Chapter 8

Geometric Design Manual-2002 Horizontal Alignment

8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

8.1 General

The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the
circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the superelevation section. These elements
are presented in detail in the following text.

8.2 Tangent Sections

From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but
are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better
visibility and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the
danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas,
such as on the Awash- Djibouti Road, long tangents have been shown to increase driver
fatigue and hence cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course of the
horizontal design. The maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0
kilometers.

8.3 The Circular Curve

When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by superelevation of the roadway and/or the side
friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum
horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used:

V2D
R min =
127(e + f )

Where
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e= Maximum superelevation (%/100)
f= Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, and Figure 8-1)

Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Superelevation

Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Radius R (m)
Side Friction 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)

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Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Superelevation (Urban Streets)

Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

VD (km/h)
Min. Horiz. 15 35 60 100 150 215 320 490 810
Radius R .(m)
Side Friction 0.40 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10
Factor (f)

Limiting values have been established for both e and f in the formula. Side friction
coefficients are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of roadway surface,
weather conditions, and type and condition of tires. Tables 8-1 and 8-2 were developed
based on the results of several studies. Figure 6-1 illustrates the graphical results of those
studies for rural highways. As the driver in an urban environment tolerates a higher degree
of discomfort, the values of side friction in Table 8-2 differ from those in Table 8-1,
particularly at lower speeds.

Figure 8-1: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways

Example: V = 100 km/hr, emax = 8% f = 0.12 (from Table 8-1):

1002
R= = 393.7 meters, round to 395 meters
127(0.08 + 0.12)
Other equations used in the calculation of horizontal curve elements are given below and
illustrated in Figure 8-2.

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Elements of a Circular Curve

1) ∆ : Deflection Angle by Arc Definition (in

degrees)

2) R : Radius of Curve by Arc Definition

∆
3) T (Tangent Distance) T = R tan
2

ª ∆ º
4) E (External Distance) E = R «Sec − 1»
¬ 2 ¼

2Π
5) L (Curve Length) L = ∆× R
360

∆
6) M (Middle Ordinate) M = R 1 − cos
2

7) C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.) C = 2R sin ∆

2 Figure 8-2: Curve Elements
8) Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station P.C.= P.I. – T

9) Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station P.T. = P.C.+ L

Example:
A curve has a deflection angle of ∆ = 23o 18’ 02”, and a Radius of 1432.6m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate tangent distance (T), external distance (E), curve
length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of Tangent (PT).

∆ 23°18'02'
T = R tan = (1432.6) tan = 1432.4(.2026) = 295.35meters
2 2
ª º
∆ « 1 »
E = R sec − 1 = 1432.6 « » − 1 = 1432.4(.02103) = 30.12meters
2 ∆
« cos »
«¬ 2 »¼

R × 2Π 1432.6 × 2 × 3.14
L = ∆× = 23.3 = 582.51meters
360 360

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P.C.= P.I. – T = 5+053.87 – 295.35 = 4 + 758.52

P.T. = P.C. + L = 4 + 758.49 + 582.51 = 5+341.00

The desirable standards shown in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 are based on these formulae.
Minimum radius is also dependent on maximum superelevation as given in section 8.8.

Tables 8-1 and 8-2 list the minimum radii for horizontal curves for maximum super-
elevation rates of 8 percent and 4 percent, respectively.

Note that 4 x 4 utility vehicles, buses and trucks, and trucks with trailers (DV1, DV2/3,
and DV4) require minimum design turning radii of 7.3, 12.8, and 13.7m, respectively.
As it is not practically possible to exclude any of these categories from the lower
standard roads, and as a certain amount of tolerance is required for safe operations, the
minimum horizontal curve radius of 15m is specified in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 for all
design standards. The result is that a curve with an absolute minimum radius of 15m
shall be constructed (except at switchback curves- see following text).

The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as

possible. Isolated sharp curves on an otherwise straight alignment are dangerous (see
Figure 8-3). Increasing severity of horizontal curvature should be affected gradually.
Particular care should be taken to avoid sharp curves at the ends of long straight
sections.

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Figure 8-3: Isolated Curves

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8.4 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves

Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage may
be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three cases of
successive curves are (see Figure 8-4):

• Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction

• Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction
• Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening
tangent section

Figure 8-4: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves

The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short tangent between two curves in
opposite directions) should be avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to
remain within his lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves adequately, and this
may result in erratic operation.

The "broken-back" arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in the
same direction) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of way

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conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves in the
same direction. This also creates problems with superelevation and drainage.

The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the
driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve.
Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.

Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are
found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve. Where the use of compound
curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; i.e. R1 should not exceed 1.5 R2. A
compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or a
tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred (see Section 8.8).

8.5 Isolated Curves

Long tangent roadway segments, joined by an isolated curve designed at or near the
minimum radius, result in unsafe operations, as a driver will anticipate derivable speeds in
excess of the design speed. Good design practice is to avoid the use of minimum standards in
such conditions. For isolated curves, the minimum horizontal curve radius as shown in
Tables 2-2 through 2-11 shall be increased by 50 percent. This will result, generally, in the
ability to negotiate the curve at a speed approximately 10 km/h higher than the design speed.

8.6 Minimum Length of Curve

For small changes of direction it is desirable to use large radius curves. This improves the
appearance of the road by removing rapid changes in edge profile. It also reduces the
tendency for drivers to cut the corners of small radius curves. Providing the curve radii are
sufficiently large, it may be possible to maintain a passing zone through a curve. The
minimum length of curve for a deflection angle of 5o or less is 300 meters.

8.7 Widening on Curves and Embankments

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following
the design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces
such problems.

Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on

tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is
required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle.
Table 8-3 below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening shall generally
be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition
curve and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve.

Widening is also required for Design Standards DS1 through DS5 at high fills for the
psychological comfort of the driver. Widening for curvature and high embankment shall be
added where both cases apply. The height of hill is measured from the edge of the shoulder
to the toe of the slope.

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Table 8-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills

Radius of Curve Curve Fill Widening

Curve (m) Widening: Widening: Two Height of fill (m) Amount (m)
Single Lane (m) Lanes (m)
>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0
120- 250 0.0 0.6 3.0- 6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0 - 9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 See section 8.8: Switchbacks

8.8 Switchback Curves

Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and
escarpment terrain. Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they
are generally outside of the standards for all road design standards DS1-DS10, and are
specified using the guidelines listed in the Departure from Standards section
(subchapter 2.2).

Switchback curves require a careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel
through the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design
vehicles, as indicated in Figures 5-9 through 5-11. These figures show that the
minimum outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are 12.5m, 14.1m, and
12.5m, respectively. Minimum inner radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.

Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:

ƒ Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design
Standards DS1- DS3
ƒ Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for Design
Standards DS4- DS5
ƒ Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended to Design Standards
DS6- DS9

Figure 8-5 illustrates a switchback curve. For a design example, select Design
Standard DS6, which allows for only the passage of a single DV4 vehicle. By
superimposing Figure 3-11 for design vehicle DV4 over Figure 8-5 at the same scale,
it can be shown that the requirements are (see Figure 8-6):

R = 10m Ri = 6m Rs 14m

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Thus, although the normal carriageway width for DS6 is 6.0m, at the switchback curve a
width of 8m is required.

Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve

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Figure 8-6: Switchback Curve for Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle

Requirements vary depending on passage requirements, radius, deflection angle, and design
standard, and a template shall be used based on the design vehicle turning radii to ensure that
the vehicles can negotiate each switchback.

It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback. Gradient
parameters associated with a switchback curve are indicated in subchapter 9.5.

8.9 Transition Curves

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition
curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt
introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular curves.

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Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition curves
contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For large radius
curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not
normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for
certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient
justification for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant
would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curves has a
superelevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum superelevation. For Ethiopian roads,
transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments having a design speed of
equal to or greater than 80 km/hr.

If the choice is made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as
the clothoid, shall be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to
the radius of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of
the spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral.
In the case of a combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii, there
is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.

8.10 Superelevation

Factors limiting selection of higher values are as follows. Low friction values may prevail
with thin layers of mud on the pavement surface, with oil spots, and with high speeds and
sufficient depth of water on pavement surface to permit hydroplaning. Account has to be
taken of the situation in Ethiopia where truck and heavily and/or badly loaded vehicles move
slowly due to poor mechanical condition.

In urban areas where traffic congestion or extensive marginal development acts to curb top
speeds, it is common practice to utilize a low maximum rate of superelevation, usually 4
percent. Similarly, either a low maximum rate of superelevation or no superelevation is
employed within important intersection areas or where there is a tendency to drive slowly
because of turning and crossing movements, warning devices, and signals. Superelevation is
a requirement for all standards of roads.

8.11 Superelevation Runoff

In alignment design with spirals the superelevation runoff is effected over the whole of the
transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by
removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a
length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent runout). Between the TS and SC (the
superelevation runoff) the traveled way is rotated to reach the full superelevation at the SC.
This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular
curve has full superelevation, as shown in Figure 8-7.

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Figure 8-7: Spiral Curve Transition

In design of curves without spirals the superelevation runoff is considered to be that length
beyond the tangent runout. Empirical methods are employed to locate the superelevation
runoff length with respect to the point of curvature (PC).

Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent
approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure 8-8.

Figure 8-8 Circular Curve Transition

Tables 8-4 and 8-5 give both superelevation rates and length of runoff for horizontal curves
at different speeds for 8 percent and 4 percent maximum superelevation, respectively.

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8.12 Shoulder Superelevation

Figure 8-9 depicts shoulder superelevation rates corresponding to carriageway

superelevation rates. The figure shows that on the low side (inner shoulder) of superelevated
curves, the shoulder superelevation matches the roadway superelevation. On the high side
(outer shoulder), the superelevation is set such that the grade break between the roadway and
the shoulder is 8 percent. An exception to this occurs at a maximum superelevation of 8
percent, where the resultant shoulder superelevation would be an undesirable flat
configuration. Here the superelevation is set at -1% to drain the shoulder.

Note: For the Design classes DS4 to DS10 the shoulder may be sloped with the carriageway, but the shoulder
should then be surfaced on the outside of the curve.

Figure 8-9: Shoulder Superelevation (for Surfaced Roads)

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Vd=30km/h Vd=40 km/h Vd=50 km/h Vd =60 km/h Vd=70 km/h Vd=85 km/h Vd=100 km/h Vd= 120 km/h
R e e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)

7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56 2.4 101
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.1 56 2.9 101
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.2 47 2.6 56 3.5 101
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.5 47 3.4 56 4.6 101
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.1 39 2.6 47 3.6 56 4.9 101
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.8 47 3.8 56 5.2 101
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.4 39 3.0 47 4.1 56 5.6 101
1000 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.2 33 2.8 39 3.5 47 4.8 56 6.5 101
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.4 33 3.1 39 4.2 47 5.2 56 7.1 101
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.7 33 3.4 39 4.6 47 5.7 56 7.6 103
700 NC 0 RC 22 2.2 28 3.0 33 3.8 39 5.1 47 6.3 56 8.0 108
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.6 28 3.4 33 4.3 39 6.5 47 6.9 56 Rmin = 665
500 NC 0 2.2 22 3.0 28 3.9 33 4.9 39 7.2 47 7.8 56
400 RC 17 2.7 22 3.6 28 4.7 33 5.7 39 7.8 51 8.0 64
300 2.1 17 3.4 22 4.5 28 5.6 34 6.7 44 8.0 55 Rmin = 395
250 2.5 17 4.0 22 5.1 28 6.2 37 7.3 48 Rmin = 270
200 3.0 17 4.6 24 5.8 31 7.0 42 7.9 52
175 3.4 17 5.0 26 6.2 33 7.4 44 8.0 52
150 3.8 18 5.4 28 6.7 36 7.8 47 Rmin = 175
140 4.0 19 5.6 29 6.9 37 7.9 47
130 4.2 20 5.8 30 7.1 38 8.0 48
120 4.4 21 6.0 31 7.3 39 Rmin = 125
110 4.7 23 6.3 32 7.6 41 emax = 8.0%
100 4.9 23 6.5 33 7.8 42 R = radius of curve
90 5.2 25 6.9 36 7.9 43
80 5.5 26 7.2 37 8.0 43
V = assumed design speed
70 5.9 28 7.5 39 Rmin = 80 e = rate of superelevation
60 6.4 31 7.8 40 L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
50 6.9 33 8.0 41
40 7.5 36 Rmin = 50 NC = normal crown section
30 8.0 38 RC = remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope
Rmin=30

Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10m to permit simpler calculations

Table 8-4: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8%

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Vd=30km/h Vd=40 km/h Vd=50 km/h Vd =60 km/h Vd=70 km/h Vd=85 km/h Vd=100 km/h
R e e e e e e e
(m) (%) L(m) (%) L (m) (%) L (m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m) (%) L(m)

7000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
5000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0
3000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 56
2500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 47 2.2 56
2000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 2.1 47 2.6 56
1500 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.2 47 2.7 56
1400 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 39 2.3 47 2.8 56
1300 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.5 47 2.9 56
1200 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 RC 39 2.7 47 3.2 56
1000 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 RC 33 2.2 39 2.9 47 3.4 56
900 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.1 33 2.4 39 3.2 47 3.5 56
800 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.3 33 2.5 39 3.4 47 3.7 56
700 NC 0 NC 0 RC 28 2.5 33 2.7 39 3.5 47 3.9 56
600 NC 0 RC 22 2.1 28 2.7 33 2.9 39 3.7 47 4.0 56
500 NC 0 RC 22 2.3 28 2.9 33 3.1 39 3.9 47 Rmin = 490
400 NC 0 2.1 22 2.5 28 3.3 33 3.4 39 4.0 47
300 RC 17 2.3 22 2.8 28 3.6 33 3.8 39 Rmin = 285
250 RC 17 2.6 22 3.0 28 3.8 33 3.9 39
200 2.3 17 2.8 22 3.3 28 3.9 33 Rmin = 215
175 2.4 17 2.9 22 3.5 28 4.0 33
150 2.5 17 3.1 22 3.7 28 Rmin = 150
140 2.6 17 3.2 22 3.8 28
130 2.6 17 3.3 22 3.8 28
120 2.7 17 3.4 22 3.9 28
110 2.8 17 3.5 22 4.0 28 emax = 4.0%
100 2.9 17 3.6 22 4.0 28 R = radius of curve
90 3.0 17 3.7 22 Rmin = 100
80 3.2 17 3.8 22
V = assumed design speed
70 3.3 17 3.9 22 e = rate of superelevation
60 3.5 17 4.0 22 L = minimum length of runoff(does not include tangent runout)
50 3.7 18 Rmin = 60
40 3.9 19 NC = normal crown section
Rmin=35 RC = remove adverse crown, superelevation at normal crown slope

Note : Lengths rounded in multiples of 10meters to

permit simpler calculations
Use of emax = 4.0% should be limited to urban conditions

Source: AASHTO

Table 8-5: Superelevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4%

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