eastbound flow under consideration;
only local effect due to turning movements demand volumes as shown.
occurring upstream and downstream, or
whether 'it creates stop-and-go operation Determine:
(level F) upstream while metering traffic Through, level of service indi-
downstream at a tolerable level. Assign over- cated by average overall travel
all level of service accordingly. speed.
Example 10.6, which follows in the next Level of service indicated by in-
I I
--
IL I --
12%[
JI 80
I,I00-
VPH
48
4,
@ ° 001
CYCLE' 70 SEC 15%
GREEN '35 SEC TURNS WAITING
PARKING LOTS CYCLE' 10 SEC
?5
8LOCK FT AND RIGHT GREEN' 25 SEC
LANES CONTINUOUSLY, FOR
ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES.
(DELAYS DUE TO INTERNAL
CONGESTION IN PARKING LOTS,
PRIMARILY.) CENTER LANE
BLOCKED BY OPPOSING LEFT
TURNS FOR 30% OF HOUR.
tersection and midblock restric- Chart volume

tion performance. . 1,100
(c) Evaluate results.
1.06x 1.25x 1.00x 1.05 x 0.99 x 0.50
Solution:
= 1,597 vphg, under base conditions.
Through level of service indicated
by average overall travel speed: Intercept, of 1,597 vphg and
From Table 10.13,
for 19 mph, level 24-ft width shows LF=0.15;
intersection level of service C
of service is D, but not far from level C
limit, indicated.
Capacity, from Fig. 6.8=2,100
Level of service as controlled by
restrictive elements: vphg; v/c = 1,597/2,100 =
Review indicates that intersection 1, 0.76, in level C, from Table
driveway entrance area and intersection 10.13.
3 are the main controlling elements. Driveway entrance area 2
Intersection I Approximate method of handling
Fig. 6.8 applies. . must be developed.
Determination of chart volume: Demand volume= 1,100—
From Fig. 6.8, for 500,000 1,100 (0.10+0.05) + 100+
population and PHF=0.85, 110=1,145 vph.
factor= 1.06. Because opposing turns obstruct
From Fig. 6.8, for outlying busi- the through flow, flow through the
ness district, factor= 1.25., block is stop and go, as it would be
From Table 6.4, for 10% right .. through a signalized intersection.
turns, factor= 1.00. Assume signalized intersection
From Table 6.5, for 5% left with no turns, 10-ft approach
turns, factor= 1.05. width, no parking, and 70%
Because there is no bus green time (100-30).
stop, local buses can be
considered as trucks. Chart volume=
Therefore 30/1,100 = 1,145
2.7% buses, say 3%. 1.06x 1.25x 1.20x 1.30 x 0.99 x 0.70
' From Table 6.6, for 3% + 3 % = R.T. L.T.
6% trucks, factor= 0.99. =800 vphg, under base con-
G/C ratio=35/ 70=0.50, ditions.
From Fig. 6.8, intercept of 800 EXAMPLE 10.7

vphg and 10-ft width shows Problem:
LF=0.9, within level of ser- Given:
vice E, and at or near capac- Urban one-way arterial street, with
ity. near-perfect signal progression.
Intersection 3 44 ft wide, with 4 11-ft lanes no
Demand volume= 1,145-100-80 parking.
=965 vph. Curbed (6-in, curbs).
Factors: Level.
Population and PHF (Fig. Negligible trucks.
6.8) = 1.06. No local buses.
Fringe area.
Outlying business district City size= 1,000,000 population.
(Fig. 6.8)= 1.25. PHF = 0.95.
15% right turns (Table 6.4) Pedestrian interference negligible
= 0.99.
12% left turns (Table 6.5) = I NEGLj I 2%
0.98. I .1
3% .trucks (Table 6.6) = 1.02. - - 4N70 - NEGLIGRLE -
TURNS -
44•
30 buses per •hr, near-side
stop (Fig. 6.11)=0.91.
C/C ratio=25/70=0.36.
Chart volume=
T
CYCLE: 70 SEC
GREEN: 55 SEC
®Ii®
CYCLE: 70SEC
GREEN: 40 SEC
CYCLE: 70 SEC
GREEN: 405EG
965
1.06x 1.25 x 0.99 x 0.98 x 1.02 x 0.91 x 0.36 Determine:
= 2,246 vphg, under base condi- Capacity of the arterial.
tions. Capability of absorbing the
Intercept of 2,246 vphg and 30-ft turns into the street at inter-
width shows LF=0.5; center of section 1.
intersection level of service D Relationship to freeway capac-
indicated. ity.
Capacity, from Fig. 6.8=2,700 Solution:
vphg; v/c=2,246/2,700=0.83, (a) Capacities:
in level D, from Table 10.13. Figure 6.5 applies.
For perfect progression, use PHF=
(c) Conclusions: The overall street is 0.95 and LF=0.95 (see text).
moderately heavily utilized. Over- Intersection I
all, it is near the start of level of For 44-ft width and LF=0.95,
service D, and the individual inter- chart volume=4,300 vphg.
sections are in levels C and D, re- Adjustments:
spectively. (For urban arterials, 1,000,000 pop. and PHF of 0.95
through and intersection levels of (Fig. 6.5)= 1.22.
service would be expected to be Fringe area (Fig. 6.5) = 1.10.
nearly alike, by definition.) C/C ratio = 35/ 70 = 0.50.
Right turns (negligible) (Table
However, the midblock pair of .6.4) = 1.00.
driveways is a serious "spot" inter- Left turns. (negligible) (Table
ference. This location, rather than 6.4) = 1.00.
the signalized intersections, con- Trucks negligible (Table 6.6) =
trols the capacity of this portion of 1.05.
the street. No local buses= 1.00.
Capacity = 4,3 00 x 1.22x 1.10x the 120 vehicles entering at inter-

0.50 xi.00 x 1.00 x 1.05 x section 1, an average of between
1.00= 3,030 vph. 2 and 3 vehicles per cycle, pro-
Intersection 2 vided the additional 5 sec of green
Same adjustments as for intersec- time at intersections 2 and 3 is
tion 1, except: added at the start of the phase so
G/C ratio=40/70=0.57. that the added vehicles (which will
Capacity = 3,030 x 0.57/0.50 = be stopped at intersection 2 by a
3,455 vph. red indication) can accelerate and
Intersection 3 clear before the next progressive
Same adjustments as for intersec- platoon arrives.
tion 2, since on streets of this
width turning movement adjust- (c) Comparison with freeway capacity:
ment is 1.00 regardless of per- Capacity of 44-ft freeway roadway,
centage. with other conditions ideal:
Capacity= 3 1 455 vph. From Table 9.1, ideal capacity=
Note: Although there is no change 8,000 vph.
in turning movement adjust- From Table 9.2, width adjustment
ment, substantial turns would = 0.96.
interfere with traffic sufficiently 8,000 x 0.96 =7,680 vph.
to break down the progression. For 50% "go" time, equivalent to
(b) Evaluation: urban green time, 7,680x0.50
At intersection 1 capacity is 3,030 =3,840 vph.
vph. 3,030/3,840=0.79.
At intersections 2 and 3 capacity is Thus, this progressive system, on a
3,455 vph, due to increased green per-hour-of-green basis, has
time. about 80% of the traffic-carry-
3,455 — 3,030 = 425 vph. ing capability of an equivalent
Street can therefore accommodate freeway roadway.
DOWNTOWN STREETS
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS the downtown flow involves a substantial

percentage of circulatory, rather than
In the previous sections of this chapter straight-through, movements, and heavy
traffic operations on highways and streets pedestrian volumes conflict with the large
with progressively greaterproportions of ser- number of turning vehicles involved. A con-
vice to adjacent properties, in relation to siderable number of transit buses and single-
their traffic service function, have been de- unit local-service trucks are present, which,
scribed. Even on urban arterial streets, how- though performing highly essential services,
ever, relatively high standards of speed and
nevertheless restrict smooth flow because of
freedom to maneuver have been established
the stop-and-start curb-lane-blocking nature
for level of service A.
of their operation.
In the central business district, on the
other hand, many important streets have as It is not yet feasible to develop charts or
their primary function service to local busi- curves presenting basic speed-volume rela-
nesses, by passenger cars, transit buses, and tionships for extended sections of downtown
trucks. Efficient service to through traffic is streets, for the same reasOns mentioned
often of secondary concern, although certain earlier for urban arterials. At present, with
strategically located downtown streets may the current limited knowledge of the com-
be converted to an arterial-type operation plex relationships that govern downtown
during the peak commuter hours. Typically, traffic flow, it is not possible to develop even
iwo- way tkntnto cc street, she wi,,,' application of ,igtzalization and pa vein eat lacing.
typical speed-v/c ratio relationships. The ent limited state of knowledge, to provide
capacities of apparently sinii!ar downtown procedures for determining a level of ser-
streets can vary widely, due to differing en- vice, given a deniancl volume. However,
vironmental conditions. there is value in suggesting at least a rudi-
Very simply, man)' downtown operations mentary level of service scale for such
would fall in level F if measured against the streets, against which an existing flow can be
level of service rating scale for the higher- compared. This scale, given in Table 10.14,
type urban flows previously described. That presents the Committee's views regarding the
is to say, downtown operation in any one average driver's degree of acceptance of vari-
block is often influenced by conditions in ous operating levels. It is based entirely on
other nearby blocks, and speeds are suffi- average overall travel speeds. No attempt
ciently low that they fall on the lower, or is made to relate them to volumes carried.
"breakdown." curve of the typical speed- because so many factors and frictions are
volume relationship: any increase in speed present. In particular, closely spaced inter-
would thus increase volumes carried. sections, each accommodating significant
In the opinion of the Committee, it is not vehicular and pedestrian volumes on the
realistic to relate downtown street operation, cross street, are present. This requires that
over sections extending for several blocks, to signals he set to accommodate a greater per-
the rating scales for other urban streets. centage of cross traflic than is often the case
Neither is it considered feasible, in the pres- on outlying arterials. Because each inter-
TABLE 10.14—LEVELS OF SERVICE FOR DOWNTOWN STREETS
TRAFFIC FLOW CONDITIONS

(APPROXIMATIONS, NOT RIGID CRITERIA)
LEVEL
OF
SERVICE AVERAGE
DESCRIPTION OVERALL SPEED
(MPH)
A Free flow (relatively; some Stops will occur) 525
B Stable flow (delays not unreasonable) 520
C Stable flow (delays significant but acceptable) 515
D Approaching unstable flow (delays tolerable) 510

Ea Unstable flow (congestion not due to back-ups ahead) Below 10. but moving
F Forced flow (jammed) Stop-and-go
Level E for the downtown Street as a whole cannot be considered as capacity; capacity is governed by that of controlling
intersections or other interruptions.
section has its own characteristics, and turns the range in levels typically found in down-
are frequent, each controls only the block town areas, can then be obtained from
immediately upstream, in most cases. Hence, Table 10.14.
performance over a section including several
blocks is almost impossible to specify in the Typical Problem Solutions—Downtown
absence of detailed local knowledge. Streets
It is recommended, therefore, that down-
town streets be first analyzed intersection by EXAMPLE 10.8
intersection, for capacity or service volume Problem:
purposes, by means of the methods presented Given:
in Chapter Six. Given a knowledge of travel Downtown street segment 4 blocks
times (and, therefore, of average overall long; all intersections signalized.
travel speeds) through the section, a general Two-way, with parking as shown.
measure of the level of service, as related to Width 56 ft, curb to curb.
____
5% IPANKINGI NO PARKING 8% NO PARKING 15%
o'
56 ."\p20O 290
-. 28
LEVEL 0 $ 4 t
100
1'
IPARKING I
9.NO PKG. '
110
#N0 PKG.
SERVICE 8% [ 13% BUSSTOP 10% BUSSTOP J Io
VOLUME
FOR I ® I ©
INTERSECTION I CYCLE: 60 SEC CYCLE: 60 SEC CYCLE: 80 SEC CYCLE: 60 SEC
GREEN: 30 SEC GREEN: 35 SEC GREEN: 45 SEC GREEN: 33 SEC
TRUCKS: 3%, TRUCKS: NONE TRUCKS: NONE TRUCKS: NONE
ALL TURNING
RIGHT
City size= 175,000. For left turns, 5% (Table 6.5)

PHF=0.85. =1.05.
Intersection and traffic characteristics 40 buses per hour; no stop.
as shown. Consider as trucks, with ap-
40 buses per hour, making local prox. percentage, based on in-
stops. spection of factors thus far, of
No separate turning movement lanes 5%.
or signal phases. Trucks, 3% actual plus 5%
Eastbound flow tinder consideration. buses=8% (Basic adj., Table
6.6) = 0.97.
Determine: SV = 1,550 x 0.97 x 1.00 x 0.50
Approximate through level of X 0.995 X 1.05 X 0.97 = 760
service being provided, if timed vph.
runs show average overall travel Intersection 2
speed of 14 mph. Fig. 6.9 again applies.
Intersection service volumes, at Adjustments:
intersection level of service Pop. and PHF=0.97.
equivalent to through level de- Downtown = 1.00.
termined above. GIC ratio, 35/60=0.58.
Controlling intersection, for Right turns, 13% =0.985.
Left turns, 0% = 1.10.
traffic demand pattern as shown
Trucks, 0% = 1.05.
in Part (c) of solution.
40 buses, far-side stop (Fig.
Solution: 6.14)= 1.00 (max).
The timed runs show an average SV,= 1,550x0.97x 1.00xO.58
xO.985x 1.lOx 1.05x 1.00=
overall travel speed of 14 mph.
992 vph.
From Table 10.14, this is in down-
town street level of service D, for Intersection 3
through flow. Fig. 6.8 applies.
For 28-ft width and LF=0.7,
Intersection Level D Service Vol- chart volume= 2,250 vph.
umes: Adjustments:
Intersection 1 Pop. and PHF (Fig. 6.8) =
Figure 6.9 applies. 0.97.
For 28-ft width and LF=0.7, Downtown (Fig. 6.8)=1.00.
chart volume= 1,550 vphg. G/e—ratio, 45/80=0.56.
Adjustments: Right turns, 10% = 1.00.
For 175,000 pop. and PHF of Left turns, 8% = 1.02.
0.85 (Fig. 6.9) = 0.97. 40 buses, no stop= 1.05.
(Inspection shows 40 buses
For downtown (Fig. 6.9),zr
to be probably about 3%,
1.00.
to be considered as trucks)
For G/C ratio of 30/60=
Trucks, 0% + through buses,
0.50.
3%=1.02
For right turns:
Si'1,= 2,250 x 0.97 x 1.00 x 0.56
Here, where all trucks turn, x 1.00x 1.02x 1.05x 1.02=
special consideration is justified. 1,335 vph.
3/8 ths of the turns are trucks,
Intersection 4
with pass. car. equivalent of at Fig. 6.8 again applies.
least 2. Adjustments:
5/8X1+3/8x2ll/8. Pop. and PHF=0.97.
Assume turns to be 11 % equiv. Downtown = 1.00.
pass. cars (Table 6.4) =0.995. G/C ratio, 33/60=0.55.
Right turns, 0% = 1.025. Intersection 1 appears to be the con-

Left turns, 15% =0.95. trolling intersection.
Trucks, 0%=1.05.
(c) Confirmation of controlling inter-
40 buses, near-side stop (Fig.
section:
6.11) = 0.82.
Particularly in a downtown area
SV D = 2,250 x 0.97 x 1.00 x 0.55
where turns into the street under con-
x 1.025x0.95x 1.05x0.82=
sideration from cross streets are
1,006 vph.
likely to be quite heavy, a review of
Service volumes for level D: the actual demand volume pattern is
Tnt. 1= 760 vph. necessary before final conclusions are
Tnt. 2= 992 vph. drawn regarding the controlling inter-
mt. 3=1,335vph. section.
mt. 4 = 1,006 vph.
Assume the following entering
traffic volumes:
I I I I I I I
'*200 i250 90
700
®1
/'r--q @1 fr0 ®
Intersection 1: Leaving to side

Approaching = 700 1,041(0.18). =-187
Leaving to side Entering from side= 200
700(0.05+0.08) = —91
Entering from side Intersection 4:
200+100 =+300 Approaching = 1,054> 1,006, SV D,
Tnt. 4; not
Intersection 2: satisfactory.
Approaching = 909<992, SV D, Conclusion:
Tnt. 2; satis-
Although intersection I appeared at
factory.
first to control, based on service volumes
Leaving to side alone, further analysis shows that under
909(0.13) =-118 the given traffic circulation pattern in this
Entering from side = 250
downtown area intersection 4 is actually
more critical. It will reach capacity first,
Intersection 3: producing backups extending to other
Approaching = 1,041 < 1,335, SV D, locations.
Tnt. 3; satis- This problem demonstrates the fact
factory. that, where turning movements are sig-
nificant along either a downtown street or Determination for Rural Roads in Moun-
an arterial, an apparent restriction may tainous Terrain." HRB Bull. 167, pp. 10-37
(1957).
well be less controlling than it at first
Traffic Speed Trends. U.S. Bureau of Public
appears.
Roads (Mar. 1965 and earlier years).
REFERENCES FRENCH, A., "Capacities of One-Way and
Two-Way Streets with Signals and with Stop
HORN, J. W., CRIBBINS, P. D., BLACKBURN, Signs." Public Roads, Vol. 28, No. 12 (Feb.
J. D., and VICK, C. E., JR., "Effects of Com- 1956).
mercial Roadside Development on Traffic
Flow in North Carolina." IIRB Bull. 303, CARTER, A. A., "Increasing the Traffic-
Carrying Capability of Urban Arterial
pp. 76-93 (1961).
SCUwENDER, H. C., NORMANN, 0. K., and Streets (The Wisconsin Avenue Study)."
GRANUM, J. 0., "New Methods of Capacity U.S. Govt. Printing Office (1962).
Four-lane urban arterial floii' is provided here by prohibiting parking on one side during peak travel
times.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
BUS TRANSIT
INTRODUCTION forms of travel, particularly as related to

central business districts, public transit can
Metropolitan areas vary greatly in popu-
do much •toward relieving congestion on
lation density and land use; therefore, the
existing facilities and increasing capacities of
means of accommodating commuting travel
old and new highways in terms of total
peaks likewise vary. Table 11.1 indicates the passengers carried (1, 2). Although they re-
variation in peak-period use of all forms of
quire more room per vehicle on the street or
public transportation entering the central
highway because of their size and Operating
business district in some cities.
characteristics than do private automobiles,
Not all forms of public transportation, or
transit vehicles carry many more passengers
"mass transit," are directly involved in high-
per unit than automobiles and, therefore, re-
way capacities and levels of service. The
duce the total number of vehicles in the
term "transit" as used in this chapter refers traffic stream.
to the motor bus mode, operating on urban
The "mix" of automobiles and transit ve-
highways and streets. Therefore, the terms
hicles in the traffic stream results from the
"bus," "buses," and "transit" will be used
interchangeably. choice of travel mode by the traveler and, in
the case of the bus, a determination by the
Inasmuch as the pattern of properly lo-
transit operator of the number of transit ve-
cated arterial streets and highways in urban
hicles to be scheduled over the artery to
areas generally fits the desire lines of all
handle adequately the persons desiring to
travel that way (1). With a knowledge of
the composition of the traffic stream, the
highway engineer can turn to this manual for
TABLE 11.1—PEAK-PERIOD USE OF guidance in vehicular capacity determina-
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION tions.
ENTERING CENTRAL Transit utilizes the highways in several
BUSINESS DISTRICT ways. Local street systems allow transit to
provide access to residential or commercial
PERSONS areas. Arterials provide both local and ex-
ENTERING press transit services. Combinations of local
CBD BY ALL and arterial streets can afford local-express
FORMS OF transit service, or serve as access routes to
PUBLIC TRANS- parking areas near major rail or bus transit
METROPOLITAN PORTATION stations. Expressways and arterial streets can
AREA YEAR (%) be used for express transit service either in
Chicago, III. 1960 86 mixed traffic or in exclusive lanes on the
New York, N. Y. 1962 85 right-of-way. When new ,arterial highways
Newark, N. J. 1960 80 are constructed, they present the opportunity
Philadelphia, Pa. 1955 57 for improvement of transit service (2).
Cleveland, Ohio 1960 56 This transit chapter presents information
San Francisco, Calif. 1959 46 relating to highway capacity for. transit ve-
Los Angeles, Calif. 1960 34 hicles in mixed traffic. A small amount of
Houston, Tex. 1963 23 information is also presented on the lane
338.
BUS TRANSIT 339
UFt U
jrt.* r Mjji.
VIII-
lu
, _
!Ieat'y use of an urban intersection by buses operating on both the ,nain roadways and frontage
roadways.
14H41Th1 1T-
I -
---- -• A
1
Aqz
Till
Transit operalion on Iron (age ,aailutays.
-i
w •
L
b!itItii/i' 00 of a near-side bus stop. Buses have completed loading and are leaving on green signal.
capacity when transit vehicles are operating EFFECT OF TRANSIT ON HIGHWAY CAPACITY
in exclusive lanes. These latter' data, how-
Transit generally moves on the highway as
ever, have not been verified through exten- a component of mixed traffic using arterials,
sive research or use and are therefore pre- local streets and access connections in com-
sented for information only. mon with automobile and truck traffic.
TABLE 11.2-OBSERVED PEAK-HOUR VOLUMES OF LOCAL BUSES ON CITY

STR EETS WITH PARKING PROHIBITEDa
BUS MOVEMENT
LENGTH TRAFFIC TRANSIT SERVICE
OF LANES, ROUTES STOPS AUTO-
CITY FACILITY SEC- ONE USING IN NO. HEAD- MO-
TION DIREC- STREET SEC- OF WAY BILES
(MI) TION TION BUSES (MIN)
New York
San Francisco
Hillside Ave.
Market St.
0.6
1.1
3
3
9
8
6
8
150
130
0.4
0.5
-
730
Cleveland Euclid Ave. 1.0. 3 7 10 90 0.7 860
Chicago Michigan Ave. 0.3 3 9 4 175
Baltimore
Dallas
Baltimore St. 0.8 2 3 11 76
0.3
0.8 -
1,416
-
Chicago
Atlanta
' Commerce St.
63rd St.
0.6
10.3
5
2
10
2
8'
93
68
40
0.9
1.5 904
New York
St. Louis
' Peachtree St.
Fulton St.
Washington St.'
0.3
0.6
1.5
2
2
3
6
5
4
3
5
13
66
75
30
0.9
0.8 -
770
2.0 572
New Orleans Baronne St. 0.7 2 3 6 45 1.4 722
New Orleans Tulane Ave. 0.7 3 1 7 30 2.0 1,398
Prevailing direction only
TABLE 11.3-OBSERVED PEAK-HOUR VOLUMES OF LOCAL BUSES ON CITY

STREETS WITH RESERVED TRANSIT LANES
BUS MOVEMENT
CITY . FACILITY
OF
SEC-
LANES, ROUTES STOPS
ONE USING IN NO.
'
HEAD-
AUTO-
MO- --
Rochester Main St. 0.5 3 9 7 93 0.6 932

Chicago Washington Blvd. 0.5 5 5 7 66 0.9 1,152
Atlanta Peachtree St. 0.3 3 6 3
Dallas
Birmingham
Commerce St.
2nd Ave., North
0.6
0.8
5
4
10
8
8
67
67
0.9
0.9 -
1,100
Baltimore Charles St. 2.1 3 2

7
22
44
38
1.4
1.6 -
1,413
Prevailing direction only.

BUS TRANSIT 341
Thus, buses benefit from highway facilities of peak-hour volumes of buses under various
providing free and swift travel, but are at the conditions are provided in Tables 11.2
same time subject to highway delays. through 11.6. The observations reported in
Buses moving on highways and streets in these tables do not represent maximum possi-
mixed traffic usually constitute only a small ble bus volumes or maximum total traffic
percentage of the vehicular traffic. Examples volumes. Highway capacity under mixed
TABLE 11.4-OBSERVED PEAK-HOUR VOLUMES OF EXPRESS BUS SERVICE

ON CITY STREETS
BUS MOVEMENT
St. Louis 1Gravois St. 1.3 5 7 2 66 0.9 1 ;531

Cleveland Clifton Blvd. 5.0 3 1 22 32 1.9 1,803
Chicago Archer Ave. 11.0 4 1 33 29 2.1 700
San Francisco Van Ness/Broadway! 1.9 1-3 1 1 17 3.5 1,540
Stockton
NewOrleans EarhartBlvd. 2.0 2 .2 0 . 25 2.4 1,357
TABLE 11.5-OBSERVED PEAK-HOUR VOLUMES OF EXPRESS BUS SERVICE

ON EXPRESSWAYS'
BUS MOVEMENT
(Ml) TION TION BUSES (MIN)
Chicago Lake Shore Dr. 3.0 6 8 0 99 0.6 3,463

Cleveland Shoreway West 3.2 4 1 1 32 1.9 6,340
San Francisco Bayshore Fwy. 2.8 3-4 3 0 35 1.7 6,800
Los Angeles Hollywood Fwy. 4.0 4 5 1 41 1.5 8,010
St. Louis Mark Twain Expwy. 11.8 2-4 8 4 52 1.2 4,639
Atlanta North Expwy. 1.5 3 6 0 19 3.2 4,915
Dallas Central Expwy. 1.2 3 6 0 30 2.0 4,380
St. Louis 3rd St. Expwy. 1.6 3 4 0 29 2.1 3,600
Philadelphia Schuylkill Expwy. 6.0 3 1 0 18 3.3 4,335
St. Louis Daniel Boone Expwy. 6.5 2 2 3 10 6.0 3,905

TABLE 11.6 OBSERVED PEAK-HOUR VOLUMES OF EXPRESS BUS SERVICE

ON TERMINAL RAMPS, TUNNEL APPROACHES, TUNNELS, AND BRIDGES
BUS MOVEMENT
LENGTH TRAFFICLANSF171 SERVICE
CITY FACII.ITY SEC- ONE USING IN NO. HEAD- MO-
(sat) TION TION BUSES (suN)
New York P.A. Bus Terminal 0.3 2 53 0 511 0.12 -

Union City, N.J. Route 3 0.4 3 50 0 397 0.15 2,753
New York Lincoln Tunnel 1.5 2 50 0 527 0.11 1 ,882
San Francisco S.F-Oakland Bay Br. 5.2 5 14 0 216 0.28 6,185
New York Gco. Washington Br. I 1. 4-5 28 0 136 1 0.44 3,659
Prevailing peak flow direction only.
traffic conditions is treated in the previous centage of through or local buses in the
sections of this manual by adjustment of traffic stream. For uninterrupted (low con-
passiigcr car capacity based on the per- ditions this is covered in Chapter Five; for
intersection capacity. in Chapter Six. Re-
garding the intersection procedures, it should
be remembered that the bus adjustment pro-
cedures contained therein apply only to local
transit buses making stops at the curb,
through express buses being considered as
trucks.
At some locations on the highway system
bus movements are concentrated and exceed
percentage ranges of commercial travel (uS-
cussed in other sections of this manual. For
example, heavy movements of through buses
occur at river crossings in or near major
cities, and bus movements are concentrated
on principal downtown area streets.
Uninterrupted Flow
Studies of concentrated bus movements

have have been made to determine bus-car
how capacity relationships. For instance a
study was made in June 1962 by the Port of
New York Authority in a single lane of the
2-1ane. one-way, north tube of the Lincoln
Tunnel (3). The study site was on a lcvel
section at approximately the midpoint of the
I -niile long tunnel. Automatic detecting
and recording equipment was used to deter-
Lxte,l.sil'e use of curb lanes by transit in a mine the time of passage of the front and
central busincs district tell/i ii r'a vy rear of each vehicle over two poInts a few
pedestrian traffic. feet apart. A computer program then sum-
BUS TRANSIT 343
Predomina,,tiv transit street . .4hsence of uuto,n oN/c traffic facilitates bus pullout after loading
passengers.
marized a variety of vehicle characteristics, flows on expressways carrying relatively large

including velocity, length, and headway time. iumbers of buses (4), involving detailed re-
In this single lane carrying 60 percent cording of speed and spacing of many thou-
cars. 32 percent buses and 8 percent trucks, sands of vehicles, has indicated a factor of
data were collected on 3,20() vehicles. In- 1.6 as generally applicable on both express-
cluded were 1,200 samples where cars fol- ways and full freeways. This factor appears
lowed cars, and almost 400 cases of buses equally appropriate to each of the traffic
followed by buses. The relationship of time lanes at their normal operating speeds.
headway and speed were compared for these Locations observed in this study included:
two types of flow. Results showed for cars I. Route 3 approaches to Lincoln Tunnel,
following cars it minimum headway of New Jersey (New York City area).
2.39 sec at 21.6 mph: for buses following Center Tube, Lincoln Tunnel, New
buses, a minimum of 3.49 sec at 24.2 mph. Jersey (New York City area).
The headway difference was found to range Shoreway West, Cleveland, Ohio.
from 1.3 sec at speeds of 14 mph to 1.0 sec Lakeshore Drive, Chicago, Ill.
at 41 mph, with a 1.1-sec difference of mini- Mark Twain Expressway, St. Louis,
mum values.
Mo.
Comparison of the minimum headway Bayshore Freeway, San Francisco.
times resulted in a bus equivalent of 1.46 Calif.
cars. Over a speed range of 14 to 41 mph the San Francisco-Oakland, California.
equivalent was found to decrease from 1.53 Bay Bridge (temporary exclusive bus lane.
to 1.36, probably because the greater length lower deck).
of buses is a more significant influence at low
speeds. In summary, it was found that a An earlier limited study of mixed traffic con-
car-bus equivalent varies with speed but that ducted by the Bureau of Public Roads on the
an equivalent of 1.5 cars per bus is represen- Shirley Highway near Washington. D.C.,
tative of tunnel flow. showed a 1.7 factor, and a recent test track
A recent broad nationwide study by the study by a bus manufacturer showed a value
Bureau of Public Roads of mixed traffic of about 1.4.
; !4
r
- '- lift - .. r14-
-___•_•--Y--- r
-..---- .-• I. I il L' ti
im
......
p.
'
/
Bs lanc' (curb lane) reserved for transit operations.
BUS TRANSIT 345
The similarity of these several findings in-

dicates that when buses are in motion, either
in exclusively bus traffic or in mixed traffic,
under uninterrupted flow conditions over a
broad range of levels of service, their
equivalency factor will be approximately 1.6
V
passenger cars.
Uninterrupted Exclusive Lane Flow

The capacity or service volume of an ex-
clusive bus lane with uninterrupted flow can
be computed by -applying the 1.6-car equiva-
lency factor to the computed capacity or
corresponding service volume in passenger
cars per hour. For example, a roadway lane
having a capacity of 1,500 passenger cars per
/
hour would have an equivalency of 940
buses per hour and one within level of ser- AL IV
vice C at a service volume of 1,100 cars per Bus loading of passengers at near-side bus stop.
hour, an equivalency of 690 buses per hour.
This uninterrupted flow volume requires, of
course, in the case of a single-lane facility,
that bus stops be located oft the lane and that
adequate acceleration and deceleration lanes
be provided.
Interrupted Flow (Intersection Capacity)

The effect of transit buses on intersection
approach volumes is dependent on several
factors, such as their number, whether or not
they make local stops, and the location of the
stops. These effects are discussed in Chapter
Six. The previously mentioned equivalency
factor of 1.6 is not applicable to interrupted
flow conditions, and evidence thus far de-
veloped indicates that no single all-inclusive
factor can be developed.
Reserved Transit Lanes on City Sireets

A nUmber of cities have established, or are
considering, reserved transit lanes to improve I
the flow of highway traffic. Because buses
stop within these lanes to pick up and dis-
charge passengers, the ability of these lanes
to move traffic probably will be affected by
Kid
loading and unloading time requirements
presented in a following section. At present,
few research data have been collected con-
cerning the improved operation of reserved
transit lanes. Meaningful "before" and
"after" comparisons have not been possible, /ar-side bus stop proiiding loading zone for
in many cases, because establishment of the several buses.
all-bus lane.was only part of an overall up- PERFORMANCE AT PICK-UP/DISCHARGE

grading of the street which included new POINTS
traffic engineering devices and sometimes
conversion from two-way to one-way opera- Bus Stops on City Streets
tion. In at least one case a two-way arterial As discussed in Chapter Six, the location
was converted to favor bus transit operation, of curb bus stops—near side of intersection,
through timing of the progressive signal sys- far side, or midblock—may have a signifi-
tem to take into consideration average time cant effect on the transit operation itself, as
delays at bus stops, while parallel streets on well as on overall street capacity. No rigid
either side were signalized to favor passenger criteria can be established.. An efficient
car operation: In any reserved lane situa- transit operation which is in harmony with
tion, a highly significant consideration is the overall traffic flow requires individual
whether or not buses are rigidly restricted to analysis of each stop installation.
the exclusive lañè.. If they are, undesirable
Where bus arrivals at an intersection are
bus queuing may develop, delaying bus op-
such that they normally encounter a red
erations; if they are not, passing movements
signal, a near-side stop is desirable to com-
may adversely influence other traffic lanes.
bine signal delay with loading/unloading
To aid officials considering reserved transit
delay; a faster overall transit operation thus
lanes, the Institute of Traffic Engineers has
results. On the other hand, where a green
drafted suggested warrants for their adop-
signal usually is encountered on arrival,
tiOn (5). which would turn red by the time loading/
Data concerning bus and automobile unloading was completed, a far-side stop will
volumes on streets with presently reserved permit the fastest operation. These are not
lanes are given in Table 11.3; these do not the only criteria, however. For instance, the
necessarily represent maximum possible needs of right.1urning vehicles must also be
volumes. considered, and the obstructions resulting
from buses in a near-side stop must be
weighed against the additional value of the
bus stop as a right-turn lane when not oc-
TABLE 11.7—PASSENGER INTERVAL cupied by a bus. The decision here usually
(SERVICE TIME) ON AND OFF BUSES will depend on the frequency with which
I buses use the particular stop. Convenience
TIMES
- CONDITIONS to transferring passengers at intersections of
OPERATION . I (sEC)
bus routes is still another consideration. -
Unloading Very little hand bag- The service volume of a bus route may be
gage and parcels; few limited by the ability of the stops to handle
transfers 1½-2½ the picking up and discharging of passengers.
Moderate amount hand Similarly, the capacity itself may be thus
baggage or many
limited, if inadequate space for stops exists.
transfers 21/2 -4
Each vehicle requires a certain amount of
from racks (intercity "service time" at the stop, varying with the
runs) 4-6 number of boarding and alighting passen-
Loading Single coin or token gers. The average headway between vehicles
fare box 2-3 using each loading position at a stop to
Odd-penny cash fares 3-4
Multinle-zone fares: handle passengers, therefore, depends on the
prepurchased tickets number of boarding and alighting passengers
and registration on and on the number of loading positions. In
bus. 4-6 addition, volume is somewhat increased if
vehicles can overtake each other when enter-
cash, including regis- ing or leaving loading positions. -
tration on bus 1 6-8
A detailed analysis of service times is be-
Per door. yond the scope of this discussion. Table 11.7
BUS TRANSIT 347
Exclusive bus loading area adjacent to a freeway. Note fencing for passenger protection.
summarizes loading and unloading time per acceptable rule of thumb might be to assume
passenger per door, from which average ser- that the headways at a curbside bus stop (in
vice time per vehicle may be calculated. minimum seconds of interval between ve-
The number of buses that can be handled hicles) could be about twice the average
at curbside bus stops without unacceptably service time per vehicle. Along any artery,
long queues (and associated waiting lines) the stop with the longest service time will be
being caused varies principally with this ser- the bottleneck. The capacity of the artery
vice time per bus and, to a lesser degree, with itself could be increased by providing differ-
the number of loading positions. Additional ent bus stops for different routes, provided
loading spaces (or additional length of bus vehicles could overtake each other. To illus-
zones) increases the capacity, but at a de- trate: Assume that along "Main Street" the
creasing rate as the number of spaces in- average service time at the busiest bus stop is
creases. No full statistical analysis of these 25 sec. Provided the length of the bus stop
relationships has yet been achieved, but data is adequate, this stop will handle buses at a
from actual operations indicate that a bus minimum headway of about 50 sec. Head-
stop can serve buses arriving at half the ways can be approximately halved (fre-
average service rate, or trip frequency. with quency of service doubled) by providing
well under 10 percent probability of forming alternate sets of bus stops far enough re-
queues beyond the stop. moved from each other so as not to cause
Until additional knowledge of the under- interference in entering and leaving the load-
lying statistical phenomena is available, an ing zones. Each set of stops can then handle
TABLE 11.8—MINIMUM DESIRABLE LENGTHS FOR BUS

CURB LOADING ZONES
LOADING ZONE LENGTHb (FT)

APPROX.
APPROX. BUS ONE-BUS STOP TWO-BUS STOP
BUS SEATING LENGTH NEAR FAR MID- NEAR FAR MID-
CAPACITY (FT) SIDE SIDE d. BLOCK SIDE' SIDE
d
BLOCK
30 and less 25 90 65 125 120 90 150
35 30 95 70 130 130 100 160
40-45 35 100 75 135 140 110 170
51-53 40 105 80 140 150 120 180
Source: American Transit Association.
b Measured from extension of building line, or from an established stop line, whichever is appropriate. Based
on side of bus posilioned 1 ft from curb; if bus is as close as 6 in. from curb, 20 ft should be added to near-side
stops, 15 ft to far-side stops, and 35 ft to midblock stops.
Increase 15 ft where buses are required to make a right turn. If there is a heavy right-turn movement of other
vehicles, near-side stop zone lengths should be increased 30 ft.
Based on roadways 40 ft wide, which enable buses to leave the loading zone without passing over centerline of
street. Increase 15 ft if roadway is 36 ft wide, and 30 ft if roadway is 32 ft wide.
buses at 50-sec headways, and the street as a ties, any difference does not lie in the opera-
whole can handle buses at 25-sec headways, tion of the stop itself, but in the capacity of
if exactly 50 percent of .the buses are as- the roadway lane leading into and away from
signed to each set of stops, and if schedule the stop.
reliability can be maintained. Of course,
ample smoothly-operating stops help assure REFERENCES
schedule reliability. However, it should be
realized that in the case of the usual all-bus- "Preliminary Progress Report of Transit
lane operation, buses would be restricted to Subcommittee, Committee on Highway Ca-
this lane, hence overtaking would be im- pacity." Proc. HRB, Vol. 40, pp. 523-549
(1961).
possible and multiple stops would not be
"A Policy on Arterial Highways in Urban
feasible. Areas." American Association of State
Table 11.8 gives the minimum desirable Highway Officials (1957), pp. 139-140, 389-
lengths for bus curb-loading zones, for one- 293, 357-370, 435-437.
and two-bus loading conditions. CROWLEY, K. W., "Analysis of Car-Bus
Relationships in the Lincoln Tunnel." Traf-
Bus Stops on Freeways fic Eng., Vol. 63, No. 12, pp. 22-27 (Sept.
1963).
Bus loading zones on an exclusive road- HoDciuNs, E. A., "Effect of Buses on
way within a freeway right-of-way have ca- Freeway Capacity.." Highway Research Rec-
ordNo. 59,pp. 66-82 (1965).
pacities similar to those of curbside loading S. "Report of institute of Traffic Engineers'
zones. Here again, the length of the stop Technical Committee 3-13 on Reserved
and the ability of buses to overtake others Transit Lanes." Traffic Eng., Vol. 29, No.
are important. Given similar loading facili- 10, pp. 37-40 (July 1959).
APPENDIX A
VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW

ON ACTUAL HIGHWAYS IN THE
UNITED STATES
349
TABLE .A.1-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON RURAL FREEWAYS
VOLUME IN SELECTED HIGHEST HOURS AS A PERCENTAGE

NO. DIREC. 24-HOUR VOLUME OF ANNUAL AVERAGE 24-HOUR VOLUME (AADT)
LOCATION OF COUNT STATION OF ROUTE OF
LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AADTa PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20-rH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
New England
Maine
1.9 mi from Yarmouth 4 195 EB 16.1 14.0 13.4 13.0 12.6 12.2 -
WB 17.4 14.6 13.4 12.9 12.5 .12.2 - -
Both 9,457 13,402
1.3 mi from Augusta 4 195 NB 20.4 14.1 13.4 12.9 12.6 12.2 - -
SB . 21.6 17.4 16.2 14.9 14.4 14.0 - -
Both 4,247 8,118,
New Hampshire
0.5 mifrom Manchester 4 US 3 Both 10,424 20,643, 23.4 17.1 15.7 14.9 14.1 13.8 - -
3.Omi from Concord 4 193 Both 7,536 17,863, 22.5 21.0 19.9 19.0 17.8 16.9 14.8 -
Rhode Island
LOmifrom Warwick 4 195 NB 13.3 11.7 9.8 8.7 - - - -
SB 11.2 9.6 - - - - - -
Vermont
Both 4,933 6,179 10.8 9.4 8.6 8.2 7.9 7.4 - -
5mi from Brattleboro 4 191 NB 33.6 26.2 25.3 23.9 22.3 20.0 15.4 -
SB 40.2 33.4 29.7 26.5 25.2 24.0 20.0 -
Both 3,971 9,207c 25.2 20.7 20.0 18.7 17.7 17.1 15.8 -
4mi from Montpelier 4 189 NB 21.3 15.6 14.1 13.3 13.0 12.6 11.0 -
SB 16.6 13.9 12.3 12.0 11.9 11.7 11.0 -
Both 3,962 5,463 16.2 13.0 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.4 10.7 -
l0mi from 8ellowsFalls 4 91 NB 25.5 19.8 18.2 17.1 16.0 15.5 13.8 -
SB
5,711c
37.7 31.2 29.0 26.0 24.1 23.3 19.9 -
Both 2,466
Middle Atlantic
New York
02miWofNYS208 4 NYS17 Both 12,500b - 23.4 19.6 16.6 14.9 12.8 10.9 7.9 5.5
Pennsylvania
2.5 mi N. of Allentown 4 178 EB 10.9 9.4 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.6 -
WB 14.1 12.4 12.0 11.6 11.4 11.2 -
Both 30,594 40,019 11.4 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.3 - -
2.5 miNof York 4 183 NB 15.2 12.7 11.9 11.5 11.2 11.1 -
'SB 16.6 14.2 13.6 13.3 12.8 12.1 -
Both 11,855 17,685 14.3 12.2 11.7 11.5 11.2 10.9 -
South Atlantic
Maryland
Baltimore-Washington Expwy. S of 4 NB 13.8 12.8 12.6 12.4 - 11.8 -
Md. 176, 2.2 mi from Dorsey . ' SB 12.4 11.2 10.8 10.5 - 10.3 -
Both 28,889 - 11.6 10.0 9.7 9.6 - 9.7 -
Virginia
0.3 miS ofRt 659 near Staunton Rt 81 NB 24.2 17.7 15.1 13.6 13.2 13.0 11.8
SB 17.2 15.1 13.7 12.3 12.0 11.4 10.1
Both 4,179 9,108° .16.1 '13.6 13.1 13.0 11.3 11.1 10.1
North Carolina
l4mi from Greensboro . 4 185 Both 9,560 15,400° 15.9 13.0 12.2 11.8 .11.3 11.1 10.1'
4 mi from Salisbury 4 185 . Both 9,980 13,869° 19.6 11.6 10.9 10.3 9.8
10.2
9.4
10.1
8.4
9.3
9 mi from Greensboro 4 US 29 'Both 6,740 10,515° 18.0 11.2 10.5 10.4
lOmi from Fayetteville 4 195 Both 5,680 12,004° 16.2 12.8 11.8 11.3 10.9 10.7 10.0
South Carolina
Pacolet R. near Spartanburg 4 185 Both 6,319 10,096° 16.1 11.4 10.5 9.8 9.7 ' 9.5 8.9
East North Central

Illinois . NB 18.0 15.4 14.7 14.6 14.1 13.9 13.0
4.2 mi from South Holland 4 FAP 122
SB 15.6 14.6 14.0 13.1 12.9 12.7 .12.3
Both 14,000 20,890° 12.0 11.4 10.9 10.6 10.4 10.3 10.1
Michigan , EB 34.4 30.3 28.7 26.6 24.7 23.5 19.1
1.0 mi from New Hudson 4 196
WB 34.9 29.5 26.0 23.7 22.5 20.9 16.7
Both 17,329 47,212° 22.0 20.2 18.9 18.4 17.8 17.1 14.9
1.Omi from Romulus 4 194 EB 16.6 14.4 13.6 12.7 12.3 11.9 10.8
WB 17.1 14.0 11.5 11.1 10.8 10.5 9.8
Both 27,437 37,291 14.8 11.8 10.9 10.7 10.5 10.3 9.7
3.5 mi from Monroe ' 4 175 NB 14.9 12.6 11.8 10.9 10.6 10.3 9.4
SB 15.0 12.9 12.1 11.8 11.2 11.0 10.3
Both 14,240 27,368° 14.4 12.1 11.3 10.9 10.6 10.4 9.6
8mi from The Heights 4 US27 NB 43.1 37.1 34.2 32.6 31.6 29.9 26.0
SB 76.0 52.2 47.5 45.0 43.3 41.1 32.2
Both 4,727 18,748° 40.7 34.7 32.4 30.8 29.9 29.0 25.8
2.Omi from NewBuffalo 4 194 NB 22.6 20.0 18.7 17.6 17.0 16.3 14.5
SB . 51.4 29.8 26.3 23.8 22.4 21.1 15.7
Both 8,018 ' 22,888° 28.1 21.1 19.3 18.8 17.3 16.9 14.9
TABLE A.1-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON RURAL FREEWAYS (CONT.)

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
Michigan (Cont'd)
4.0miEofMarshall 4 194 EB 18.8 16.0 14.7 13.9 13.4 13.1 11.7 10.0
WB 16.7 14.0 12.9 12.4 12.0 11.7 10.9 10.0
Both 9,435 16,467° 17.4 14.2 13.2 12.6 12.2 11.9 10.9 9.8
3mifromAlto 4 196 EB 35.3 17.8 16.2 15.5 15.0 14.5 12.6 10.6
WB 31.2 15.2 13.7 12.7 12.0 11.6 10.8 9.8
Both 6,061 9,302° 21.1 15.2 13.5 13.1 12.6 12.3 11.2 10.0
5.6 mi from St. Ignace 4 175 NB 29.8 26.2 25.1 24.1 23.5 23.2 21.1 18.6
SB 24.8 22.1 21.2 20.4 20.1 19.6 18.2 16.5
Both 2,736 7,645° 24.8 22.3 21.6 21.2 20.4 20.1 18.8 17.6
Ohio
5.1mifromAshland 4 171 NB 22.4 18.6 16.6 15.5 15.2 14.8 - -
SB
Both 10,019 21,005°
22.9
21.0
16.7 14.6 13.8 13.0 12.5 - -
-16.4 14.5 13.9 13.4 13.0 11.8 10.6
3.1mifromNorthKingsville 4 190 EB 18.6 15.5 14.8 14.4 14.2 14.0 13.2 12.0
WB 26.2 20.7 19.3 17.7 17.0 16.5 14.8 13.2
Both 6,624 15,277° 17.8 16.4 15.6 15.3 14.9 14.7 13.8 12.5
2.0mifromWapakoneta 4 175 NB 16.9 12.7 11.7 11.2 10.8 10.5 9.9 9.0
SB 15.9 13.0 12.4 12.0 11.7 11.3 10.3 9.5
Both 7,685 13,441 15.5 12.3 11.5 11.3 11.1 10.8 9.8 9.0
Wisconsin
11.1 mifrom Milwaukee 4 194 EB 17.3 14.7 13.9 13.2 12.3 11.9 11.0 10.2
WB 21.3 16.7 15.5 14.5 14.0 13.8 12.2 11.2
Both 17,860 32,820° 15.2 13.7 13.1 12.4 12.2 11.9 11.2 10.3
27 mi from Madison 4 190-94 NB 28.2 22.6 19.7 19.2 18.5 18.2 15.8 13.4
SB 44.7 32.1 27.1 25.5 24.4 23.4 19.8 16.1
Both 6,317 16,384° 26.4 20.2 18.9 18.0 17:2 16.8 15.6 14.0
West North Central
Lowa
S of Fuller Rd. in West Des Moines 4 135 NB 19.4 16.2 15.4 14.9 14.4 14.0 - -
SB 16.5 14.3 13.3 13.0 12.7 12.3 i - -
Both 5,517 9,575° 17.7 14.6 13.9 13.5 13.1 12.9 - -
NB 18.8 16.3 14.8 13.6 12.9 12.3 - -
3miNof Crescent Interchange 4 129
SB 23.5 20.6 19.6 18.9 18.2 17.2 - -
Both 4,646 8,815c 15.7 14.6 13.8 13.4 13.2 12.9 - -
Kansas 13.1 12.8 11.6
5.5mifromMapleHill 4 170 Both 4,465 7,811° 17.7 15.3 14.2 13.5
Missouri 14.1 13.8 10.8 9.8
20 mi from St. Louis 4 144 WB 14,835 31,911° 25.2 17.3 15.1 14.6
4 144 'NB 6,983 10,956° 13.6 11.9 11.4 11.0 10.7 10.7 10.0 9.3
15miNEofSpringfield
Nebraska 13.2 11.8 10.0
4 180 . NB 30.4 18.9 16.1 15.1 13.3
11 miSW of Omaha 10.3 9.6
SB 29.9 19.4 15.7 13.3 12.6 12.2
Both 7,030 12,296° 18.2 14.6 13.1 12.5 11.9 11.6 10.6 9.5
North Dakota
EB . 18.3 14.8 13.1 12.2 11.9 11.6 - -
2 mi from Mapleton 4 194
WB 19.7 13.9 13.1 12.5 12.1 11.8 - -
Both 3,758 6,000 15.1 12.3 11.6 11.1 10.8 10.4 - -
EB 25.5 18.2 17.0 16.4 15.5 15.4 - -
lmifromSWFargo 4 194
WB 22.4 16.9 15.2 13.5 12.2 11.7 - -
Both 2,486 5,244. 18.5 15.5 15.0 14.7 14.2 9.9 - -
. EB 26.5 14.5 13.6 13.0 12.6 12.2 - -
3 mi from Buffalo 4 194
WB 25.3 15.1 13.7 13.2 12.9 12.7 - -
Both 2,626 4,367° 16.4 13.1 11.9 11.5 11.3 11.1 - -
194 EB 24.7 17.2 14.5 13.3 12.9 12.6 - -
4.5 mi from Sanborn 4
WB 21.0 16.0 14.9 14.3 13.5 13.1 - -
Both 2,540 4,469° 16.6 14.8 13.9 12.9 12.4 12.2 - -
194 EB 24.5 15.1 14.1 13.5 13.0 12.8 - -
2 mi from Medina 4
WB 35.1 18.7 16.9 15.9 15.4 14.7 - -
Both 1,741 3,641° 22.2 14.7 13.9 13.4 13.1 12.7 - -
West South Central
Arkansas 9.3 8.1
4 130 EB 16.7 13.0 12.0 11.4 10.9 10.5
SmifromBenton
WB 19.0 15.8 11.6 11.0 10.6 10.4 9.7 8.7
Both 8,850 11,375°
Oklahoma
4 135 Both 7,650 - 16.7 12.3 11.8 11.4 11.1 10.7 9.8 7.3
-
NofOkiahomaCity
7mi from Canute 4 140 Both 4,574 - 14.0 10.8 10.5 9.0 8.4 8.1 7.0
Texas 10.4 9.2
S of Austin, Travis Cty. 6 135 NB 20.9 14.4 12.8 12.0 11.7 11.4
SB 35.3 13.7 12.2 11.7 11.4 11.2 10.4 9.5
Both 8,000 11,957°
TABLE A.1-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON RURAL FREEWAYS (CONT.)

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT° PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
Texas (Cont'd)
5 mi from Corsicana 4 145 NB 20.3 15.7 14.1 13.1 12.5 12.3 11.2 9.9
SB 21.8 14.0 12.9 12.1 11.6 11.2 10.2 9.0
Both 5,460 8,974°
ttlountain
Arizona
Smi from Bensor 4 110 EB 13.0 8.6 8.2 8.2 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.0
WB 15.6 10.1 9.6 9.5 9.3 9.2 9.2 9.1
Both 4,397 8,188°
4 mi from Gila Bend 4 110 EB 15.1 9.5 8.7 8.7 8.5 8.3 8.2 8.1
WB 17.6 9.2 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.4 8.4 8.3
Both 3,537 6,775°
Colorado
20 mi from Denver 4 125 NB 26.4 18.0 16.2 15.0 14.4 13.8 12.0 10.5
SB 23.9 18.6 17.6 16.7 16.0 15.3 13.2 10.6
Both 8,223 14,609° 16.5 14.0 13.3 12.9 12.5 12.1 11.2 10.0
8mjNofpueblo 4 125 NB 19.4 17.4 15.5 14.2 13.7 13.2 12.2 10.9
SB 16.2 14.2 13.6 13.1 12.6 12.1 11.3 10.3
Both 6,810 12,357° 16.0 14.2 13.7 13.0 12.7 12.3 11.2 10.2
Idaho
...-24.6 ml from American Falls 4 115W NB 18.4 14.5 14.0 13.4 12.6 12.0 .11.2 10.1
SB 24.0 22.4 21.6 20.7 20.1 19.8 17.8 13.8
-(
Both
'vlontana - -.
1,678 3,165° 15.7 13.8 13.4_ -12.9 12.6 12.5 11.7 11.0
4,0miWofButte 4 190 NB 20.3 16.3 15.6 14.6 13.9 13.6 12.5 -
SB 22.2 15.1 13.8 13.0 12.4 12.0 10.6 -
Both 4,906 8,814° 13.9 12.5 12.0 11.8 11.7 11.5 10.9 -
7.0miWofBillings 4 190 EB 21.8 17.3 16.7 15.8 15.3 14.8 10.5 -
WB 16.6 11.6 10.8 10.2 9.8 9.7 8.7 -
Both 4,289 6,793° 12.6 11.7 11.1 10.8 10:4 10.3 9.6 -
8.0miWofGreatFalls 4 115 NB 22.7 17.1 15.4 14.7 14.0 13.4 11.1 -
SB 37.0 13.5 12.7 12.1 11.6 11.0 10.2 -
I
Both 4,092 6,345° 19.6 12.0 11.6 11.1 10.8 10.7 10.1 -
Nevada
30 mi from Las Vegas 4 115 NB 18.8 16.3 15.6 14.8 13.9 13.5 11.9 10.4
SB 32.7 19.9 18.4 17.4 16.4 16.1 14.3 12.4
Both 6,409 12,237° 19.1 13.3 12.3 11.9 11.5 11.2 10.3 9.3
Wyoming
4.Omi from Rawlins 4 180 Both 2,999 5,987° 13.5 12.9 12.4 12.1 11.9 11.7 - -
Pacific
Oregon
4 NB 17.6 14.7 13.4 12.8 12.6 12.3 11.5 -
Pacific Hwy. 15,5 mi N of Salem
SB 26.6 14.0 12.9 12.3 11.9 11.5 10.8 -
Both 12,871 21,487° 16.8 13.0 12.3 11.9 11.5 11.3 10.6 -
4 I 80N EB 32.0 24.2 21.4 19.2 18.0 17.1 - -
1 mi from Troutdale
WB 30.7 28.3 24.9 23.5 22.3 21.7 17.6 -
Both 7,096 18,431° 23.4 21.5 20.0 18.7 17.7 17.2 - -
Washington
4.8 mi W of Olympia; Olympia 4 US 101 EB 34.0 28.5 26.1 24.5 23.5 21.9 17.2 13.6
leg of junction US41O WB 17.6 16.2 15.5 15.1 14.8 14.4 13.2 11.2
Both 8,125 18,974° 20.7 17.9 16.8 16.4 15.6 15.2 13.3 11.9
5.2 mi from Centralia 4 IS NB 23.3 17.0 14.9 14.3 13.9 13.8 12.4 11.1
SB 16.8 15.7 14.7 13.9 13.5 13.3 12.6 11.6
Both 10,728 20,542° 15.1 13.6 13.2 12.8 12.6 12.4 11.7 10.9
11.4 miNof Everett 4 15 NB 16.5 14.2 13.6 13.1 12.8 12.6 11.5 10.0
SB 21.1 19.1 18.4 17.3 16.9 16.7 14.5 12.0
Both 10,915 20,469° 14.4 13.4 13.0 12.8 12.6 12.3 11.6 10.5
4.8 mi from Olympia 4 US 101 EB 45.5 39.7 35.5 32.7 31.0 29.3 22.4 17.1
US410 WB 28.8 21.3 20.5 19.5 18.6 18.0 16.1 13.2
Both 3,769 11,292 26.9 23.7 22.1 20.8 19.7 18.4 16.4 14.1
4.8 miWof Olympia 4 US 101 NB 22.0 14.7 14.0 13.6 13.3 13.0 12.1 11.1
US410 SB 31.9 19.8 18.5 17.7 16.9 16.3 13.7 11.0
Both 4,356 7,682° 19.3 13.9 13.4 13.1 12.6 12.3 11.5 10.5
For calendar year 1962 except as noted. b For calendar year 1961. 'Peak day occurred on a Saturday or Su
TABLE A.2-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON RURAL EXPRESSWAYS

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
New England
Rhode Island
Sakonnet River Bridge 4 RI 138 NB 18.6 16.9 13.4 10.8 - - - -
SB 17.3 13.3 11.5 10.7 - - - -
Middle Atlaniic
Both 11,812 20,852c 15.6 13.7 12.5 11.4 10.8 10.5 - -
New Jersey
6mi from Dover 4 US46 EB 19.2 18.7 18.6 18.0 17.5 16.9
lmi from Ramsey
Both 25,438b - 14.5 12.3
4 Rt17 SB 20.9 20.3 20.2 19.7 19.4 17.9 16.1 11.7
2.Smi from PomptonLakes
Both 21,414" -
4 Rt23 EB 20.1 18.9 18.7 17.4 16.2 16.1 15.2 13.6
New York
Both 22,066" -
21 miNof Utica 4 NYS12
NYS28
Both 4,900b - 50.8 27.1 22.9 21.1 20.2 19.4 15.9 12.2
lOmi from Saratoga 4. US9 Both 9,700b .- 18.4 15.6 13.4 12.3 11.4 10.9 8.1 6.2
south Atlantic
4ary1and
1.3 mi from Aberdeen 4 US4O NB 11.2 10.0 9.7 9.4 - 8.9 -
SB
-
11.4 10.2 9.8 9.7 - 9.3 - -
Both 28,693 10.7 9.5 9.1 8.8 - 8.5 - -
1.2miSofwajdorf 4 US3O1 NB 15.3 13.6 13.1 12.4 - 11.8 - -
SB
-
20.7 16.1 13.4 12.5 - 11.5 - -
West Virginia
Both 12,437 14.9 11.9 10.8 10.5 - 9.8 - -
4.8 mi from Charleston 4 US6O EB 13.4 12.0 11.6 11.4 11.1 10.8' - -
WB
Both 16,125 26,079
19.2 13.8 11.9 11.2 10.9 10.6 -
East North Central
Michigan
8mifromPerry 4 M78 NB 27.5 14.3 12.5 11.8 11.7 11.4 10.7
SB 26.3 15.4 12.8 11.6 11.3 11.0 10.0
Both 7,271 9,985 19.1 12.5 11.6 11.2 10.7 10.5 9.9
2miSofMason 4 U5127 NB 23.1 13.2 12.4 11.7 11.5 11.2 10.5
SB 22.6 15.4 14.2 13.8 13.4 12.9 11.9
Both 6,815 10,661° 16.1 13.2 12.5 12.1 11.8 11.4 10.8
Ohio
4.6mifrom Vienna 4 US4O EB 17.8 14.5 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.6 10.8
WB 17.8 .13.8 13.1 12.2 11.8 11.5 10.6
Both 10,220 18,092° 15.6 12.7 12.1 11.6 11.4 11.2 10.5
0.5rnifromPortage 4 US25 NB 17.8 13.3 11.9 11.6 11.4 11.1 10.4
SB 13.9 12.0 11.5 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.4
Both 9,781 14,946° 15.5 11.7 11.2 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.0
West North Central
Iowa
1.5mifromHmton 4 US75 Both 5,260 7,279 11.2 10.2 9.9 9.7 9.6 9.4 -
Minnesota
1.9 mi NW of Anoka 4 USlO NB 27.9 24.5 22.6 21.4 20.7 19.9 16.3
SB 32.2 28.6 27.5 26.6 26.0 25.2 20.6
Both 11,639 25,440° 18.7 17.9 17.4 16.9 16.5 16.2 14.9
5.9 mi from Lakeland 4 US12 EB 18.1 16.2 14.9 13.9 13.3 12.9 12.0
WB 20.6 18.8 17.1 16.3 15.9 15.6 13.4
Both 9,723 15,974° 17.7 12.9 12.6 12.2 12.0 11.8 10.9
2.3 mi SW of Jordan 4 US169 NB 32.3 24.1 18.5 17.2 16.5 15.9 14.0
SB 32.1 19.9 16.1 14.9 14.1 13.6 12.3
Both 4,887 10,221° 22.2 18.0 16.2 14.3 13.8 13.6 12.1
Mountain
Idaho
2.5miEofPostFalls 4 US1O EB 31.6 19.5 15.8 15.0 13.9 13.2 12.1
WB 32.4 19.6 18.0 16.8 15.8 14.8 12.7
Both 8,567 20,862° 19.8 15.9 14.5 13.9 13.5 13.2 11.9
New Mexico
4.3 mi N of Santa Fe 4 US64 NB 21.7 14.5 13.0 12.4 12.3 12.1 11.4
U584 SB 21.7 18.0 16.7 16.1 15.8 15.4 14.0
US285 Both 6,718 - 21.7 14.5 13.3 12.7 12.3 12.2 11.5
For explanation of notes see Table A.

TABLE A.3-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON RURAL HIGHWAYS WITH MORE THAN TWO LANES

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AAD1 PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
New England
Maine
3.2 mi from Biddeford 4 US I NB 11.8 8.5 7.5 6.4 5.9 5.4 - -
SB 10.5 8.2 7.4 6.4 5.8 5.5 - -
Both 6,966 10,878 13.1 11.9 11.4 11.2 10.9 10.7 - -
Rhode Island
8mi from Providence 4 RI 146 NB 22.0 18.7 17.4 15.8 13.7 13.4 11.7 -
SB . 29.6 18.8 16.5 15.9 15.3 14.7 13.3 -
Both 13,542 18,965 17.4 13.6 12.9 12.2 11.6 11.5 10.8 9.9
8mi from Warwick, Rodman 4 NB 39.7 25.5 17.9 14.1 12.9 12.1 9.0 6.6
Hwy. Sof Cranston Corners SB 56.8 28.0 19.9 13.7 12.9 11.8 8.8 5.5
Both 5,686 18,660° 37.0 21.5 18.2 15.8 14.1 13.3 - -
0.5 mi from Wakefield 4 US 1 Both 5,566 19,154° 33.8 27.2 24.2 22.9 22.3 21.5 18.9 15.0
8 mi from Providence 4 US 6 Both 11,054 18,281° 13.0 12.1 11.6 11.1 10.5 10.1 - -
Middle Atlantic
Pennsylvania
0.3 mi from Leetsdale 4 Pa 65 NB 11.5 9.7 9.4 9.0 8.9 8.8 - -
SB 10.8 10.3 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.8 - -
Both 15,928 20,011 10.0 9.6 9.4 9.3 9.2 9.2 8.9 8.6
South Adantic
Delaware
8mi from Wilmington 4 US4O Both 24,927' 41,960° 12.6 11.1 10.3 10.2 9.9 9.7 - -
Smi from Wilmington 4 US 202 Both 14,178b 21,741 13.3 12.2 11.8 11.6 11.1 10.9 - -
6. mi from Smyrna 4 US13 Both 12,516b 22,451° 15.2 14.4 13.8 13.3 12.7 12.5 - -
2 mi from Milford 4 US113 Both 6,911' 14,757° 18.9 17.1 16.2 15.9 15.3 15.0 - -
I miS of Greenwood 4 US 13 Both 6,142b 10,543° 12.0 10.6 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.7 - -
Florida
15mi5ofJacksonville 4 USi NB 35.2 14.3 13.0 11.7 11.3 11.1 10.4 -
SB 15.9 12.1 11.1 10.7 10.5 10.4 9.6 -
Both 10,525 -
US1 NB 24.9 23.1 21.4 19.7 18.8 17.5 15.8 -
0.5 mi S of Florida City 4
SB 19.2 16.2 14.9 14.5 14.1 13.6 12.3 -
Both 4,625 - 15.9 13.9 13.3 13.0 12.3 12.0 11.0 -
USI NB
2.5 mi S of Oak Hill 4
SB 29.9 15.2 14.2 13.3 13.0 12.6 11.4 -
Both 6,245 -
North Carolina
1 mifromWrightsvi!eBeachon 4 Both 6,520 16,732° 24.4 23.2 21.4 20.6 19.8 18.8 16.5 -
Wrightsville Beach Bridge
South Carolina
4.3miEof.Easley 4 US123 Both 9,462 14,735° 14.8 11.9 10.1 9.7 9.5 9.3 8.9 8.4
East North Central

Indiana
5.5 mi from Greenfield 4 US4O EB 26.9 11.4 11.7 11.0 10.9 10.5 - -
WB - - - - - - - -
Both 8,791 13,592°
8.5mifromColumbus 4 US31 NB 16.0 14.5 14.4 14.2 13.7 11.6 - -
SB
16,703°
- - - - - - - -
Both 10,504
15.2 mi from Lafayette 4 US 52 EB 17.6 13.9 14.9 11.5 11.3 10.5 - -
WB . - - - - - - -
Both 8,488 13,077°
Michigan
2 mi from Mt. Clemens 4 US25 NB 16.0 15.0 14.4 14.1 13.9 13.7 12.5 11.0
SB 21.9 19.8 19.3 18.2 18.0 17.5 15.4 11.7
Both 15,518 28,501° 13.8 12.9 126 12.4 12.2 11.9 11.3 10.3
2.5 mi from St. Johns 4 US27 NB 27.4 21.1 19.4 18.7 18.0 17.5 15.8 13.0
SB 39.8 29.3 28.1 26.9 25.8 25.1 20.7 14.3
Both 8,252 18,017° 22.3 18.4 17.6 17.2 16.8 16.2 14.9 13.1
SmifromDraytonPlains 4 US1O NB 18.1 14.3 13.9 13.3 12.9 12.5 11.4 10.6
SB 22.0 20.8 19.3 18.4 17.9 17.4 15.0 12.0
Both 9,226 18,069° 16.8 15.5 14.8 14.4 14.0 13.7 12.4 10.9
7.7 mi from Monroe 4 US24 NB 30.8 16.3 14.7 13.4 12.4 11.3 10.2 9.3
SB 26.8 15.3 13.6 12.5 11.8 11.3 10.2 9.1
Both 4,441 6,809° 17.5 12.2 11.4 10.9 10.4 10.2 9.6 8.7
2.8 mi from Schoolcraft 4 US13I NB 15.1 12.2 '11.6 11.3 11.2 10.9 10.2 9.4
SB 17.5 12.3 11.8 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.1 9.3
Both 5,446 7,982° 12.9 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.8 10.7 10.0 9.3
Wisconsin
9.0mifromFondDuLac 4 US4I NB 33.3 23.2 21.9 21.2 20.6 20.1 17.6 13.3
SB 34.8 27.2 25.2 24.6 23.9 23.3 20.7 15.9
Both 9,144 21,063° 21.1 18.5 17.2 16.9 16.2 15.9 14.6 13.4
TABLE A.3-.VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON RURAL HIGHWAYS WITH MORE THAN TWO LANES (CONT.)

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
West North Central

Missouri
20mifromKansasCity 4 Rt69 SB 18.7 17.0 16.5 15.9 15.4 15.1 14.0 12.7
Both 8,544 13,318,
11 mi from Warrensburg 4 Rt 50 EB 29.8 26.7 24.3 22.8 21.9 21.3 17.9 14.3
Both 4,459 10,312
15mifromSt.Louis 4 Rt61 Both 15,342 25,411 11.8 11.2 11.0 10.7 10.4 10.2 9.7 9.1
East South Central

Alabama
0.5mifromMorris 4 US31 Both 8,180 12,957 13.1 11.6 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.7 9.9 9.1
Tennessee
1 mi N ofGoodlettsville 4 SR 11 NB 10.9 10.2 9.7 10.1 10.1 9.5 9.3 . 8.9
SB 13.9 12.7 11.9 10.0 10.9 10.7 9.5 8.9
Both 13,662 21,095c
West South Central
Louisiana
6.2miWofPortAllen 4 U5190 EB 22.8 16.8 16.0 15.3 14.8 14.4 - -
WB 17.7 12.4 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.6 - -
Both 12,306 19,129C 17.2 13.0 12.4 12.0 11.7 11.5 - -
3mifrornNofco 4 US61 EB 22.4 15.6 14.6 14.1 13.8 13.3 8.8 7.8
WB 16.5 12.9 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.4 8.8 8.1
Both 11,981 - 13.6 11.8 11.4 11.1 10.7 10.4 8.7 7.5
1.9 mi SW2f.penhamSprings 4 U5190 EB 17.2 12.8 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.3 10.3 8.2
WB 14.3 12.0 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.8 10.1 8.8
Both 11,307 15,303, 11.2 10.0 9.6 9.4 9.3 9.2 8.3 7.8
8 mi E of Shreveport 4 US8O EB 15.1 11.3 10.9 10.5 10.3 10.2 9.1 8.4
WB 19.0 12.5 11.7 11.2 10.9 10.6 9.2 8.6
Both 11,530 16,611c 12.8 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.7 9.5 - -
rexas
4.3 mi E of Shamrock 4 US66 EB 15.9 13.9 13.0 12.0 11.5 11.2 10.3 9.6
WB 17.7 14.3 13.5 13.2 12.7 12.6 11.8 11.0
Both 4,170 9,305c
Mountain
Arizona
2mi from Wickenburg 4 US6O Both 5,354 11,659° 13.2 8.6 8.1 7.9 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.7
Colorado
3 mi E of La Junta 4 US5O EB 17.1 15.7 14.7 13.9 13.7 13.5 12.1 11.1
WB 16.0 15.5 14.9 14.4 13.9 13.3 11.8 10.9
Both 2,497 4,588° 14.4 13.9 13.3 12.5 12.0 11.9 11.4 10.6
Nevada
3mifrom Verdi 4 US4O EB 18.5 15.3 14.5 13.7 13.4 13.2 12.4 11.3
WB 20.2 17.1 16.1 15.6 15.2 14.7 13.1 11.5
Both 6,279 13,514° 14.0 13.0 12.7 12.5 12.3 12.2 11.5 10.5
1.5 mi from Sparks 4 US4O EB 13.3 11.6 10.9 10.5 10.2 10.0 9.5 8.9
WB 13.9 12.7 12.1 11.6 11.4 11.3 10.5 9.9
Both 5,820 9,522° 11.1 10.5 10.2 10.1 9.9 9.8 9.4 8.9
Utah
lmifromFarmington 4 US91& Both 19,361 27,075° 12.0 11.4 11.0 10.8 10.5 10.4 - -
US89
4.SmifromMurray 4 US91, Both 12,146 22,737° 15.7 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 11.0 - -
US 89 &
US 50
6mi fromSSalt Lake 4 US4O Both 6,114 18,978° 30.5 24.6 22.1 21.5 20.9 20.2 - -
Pacific
Oregon
Pacific Highway, N. of Ashland 4 US 99 Both 10,676 17,580° 11.0 10.5 10.1 9.9 9.8 9.7 9.1 8.6
Washington
SE leg of jct; in Seattle 4 US99& NB 12.3 11.4 11.0 10.6 10.4 10.1 9.3 8.5
216 St. Both 32,276 48,040c
For explanation ofnotes see Table A.I.

TABLE A4-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON TWO-LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS

DIREC. 24-HOUR VOLUME OF ANNUAL AVERAGE 24-HOUR VOLUME (AADT)
LOCATION OF COUNT STATION ROUTE OF
NUMBER TRAVEL
AADTa PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
New England
Connecticut
1.0miNofConn163,Montville Conn32 Both 8,900 11,272 12.2 10.2 10.1 10.0 10.0 9.9 9.6 9.1
S of US 62, Woodbury US6 Both 5,600b 9,549° 18.1 16.0 15.1 14.2 13.7 13.2 12.1 10.3
Sof Route 80, Clinton Conn8l Both 1,500b 5,477° 29.9 27.8 26.1 24.7 23.9 23.3 20.7 17.7
Maine
2.Omi from Farmington US2 Both 3,827 7,143 17.2 14.9 13.5. 12.7 12.3 12.0 -
2.7 mi from Houlton US1 Both 3,274 4,545 11.9 10.8 10.3 10.0 9.9 9.7 - -
5.5 mi from Augusta
New HampShire
US 201 Both 3,035 4,221 12.5 11.0 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.6 - -
8 mi from Portsmouth
Vermont
US 1 Both 7,091 11,960° 14.2 13.1 12.7 12.4 - -. -
2 mi from Rutland US7 Both 6,462 11 1 970° 15.1 13.2 12.6 12.4 12.1 12.0 11.3 -
Middle Atlantic
New Jersey
South River Rd., E. Brunswick Twp. Both 4,145b - 16.5 13.3 12.7 11.2 10.8 10.5 10.3 9.8
Elmer Cantreton Rd., 16.0 mi from Bridgeton
New York
Both 2,092b - 14.6 13.7 12.9 12.7 12.1 12.0 11.3 10.2
8.Omi from Livonia US15 Both 8,000b - 30.3 18.5 17.8 17.1 16.4 15.9 13.9 11.9
0.05 mi W of W. Winfield Village
Pennsylvania
US 20 Both 2,800 - 26.4 19.6 18.2 16.4 15.0 15.0 12.5 10.7
1.Omi from Tinleyville Pa88 Both 3,848 6,823° 16.7 12.0 11.1 10.8 10.5 10.3 9.8 9.3
South Atlantic
Delaware
4mi SW of Milford, Sussex Co.
Maryland
SR36 Both 1,473b 2,130° 21.6 11.3 10.6 10.3 10.2 10.0 - -
3.Smi from Hagerstown
Virginia
US4O Both 9,680 - 14.5 12.3 11.7 11.3 - 10.8 - -
0.9miWofRichmond(Wcitylimjts) Rt6 Both 11,030 14,851 16.4 14.1 13.6 13.1 12.7 12.5 11.5 10.4
11.1 mi from Bowling Green Rt301 Both 7,623 21,587° 15.1 14.5 14.2 13.5 13.3 13.1 11.1 9.8
0.3 mi SE of Fredericksburg Rt2& 17 Both 7,080 14,110° 16.1 13.3 12.4 11.7 11.6 11.3 10.0 9.3
6.6 mi from Lynchburg Rt 291 Both 6,160 8,985° 12.8 11.3 10.9 10.6 10.4 10.2 9.8 9.3
1.0miNWofTappahannock Rt 17 Both 3,158 6,112° 17.1 15.0 14.5 13.5 13.5 13.1 12.4 11.3
1.3 mi E ofTallysville Rt 33 Both 1,854 3,760° 23.5 20.9 19.5 18.8 17.9 17.5 14.5 11.8
1.3 miS of Fincastle (S city limit) Rt 220 Both 2,808 4,127° 15.5 13.5 12.2 11.9 11.7 11.5 10.5 9.7
0.2 mi from Standardsville Rt33 Both 1,319 3,395° 35.9 23.0 21.1 19.9 18.0 17.4 14.8 12.3
1.7miWofRt3 Rt20 Both 974 21 730 36.1 23.0 20.9 19.0 18.5 18.0 15.9 13.8
12.2 mi from Farmville Rt45 Both 682 1,244° 22.1 15.2 14.5 14.1 13.8 13.6 12.3 11.0
2.0 miS of Steeles Tavern Rt 56 Both 200 490° 42.0 29.0 28.5 22.5 21.5 21.0 17.5 14.5
4.0miSofRt60 Rt 156 Both 198 394° 35.4 26.3 24.7 21.7 19.7 19.2 16.7 13.6
West Virginia
1.9 mi from Triadelphia US4O Both 8,886 15,120° 12.0 10.4 9.9 9.8 9.6 9.4 - -
2.1 mi from Martinsburg US 11 Both 7,569 10,726° 11.5 10.1 9.5 9.2 9.1 9.0 - -
US52 Both 4,558 6,652° 12.3 11.2 10.7 10.4 10: 2 10.2 - -
3.lmi from Huntington
SH 17 Both 2,889 7,571° 22.1 15.0 12.9 11.9 11.5 11.1 - -
4.8 mi from Henderson
2.9 mi from Welch US 52 Both 3,560 4,786° 11.2 9.8 9.5 9.4 9.2 9.2 - -
Florida
SR45 Both 4,795 - 14.3 13.0 12.6 12.4 12.0 11.8 11.4 -
4.OmiSof Punta Garda
4.0miEofCrestview SR1O Both 2,940 - 26.4 12.4 11.4 11.1 11.1 10.4 9.7 -
Georgia.
6miW of Athens US29&78 Both 9,202 16,101° 22.0 11.9 10.3 9.8 9.7 9.5 - -
3 miNE of Statesboro US 301 Both 6,136 10,584° 14.0 11.5 11.0 10.6 10.2 9.9 - -
1 mi SW of Midway US 17 Both 5,301 8,279° 11.3 10.6 10.3 10.9 9.8 9.6 - -
6.5 mi SE of Thomson US78 Both 4,424 6,759° 16.4 11.2 10.6 10.2 9.9 9.6 - -
6mi NE of Gainesville US23 Both 4,261 6,459° 14.0 12.0 11.4 10.6 10.1 9.7 - -
North Carolina
US 301 Both 7,240 17,397° 17.0 14.5 13.0 12.2 11.9 11.7 10.8 -
1.8 mi S of Halifax city limits
8mi from Asheboro US 220 Both 8,100 10,668° 12.3 11.1 10.7 10.2 10.1 9.9 8.7 -
South Carolina
4.9 mi S of Hardeeville US 17 Both 5,722 10,410° 13.3 11.3 10.7 10.2 9.9 9.8 9.2 8.7
4.3 mi SW of Manning US 301 Both 4,351 9,532° 17.1 15.0 14.0 13.0 12.4 12.1 11.1 10.0
10.0 miS of Greenville U525 Both 3,776 5,546 12.4 11.4 10.8 10.4 10.1 10.0 9.3 8.7
5.5 miW of Lexington US 1 Both 3,586 5,321° . 12.4 10.9 10.5 10.0 9.8.
9.3
9.6
9.1
9.1
8.4
8.4
7.8
1.2 miS of Society Hill. US 15 Both 3,498 6,906° 22.6 11.9 10.1 9.7
0.1 miS of SC97, Chester US 321 Both 1,935 3,080° 14.1 11.6 10.9 10.5 10.2 9.8 9.0 8.0
1.1miSEofRosinville US178 Both 1,244 2,190° 21.3 16.8 15.6 14.0 13.4 12.7 11.4 9.8
East North Central

Illinois
NE of Edwardsville Bypass Both 3,700 6,900° 12.8 11.4 10.9 10.5 10.2 10.1 9.5 8.8
US 66
2.2 mi E of Mendota US34 Both 2,500 3,978 14.0 13.2 12.5 12.0 11.6 11.4 10.4 9.6
5.5 mi from London Mills 111 166 Both 1,550 2,610° 19.0 14.6 13.8 13.2 12.8 12.5 11.4 10.3
TABLE A.4-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON TWO-LANE RURAL HIGHWAYS (CONT.)

NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT° PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
Illinois (Cont'd)
City of Watson US45 Both 1,500 3,041° 19.0 15.7 13.4 12.6 12.2 11.9 10.6 9.6
East of Allerton FAS 514 Both 746 1,097° 17.8 12.2 11:1 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.2 9.7
Indiana
3 mi from Vincennes US 41 Both 7,542 11,499° 10.6 10.1 9.7 9.5 9.3 9.0 - -
6 mi from Paragon SR67&6 Both 5,152 9,056 16.4 14.2 13.5 12.8 12.2 12.0 - -
6.5 mi from North Webster SR 13 Both 2,572 769° 29.9 27.5 26.4 25.2 23.8 22.2 - -
I mi from Argos SR3I Both 4,610 6,277 16.7 11.3 10.7 10.2 10.0 9.9 - -
7.8 mi E Wappanee US6 Both 3,947 5,898° 12.4 11.4 10.5 10.2 9.9 9.6 - -
2.1 mi from Rome City
Michigan
SR 9 Both 2,695 4,999° 16.7 15.4 14.7 14.3 13.7 13.0 - -
1.4 mi N of Jct. US 16 U523 Both 7,533 18,888° 18.5 17.9 17.7 17.1 16.8 16.5 15.6 14.2
2.0 mi from Standish .M76 Both 3,583 11,819° 34.4 29.4 27.7 26.4 25.1 24.0 21.0 17.7
4.5 mi S of Main Four Corners, Wolverme US 27 Both 2,915 11,550 38.2 34.1 31.6 30.2 28.8 27.7 24.0 20.4
2.7 miS of Traverse City city limits US 31 & Both 3,849 9,206 22.8 16.9 16.4 15.9 15.5 15.3 13.7 12.7
M 37
3.5 mi N of W city limit of Morley US 131 Both 3,902 7,269° 20.3 17.7 16.6 15.1 14.7 14.5 13.4 12.0
2.0 miS of4th St. in Baldwm M37 Both 2,722 7,714- 27.3 23.9 21.4 20.5 20.1 19.8 18.1 16.1
l0mi from Tarwell M 115 Both 1,922 6,357° 32.8 29.4 27.2 25.9 25.0 23.9 20.6 17.1
2.4 mi N of Rose City N of city limit M 33 Both 1,689 5,312° 60.0 38.3 32.1 29.2 27.9 26.5 22.9 19.0
1.7miEofBrevort US2 Both 1,877 8,600 30.0 28.5 26.6 25.9 24.3 24.0 21.9 19.4
1.0 mi E of E city limit of Buchanan Co. Rd. Both 3,626 4,883 13.6 12.4 12.1 11.9 11.7 11.6 11.0 10.5
4.6 mi from Pentwater US31 Both 2,292 5,561° 22.3 19.9 19.0 18.6 18.0 17.3 15.3 13.1
5.0 mi from Port Sanilac US25 Both 1,451 4 2 768 38.5 31.0 27.9 26.6 25.2 24.3 20.6 16.6
3mi from Capac M21 Both 2,857 5,478 15.1 14.3 13.6 13.3 13.0 12.7 12.0 10.9
3.2 mi S of Alpena S city limit
0.1miWofJct.M95-US41-M28
US23 Both . 2,872 5,263° 16.1 13.7 12.8 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.5 10.8
Both 2,242 5,113° 21.9 17.1 16.1 15.5 15.0 14.6 13.8 12.6
0.3 mi from Hermans M 53 Both 1,604 3,981° 34.2 24.1 22.2 20.8 19.4 18.5 15.7 13.5
6.8 mi N of N jct. with M 72 US131 Both 1,607 4,132° 25.0 20.7 19.7 18.6 18.0 17.6 15.8 13.8
1.2 mi E of Jct. M 99 US12 Both 2,838 4,120° 13.0 10.9 10.5 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.3 8.6
0.7 mi W of W city limit of Homer . M60 Both 2,858 3,697 26.0 10.9 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.0 8.4
0.5 mi from Pompeii M 57 Both 1,586 3,151° 20.2 18.3 17.3 16.2 15.9. 15.3 12.9 11.2
0.4miEofRacoCorners M28 Both 1,132 2,779 24.2 21.7 20.6 20.1 19.6 19.3 18.2 16.9
0.5 miS of US 10 M66 Both 979 2,944° 31.9 28.4 23.8 22.4 21.2 20.4 18.3 14.9
6.8 mi N of Skandia US41 Both 1,703 3,558° 18.3 14.3 13.6 12.7 12.0 11.7 11.3 10.3
9.8miWofW city limit oflthaca Co. Rd. Both 1,054 3,205° 26.0 19.9 17.9 16.8 16.0 15.2 13.2 11.1
2.8 mi N of N city limit of Zeeland Co. Rd. Both 1,315 1,890° 26.0 12.9 12.2 12.0 11.8 11.6 11.1 10.4
10.2 mi S of jct. with US 2 US41 Both 1,151 2,009 17.8 14.7 14.0 13.2 12.7 12.2 10.9 9.8
1.3 miEofEcity limit of Marshall Co. Rd. Both 1,339 1,896 21.0 12.1 11.8 11.4 11.1 11.0 10.4 9.9
lOmiWoflronRiver Both 904 1,919° 18.7 17.4 17.0 16.5 16.3 16.2 15.2 13.9
3.3 mi N ofN city limit of Lake Odessa Co. Rd. Both 796 2,322° 29.8 19.2 16.1 14.8 13.6 13.1 11.7 10.7
5.5 mi from Houghton Lake Co. Rd. Both 368 1,658' 63.9 38.6 34.0 30.4 29.1 28.0 24.2 19.0
10 mi from Cascada Co. Rd. Both 707 1,333 25.6 16.4 15.7 14.7 14.1 13.9 12.7 11.7
5.1 miNof.PawPawSt.inLawrence Co. Rd. Both 612 1,257° 20.6 18.3 17.2 16.3 16.0 15.7 14.2 12.7
Wisconsin
3.7 mi from Menomonee Falls SH175 Both 7,521 9,806 12.9 11.5 11.1 11.0 10.9 10.8 10.5 10.1
6.Omi from Kaukauna US41 Both 5,341 9,526 26.1 21.4 13.6 12.1 11.2 10.7 10.0 9.4
West North Central

Iowa
NW leg Jackson & US 218, Charles City US 218 Both 7,153 10,556° 12.4 11.2 10.6 10.1 9.8 9.7 - -
1 miS of Ames city limits U569 Both 6,585 9,524° 12.8 11.4 11.0 10.5 10.4 10.2 - -
0.SmiEofLean city limits SH2 Both 1,488 2,340 16.5 15.1 14.3 13.4 13.0 12.6 - -
Kansas
2miNof McPherson city limits US8I Both 4,237 7,458° 15.6 12.4 11.1 10.9 10.8 10.6 9.7 -
2.5 mi from Leon city limits K96 Both 2,551 5,189° 30.5 19.1 18.0 17.0 16.2 15.7 14.1 -
2.5 mi E of Great Bend, Banton Co. US 56 Both 3,840 6,450 15.1 11.9 10.7 10.2 9.9 9.7 9.1 -
4mi from Tonganoxie US24 Both 3,246 5,030 13.1 12.3 12.0 11.9 116 11.4 11.1 -
2.8 mi from Fort Scott city limits US 69 Both 2,760 4,156° 17.4 .13.9 13.2 12.8 12.4 12.3 11.2 -
5.8 mi W of Kingman city limits US 54 Both 3,072 5,945° 19.4 13.7 11.9 11.2 10.7 10.6 10.0 -
3.OmiNEofViola,SedgwickCo. K42 Both 2,261 3,815° 19.4 15.7 14.6 14.2 13.8 13.4 12.6 -
3.7 miNof Arkansas city limits US77 Both 2,601 3,375 14.0 12.6 12.3 11.9 11.7 11.5 10.9 -
1.0mi NW of Rossville US 24 Both 2,309 3,615° 18.8 14.4 14.0 13.1 12.4 12.0 10.9 -
6.3 mi from Holton US75 Both 2,195 3,605° 17.9 14.0 12.9 12.6 12.1 11.9 10.8. -
3mi from Colby US24 Both 1,970 4,318° 17.1 14.3 13.5 13.1 12.9 12.6 11.7 -
4mi from Parsons USI6O Both 2,055 2,811 13.6 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.4 11.1 10.0 -
4.Smi from lola US54 Both 2,102 3,437 15.3 12.8 11.7 11.4 11.0 10.9 10.0 -
3.5 mi from Belleville US81 Both 2,010 3,700° 17.6 12.5 11.7 11.4 10.9 10.6 9.4 -
1.0 mi Wof Wilson, Russell Co. US4O Both 1,859 3,692° 21.5 14.0 12.5 11.9 11.6 11.2 10.5 -
1.5 mi from Yates Center US75 Both 1,830 2,836 17.7 13.6 12.6 12.1 11.9 11.6 10.7 -
lmi from St. Johns US 281 Both 1,747 2,969° 16.8 13.1 12.0 11.6 11.1 10.6 9.8 -
3 mi from Phillipsburg US 183 Both 1,537 2,847° 24.0 14.0 12.1 11.5 11.1 10.7 10.2 -
5.5 mi from Wellington US 81 Both 1,555 2,579° 13.0 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.3 -

NUMBER TRAVEL
AADTa PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
Kansas (Cont'd) .2
1.5 mi from Lincoln K18 Both 1,464 3,102 23.6 15.4 13.6 11.9 11.5 10.7 10.0 -
6 mi from Arlington K61 Both 1,305 2,882° 17.9 14.6 12.5 11.8 11.3 10.9 9.6 -
3mi from Oakley US4O Both 1,203 2,419° 14.9 13.6 13.1 12.8 12.5 12.3 11.5 -
4.6 mi from Clay Center K 15 Both 1,168 1,705° 15.5 12.8 12.0 11.6 11.4 11.2 10.5 -
12 mi W of Scott city limits K 96 Both 1,072 1,922° 16.3 13.5 12.5 11.9 11.6 11.3 10.5 -
8 mi from Harper US16O Both 992 1,593 15.7 14.5 12.8 12.2 11.8 11.3 10.4 -
7mi from Oakley US83 Both 764 1,676° 24.2 16.8 15.8 15.2 14.5 14.1 11.8 -
2 mi from Greeley US169 Both 828 2,156° 32.6 15.1 13.4 12.7 12.4 12.3 11.0 -
3.5 mi from Hill City US 283 Both 728 1,186° 22.4 14.0 13.1 12.4 12.0 11.7 11.1 -
3.5 mi from Ulysses K 25 Both 725 1,140° 22.3 13.0 12.0 11.7 11.3 11.2 10.5 -
11 mi from Kingman FAS 303 Both 385 1,021 42.6 21.3 18.4 16.6 15.3 14.3 12.7 -
7.5 mi from Dorrance FAS 591 Both 143 379° 47.6 31.5 29.4 26.6 25.2 24.5 20.3 -
0.8mi from Mankato FAS 340 Both 183 298 35.5 19.1 16.9 15.8 15.3 14.8 13.7 -
4.9 mi from Shakopee US212 Both 7,736 13,386° 16.5 14.3 13.2 12.5 12.3 11.9 10.9 -
4.8 NW of Lakeville
South Dakota
US65 Both 7,262 13,148° 17.2 15.0 13.4 12.8 12.6 12.3 11.4 -
11 mi from Rapid City US 14& 16 Both 3,169 6,048 16.3 14.0 13.6 13.2 - -. - -
6.Smi from SiouxFalls US77 Both 3,254 4,729° 14.8 12.2 11.4 11.0 - - - -
4 mi from Huron US 14 Both 2,392 5,961 22.1 15.9 13.4 12.7 - - - -
5 mi from Aberdeen US 12 Both 2,678 4,884 16.6 12.8 11.5 10.8 - - - -
6.4 mi from White Lake US 16 Both 1,454 2,682° 47.8 16.7 14.7 14.0 - - - -
2.5 mi from Watertown US 81 Both 1,462 2,585 16.8 12.9 11.5 11.2 - - - -
1.2 mi from Bonesteel US 18 Both 841' 1,392° 18.3 13.0 11.8 11.2 - - - -
5.5 mi SE of Wall city limits
Nebraska
190 Both 823 1,747° 18.1 14.0 13.2 12.5 - - - -
6 mi from Fremont US77 Both 5,124 8,225° 16.0 12.4 11.7 11.5 11.1 10.9 10.0 9.0
Smi from ElmCity US3O Both 4,187 8,078° 14.9 12.8 12.2 12.0 11.8 11.7 11.2 10.7
4 mi W of S. Sioux City US2O Both 3,358 5,733° 15.4 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.1 11.0 10.2 9.0
North Dakota
9mi from Minot US83 Both i 4,803 7,355 19.4 16.8 16.3 15.8 14.8 14.6 - -
3mi from Sterhng USIO Both 2,653 4,528° 15.6 12.9 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.4 -
5.5 mi from Belfield US 10 Both 1,081 3,351° • 33.9 21.6 20.0 19.2 18.1 17.8 -
0.5 mi from Michigan City US 2 Both 1,196 2,209° 18.6 14.4 13.7 13.3 12.9 12.6 -
East South Central
Alabama
2.6 mi E of Barton city limits, Colbert Co. US 72 Both 5,064 6,976 15.5 14.7 14.5 14.2 13.9 13.8 13.5
7.5 mi from Montgomery City US82& Both 5,982 10,617 13.1 11.4 10.8 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.1
US 231
11 miS of Mobile at Dog River SH63 Both 4,536 7,532° 17.2 14.4 13.6 13.1 12.7 12.4 11.2
2 mi W of Riverside, St. Clair Co. US 78 Both 5,154t 7,847° 18.4 12.2 11.5 11.2 10.9 10.7 9.8
3.SrniNEofLoxley,BaldwinCo. US9O Both 5,281 8,108° 12.9 11.2 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.3 9.8
1.5 mi from Madison, Madison Co. US72A& Both 4,851 6,637 12.5 11.5 10.9 10.6 10.5 12.3 9.7
SH 20
0.5 mi SW of Mt. Vernon, Mobile Co. US 43 Both . 3,520 4,863° 20.5 12.0. 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.6 9.7
1.2 mi from Paint Rock, Jackson Co. US72 Both 2,638 5,081° 15.1 13.9 13.1 12.7 12.3 12.2 11.4
Kentucky
1.SmiSEofMt.Vernon US25 Both 5,734 - 16.7 14.3 13.1 12.6 12.4 12.0 -
lmiSofCrofton US41 Both 4,190 - 20.8 12.2 11.0 10.3 9.8 9.5 -
I mi NW of Flemingsburg Ky 11 Both 2,533 - 23.7 17.0 15.4 14.6 14.2 13.8 -
2miSEofSturgis US6O Both 3,225 - 16.1 12.7 12.0 11.4 10.9 10.5 -
4miNofPikevile US23 Both 3,500 - 12.6 11.4 10.6 10.3 10.3 10.0 -
2 mi W of Grayson U560 Both 3,103 - 13.5 12.2 11.9 11.3 11.0 11.0 -
8mi from Frankfort US6O Both 3,058 - 14.4 12.4 11.8 11.4 11.4 11.1 -
3 mi E of Caneyville US62 Both 2,047 - 16.6 14.7 14.2 13.7 13.2 13.2 -
0.8 mi W of Loyal US 119 Both 2,596 - 13.8 10.5 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.6 -
4 mi N of Dry Ridge US.25 Both 1,930 - 15.9 14.0 14.0 13.5 13.0 13.0 -
I miSWofWingo US45 Both 2,001 - 13.0 11.0 10.5 10.5 10.0 9.5 -
2 mi W of Campton Ky15 Both 1,429 - 16.3 14.7 13.9 13.3 13.3 12.6 -
1.8 mi SE of Shelbyville, Old Taylorsville Rd. Both 364 - 24.7 14.0 13.7 12.9 12.1 11.8 -
Mississippi
6 mi W ofW city limit of Bay St. Louis US 90 Both 6,520 12,038° 16.2 14.7 14.2 13.7 13.4 13.1 11.7
1.5 mi E ofE city limit ofBolton US 80 Both 4,656 7,989 11.1 10.4 9.9 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.0
1.5 miNofNcity limit of Madison US51 Both 4,279 5,621 11.4 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.9 9.6 9.1
7 mi from Columbus US82 Both 3,131 6,056° 22.5 11.9 10.5 10.1 9.8 9.5 8.9
7 mi from Vicksburg US6I Both 2,612 3,579° 17.3 13.0 12.1 11.5 11.4 11.1 10.2
Tennessee
3.6 mi SW of Brownsville US 70 Both 4,547 7,347° 17.8 14.5 13.5 13.0 12.5 12.1 10.4
2.5 mi from Murfreesboro US 41 Both 5,138 9,126° . 12.9 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.5 10.3 9.5
11.Smi from Madisonville US411 Both 3,902 6,646° 17.9 13.8 13.0 12.5 12.1 11.8 10.2
2.7 mi from Dayton US27 Both 4,291 7,458 15.2 10.6 10.1 9.8 9.7 9.5 8.9

NUMBER TRAVEL
AADD' PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100Tu 200TH
West South Central

Arkansas
0.5 mi from Forrest City US 70 Both 10,125 11,800° 9.4 8.8 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.2
2.6 mi from Hazen US70 Both 4,569 6,186° 11.8 10.6 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.5 - -
6miSW of Prescott US67 Both 4,250 6,150° 13.7 11.4 10.8 10.4 10.1 9.9 - -
2.4mifrom Wilson US61 Both 4,800 6,125° 13.3 9.6 9.2 9.0 8.8 8.7 - -
5.Smi from Marrilton US64 Both 4,025 5,200° 15.0 11.6 11.3 10.6 10.5 10.3 9.5 -
Louisiana
1.0 miS of Plaquemine La I Both 3,541 4,586 13.4 11.2 10.8 10.3 10.1 9.9 8.9 8.3
Oklahoma
3 mi from Duncan US 81 Both 5,938 - 12.3 10.4 10.0 9.6 9.3 9.2 8.7 -
2 mi N of Davis city limits US77 Both 4;306 - 18.5 15.2 13.8 12.8 12.1 11.8 9.8 -
4miW ofStillwater SH 51 Both 3,324 - 21.8 19.0 17.1 15.1 14.1 13.3 10.4
3miWofVinita US66 Both 4,650 - 12.5 10.8 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.6 8.7 6.9
6.5 mi NE of Durant US69 Both 3,703 - 14.7 11.9 11.4 10.0 9.5 9.1 7.8 -
3 mi E of Keystone US64 Both 3,026 - 15.5 13.2 12.0 11.6 10.9 10.6 9.1 -
l2mi from Enid . US8I Both 3,014 - 13.6 12.0 11.7 11.4 11.0 10.7 9.7 7.5
1.Smi from Colgate US75 Both 2,733 - 21.2 15.1 12.1 11.6 10.6 10.3 8.9 -
2 mi SW of Woodward US 183 Both 2,424 - 13.9 12.0 10.7 10.4 10.1 9.9 9.2 -
3.Smi from Hobart US183 Both 2,237 - 16.9 12.3 11.7 11.0 10.9 10.5 9.4 -
8.5 mi from McAlester US270 Both 1,642 - 24.7 14.3 12.7 11.9 11.5 11.3 10.1 -
6 mi E of Wetumka SH9 Both 1,150 - 21.9 16.7 15.6 15.0 14.5 13.9 12.3 9.0
Texas
3.Omi from Humble US59 Both 8,190 13,155° 15.9 14.3 13.7 13.3 12.7 12.6 11.4 10.2
1.0 miEof Cypress, Harris Co. US 290 Both 6,200 10,900° 18.3 15.1 14.2 13.4 12.9 12.8 11.0 9.5
Mountain
Arizona
llmifromFlagstaff US66 Both 4,440 10,496° 15.7 11.3 10.9 10.8 10.8 10.7 10.7 10.6
7 mi from Ashfork US66 Both 3,253 8,735° 17.5 11.5 11.1 11.0 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.8
l9mi from Globe US7O Both 1,768 4,220° 1 16.1 9.4 9.0 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.7
Colorado
1 mi from Sedalia SH 67 Both 611 2,788° 42.4 38.8 34.9 32.6 31.8 30.9 26.5 20.8
ImiWofAult SH 14 Both 1,465 2,386° 14.8 13.4 12.8 12.4 12.2 11.9 10.9 10.0
Idaho
8.2 mi SE ofjct. with SH 21 in Boise US 30 Both 5,455 8,807 14.4 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.6 10.9 10.0
8.7 mi SE of Center St. in Pocatello US 91, US Both 4,537 7,300° 13.7 12.3 11.6 11.2 10.2 10.8 10.0 9.3
191, US 30
3.0 mi E ofjct. with US 410 in Lewiston US 95 Both 3,802 5,647° 14.6 13.0 12.3 11.8 11.4 11.2 10.5 9.8
Montana
10miEofMissoula 190 Both 2,651 5,306° 15.3 14.7 14.4 14.1 14.0 13.9 13.3 -
1 mi E of East Helena US12& Both 1,958 4,497° 18.5 17.1 16.3 15.8 15.5 15.2 13.7 -
SH287
lmiWofSupenor 190 Both 1,847 4,389 19.6 17.3 16.6 16.4 16.1 15.8 15.1 -
8 mi N of West Yellowstone US 191 Both 1,041 3,514° 31.2 28.3 26.9 26.2 25.8 25.5 23.7 -
2mi from Havre US87& Both 2,326 3,576 15.7 11.1 10.7 10.4 10.4 10.3 9.7 -
US2
Nevada
l5mi from Las Vegas US95 Both 4,137 7,527° 25.7 18.5 17.6 17.0 16.6 16.3 15.3 13.7.
0.5miWofWcitylimitsofTonopah US6& Both 1,274 2,164° 17.7 12.2 11.2 10.9. 10.7 10.4 10.0 9.3
US95
New Mexico
WofTucumcari U566 Both 4,425 10,841° 17.2 15.1 14.6 13.8 13.2 12.8 12.1 11.3
3.5miSofTaos US64 Both 3,825 7,908° 16.2 14.1 13.9 13.4 13.2 12.9 11.9 11.0
16.5 mi from Albuquerque NM 10 Both 1,784 5,395° 37.1 29.6 28.1 27.6 26.2 25.3 22.3 18.6
9.8 mi S of Roswell US 285 Both 4,198 6,119° 13.3 11.9 11.6 11.4 11.2 11.1 10.5 9.8
3.3 mi W of Deming U570& Both 3,649 9,830° 17.6 14.6 13.4 12.7 12.2 11.9 10.9 -
US 80
6.5 mi from Los Lunas. US 85 Both 3,198 4,981° 14.6 13.1 12.6 12.0 11.8 11.5 10.9 -
Utah
imi from Sigurd US89 Both 2,423 4,949° 22.3 14.2 13.2 12.6 12.0 11.8 - -
1 mi from Grantsville U540 Both 2,458 5,291° 14.6 12.4 12.1 11.9 11.7 11.5 - -
Wyoming
8.6 mi from Casper US2O,US Both 2,548 4,721° 14.0 12.4 11.7 11.5 11.5 11.3 - -
26, US 80
11.4 mi from Cody US 14 Both 846 4,008° 37.9 33.2 31.1 30.5 29.1 28.3 - -
5.5 mi E of Gillette E corporate limit US 14 & Both 1,659 3 2 480 17.7 16.5 15.8 15.4 15.3 14.9 - -
US 16
7 mi N of Kemmerer N city limit US 189 Both 446 941° 20.6 17.7 16.4 15.5 15.2 14.8 - -
8miNof Carpenter FAS 1103 Both 248 442 33.5 21.8 19.0 17.3 16.5 15.7 - -

DIREC. 24-HOUR VOLUME OF ANNUAL AVERAGE 24-HOUR VOLUME (A.iT)
NUMBER TRAVEL I I I I I I I
AADT I PEAK DAY I MAX. I 10TH I 20TH I 30TH I 40TH I 50TH I 100TH I 200TH
Pacific
Oregon
E of Gresham US 26 Both 10,069 15,198° 13.3 12.4 12.0 11.7 11.4 11.2 10.5 -
2 mi N of Newberg US 99 Both 7,070 12,436° 15.7 14.5 13.6 13.1 12.8 12.5 11.2. -
Washington
2.8 mi from Cleelum US io Both 6,607 14,958° 23.0 18.0 17.0 16.0 15.6 15.2 13.4 11.9
6.0 mi N of Cheney PSH 11 Both 6,193 9,827 12.4 10.7 10.3 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.3 8.9
Jct. PSH 9 & PSH 9 at Discovery Bay, NW PSH 9 Both 2,457 5,854° 24.7 20.2 18.4 17.6 16.9 16.5 14.9 13.0
leg
Jct. SSH 8A & SSH 1-U, 3.1 mi E of Both 3,176 4,988 11.9 10.9 10.6 10.4 10.4 10.2 9.9 9.2
Vancouver
Jct. PSH 3 (US 410) &
PSH 3, Wallula jct. PSH 3 Both 2,275 3,537° 13.8 12.4 12.2 11.7 11.5 11.4 10.6 9.8
E leg, 16.4 mi from Walla Walla
1.2 mi N of Freeman SSH3-H Both 1,627 2,842° 17.3 14.8 14.1 13.6 13.4 13.0 11.9 10.6
&
2.0 mi N of jct. SSH 11-G SSH T.C. near SSH11-G Both 1,893 3,005 16.6 11.3 10.7 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.2 8.8
Othello
£
1.5 mi of Tenino SSH5-H Both 794 2,380° 20.5 16.4 15.5 15.0 14.2 14.0 12.8 11.5
Alaska
Anchorage-Seward Hwy., Anchorage FAP 31 Both 8,960 13,287° 15.7 10.7 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.1 9.6 8.9
2.9 mi S of Eagle River FAP 42 Both 31 089 7,027° 20.0 16.9 16.4 15.5 15.0 14.8 13.5 12.5
0.1 mi S of Potter Creek FAP 31 Both 1,090 4,364° 48.3 38.3 34.2 32.1 31.1 29.8 25.5 17.9
1.1 mi N of Juneau NW city limit FAP 95 Both 1,330 3,431° 26.2 20.0 19.2 18.2 17.4 16.8 - -
1.0 mi N of Ketchikan W city limit FAS 920 Both 1,507 2,179 16.9 14.4 13.9 13.6 .13.5 13.3 - -
For explanation of notes see Table A. I.
TABLE A.5-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON URBAN FREEWAYS

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT" PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
New England
Maine
0.7 miWof US 1A, Bangor 4 1395 EB 19.6 13.3 12.9 12.1 11.7 11.4 - -
WB 21.4 11.5 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.5 - -.
Both 7,120 10,534
1.7 mi from Augusta 4 195 NB 32.4 22.5 20.8 18.9 17.3 16.5 - -
SB 32.1 23.2 20.5 19.2. 17.7 17.3 - -
Both 2,167 6,013c
Massachusetts
2.3 mi W of Mattapoisett 4 US6 Both 15,988 25,509c 16.8 11.4 11.0 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.2 9.7
New Hampshire
4 193 Both 11,804 20,737 20.4 15.9 15.3 14.8 14.3 13.9 - -
0.5 mi from Concord
0.6 mi from Concord 4 193 Both 11,554 21,167C 21.4 16.6 15.6 14.9 14.5 141 12.5 -
0.5 mi S. Jct. US 3 4 193 Both 4,035 15,925, 24.7 20.2 19.1. 18.2 17.4 16.5 14.2 -
2.0mi from Manchester 4 1193 Both 6,352 9,622 15.3 14.3 13.7 13.4. 13.1 12.8 12.1 11.2
Rhode Island
Pawtucket River Bridge 6 195 EB 11.2
11.1
8.8
10.3
- - -
8.2
-
- - -
WB 9.8 8.6
Both 19,216 24,293 10.1 9.7 9.2 8.7 8.3 8.2 - -
Middle Atlantic
New York
Long Island Expwy. at 82nd St.. 6 1495 EB 9.4 8.4 8.2 8.1 8.0 7.9 7.6 7.1
WB 9.4 8.8 8.6 8.3 8.2 8.1 7.6 7.1
Both 127,910 157,940 -
15 mi from N. Y. City, Nassau Co. 6 NYS 495 Both 119,300b - 8.4
11.9
8.3
10.6
8.3
10.3
8.3
10.1
8.2
10.0
8.2
10.0
8.1
9.6
7.9
8.8
Cross Island Pkwy. at 114th Ave., 6 NB.
New YorkCity SB 14.4 13.4 12.8 12.6 12.1 11.8 10.8 9.9
Both 66,610 92,000°
New EnglandThrwy., N. Y. City 6 NB 12.4 10.7 10.0 9.6 9.5 9.3 9.0 8.4
SB 12.6 11.4 10.9 10.8 10.6 10.5 10.0 9.2
Both 47,420 65,970°
TABLE A.5-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON URBAN FREEWAYS (CONT.)

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
Henry Hudson Pkwy., N. Y. City 6 NB 14.3 13.3 12.7 12.2 11.8 11.5 10.5 9.8
SB 15.1 13.7 13.3 13.1 12.9 12.8 11.8 10.9
Both 37,310 38,700
RockawayBlvd. at Queens; N. Y. City 6 NB 37,690 49,170 14.4 12.6 11.7 11.4 11.1 10.9 10.3 9.6
Pennsylvania
Schuylkill Expwy. 2 mi from 6 1805 EB 11.0 10.6 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.4 - -
Philadelphia WB
Both
10.4 9.9 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.7 - -
113,564 134,855 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.4 8.2
Allegheny Co.,4mi from Pittsburgh 4 170 EB 12.4 11.9 11.7 11.5 11.3 11.2 - -
WB 11.6 11.4 11.3 11.2 11.1 11.1 - -
Both 55,896" 70,290
Fort Pitt Tunnel, I mi from Pittsburgh 4 170 EB 13.1 12.8 12.7 12.7 12.6 12.6 - -
WB 15.0 14.4 14.1 14.0 13.9 13.8 - -
Both 47,489 58,012 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.1 9.9
Wend of South (John Harris) Br., 4 183 NB 13.8 12.9 12.6 12.5 12.4 12.3 - -
3.Smi from Harrisburg SB 14.5 12.9 12.6 12.5 12.3 12.3 -
Both 36,974 47,818 11.7 11.1 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.4 10.0 9.6
E. app. to Penrose Ave. Br., 5 mi 6 Pa 291 EB 14.3 12.7 12.5 12.3 12.2 12.1 - -
from Philadelphia WB 12.0 11.5 11.4 11.2 11.2 11.1 - -
Both 47,010 57,381 12.0 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.9 10.8 10.6 10.3
South Atlantic
Maryland
Sof US 40W, 0.9 mi from Catonsville 4 1695 NB 11.0 10.2 10.0 10.1 - 9.7 - -
SB
-
10.3 9.9 9.8 9.7 - 9.3 - -
Both 40,763 9.0 8.7 8.6 8.5 - 8.3 - -
Sof US 1, 0.8 mi from Fullerton 4 1695 NB 14.8 14.2 13.9 13.7 - 13.4 - -
SB 15.7 14.9 14.7 14.6 - 14.4 - -
West Virginia
Both 27,446 - 11.2 10.7 10.6 10.5 - 10.4 - -
Fort Henry Br., 9th & Main St., 4 US4O& EB 17.9 15.3 14.1 13.6 13.1 12.6 - -
3.0 mi from Wheeling 250 WB
Both 21,692 37,006e
12.0 11.2 10.8 10.7 10.5 10.4 - -
Florida
4 SR 600 EB 15.2 13.1 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.6 10.5 -
US 92, approx. 4.0 mi NE of St.
Petersburg WB 23.0 15.2 13.9 13.5 13.3 12.9 11.4 -
Both 9,415 -
East North Central
Illinois
Congress St. Expwy., Chicago 8 190 EB 16.5 14.8 14.6 14.4 14.3 14.2 13.8 13.5
WB -
10.9
-
10.2
-
10.1
-
9.9
-
- - -
- -
-
Both 89,000b 118,680
Kingery Expwy. at Wentworth Ave., 4 180-90-- EB 14.1 13.0 12.7 12.2 11.9 11.7 10.8 10.1
Lansing 294 WB
44,570
-
10.7
-
10.2
-
9.9
-
9.7
-
- -
- -
- -
-
Both 27,600"
Edens Expwy. 3.4 mi from Highland 6 FAP 199 NB 12.2 11.6 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.8 10.4 9.9
Park SB - -
9.4
-
9.3
-
9.2
-
- -
- -
- -
-
Both 27,000b 35,800° 9.9
West North Central -
Kansas
0.1 miNE ofLenexa 4 135 Both 10,786 15,097° 17.2 11.5 11.0 10.8 10.7 10.6 10.2 -
East South Central
Mississippi
1.0miWofUS45,Meridian 4 US11&80 EB 10.6 10.1 9.7 9.6 9.5 9.3 9.0 8.4
WB 11.4 9.5 9.1 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.3 7.9
Both 10,199 14,748 10.1 9.3 9.0 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.4 7.9
2.5 mi S of Jackson 4 US51 NB 19.3 13.9 12.9 11.8 11.5 11.3 10.5 9.6
SB 18.5 14.0 13.3 12.5 12.1 11.7 11.1 9.9
Both 6,242 8,894° 12.8 11.0 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.4 8.7
Tennessee
0.6mi from Knoxvile 4 175 NB 16.3 15.3 15.0 14.8 14.6 14.4 13.8 12.6
SB 16.3 15.2 14.7 14.5 14.2 13.9 13.1 11.7
Both 20,417 28,230
4.6 mi from Nashville 4 Tenn 1 EB 12.7 11.8 11.6 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.5 10.0
WB 12.4 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.8 10.7 10.4 9.8
Both 24,129 33,615°
Magnolia Expwy., Knoxville 4 140 EB 12.8 12.0 11.9 11.8 11.6 11.4 10.9 9.6
&75 WB 11.5 10.5 10.3 10.2 10.2 10.1 9.7 9.2
Both 21,785 28,743
West South Central -.
Arkansas
Miss. R. Br., 1.0-mi from Memphis 4 155 NB 15.7 13.1 10.9 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.3 8.3
SB 16.6 14.8 13.6 13.2 12.6 12.5 10.4 8.8
TABLE A.5-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON URBAN FREEWAYS (CONT.).

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
Louisiana -
New Orleans Expwy., New Orleans 6 110 EB 21.5 19.1 18.4 18.1 17.7 17.3 15.9 14.1
WE 22.2 18.4 17.8 17.7 17.5 17.3 16.7 15.2
Both 38,542 50,693 21.4 12.4 12.0 11.8 11.7 11.6 11.2 10.8
Oklahoma
N of jct. of 140, Oklahoma City 6 135 Both 19,157 - 14.8 12.1 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.7 8.2 -
Texas
2.Omi from SanAntonio 4 110 NB 14.2 13.9 13.7 13.6 13.6 13.5 13.2 12.4
SB 15.5 14.7 14.5 14.3 14.2 14.1 13.8 12.3
Both 52,000 65,261
1.0 mi from San Antonio 4 135 NB 15.0 14.5 14.3 14.2 14.1 13.9- 13.4 12.0
SB 12.3 11.6 11.3 11.2 11.1 11.0 10.7 10.3
Both 41,172 48,544
Gulf Fwy. 6mi from Houston 6 NB 12.4 12.1 11.9 11.7 11.6 11.3 10.3 9.1
SB 12.9 12.7 12.6 12.5 12.4 12.3 11.8 10.4
Both 70,180 85,995
Central Expwy. at Ross Ave., Dallas 6 US 75 NB 14.8 13.7 13.5 13.2 13.0 12.9 12.1 11.2
SB 14.8 13.5 13.1 13.0 12.9 12.8 12.4 11.9
Both 60,406 78,210
l.Smi from Austin 4 135 NB 17.5 16.0 15.7 15.5 15.2 15.1 14.6 12.9
SB 16.5 15.8 15.6 15.4 15.2 15.1 14.6 9.7
Both 30,953 44,286
1.5 mi from Ft. Worth 6 135W NB 13.7 13.2 13.1 13.0 12.9 12.9 12.6 11.5
SB 13.5 12.7 12.3 12.2 12.1 12.0 11.8 11.0
Both 51,677 66,432
6.lmi from Houston 6 145 NB 14.4 13.5 13.1 13.1 12.9 12.8 11.8 10.0
SB 15.0 12.6 12.3 12.1 11.9 11.8 11.1 10.3
Both 44,920 62,798
EastTexasFwy.,1.Omifrom 6 NB 14.6 14.0 13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5 12.8 12.1
Houston SB 13.9 13.2 13.0 13.0 -12.9 12.8 12.5 12.0
Both 41,170 49,538 I
Texas (Cont'd)
4 135 NB 13.9 13.0 12.7 12.5 12.4 12.4 12.0 11.1
1 mi from San Antonio
SB 14.3 13.8 13.4 13.3 13.1 13.1 12.5 11.6
Both 29,954 41,499
4 110 EB 11.8 11.2 11.1 10.9 10.8 10.7 10.2 9.6
1 mi from Beaumont
WB 13.5 12.8 12.3 12.0 11.9 11.8 11.1 10.4
Both 22,867 30,609
110 EB 13.9 12.0 11.7 11.5 11.4 11.2 10.8 10.3
2.0 mi from Beaumont
WB 12.3 11.6 11.4 11.2 11.1 11.0 10.5 9.7
Both 18,992 24,729,
1820 NB 17.4 16.7 16.4 16.2 16.1 15.9 15.4 14.6
5 mi from Fort Worth
SB 19.2 18.2 17.9 17.7 17.5 17.5 17.1 16.2
Both 8,639 10,920
Mountain
Colorado 13.2 12.6
3 mi from Denver 125 NB 16.0 14.7 14.4 14.0 13.8 13.5
SB 13.1 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.7 11.6 11.3 10.9
Both 56,400 75,151 13.4 13.0 12.6 12.4 12.2 12.0 11.6 11.3
Wyoming
2.7 mi from Cheyenne 125, NB 17.8 14.6 14.1 13.4 12.9 12.2
US 85 SB 17.8 14.4 13.9 13.3 12.8 12.4
US 87 Both 1,656 2,264
Pacific
Oregon
Columbia R. Hwy., Portland I 80N EB 17.0 16.0 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.4
WB 19.1 17.7 17.4 17.1 16.9 16.6
Both 44,342 60,502 11.5 11.1 11.0 10 8 10.7 10.7 10.5
Pacific Hwy., 3 mi from Portland 15 NB 16.4 15.6 15.1 15.0 14.8 14.6 14.1
SB 15.9 15.1 14.7 14.6 14.5 14.4 13.8
Both 31,922 42,383 12.1 11.1 10.7 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.1 9.7
Eugene-Springfield Hwy., 2 mi from Both 12,230 18,017 13.4 11.7 11.1 11.0 10.7 10.7 10.0 9.6
Eugene
For explanation of notes see Table A

TABLE A.6-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON URBAN EXPRESSWAYS

NO. DIREC. 24-HOUR VOLUME OF ANNUAL AVERAGE 24-HOUR VOLUME (..&DT)
LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT8 PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
New England
Rhode Island
0.5 mi from East Providence 6 1195 NB .15.9 13.7 12.4 - - - - -
SB 15.3 14.1 9.8 - - - - -
Middle Atlantic
Both 28,625 35,182 11.5 10.5 10.1 9.6 9.2 9.0 - -
New York
21 mi from New York City
South Atlantic
6 NYS27 Both 20,800b - 11.6 10.4 9.8 9.5 9.4 9.1 8.5 7.8
Delaware
1 mi from Newark
East South Central
4 Del. 2 Both 14,755" 19,519° 11.9 11.2 11.1 10.7 10.6 10.5 - -
Mississippi
3 mi from Jackson 2 US80 Both 12,103 15,330 13.3 9.5 9.1 9.0 8.9 8.7 8.3
Natchez Br. over Miss R. in Natchez 2 US 65 & Both 10,363 14,253° 10.7 9.5 9.2 9.0 8.9 8.7 8.3
7.7
7.9
US84
3 mi from Gulfport 4 US 90 EB 9.6 8.6 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.1 7.9 7.6
WB 14.2 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.3 8.9
Both 18,703 25,658° 10.2 9.0 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.2 7.9
rennessee
East Parkway at Southern R. R 4 NB 10.7 9.8 9.6 9.6 9.4 9.4 9.1 8.2
Underpass in Memphis SB 10.7 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.7 9.6 9.4 8.7
Both 29,929 36,414
West South Central
rkansas
imi from LittleRock 4 SH1O EB 17.5 16.5 16.1 15.6 15.4 15.2 - -
WB
Both 16,000 18,900
20.7 17.7 17.3 17.1 16.9 16.8 - -
)klahoma
W of Clãssen Circle, Oklahoma City 4 1440 Both 39,143 - 10.9 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.5 8.6 -
Between Lincoln Blvd. and Kelley 4 1440 Both 21,552 - 11.8 10.0 9.7 9.6 9.5 9.3 8.9 -
Ave., Oklahoma City I .
Texas
0.5 mi from Lubbock 6 US84 NW 12.9 10.8 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.1 9.6 9.0
SE 17.4 13.8 13.5 13.3 13.0 12.9 12.1 10.8
Both 13,000 18,902°
Mountain
Arizona
0.8 mi from Tempe 4 US6O Both 22,777 31,647 11.3 9.5 9.3 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.1 9.1
4 mi from Tucson 4 110 NB 16.5 8.9 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.5 8:5 8.4
SB 16.2 9.2 8.8 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.4
Both 9,866 12,510°
lmifromYuma 4 US8O Both 6,890 9,996° 11.0 8.0 7.3 .7.2 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.1
Colorado
Speer Blvd. between Franklin and
Gilpin Sts., Denver 6 EB 17.3 15.3 14.7 14.4 14.1 13.7 12.3 8.8
WB 12.8 11.5 11.2 11.0 10.9 10.7 9.9 7.7
Both 24,779 34,449 12.6 11.9 11.7 11.5 11.4 11.3 10.9 10.4
Pacific
Oregon
imi from Eugene
Washington
4 US 99W Both 20,100 28,836 11.9 10.7 10.4 10.1 - 9.7 - -
Jct. PSH 1 & North 175th in Seattle 4 US 99 SB 49,432 62,886 12.4 10.9 10.8 10.6 10.6 10.5 10.1 9.1
Jct.PSH2&6lst Ave. inSeattle 4 EB 27,240 25,680 13.0 12.5 12.3 12.1 11.9 11.8 11.3 10.7
For explanation of notes see Table A.I.

TABLE A.7-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON CITY STREETS WITH MORE THAN TWO LANES

NO. DIREC. 24-HOUR VOLUME OF ANNUAL AVERAGE 24-HOUR VOLUME (AArT)
LANES NUMaER TRAVEL
AADT PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20TH 30m 40TH 50TH 100TH 200rii
New England
Maine
1.4 mi from Portland 4 RtlOO NB 11.8 10.3 9.5 8.6 7.6 - - -
SB 8.8 7.7 7.2 6.7 6.2 - - -
Both 14,636 17,958 10.3 9.7 9.4 9.3 9.2 9.2 - -
0.6mi from Bangor 4 USIA NB 8.8 7.8 7.1 6.8 6.4 6.1 - -
SB 11.0 9.0 7.6 7.0 6.5 6.2 - -
New Hampshire
Both 18,171 23,417° 9.7 9.0 8.9 8.7 8.7 8.6 - -
Main St. in Concord 4 US 3 &
US 202
Both 13,518 18,722 10.3 9.7 9.5 9.4 9.3 9.2 - -
Elm St. in Manchester
Rhode Island
4 US 3 Both 11,587 15,323° 10.5 9.8 9.1 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.3 -
2mi from Cranston 4 R12-3 Both 31,581 35,297 9.2 8.6 8.5 8.2 7.9 7.8 - -
Pawtuxet R. Bridge, Warwick 4 RI 117 Both 22,612 35,260 12.0 10.7 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.4 - -
2mi from Warwick 4 R12 Both 19,150 37,492 19.3 13.6 11.7 10.8 9.9 9.4 - -
0.lmi from Newport
Vermont
4 R1138 Both 16,926 20,904° 9.5 8.0 7.7 7.4 7.3 7.2 - -
0.2 mi from Winooski 4 US7 Both 15,863 23,494° 11.4 10.7 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.9 9.5 -
0.Smi from Montpelier 4 US2 Both 4,608 6,742 15.8 14.9 14.3 14.0 13.6 13.0 11.6 -
Middle Atlantic
New York
1.Smi from Larchmont
Pennsylvania
4 USi Both 16,200b - 16.4 11.7 10.3 10.1 9.7 9.4 8.4 7.6
3 mi from S Wilhiamsport 4 US 15 NB 14.8 10.0 9.1 8.9 8.7 8.6 - -
SB 14.2 11.1 10.8 10.7 10.6 10.4 - -
South Atlantic
Both 17,813 23,767 11.0 9.7 9.5 9.3 9.2 9.1 - -
Maryland
1.8 mi S of Glen Burnie 4 Md2 NB 13.5 12.6 12.2 11.9 - 11.4 - -
SB
-
13.1 12.0 11.7 11.6 - 11.3 - -
Both 26,918 10.0 9.7 9.4 9.2 - 8.8 - -
Florida
13.0 11.7 11.3
. 11.0 10.9 10.8 10.2
1.0miNofMiamiBeach 4 SRA1A NB .
SB 14.4 11.5 10.9 10.5 10.2 10.1 9.4

Both 22,915b . S
Tallahassee 4 US9O EB 13.5 9.8 9.4 9.2 9.1 9.0 8.6

WB 12.6 11.1 10.7 10.4 10.1 10.0 9.6
Both 17,535
1 mi from Orlando 4 US 441 Both 20,700 - 9.9 9.5 9.1 . 9.0 88 8.7 8.4
Sof Warren Br., Jacksonville 4 US17 Both 12,245 - 11.6 1.1.0 10.7 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.3
Georgia
27,830b 35,662 10.5 9.7
. 9:6 9.4 9.4 9.3 8.1
3.1 mi from Atlanta 6 US 19 Both
2.5 mi from Atlanta 4 US78 Both 19,660b 30,533 12.3 10.7 .10.0
93 5
9.7 . 9.4 9.2 8.8
0.3 mi from Atlanta 4 US 19 Both 20,711b 26,503 10.5 9.6 9.2 9.0 9.0 8.7
East North Central . .

Ohio
3.5 mi from Cincinnati 4 U550 EB . 15.7 15.1 14.9 14.7 . 14.5 14.4 -
WB 14.1 13.3 13.2 13.0 12.9 12.8 -
Both 29,132 35,429 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.3
6.7 mi from Cincinnati 4 US42 NB 11.0 10.8 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.3 10.0
SB 10.1 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.3 9.3 9.1
Both 22,658 27,312 9.8 9.4 9.3 9.2 9.1 9.0 .8.8
Keowee St. at bridge, over Miami R. 4 NB 1.3.8 12.0 12.1 11 .7 11.4 11.3 10.7
2 mi from Dayton SB 13.1 11.8 11.5 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.5
Both 13,921 19,072 11.6 10.1 9.9 9.7 . 9.5 9.4 8.7
Torrence Pkwy. bet. Madison & 4 NB 15.3 14.7 14.6 14.4 14.2 14.2 -
Columbia in Cincinnati SB 15.1 14.5 14.4 14.2 . 14.1 . 14.0 -
Both 11,117 13,568 12.2 12.0 11.9 11.7 .11.7 11.6 11.4
West North Central
Kansas
Topeka Blvd.Nof Hampton St., 6 Both 22,597 28,912 9.9 9.5 9.3 9.2 9.0 9.0 8.7
Shawnee County, Topeka . .
10th St. Eof Plass, Topeka 4 Both 10,642 12,799 . 11.4 10.9 10.6 10.5 10.4 10.3 9.9
South Dakota
S of 1st Ave. in Aberdeen 4 US 281 Both 9,237b 13,777c 11.9
S
11.1 10.5. 10.2 - - -

Pierre St. RR viaduct, Pierre 4 US 83 Both 7,483b 14,328 14.6 11.8 11.3 10.8 - - -
East South Central .
Alabama
3.1 mi from Huntsville . 4 US231 Both 14,096 18,636- 12.2 11.7 11.5 . 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.4
TABLE A.7-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON CITY STREETS OVER TWO LANES (CONT.)

LANES NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20rH 30TH 40TH 50TH 100TH 200TH
Mississippi
N. State St. in Jackson 4 US5I Both 23,512 32,628 11.9 10.6 10.4 10.1 9.9 9.8 9.3 8.9
0.05 mi E of US 49, Hattiesburg 4 US 98 EB 11.9 9.9 9.5 9.4 9.3 9.1 8.8 8.3
WB 16.4 12.0 11.7 11.5 11.2 11.1 10.5 9.8
Both 10,281 14,332" 12.6 10.4 10.1 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.3 8.8
Tennessee
Woodland St. Br. in Nashville 4 US 31 NB 15.7 13.8 13.6 13.5 13.4 13.3 12.8 12.1
SB 14.1 13.3 13.1 13.0 12.9 12.8 12.2 9.9
Both 24,402 32,187"
Arkansas-Tennessee River Br., 4 US61 NB 15.5 12.9 11.1 10.7 10.1 9.9 9.2 7.8
Memphis US63 SB 16.0 15.4 13.6 13.3 12.8 12.4 10.8 8.5
US 64 Both 25,779 37,174"
West South Central
Louisiana
Gentilly Road, New Orleans 6 US 90 EB 10.8 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.3 8.6
Both 40,120 47,202"
Scenic Hwy., Baton Rouge 4 US6I EB 13.8 12.4 12.0 11.7 11.5 11.3 10.8 9.8
WB 19.4 12.0 11.5 11.2 11.1 10.9 10.5 9.9
Both 12.3 10.5 10.2 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.6 9.1
Baton Rouge Br., Baton Rouge 4 US 190 EB 15.0 13.4 12.9 12.5 12.2 12.0 - -
HueyP. Long Br., NewOrleans
Both 20,169 29,826 14.1 10.8 10.2 10.0 9.7 9.6 - -
4 EB 14.2 13.2 13.1 13.0 12.9 12.7 12.3 11.5
WB 12.5 11.9 11.6 11.5 11.4 11.3 10.9 9.9
Both 21,044 25,082 11.1 10.5 10.3 10.2 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.5
Oklahoma
Classen Blvd. N of N. 32, Oklahoma 4 Both 25,332 - 11.0 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.1 9.8 -
City
Robinson Ave., Oklahoma City 4 US62 Both 15,877 - 12.4 11.2 11.0 10.8 10.6 10.5 9.8 -
North 23 St., Oklahoma City 4 US 62 Both 17,313 - 10.1 8.9 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.3 7.5 -
Pa. Ave., N of N. 56th St. in 4 Both 11,502 - 14.6 13.4 12.8 12.5 12.3 11.9 11.3 8.0
Oklahoma City
Santa Fe Ave. N of N. 36th St. in 4 Both 5,284 - 22.1 17.0 16.4 16.1 15.3 14.9 12.7 -
Oklahoma City
Mountain
Arizona 7.6
&
Central Lewis Ave., Phoenix 6 Both I 32,273b 1 40,530 10.1 7.7 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 1
Colorado 14.1 13.7 12.5
1 mi from Commerce City 4 US 6-85 NB 18.0 16.7 I 15.4 14.7
SB 17.6 14.7 13.0 12.8 12.5 12.4 12.0
Both 26,825 39,744 12.4 11.1 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.9 9.4
Idaho
4 SH 44 Both 14,266 20,480 14.5 11.3 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.3 -
State St., Boise
Americana Blvd., E end Boise R. Br., 4 Both 13,810 19,929 14.3 13.0 12.1 11.9 11.6 11.5 -
Boise
10th Ave., CaIdwell 4 US 30 Both 6,387 9,881 10.4 9.6 9.4 9.2 9.1 9:0 -
Montana 10.0
Montana Ave., Helena 4 US 91 NB 21.1 12.7 11.4 10.9 10.7 10.6
SB 12.1 11.1 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.3 9.7
Both 8,263 10,834 11.8 10.9 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.2 9.7
Nevada 9.6
3 mi from Las Vegas 4 US 93 EB 12.8 11.3 10.8 10.7 10.4 10.2
WB 14.0 11.0 10.6 10.0 9.7 9.5 9.0
Both 16,318 22,093 11.1 10.1 9.9 9.7 9.4 9.3 8.9
&
Between Reno Sparks 4 US 40 Both 17,384 24,270- 9.7 9.1 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.3
New Mexico
4.1 mi N of Albuquerque 4 US 85 Both 10,890 - 11.1 10.4 10.2 10.0 9.9 9.9 9.6
Utah
2 mi from Salt Lake City 4 US 40 Both 16,536 26,450 16.3 12.3 12.0 11.7 11.5 11.3 -
Pacific
Washmgton
Garland Ave. in Spokane 4 PSH 3 NB 12.8 11.5 11.1 10.8 10.6 10.5 10.0
SB 10.5 8.9 8.6 8.3 8.3 8.1 7.9
Both 21,811 28,630 10.7 9.9 9.4 9.2 8.9 8.8 8.5
Alaska
&
L St. bet. 13th 15th Ave. in 4 Both 11,850b 16,213 10.3 9.4 8.9 8.8 8.6 8.4 -
Anchorage
5th Ave. bet. D & C Sts. in 4 Both 8,370b 11,198 12.8 10.8 10.3 10.1 10.0 9.8 -
Anchorage
For explanation of notes see Table A.l.

TABLE A.8-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON TWO-LANE CITY STREETS

DIREC. 24.-HOUR VOLUME OF ANNUAL AVERAGE 24-HOUR VOLUME (AADT)
NUMBER TRAVEL
AADT PEAK DAY MAX. 10TH 20rH 30TH 40rH 5017H lO&rH 200TH
New England
Connecticut
2 mi from West Hartford US 6 Both 16,000b 26,228° 13.5 10.2 9.9 9.7 9.6 9.5 9.2 8.6
Maine
1.5mi from Lewjston RT126 Both 10,274 14,715° 11.2 10.4. 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.8 - -
0.7 mi from Hollowell US 201 Both 9,696 12,129 11.1 10.5 10.0 9.9 9.7 9.7 - -
0.1 mi from Sanford
New Hampshire
Rt4A-109 Both 8,055 11,064 12.5 10.5 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.8 - -
1.Smi from Concord
Rhode Island
NH13 Both 3,094 - 22.6 13.8 12.9 12.7 12.4 12.2 11.5 -
0.5 mi from Bristol
Vermont
RI 114 Both 11,517 14,808° 10.6 9.7 9.2 9.0 8.8 8.6 - -
Barre
I mi from Rutland
US302
US4
Both
Both
13,427
9,393
18,415
13,673
11.1
12.3
9.5
11.2
9.1
10.9
8.9
10.7
8.6
10.6
8.6
10.3
8.1
10.0
-
-
St. Johnsbury US2 Both 7,013 11,712° 12.2 11.4 11.0 10.6 10.3 10.2 9.7 -
vfiddle Atlantic
ew Jersey
0.5 mi from Plainfield, E. 7th St.
S. GroveSt., EastOrange
Both
Both
9,259b
6,606b
-
- 10.7
11.1
10.6 10.4 10.2 10.1 10.0 9.7 9.5
10.6 10.4 10.1 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.3
Jew York
Watertown US 11 Both 10,200b - 11.8 9.5 9.1 8.9 8.7 8.6 8.2 7.8
Hornell RT 36 Both 10,200b - 9.8 9.0 8.8 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.3 8.0
ou:h Atlantic
4aryland
0.1 mi from Riviera Beach MD 173 Both 10,273 - 12.1 11.5 11.1 10.9 - 10.6 - -
0.7 mi from Cockeysville
1orth Carolina
MD 45 Both 8,607 - 12.2 11.5 11.4 11.2 - 11.1 - -
1 mi from Wilmington, on NECape Fear
R. Br.
Both 12,850 20,085 15.7 12.2 11.5 11.2 11.1 11.0 10.3 -
0.6 mi NW of NewBern city limit
outh Carolina
US7O Both 7,970 11,328' 11.4 10.6 10.2 9.9 9.8 9.7 9.1 -
CooperR. Br., Charleston US 17 Both 13,258 17,696° 11.0 i 10.0 9.8 9.7 9.6 99 I 9 R7
West North Central
Iowa
E leg 17th St. & Mt. Vernon in Cedar Rapids Both 11,215 14,331 11.2 10.5 10.3 10.1 10.0 9.9 - -
E leg Harrison & E. Washington, Mt. Pleasant
I
US34 Both 7,169 12,280 13.0 12.0 10.7 10.2 9.8 9.7 - -
Both 4,328 5,390 11.9 10.7 10.1 9.8 9.7 9.6 - -
N leg 338 St. & Lake in Storm Lake
W leg 11th St. & Main in Adel Both 1,180 1,657 15.8 12.6 11.6 11.3 11.1 11.0 - -
Kansas
Both 863 1,544 15.9 14.0 13.3 13.1 12.9 12.6 12.1 -
Curtis St. E of Topeka Blvd. in Topeka
High St. S of 13th St., Topeka Both 533 689° 15.2 13.7 13.1 12.6 12.2 12.0 11.3 -
North Dakota
0.5 mi from Minot Both 3,750 5,600 13.1 12.3 11.6 11.3 11.1 11.0 - -
East South Central
Alabama
8.0 mi from Birmingham US11 Both 19,880b 24,582 9.5 9.2 9.0 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.6 8.1
Kentucky
Midland Ave., in Lexington US6O Both 10,220 - 10.2 9.1 8.9 8.8 8.7 8.7 - -
Tennessee
Western Ave., between Webster & Leslie in SR62 Both 12,333 15,083 9.4 9.1 8.9 8.8 8.6 8.6 8.3 8.0
Knoxville
West South Central

Arkansas
2 mi from Little Rock US 70 Both 17,600 19,200° 10.7 9.6 8.8 8.4 8.3 8.2 - -
W 7th St. between Broadway & Spring in Both 8,650 10,150 10.8 9.9 96 9.4 9.2 9.1 8.7 8.3
Little Rock
Oklahoma
.lOth.St. N of Pine in Enid Both 5,638 - 15.8 14.0 13.0 12.1 11.5 11.3 10.7 9.6
Strothers St. between University & Both 5,601 - 15.8 12.6 11.7 11.4 11.1 10.9 10.3 9.3
Jefferson Sts., Seminole
D St. between 13th & 14th Sts. in Lawton Both 5,654 - 11.8 10.7 10.5 10.3 10.2 10.1 9.8 8.6
800 W. Fondulac St., Muskogee Both 3,583 -
-
14.5 11.8 11.4 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.4 9.0
11th St. bet. Delaware & Wyandotte in Both : 2,474 13.2 12.0 11.6 11.3 11.2 11.0 10.5 9.7
McAlester
Cedar St. bet. 9th & 10th in Perry Both 1,179 - 24.6 15.0 12.6 12.0 11.5 11.3 10.4 8.5
Kentucky Ave. N of No. 32nd St. in Both 328 - 33.8 21.0 18.9 17.7 17.4 16.2 14.3 11.0
Oklahoma
Mountain
Idaho
11th Ave. in Nampa US3O Both 9,282 12,551° 13.4 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 - -
Latah St. bet. Morris Hill Rd. & Tulare Dr. Both 6 1498 8,913 14.4 11.5 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.4 - -
in Boise
Montana
1 mi from Billings Both 14,712 I 21,143° 141 12.4 11.9 11.5 11.2 11.0 10.6 -
TABLE A.8-VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC FLOW ON TWO-LANE CITY STREETS (CONT.)

NUMBER TRAVEL
Nevada
Kietzke Lane bet. Reno-Sparks city limit Both 13,303 17,234 12.0 11.2 10.5 10.4 9.8 9.7 9.0 8.0
250 ft W of Sutro St., Reno Both 10,093 13,433 12.8 11.8 11.5 11.4 11.3 11.2 10.8 10.3
150 ftWof FAS 704, Sparks FHS727 Both 4,886 7,761 12.4 11.8 11.7 11.4 11.0 10.9 10.4 9.8
Utah
.9thE.and4600S.,2mjfrom Murray Both 14,950 19,766 13.2 12.4 12.2 11.8 11.6 11.4 - -
1.3 mi from Cedar City
Wyoming
US91 Both 3,859 7,512 15.9 10.9 10.5 10.2 10.0 9.7 -
Riner Viaduct, Cheyenne US85&
US 87
Both 12,657 18,446° 11.0 10.4 9.9 9.7 9.5 9.3 - -
Center St. underpass in Casper Both 9,292 11,861 10.9 10.3 10.0 9.8 9.7 9.6 - -
Laramie US3O Both 8,069 14,137° 12.3 11.4 10.6 10.1 10.0 9.8 - -
Goose Greek Bridge, Sheridan US14&
US 87
Both 5,456 8,739 14.5 11.1 10.8 10.6 10.4 10.2 - -
Pacific
Oregon
imifromSalem
Washington
Both 9,258 11,814 11.3 10.7 10.4 10.3. 10.2 10.2 9.9 -
4.0miSofSeattle SSH1K Both 11,185b 13,885 9.3 9.1 9.0 9.0 8.9 8.9 8.6 8.3
29th Ave.& Grand Blvd.,W leg, in Spokane Both 4,295 6,024 13.9 11.9 11.3 10.8 10.7 10.6 10.1 9.6
Alaska
CSt. at Ship Creek in Anchorage
&
FAP 37 bet Ill. St. FAP 61 in Fairbanks
Both
Both
9,540b
3,380
13,698
6,185°
15.8
17.7
12.8 11.8 11.3 11.1 10.9 - -
14.4 13.5 12.8 12.1 11.9 10.9 10.0
For explanation of notes see Table Al.

APPENDIX B
SELECTED OBSERVATIONS FROM

1963 BPR URBAN WEAVING AREA
CAPACITY STUDY
385
TABLE 8.1—SELECTED OBSERVATIONS FROM 1963 BPR URBAN WEAVING AREA CAPACITY STUDY
wEAVmlo rorAL sreco (mph) TIME V. (vph) V. (vph) V. + 3V. (vph) V,1 (vph) V,, (vph)
- MOVEMENT (vph) MOVEMENT (vph) LANE
GEO- SCHEMATIC
TYPE AND LOCATION METREca' . (DIRECtION OP FLOW)
6 II I 6 18 1 6 II 1 6 18 I 6 II I 6 18 1 6 18 I 6 II I 6 18 I
MEN MEN HR MEN MEN FIR MEN MEN HR MEN MEN HR MEN MEN HR MEN MEN HR MEN MEN HR MEN MEN HR MEN MEN HR
Diamond aSs. lane, 2'4' 5:10-. 5:05- 4:25- 3_._._..._ ,,, __.,__-
Easlshore Fwy. N.B. RE 917' 1812 1545 1287 5616 5355 5040 33 32 38 5:16 5:23 5:25 714 380 1854 96 3892
San Pablo off, Richmond, Calif. 41' p.m. p.m. p.m.
Cloverleaf, Eastshore Fwy. S.B. and 18'-33' 5:00- 4:30- 4:24. . .

Universily Ave., Berkeley, Calif. 425' 1440 1364 1271 1460 1370 1276 34 5:06 4:48 5:24 700 797 734 680 567 537 2880 2498 2345 0 3 I 20 3 4
24' p.m. p.m. p.m.
Cloverleaf, Easlshore Fwy. S.B. and I8'-33' . 7:30- 7:24- 7:24- . .

University Ave.. Berkeley, Calif. 425' 1780 1654 1550 1780 1657 1561 32 SI 32 7:36 7:42 8:24 1090 1087 928 690 567 622 3160 2788 2794 0 0 5 0 3 6
24' am. am. am. . I _.
Cloverleaf, Bayshore Fwy. SE
Whipple Ave., Redwood City, Calif.
17'-.29'
445' 1960 1907 1666 5310 5443 5038 SI 31 35
7:30- 7:18- 7:00-
7:36 7:36 8:00 980 1020 888 980 887 778
.
3920 3681 3222 0 0 0 3550 3536 3372
__ _____
48' am. am. am.
Cloverleaf, Bayshore Fwy. at 17'-29' 7:18- 7:18- 7:60 .
Whipple Ave., Redwood City, Calif. 445' 2280 2123 1775 5910 5503 4932 29 38 40 7:24 7:36 8:00 1370 1246 1003 910 877 772 4100 3877 3319 0 0 0 3630 3380 3157
48' am. am. am.
Cloverleaf, Bayshore Fwy. N.B. at 23'-42' 6:54- 6:48- 6:42- . 4
San Bruno Ave., San Bruno, Calif. 449' 1490 1563 1527 6570 6370 6095 41 37 33 7:80 7:06 7:42 930 1033 III 560 530 716 2610 2623 2959 0 0 0 5010 4807 4568
62' am. am. am. . I
Collector-distribuEor road for cloverleaf 187-31 7:36- 7:36 7:12-
inner loops, 19th Ave. and Bayshore Fwy. 503' 1400 1317 1048 1400 1317 1048 32 32 33 7:42 7:54 8:12 820 750 501 580 561 461 2560 2451 1970
NB., San MaIm, Calif. 24' am. am. am.
Diamond aaoiliary lane, Hollywood Fwy. l'-13' 4:30- 4:24- 3:42- - . ' - 4 .________________4
W.B. at Vermont on-ramp and Melrose
off-ramp, Los Angeles, Calif.
1054' 1750 1733 1510 6980 6963 6623 27 29 32 4:36 4:42 4:42 1210 1120 956 540 613 554 2830 2959 2618 - - - -. - -
62' p.m. p.m. p.m.
Cloverleaf, Edens Espy. S.B. and 33'-23' - 8:06- 8:06- 7:36- . . .. . 33
DempsterSt., inner loop, Skokie, 111. lb 1400 1240 1119 5780 5341 5010 39 42 44 8:12 8:24 8:36 740 647 626 660 593 493 2720 2426. 2105 0 O 0 4300 4101 3891
52' am. am. am.
Cloverleaf, Edens Espy. S.B. and 31'-22' 4:30- 4:18- 3:36- - - - 3.__ ,_....__-3
Touhy Ave., inner loop, Skokie, III. 726' 1270 1110 950 4510 4029 3439 48 50 1
5 4:36 4:36 4:36 960 780 640 310 330 310 1890 1770 1570 10 3 6 3230 2916 2483
52' p.m. p.m. p.m.
Colleclor-dislribator rd. Calif. an-ramp to 87-10' 7:06- 7:06- 7:06- . .
Western off-ramp, Eisenhower Enpy. E.B., 868' 1520 1447 1151 1520 1447 1190 40 38 37 7:12 7:24 8:06 900 850 737 620 597. 414 2760 2641 2211 0 0 0 0 0 39
Chicago, III. 26' am. am. am. . - I'' "I
Cloverleaf, Edens Espy. S.B. and 22'-27' 4:36- 4:30- 4:24- - 3.._3
._,_ __
Peberson Ave., inner loops, Chicago, III. 625' 570 503 585 5350 5126 4808 34 32 34 4:42 4:48 5:24 320 280 311 250 223 274 1070 949 1133 4780 4623 4223 - 0 0 0
52' p.m. p.m. p.m.
Dn-ramp-otf.ramp weave, Dan Ryan Espy. 2'-7' 3:48- 3:56- 3:12. - - . 4._ _4
S.B. and ramp from Eisenhower Espy. E.B. 659' 2980 2760 2492 6920 6634 5976 34 35 34 3:54 3:54 4:12 2610 2467 2168 370 - 293 324 3720 3346 3140 20 91 78 3920 3783 3406
md W.B.. Taylor SE., Chicago, Ill. 64' p.m. P.M. P.M. . 2-" " "'"I
On-ramp-off-ramp weave, Dan Ryan Expy. '-7'
2460 2474 2400
.
5800 5500 5401 43 39 37
7:06- 7:00- 7:18.1-
7:12 7:18 8:00 2040 1950 1891 420 524 509 3300 3522 3418 90 83 100 3250 2943 2911
4_ __4
1
SB. and ramp from Eisenhower Eapy. E.B. 659' 2
64' a.m. a.m. a.m.
and W.B., Taylor St., Chicago, Ill.
4:12- 3:18- 3:18
Coiioctorisl4butor rd., Eisenhower Expy.,
Western to California Ave., Chicago, Ill.
''
844' 1400 1320 1234
26'
1430 1326 1240 38 38 40 4:18 3:36 4:18
P.T. p.m. p.m.
980 860 860 420 460 374 2240 2240 1982 20 3 4 10 3 2
I i
4:24- 4:12- 3:54-
_...-
Racine Ave. to Ashland Blvd ,
Auxiliary lane, Eisenhower Expy., 6'-9'
1032'
72'
1570 1386 1355 6800 6807 6458 45 47 47 4:30 4:30 4:54 1150 1003
p.m. p.m. p.m.
956 420 383 399 2410 2152 2153 20 27 20 5210 5394 5083
I l
Chicago, Ill.
2..___2
4:36- 4:36- 4:18-
Local lanes, aaxiiiary lane, Dan Ryan
Expressway SB., 51st St. to Garfield,
Chicago, Ill.
1'-5°
894'
38'
1760 1620 1434 3480 3420 3237 36 37 37 4:42 4:54 5:18
p.m. p.m. p.m.
960 900 814 800 720 620 3360 3 060 2674 1720 1800 1800 0 0 3
l I
22
7:12- 7: 7:
I'Ilanes, colloctoristishator rd., 5''
37 39 7:18 7:18 8:00 610 540 531 600 674 605 2410 2294 2198 2190 2100 1994 0 0 4
Oars Ryan Expy. N.B., 55th St. to 51st St., 890' 1210 1214 1136 3400 3314 3134 36 I I
38' a.m. a.m. a.m.
Chicago, Ill.
3.-
l'-7' 4:36- 4:30- 4:00- 4_________
Local lanes, Dan Ryan Expy. S.B.
822' 1320 .1284 1111 5510 5190 4681 40 37 35 4:42 4:48 5:00
Pershing to 43rd St., Chicago, Ill.
50' p.m. p.m. p.m.
9'-14' 4:36-4:24-- 4:2 5

Local lanes, Dan Ryan Expy. SB., 817 848 370 423 408 2 2086 2072 6580 6364 6122 0 3
521' 1260 1240 1256 7840 7607 7385 35 35 32 4:42 4:42 5:24 890 I 1
list St. to 75th 51., Chicago, Ill.
62' p.m. p.m. p.m.
343
7:42- 7:30- 7:
Local lanes, Dan Ryan Expy. N.B.,
63rd St. to 59th St., Chicago, Ill.
4'-5'
621'
50'
1460 1129 till 4760 4217 3847 37 37 40 7:48 7:48- 8:00
a.m. a.m. am.
990 823 836 470 306 275 2400 1741 1661 0 7 4 3300 3081 2732
l t
28'-48' 14" 17" 18" 5:00- 4:30- 4:06-

Cloverleaf, Sooth Conduit E.B. and 1831 1010 1167 1059 4730 5308 5008 0 0 3 2660 2157 2015
566' 2710 2974 2890 5370 5130 4908 16' 20' 21' 5:06 4:48 5:06. 1700 1807
inner loops from Van Wyck Expy.,
Long island, New York, N. V. 42' 17° 23° 25° p.m. p.m. p.m.
-- -- -- -- - -
- - - - - - - - -- . - -
25" 4:30- 2031
4594 I
2856 4868
- - 27
31° - - 5:30
p.m.
-- 1987 869 Wr><
ii W.
0.
26" 27" 28" 7:30- 7:24- 6:54- 1049 I
1020 1030 1112 4530 46180 4589 0 0 4 1370 1277
2490 2540 2365 3860 3817 3418 29' 30' 30 7:36 7:42 7:54 1470 1510 1253
32° 340 334 a.m. a.m. a.m.
Service rd., simple weave, Van Wyck Expy. 24'-21' 31" 31 33" 5:12- 5:13)- 4:3 330 307 284
1250 11113 927 980 944 920 4190 3932 3687 350 323 233
S.B.to North Conduit to Southern State 625' 2230 2044 1847 2910 2674 2364 32' 32' 33' 5:18 5:18 5:30
34d 330 331 p.m. p.m. p.m.
Pk., Long Island, New York, N. V. 20'
11 0,
29" 29" 31" 7:30-7:18- 6:

tog 390 371 378
3040 2947 2637 3570 3451 3123 29'
296
29'
296
31' 7:36 7:36 7:54
310 a.m. a.m. a.m.
2460 2283 2032 580 664 605 4200 4275 3847 140 133
1
TABLE 8.1—SELECTED OBSERVATIONS FROM 1963 BPR URBAN WEAVING AREA CAPACITY STUDY (CONT.
WEAVING TOTAL SPEED (mph) TIME V., (vph) V., (vph) V. + 31'., (vph) k, (vph) V. (vph)
TYPE AND LOCATION
OrG.
MYrRICT'
MOVEMENT (vph) Movrvwwr (vph)
__________ _____________ - . LANE
SCHEMATIC
(DIRECTION OF FLOW)
6 II I 6 18 1 6 18 I 6 18 I 6 18 I 6 18 I 6 18 I 6 II .1 6 18 I
MIN MIN HR MIN MIN HR MIN MIN HR MIN MIN HR MIN MIN HR MIN- MIN HR MIN MIN HR MIN MIN HR MIN MIN HR
MRjor weave, Ouler ConnecliOn S.E. I7'-12' 29" 29" 25" 4:06- 4:00- 4:12-
luadranl, Van Wyck Espy. 10 Soulhers, 980' 3480 3319 3403 4800 4524 4467 2
29' 25' 4:12 4:18 5:12 2936 2787 2953 464 532 450 4328 4383 4303 866 798 640 534
SIOIe Pkwy., Long Island, New York, N. Y. 40' 32' 29' 25' p.m. p.m. p.m. . 407 424
2 4
C
31b 31" 29" 5:06- 4:54- 4:18-
- 3550 3610 3436 5550 4920 4574 29'
27'
30'
28'
29' 5:12 5:12 5:18 2900 3123 3012
29' p.m. p.m. p.m.
650 487 424 4850 4584 4284 990 733 665 910 577473 14, ><
W. C
loverleaf, Norlhern Stole Pkwy. E.B. and 31'-19' 31" 321 24" 5:24- 5:30- 4:30-
!nlrRnce from Guinea Woods Rd. to 564' 2043 1906 2109 5080 4590 5039 35' 24' 5:30 5:48 5:30 1688 1590 1691 355 316
kleadowbrook Stole Pkwy., Long Island, 418 2753 2538 2945 2645 2438 2566 392 246 364
50' 31' 37' 25' p.m. p.m. p.m.
4ew York, N. Y. 4. 2
l ---4<'2
22" 22" 18" 5:36- 5:30- 4:54-
2380 2330 2235 5480 5354 5048 19' 20' 17' 5:42 5:48 5:54 204
0
2033 1862 340 297 373 3060 2924 2981 2720 2707 2430 580 317 383 W,
I4 21' 16' p.m. p.m. p.m.
37"
Ws
38" 37" 7:36- 7:30- 7:24- 0
1920 1796 1691 4210 3837 3591 39' 39' 39' 7:42 7:48 8:24 1480 1369 1354 440 427 337 2800 2650 2365 1910 1757 1489
40d 380 284 411
40' 40' am. am. am.
_____-
dajor weave, Von Wyck Espy. and ramps 6'-15'
- - -
-. 28" 28" -
- 3:30- 5:24-
- - -
3" """2
rom Ma,n SI. and Queens Blvd. 10
Jillside Ave., Long Island, New York, N. Y.
497'
54'
2503 2451 4747 4622
- 31'
34'
32'
35' - 3:48 4:24
p.m. p.m
2186 2180 317 271 3137 2993 - 30 23 - 2179 2148 0
><
0
3
lajor weave, SOulhern Stole Pkwy. and 5'-8' 1- ""- 3

46" 48" 47" 4:48- 4:48- 4:30-
ayshore Rd. ramp 10 Saglikos Pkwy. and 1583' 2090 1953 1828 3010 2786 2556 45' 47 47' 4:54 5:06 5:30 1990 1740 1650 100 213 178- 2290 2379 2184 300 300 197 620 533 531 0.
leekscher SE. Pkwy., Long Island,
Few York, N. Y.
50' 44' 46' 47 p.m. p.m. p.m
- . - 1w,
W.
0,
., ,.,,,,...,,,,,. . weavna seem. • A,nn,ae speed. °Tbrosah speed.
APPENDIX C
SUMMARY OF STATISTICAL DATA FOR

EQUATIONS OF FIGURES 8.2-8.19
This appendix summarizes, in Tables C-i Other supplementary information is pre-

through C-4, the statistical data associated sented to the right of the main tables. First,
with the equations presented in Figures 8.2 the R2 value, known as the coefficient of
through 8.19. multiple determination, is shown for each
In the main tables the mean and standard equation. An R2 of 0.90, for instance, indi-
deviations are given for each equation vari- cates that the equation accounts for 90 per-
able, as obtained from the data used to derive cent of the variability of the dependent varia-
the equation by multiple linear regression. ble. Some factors not included in the
Next, the "range of use" of variables is given; equations which may account for some of the
this specifies the range within which the unexplained variance are such hard-to-mea-
variable should be kept for an accurate use sure items as trip lengths, signing effective-
of the equation. If a range is given for a ness, and ramp action upstream or down-
variable not included in the equation itself, stream of the ramp under consideration, but
the components preferably should be within not adjacent to the ramp.
the range given, inasmuch as conditions out- Other statistics given are the standard
side the given range could result in a differ-
error of the dependent variable, the number
ent equation. However, there may well be
of different locations used to provide data for
situations which require extrapolation out-
the development of the equation, and the
side the variable range. Also given as statis-
tical background are each of the net regres- number of observations used in the analysis.
sion coefficients and their associated standard Observations were not used if congested
errors, as well as the coefficient of determina- operation, usually consisting of stop-and-go
tion and the level of significance of each of accordion action, was present during the
the independent variables. period counted.
389
TABLE C.1—STATISTICAL BACKGROUND OF EQUATIONS FOR LANE I VOLUME, 4-LANEFREEWAYS
REGRESSION STATISTICS
FIG. SITUATION DESCRIPTION, NET REGRESSION

NO.a EQUATION, AND EQUATION VARIABLESb STO. RANGE COEFFICIENT PARTIAL LEVEL OF STO. NO. OF NO. OF
MEAN DEVI- OF DETERMI- SIGNIFI- R2 ERROR LOCA- OBSER-
ATION USE NATION CANCE OF V, TIONS VATIONS
STD. COEFF.
VALUE ERROR
8.2 Simple on-ramp

V1 = 136 + 0.345 V1 - 0.115V, 0.83 20 431
V,, volume in lane 1 (vph) .736 262 113
V,, freeway volume (vph) 1925 683 400-3400 +0.345 0.008 0.82 0.01
V,, on-ramp volume (vph) 513 118 50-1400 -0.115 0.017 0.09 0.01
8.3 Off-ramp (no nearby ad]. ramps)
V1 = 165 + 0.345 V1 + 0.520V, 0.90 19 518
V1, volume in lane I (vph) 1022 410 131
VI, freeway volume (vph) 1828 828 400-4200 +0.345 0.008 0.79 0.01
V, off-ramp volume (vph) 434 307 50-1500 +0.520 0.021 0.73 0.01
8.4 Off-ramp with ad]. upstrm. on-ramp
V1 = 202 + 0.362 V1 + 0.496V,
- 0.069D,. + 0.096 V1 . 0.97 5 124
V1 = volume in lane 1 (vph) 1223 466 83
V1 = freeway volume (vph) 2440 963 700-4200 +0.362 0.013 0.87 0.01
V,. = off-ramp volume (vph) 497 325 50-1600 +0.496 0.038 0.59 0.01
D,. = dist. to adj. upStrm. on-ramp (ft) 1907 1034 700-3200 -0.069 0.011 0.25 0.01
V. = vol. of adj. upStrm. on-ramp (vph) 236 211 50-900 +0.096 0.055 0.02 0.10
8.5 Cloverleaf on-ramp, no aux. lane
(a) (Ramp <600 vph)
V1 =166 + 0.280 V1 0.42 6 75
V1 = volume in lane 1 (yph) 517 132 102
V ':freeway volume (vph) 1254 305 600-2000 +0.280 0.039 0.42 0.01
on-ramp volume (vph) 359 168 0-599
(b) (Ramp 600-1200 vph)
V1 = 128 + 0.482 V1 - 0.301 V. 0.82 4 51
V, = volume in lane 1 (vph) 460 254 111
V1 =. freeway volume (vph) 1190 409 600-2000 +0.482 0.047 0.69 0.01
V = on-ramp volume (vph) 805 166 600-1200 -0.301 0.115 0.13 0.01
8.6 Cloverleaf on-ramp with aux. lane
V1 = 195+0.273V1-0.146V,+0.723Vd 0.82 7 151
V,.= on-ramp volume (vph) 479 379 100-1500 -0.146 0.023 0.22 0.01
Dd = dist. to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 400-750
Vd = vol. of adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (vph) 208 100 50-500 +0.723 0.087 0.32 0.01
8.7 On-ramp with aux. lane to adj. off-ramp
V1 = 281 + 0.400 V1 - 0.225Dd + 0.394Vd 0.89 4 94
Vi = volume in lane 1 (vph) 1079 336 116
Da = dist. to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 1246 325 800-1700 -0.225 0.048 0.20 0.01
V, = vol. of adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (vph) 506 253 50-1000 +0.394 0.089 0.18 0.01
8 .8 Second of successive on-ramps
= 123 + 0.376V1 - 0.142V 0.93 71 148
= on-ramp volume (vph) 527 415 100-1500 -0.142 0.016 0.35 0.01
Du = dist. to adj. upstrm. on-ramp (ft) 1002 497 400-2000
V, = vol. of adj. upstrm. on-ramp (vph) 296 217 100-1000
Corresponding nomograph in Chapter Eight, giving situation sketch, equation, conditions for use, limiting factors, and steps in use of equation and nomograph
All variables independent except 1/1.
TABLE C.2—STATISTICAL BACKGROUND OF EQUATIONS FOR LANE I VOLUME, 6-LANE FREEWAYS

NO. EQUATION, AND EQUATION VARIABLESb STD. RANGE COEFFICIENT PARTIAL LEVEL OF STD. NO. OF NO. OF
MEAN DEVI- OF _______ ________ DETERMI- SIGNIFI- R2 ERROR LOCA- OBSER-
ATION USE NATION CANCE OF V1 TIONS VATIONS
STD. COEFF.
VALUE ERROR
8.9 Standard on-ramp with adj. off-ramps

V1 = -121 + 0.244V1 - 0.085V 0.80 12 325
+ 640 Vd/Da
Vr = on-ramp volume (vph) 594 349 100-1700
D. = dist. to adj. upstrm. off-ramp (ft) 1459 558 900-2600
V. = vol. of adj. upstrm. off-ramp (vph) 465 251 50-1100 -0.085 0.035 0.02 0.01
Dd = dist. to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 2482 1404 900-5700
Vd = vol. of adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (vph) 449 260 50-1300
Vd/Da . —o + 640 50 0.34 0.01
8.10 Upstream from off-ramp
V, = 94 + 0.231 V1 + 0.473Vr 0.84 11 277
+ 215V,/D,.
= off-ramp volume (vph) 556 365 20-1800 +0.473 0.030 0.47 0.01
D. = dist. to adj. upstrm. on-ramp (ft) 2441 1716 900-5700
V, = vol. of adj. upstrm. on-ramp (vph) 465 287 50-1200
VO ID,. —d +215 60 0.05 0.01
8.11 Cloverleaf inner loop with aux. lane
V, = -87 + 0.225 V, - 0.140V, 0.64 7 136
+O.SOOVd
V, = on-ramp volume (vph) 810 383 200-1500 -0.140 0.040 0.08 0.01
Da = dist; to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 400-850
8:12 Diamond, etc., with aux. lane
V1 = 53 +0.283 V1 -0.402Dd +O.547Vd 0.86 6 155
V1 = volume in lane I (vph) 1164 419 159
V1 = freeway volume (vph) 4139 1179 1900-5600 +0.283 0.013 0.76 .0.01
Dd = dist. to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 627 222 300-1400 -0.402 0.079 0.15 0.01
8.13 Second of successive on-ramps
= 574 + 0.22817 - 0.194V. 0,91 5 104
- 0.714D, + 0.274V
V1 volume in lane I (vph) 686 453 142
V, = on-ramp volume (vph) 480 422 100-1500 -0.194 0.036 0.22 0.01
= dist. to adj. upstrm. on-ramp (ft) 891 261 500-1100 -0.714 0.075 0.48 0.01
V= vol. of adj. upstrm. on-ramp (vph) 348 222 100-1400 +0.274 0.089 0.09 0.01
Corresponding n,mgraph in Chapter Eight, giving situation sketch, equation, conditions for use, limiting factors, and steps in use of equation and nomograph.
See Va and Dj. d See Y. and D.
All variables independent except I/i.
TABLE C.3—STATISTICAL BACKGROUND OF EQUATIONS FOR LANE I VOLUME, 8-LANE FREEWAYS

NO. EQUATION, AND EQUATION VARIABLESb STD. RANGE COEFFICIENT PARTIAL LEVEL OF STD. NO. OF NO. OF
MEAN DEVI- OF DETERMI- SIGNIFI- R2 ERROR LOCA- OBSER-
ATION USE NATION CANCE OF V1 TIONS VATIONS
STD. COEFF.
VALUE ERROR
8.14 Standard on-ramp

V1 = —312 + 0.201 V1 + 0.127 V. 0.68 5 104
V, = on-ramp volume, (vph) 833 220 300-1300 +0.127 0.071 0.03 0.10
8.15 On-ramp with dnstrm. off-ramp
V1 = —353 + 0.199 V1 - 0.057V, 0.88 2 48
+ O.486Vd
V, = on-ramp volume (vph) 739 223 300-1100 —0.057 0.074 0.01 0.25
Dd = dist. to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 1500-3000
Va = vol. of dnstrm off-ramp (vph) 368 160 100-800 +0.486 0.116 0.28 0.01
8.16 On-ramp with auxiliary lane
V1 = 584 + 0.180V, - 0203V, 0.86 5 72
- 0.487Dd + 0.204Vd
V, = freeway volume (vph) 5897 897 3670-7500 +0.180 0.015 0.68 0.01
Vr = on-ramp volume (vph) 515 255 110-1220 —0.203 0.058 0.15 0.01
Dd = dist. to adj. dnstrm. off-ramp (ft) 856 226 500-1100 —0.487 0.068 0.43 0.01
Vd = vol of dnstrm. off-ramp (vph) 557 279 110-1220 +0.204 0.051 0.20 0.01
Corresponding nomograph in Chapler Eighl, giving situation sketch, equation, conditions for use, limiting factors, and steps in use of equation and nomograph.
All variables independent except Vi.
TABLE C.4-STATISTICAL BACKGROUND OF EQUATIONS FOR 2-LANE RAMP AND MAJOR FORK VOLUMES, 6-LANE FREEWAYS
REGRESSION STATISTICS -
NET REGRESSION PARTIAL STD.

FIG. SITUATION DESCRIPTION,
RANGE COEFFICIENT DETERMI- LEVEL OF ERROR NO. OF NO. OF
NO.a EQUATION, AND EQUATION VARIABLESb STD.
MEAN DEV1- OE NATION SIGNIFI- R2 OF V1 , LOCA- OBSER-
ATION USE STD. COEFF. CANCE VI+A TIONS VATIONS
VALUE ERROR OR-V,
8.17 2-Lane on-ramp with accel. lane

(a) Lane 1 calculation
V1 = 54 + 0.0701/1 + 0.049k', 0.23 2 115
V1 = volume in lane 1 (vph) 270 112 . 99
Vj = freeway volume (vph) 1625 611 600-3000 +0.070 0.016 0.15 0.01
V, = on-ramp volume (vph) 2091 453 1100-3000 +0.049 0.021 0.04 0.02
(b) (Lane 1 + ramp lane A) calculation -.
V1+A = -205 +-0.287V1 + 0.5751/, 0.74
VI+A = vol. in lane I + ramp lane A (vph) 1464 413 212
Vj = freeway volume (vph) 1625 611 600-3000 +0.287 0.034 0.39 0.01
V, = on-ramp volume (vph) 2091 453 1100-3000 +0.575 0.046 0.58 0.01
8.18 2-Lane off-ramp with decel. lane
(Lane I + ramp lane A) calculation
ViA = -158 + 0.035W1 + 0.567W, 0.68 1 94
VIA = vol. in lane 1 + ramp lane A(vph) 1093 315 181
V, = off-ramp volume (vph) 1983 433 1100-3000 +0.567 0.049 0.59 0.01
Lane 1 calculation
V1 = 18 + 0.060V, + 0.072W, 0.18
V1 = vol. in lane 1 (vph) 378 163 150
V, = off-ramp volume (vph) 1983 433 1100-3000 +0.072 0.041 0.03 0.10
8.19 Major fork
(a) (Lane 1 + lane A) calculation
V,, = 64 + 0.285 V1 + 0.141V, 0.91 3 84
V. = vol. in lane 1 + ramp lane A (vph) 1151 314 94
V1 = freeway volume 3170 847 1200-4500 +0.285 0.016 0.80 0.01
V, = off-ramp' volume (vph) 1290 571 300-2650 +0.141 0.024 0.31 0.01
(b) Lane I calculation
V1 = 173 + 0.295 V1 - 0.320k', 0.90
Vt = freeway volume (vph) 3170 847 1200-4500 +0.295 0.011 0.90 0.01
= off-ramp volume (vph) 1290 571 300-2650 -0.320 0.017 0.82 0.01
Corresponding nomograph in Chapter Eight, giving situation sketch, equation, conditions for use, limiting factors, and steps in use of equation and nomograph.
All variables independent except 111. I'1+., and K. '"Off" leg at major fork.
APPENDIX D
AVERAGE VOLUME DISTRIBUTIONS,

BY LANE, UPSTREAM OF
ON-RAMP JUNCTIONS
Prior to the development of the detailed the adjacent inner loops. In comparison with
series of equations and nomographs pre- other types of ramps, the cloverleaf inner
sented in Chapter Eight for lane 1 service loop ramp curves show a heavier use of
volumes upstream of on-ramp junctions in lane I up to freeway volumes of 2,400 vph,
levels A through C, more general volume dis- despite the loss of lane I vehicles at the up-
tribution criteria had been developed as an stream adjacent outer connection off-ramp.
interim measure (1, in Ch. 8). These con- Much of the lane 1 traffic is destined for the
sisted of a series of curves presenting average downstream inner loop off-ramp only 400 to
volume distributions by lane upstream of on- 700 ft away. At freeway volumes above
ramp junctions, for a variety of geometric 2,400 vph the comparison shows a heavier
conditions. use of lane 2 at cloverleaf locations, possibly
These freeway volume distributions by because drivers wish to avoid the more severe
lanes are given in Figures D.1, D.2,.and D.3. merging and weaving conflicts present 'at
They are taken just upstream from the ramp high-volume cloXerleaf interchanges.
nose before the merge has taken place. Figure D.2 is derived from 6-lane freeway
For 4-lane freeways, the freeway volume volume distributions at all types of on-ramps,
distributions are presented in Figure D.1 in other than cloverleaf inner' loops, where no
two groups—those at cloverleaf inner loop auxiliary lane is present between the on-ramp
on-ramps and those at all other types of on- and the adjacent downstream off-ramp.
ramps. The reason for this grouping is the Similar curves for the "with' auxiliary
difference in operation at cloverleaf inter- lane" and the cloverleaf cases are not in-
changes caused by traffic weaving between cluded, because few, generalized data are
80
70
C
60
C
50 •• • •••••
0
C 40
30
- 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
FREEWAY VOLUME, 100 VPH (15-MIN FREE FLOW EXPANDED TO I HR(
Figure D.I. Volume distribution on 4-lane freeways upstream from cloverleaf inner loop and
from all other types of on-ramps.
ri
APPENDIX 397
50
WOMMMMEMENEEME
8 2 lb U b b OC -
FREEWAY VOLUME, 100 VPH 05-MIN FREE FLOW EXPANDED TO I HA)
Figure D.2. Volume distribution on 6-lane freeways upstream from all types of on-ramps (with-
out auxiliary lane at on-ramp entrance) except cloverleaf inner loops.
40
NOMEMENNEEMEN
_
_ -
0
NEEMENEENEENE
28 32 38 40 44 48 52 Sb bO Sb
FREEWAY VOLUME, 100 VPH (I5-MIN FREE FLOW EXPANDED TO I HA)
Figure D.3. Volume distribution on 8-lane freeways upstream from on-ramps.
available separate from the information on Figure D.3 provides approximate data for
which the equations and nomographs are all types of on-ramp locations on 8-lane free-
based. ways.
HE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is a private, honorary organization
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on behalf of the Government.
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authority of its Act of Incorporation, adopted Articles of Organization bringing
the National Academy of Engineering into being, independent and autonomous
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Supported by private and public contributions, grants, and contracts, and
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The HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD, organized November 11, 1920, as an agency
of the Division of Engineering and Industrial Research, is a cooperative organi-
zation of the highway technologists of America operating under the auspices of
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HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD

National Academy of Sciences

2101 Constitution Avenue Washington, D. C. 20418

National Academy of Sciences

Transportation Research Board

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