Shier, Butler, and Lewis: Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, 13th ed.

Chapter 18: Nutrition and Metabolism

Chapter 18: Nutrition and Metabolism

I. Introduction
(Outcome 18.1.1) A. Nutrients are chemicals obtained from the environment that
an organism requires for survival.
(Outcome 18.1.1) B. Macronutrients are the carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
(Outcome 18.1.1) C. Micronutrients are required in small daily amounts and include
vitamins and minerals.
(Outcome 18.1.1) D. Besides nutrients, the body also requires essential nutrients.
(Outcome 18.1.1) E. Essential nutrients are nutrients that human cells cannot synthesize and
that must be obtained in the diet, such as certain amino acids.
II. Appetite Control
(Outcome 18.2.2) A. Digestion breaks down complex carbohydrates into disaccharides,
which are then broken down into monosaccharides, which are small enough for intestinal
villi to absorb. The monosaccharides then enter the bloodstream.
(Outcome 18.2.2) B. Metabolism refers to the ways that nutrients are altered chemically &
used in anabolism & catabolism of chemical compounds to support the activities of life.
(Outcome 18.2.2) C. Anabolism is when small molecules are built up into larger ones,
requiring energy.
(Outcome 18.2.2) D. Catabolism is larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones,
releasing energy.
(Outcome 18.2.2) E. Appetite is the drive that compels us to seek food.
(Outcome 18.2.2) F. Insulin stimulates cells called adipocytes to take up glucose and store
fat, and by stimulating certain other cells to take up glucose and link it to form glycogen, a
storage carbohydrate.
(Outcome 18.2.2) G. Eating stimulates adipocytes to secrete the hormone leptin, which acts
on target cells in the hypothalamus.
(Outcome 18.2.2) H. Leptin acts on target cells in the hypothalamus.

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 (Outcome 18.2.2) I. Leptin secretion suppresses appetite by inhibiting release of the
neurotransmitter neuropeptide Y that stimulates eating.
(Outcome 18.2.2) J. Conversely, ghrelin, a hormone that the stomach secretes
enhances appetite by stimulating the release of neuropeptide Y.
III. – V. Carbohydrate – Proteins
A. Introduction
(Outcome 18.3.3) 1. Carbohydrates are organic compounds & include the sugars &
starches and is also the energy held in their chemical bonds used to power cellular
processes.
(Outcome 18.3.4) 2. The body uses carbohydrates for providing the body with
energy.
B. Carbohydrate Sources
(Outcome 18.3.3) 1. Sources of polysaccharides are starch from plant foods and
glycogen from meats, cellulose, and chitin.
(Outcome 18.3.3) 2. Sources of disaccharides are milk sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar,
and molasses.
(Outcome 18.3.3) 3. Sources of monosaccharides are honey and fruits.
(Outcome 18.3.3) 4. Digestion breaks carbohydrates into monosaccharides, which
are small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream.
(Outcome 18.3.3, 18.3.4) 5. Cellulose provides the crunch to celery and the crispness
to lettuce.
(Outcome 18.3.3) 6. Other sources of fiber are soluble- fruits, oats, barley, legumes
insoluble- veggies, wheat, grains.
C. Carbohydrate Utilization
(Outcome 18.3.4) 1. Monosaccharides that are absorbed from the digestive tract
include fructose, galactose, and glucose.
(Outcome 18.3.4) 2. The liver enzymes catalyze reactions that convert fructose and
galactose into glucose.
(Outcome 18.3.4) 3. Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen and occurs in the
cytosol of the cell.

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 (Outcome 18.3.4) 4. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of the molecule glycogen into
glucose, a simple sugar that the body uses to produce energy and occurs in the liver
and is stimulated by the hormones glucagon and epinephrine (adrenaline).
(Outcome 18.3.4) 5. Excess glucose that cannot be stored as glycogen is converted to
fat and is stored as adipose tissue.
(Outcome 18.3.4) 6. Cells use some carbohydrates to produce energy
(Outcome 18.3.4) 7. Gluconeogenesis is converting noncarbohydrates, such as amino
acids, into glucose and occurs in the liver and kidneys.
D. Carbohydrate Requirements
(Outcome 18.3.4) 1. A recommended daily carbohydrate intake is probably necessary
to avoid protein breakdown and to avoid metabolic disorders resulting from excess fat
use.
(Outcome 18.3.4) 2. The average diet contains 200 to 300 grams of carbohydrates
daily.
E. Introduction
(Outcome 18.4.3) 1. Lipids are organic compounds that include fats, oils, and fatlike
substances such as phospholipids and cholesterol
(Outcome 18.4.3, 18.4.4) 2. The functions of lipids are to supply energy for cellular
processes and help build structures, such as cell membranes.
F. Lipid Sources
(Outcome 18.4.3) 1. Triglycerides are found in plant- and animal-based foods.
(Outcome 18.4.3) 2. Saturated fats are found in foods of animal origin, such as meat,
eggs, milk, and lard, as well as in palm and coconut oils.
(Outcome 18.4.3) 3. Unsaturated fats are found in seeds, nuts, and plant oils.
(Outcome 18.4.3) 4. Cholesterol is found in liver and egg yolk and, to a lesser extent,
in whole milk, butter, cheese, and meats.
G. Lipid Utilization
(Outcome 18.4.4) 1. Fats mainly supply energy.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 2. Gram for gram, fats contain more than twice as much chemical
energy as carbohydrates or proteins.

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 (Outcome 18.4.4) 3. Before a triglyceride molecule can release energy, it must
undergo hydrolysis.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 4. Digestion breaks triglycerides down into fatty acids and
glycerol.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 5. Glycerol and fatty acids are transported in the blood to the
tissues.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 6. Beta-oxidation is a series of reactions which occur in the
mitochondria.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 7. Fatty acid oxidases function to break down activated fatty acid
molecules.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 8. Excess acetyl CoA is converted to compounds called ketone
bodies, such as acetone, which later may be changed back to acetyl coenzyme A.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 9. Glycerol is used to synthesize glucose.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 10. Glycerol and fatty acids can react together to form the
hydrolysis of fats can also combine to form fat molecules in anabolic reactions and
can be stored in fat tissue.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 11. The liver can convert fatty acids to cellular energy.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 12. Essential fatty acids are fatty acids which the cannot
synthesize.
(Outcome18.4.4) 13. The liver uses free fatty acids to synthesize triglycerides,
phospholipids, and lipoproteins that may then be released into the bloodstream.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 14. The liver regulates the amount of cholesterol in the body by
synthesizing and releasing it into the blood or by removing cholesterol from the blood
and excreting it into the bile.
(Outcome 18.4.4) 15. Cholesterol is not an energy source but it is used to provide
structural material for cell and organelle membranes, and it furnishes starting
materials for the synthesis of certain sex hormones and hormones produced by the
adrenal cortex.
H. Lipid Requirements
(Outcome 18.4.4) 1. The American Heart Association recommends that the diet not
exceed 30% of the total daily calories from fat.

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 (Outcome 18.4.4) 2. Dietary fats must supply the required amounts for support
absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.
I. Introduction
(Outcome 18.5.3) 1. Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
(Outcome 18.5.3, 18.5.4) 2. Functions of proteins are associated with:structure,
signaling, defense, transport, contractile, storage, and enzyme.
(Outcome 18.5.4, 18.5.5) 3. Deamination is a process in the liver that removes the
nitrogen-containing amino groups (—NH2), which then react to form a waste called
urea and occurs in the liver.
(Outcome 18.5.4, 18.5.5) 4. Urea is the final nitrogenous excretion product of
many organisms.
(Outcome 18.5.4, 18.5.5) 5. Using structural proteins to generate energy causes the
tissue-wasting of starvation.
J. Protein Sources
(Outcome 18.5.3) 1. Foods rich in proteins are meats, seafood, poultry, cheese, nuts,
milk, eggs, and cereals. Legumes, including beans and peas, contain less protein.
(Outcome 18.5.3) 2. Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be
synthesized sufficiently or at all.
(Outcome 18.5.3, 18.5.4) 3. All twenty amino acids must be present in the body for
growth and tissue repair to occur.
(Outcome 18.5.3, 18.5.4) 4. Complete proteins contain adequate amounts of the
essential amino acids to maintain human body tissues and promote normal growth
and development.
(Outcome 18.5.3, 18.5.4) 5. Incomplete proteins have too little essential amino acids,
and cannot by themselves maintain human tissues or support normal growth and
development.
(Outcome 18.5.3) 6. Sources of complete proteins are milk, meat, and eggs.
(Outcome 18.5.3) 7. Sources of incomplete proteins are zein in corn, for example,
has too little of the essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine to be complete.
K. Nitrogen Balance

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 (Outcome 18.5.5) 1. Nitrogen balance is the difference between nitrogen excreted
from the body and nitrogen ingested in the diet 
(Outcome 18.5.5) 2. A person who is starving has a negative nitrogen balance
because the amount of nitrogen excreted as a result of amino acid oxidation exceeds
the amount the diet replaces.
(Outcome 18.5.5) 3. Examples of persons with positive nitrogen balances are` a
growing child, a pregnant woman, or an athlete in training.
L. Protein Requirements
(Outcome 18.5.4) 1. The amount of protein requires varies according to body size,
metabolic rate, and nitrogen balance condition.
(Outcome 18.5.4) 2. The recommended intake of protein per day is about 0.8 gram
per kilogram (0.4 gram per pound) of body weight or 10% of a person’s diet.
(Outcome 18.5.4) 3. A pregnant woman requires adding 30 extra grams per day and
a nursing mother requires additional 20 extra grams per day.
(Outcome 18.5.4) 4. Nutritional edema results from tissue wasting caused by protein
deficiency and also decreases the level of plasma proteins, which decreases the
colloid osmotic pressure of the plasma. As a result, fluids collect in the tissues.
VI. Energy Expenditures
A. Introduction
(Outcome 18.6.6) 1. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins supply energy.
(Outcome 18.6.6, 18.6.7) 2. If the diet is deficient of energy-supplying nutrients,
structural molecules may gradually be consumed, leading to death.
(Outcome 18.6.6, 18.6.7, 18.6.9) 3. Excess intake of energy supplying nutrients may
lead to obesity, which also threatens health.
B. Energy Values of Foods
(Outcome 18.6.6) 1. The amount of potential energy a food contains can be
expressed as calories.
(Outcome 18.6.6) 2. A calorie is defined as units of heats, or, in anatomy, the amount
of potential energy a food contains.
(Outcome 18.6.6) 3. A large calorie is the amount of energy required to raise 1
kilogram (kg) of water by 1º C. It is also known as a kilocalorie.

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 (Outcome 18.6.6) 4. A kilocalorie is a large calorie, but it is customary in nutritional
studies to refer to it as a calorie.
(Outcome 18.6.6) 5. A bomb calorimeter is used to measure caloric contents of food.
(Outcome 18.6.6) 6. Caloric values determined in a bomb calorimeter are somewhat
higher than the amount of energy that metabolic oxidation releases because nutrients
generally are not completely absorbed from the digestive tract.
(Outcome 18.6.6) 7. Cellular oxidation yields on average about 4.1 calories from 1
gram of carbohydrate, 9.5 calories from one gram of protein, and_from one gram of
fat. called the basal metabolic rate, the degree of muscular activity, body temperature,
and rate of growth.
C. Energy Requirements
(Outcome 18.6.7) 1. The factors that influence energy needs are a measurement
(Outcome 18.6.7) 2. Basal metabolic rate is what measures the rate at which the body
expends energy under basal conditions.
(Outcome 18.6.7) 3. Tests of thyroid function can be used to estimate a
person’s BMR.
(Outcome 18.6.7) 4. The BMR indicates the total amount of energy expended in a
given time to support the activities of such organs as the brain, heart, lungs, liver, and
kidneys.
(Outcome 18.6.7) 5. The BMR for an average adult indicates a requirement for
approximately 1 calorie of energy per hour for each kilogram of body weight
(Outcome 18.6.7) 6. BMR varies with sex, body size, body temperature, and level of
endocrine gland activity.
(Outcome 18.6.7) 7. Maintaining the BMR requires the body’s greatest expenditure
of energy.
(Outcome 18.6.7) 8. Growing children and pregnant women require more calories
because their bodies are actively producing new tissues, also require more calories.
D. Energy Balance
(Outcome 18.6.8) 1. A state of energy balance exists when caloric intake in the form
of foods equals caloric expenditure from the basal metabolic rate and muscular
activities.

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 (Outcome 18.6.8) 2. A positive energy balance is when caloric intake exceeds
expenditure and body weight increases because 3,500 excess calories are stored as a
pound of fat.
(Outcome 18.6.8) 3. A negative energy balance is when caloric expenditure exceeds
input and body weight decreases because stored materials are mobilized from the
tissues for oxidation.
E. Desirable Weight
(Outcome 18.6.9) 1. The most common nutritional disorders reflect calorie
imbalances, which may result from societal and geographic factors.
(Outcome 18.6.9) 2. Overweight is defined as exceeding desirable weight by 10% to
20%, or a BMI between 25 and 30.
(Outcome 18.6.9) 3. Obesity is more correctly defined as excess adipose tissue.
(Outcome 18.6.9) 4. When a person needs to gain weight, diet can be altered to
Include more calories and to emphasize particular macronutrients.
VII. Vitamins
A. Introduction
(Outcome 18.7.10) 1. Vitamins are organic compounds (other than carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins) required in small amounts for normal metabolism that body cells
cannot synthesize in adequate amounts.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 2. Provitamins are precursor substances of vitamins.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 3. Vitamins can be classified based on the basis of whether they
are soluble in fats (or fat solvents) or in water.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 4. Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K
(Outcome 18.7.10) 5. Water-soluble vitamins are group includes the B vitamins and
vitamin C.
B. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
(Outcome 18.7.10) 1. The factors that affect fat-soluble vitamin absorption are bile
salts in the intestine promote absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 2. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in moderate quantities in
various tissues, which is why excess intake can lead to overdose and cooking/food
processing do not usually destroy them.

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(Outcome 18.7.10) 3. Vitamin A is synthesized from a group of yellowish plant
pigments, which are provitamins called carotenes and is stored in the liver.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 4. Vitamin A is stable in heat, acids, and bases and unstable in_
light.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 5. Functions of vitamin A are: an antioxidant necessary for
synthesis of visual pigments, mucoproteins, and mucopolysaccharides; for normal
development of bones and teeth; and for maintenance of epithelial cells.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 7. Excess vitamin A produces nausea, headache, dizziness, hair

loss and birth defects, and a deficiency produces night blindness and degeneration of

epithelial tissues.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 8. Vitamin D is a group of steroids and is stored in the liver, skin,
brain, spleen, and bones..
(Outcome 18.7.10) 9. Vitamin D is resistant to heat, oxidation, acids, and bases.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 10. The functions of vitamin D are to promote absorption of
calcium and phosphorus and the development of teeth and bones.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 11. Sources of vitamin D are skin, milk, egg yolk, fish, liver oils,
and fortified foods.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 12. An excess of vitamin D produces diarrhea, nausea, and
weight loss and a deficiency produces rickets, in which the bones, teeth, and
abdominal muscles do not develop normally. In adults or in the elderly who have
little exposure to sunlight, vitamin D deficiency may lead to osteomalacia, in which
the bones decalcify and weaken due to disturbances in calcium and phosphorus
metabolism.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 13. Vitamin E is stored in all tissues but is primarily stored in the
muscles and adipose tissue.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 14. Vitamin E is resistant to the effects of heat, acids, and visible
light but is unstable in bases and in the presence of ultraviolet light or oxygen.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 15. Functions of vitamin E are to prevent oxidation of vitamin A
and polyunsaturated fatty acids and to maintain stability of cell membrane.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 16. Sources of vitamin E are cereal seeds, salad oils, margarine,
shortenings, fruits, nuts, and vegetables.

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 (Outcome 18.7.10) 17. An excess of vitamin E produces hypertension and a
deficiency produces rare, uncertain effects.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 18. Vitamin K is resistant to heat and destroyed by acids, bases,
and light.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 19. Vitamin K is stored in the liver.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 20. Functions of vitamin K are to promote blood clotting..
(Outcome 18.7.10) 21. A deficiency of vitamin K produces easy bruising and
bleeding, and excess vitamin K causes jaundice in newborns, hemolytic anemia, and
hyperbilirubinemia.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 22. Sources of vitamin K are leafy green vegetables, egg yolk,
pork liver, soy oil, tomatoes, and cauliflower..
C. Water-Soluble Vitamins
(Outcome 18.7.10) 1. Thiamine is vitamin B1 and is destroyed by heat and oxygen.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 2. The functions of thiamine are to aid in oxidation of
carbohydrates and ribose synthesis.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 3. Sources of thiamine are lean meats, liver, eggs, whole-grain
cereals, and legumes.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 4. Deficiencies of thiamine produce beriberi, muscular weakness,
and enlargement of heart.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 5. Riboflavin is vitamin B2, is stable to heat, acids, and oxidation
and unstable in bases and UV light.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 6. The functions of riboflavin are to help in oxidation of glucose
and fatty acids.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 7. Sources of riboflavin are meats, dairy products, leafy green
vegetables, and whole-grain cereals.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 8. Deficiencies of riboflavin produce dermatitis and blurred
vision.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 9. Niacin is stable in heat, acids, and bases and is synthesized
from tryptophan.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 10. The functions of niacin are to help in the oxidation of glucose
and the synthesis of proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.

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(Outcome 18.7.10) 11. Sources of niacin are liver, lean meats, peanuts, and legumes.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 12. An excess of niacin produces acute toxicity with effects such
as flushing, wheezing, vasodilation, headache, diarrhea, and vomiting chronic toxicity
could affect the liver and a deficiency produces pellagra, photosensitive dermatitis,
diarrhea, and mental disorders.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 13. Pantothenic acid is destroyed by heat, acids, and bases.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 14. The functions of pantothenic acid are to aid in oxidation of
carbohydrates and fats.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 15. Sources of pantothenic acid are meats, whole-grain cereals,
legumes, milk, fruits, and vegetables.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 16. Vitamin B6 is stable in heat and acids and unstable in bases
and UV light.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 17. The functions of vitamin B6 are to promote synthesis of
various amino acids, niacin, antibodies, and nucleic acids.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 18. Sources of vitamin B6 are liver, meats, bananas, avocadoes,
beans, peanuts, whole-grain cereals, and egg yolk.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 19. An excess of vitamin B6 produces burning pains, numbness,
clumsiness, diminished tendon reflexes, and paralysis.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 20. Cyanocobalamin is vitamin B12 and is stable in heat.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 21. The absorption of cyanocobalamin is regulated by intrinsic
factor.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 22. The functions of cyanocobalamin are to promote synthesis of
nucleic acids, metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of myelin, and red blood cells.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 23. Sources of cyanocobalamin are liver, meats, milk, eggs, and
cheese.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 24. A deficiency of cyanocobalamin produces pernicious anemia.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 25. Folacin is unstable in acids, heat, and bases and is stored in
the liver.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 26. The functions of folacin are to promote metabolism of certain
amino acids, DNA, and red blood cells.

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 (Outcome 18.7.10) 27. Sources of folacin are liver, leafy green vegetables, whole-
grain cereals, and legumes.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 28. A deficiency of folacin produces megaloblastic anemia.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 29. Biotin is stable in heat, acids, and light and unstable in bases.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 30. The functions of biotin are to promote metabolism of amino
acids and fatty acids and synthesis of nucleic acids.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 31. Sources of biotin are liver, egg yolk, nuts, legumes, and
mushrooms.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 32. Ascorbic acid is vitamin C and is stable in acids, but unstable
in heat, light, and bases.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 33. Functions of ascorbic acid are to promote synthesis of
collagen, folinic acid, metabolism of certain amino acids, absorption of iron, and
synthesis of hormones from cholesterol.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 34. Sources of ascorbic acid are citrus fruits, tomatoes, potatoes,
and leafy green vegetables.
(Outcome 18.7.10) 35. A deficiency of ascorbic acid produces scurvy, a lowered
resistance to infection, and slow wound healing.
VIII. Minerals
A. Introduction
(Outcome 18.8.11) 1. Minerals are inorganic elements that are essential in human
metabolism.
(Outcome 18.8.11) 2. Minerals are usually extracted from the soil by plants, and
humans obtain them by eating plants or animals that have eaten the plants.
B. Characteristics of Minerals
(Outcome 18.8.11) 1. Minerals are responsible for 4% of body weight and are most
concentrated in the bones and teeth.
(Outcome 18.8.11) 2. The minerals calcium and phosphate are very abundant in
bones and teeth.
(Outcome 18.8.11) 3. Minerals are usually incorporated into organic molecules.
(Outcome 18.8.11) 4. Minerals compose parts of the structural materials of all cells.

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 (Outcome 18.8.11) 5. Other functions of minerals are to assist enzymes, contribute to
osmotic pressure of body fluids, help to conduct nerve impulses, contract muscle
fibers, coagulate blood, and maintain pH.
(Outcome 18.8.11) 6. The physiologically active form of minerals is ionized form.
C. Major Minerals
(Outcome 18.8.12) 1. Calcium and phosphorus are the most abundant of the major
minerals accounting for nearly 75% by weight of the mineral elements in the body.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 2. Other major minerals are potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine,
and magnesium.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 3. Calcium is primarily distributed in cells and body fluids, even
though 99% of the body’s supply is in the inorganic salts of the bones and teeth.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 4. Functions of calcium are to serve as structural material for
bones and teeth, to promote nerve impulse conduction, muscle fiber contraction,
blood coagulation, membrane permeability, and activation of certain enzymes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 5. Sources of calcium are milk products, fish with bones, and
leafy green vegetables.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 6. A calcium deficiency in children causes stunted growth,
misshapen bones, and enlarged wrists and ankles; and in adults may cause thinning
bones.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 7. Phosphorus is primarily distributed in bones and teeth.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 8. Functions of phosphorus are to serve as structural materials for
bones and teeth, and to promote nearly all metabolic reactions, synthesis of nucleic
acids, proteins, some enzymes, and some vitamins. It is also a component of cell
membranes and ATP.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 9. Sources of phosphorus are meats, cheeses, nuts, whole-grain
cereals, milk, and legumes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 10. Potassium is distributed widely throughout the body but
mostly inside cells.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 11. Functions of potassium are to help maintain intracellular
osmotic pressure and regulate pH, to promote metabolism, nerve impulse conduction,
and muscle fiber contraction.

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(Outcome 18.8.12) 12. A deficiency of potassium produces muscular weakness,
cardiac abnormalities, and edema.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 13. Sources of potassium are avocados, dried apricots, meats,
nuts, potatoes, and bananas.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 14. Sulfur is distributed widely but is abundant in skin, hair, and
nails.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 15. Functions of sulfur are to serve as structural parts of certain
amino acids, thiamine, insulin, biotin, and mucopolysaccharides.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 16. Sources of sulfur are meats, milk, eggs, and legumes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 17. Sodium is distributed widely but mostly occurs in
extracellular fluids. It is also bound to organic salts of bone.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 18. Functions of sodium are to help maintain osmotic pressure of
extracellular fluids and to regulate water movement.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 19. An excess of sodium produces hypertension and edema, and a
deficiency produces nausea, muscle cramps, and convulsions.

(Outcome 18.8.12) 20. Sources of sodium are table salt, ham, sauerkraut, cheese, and
graham crackers.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 21. Chlorine is distributed closely associated with sodium and in
cerebrospinal fluid and gastric juice.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 22. Functions of chlorine are to help maintain osmotic pressure of
extracellular fluids, to regulate pH, and to maintain electrolyte balance.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 23. Sources of chlorine are table salt, ham, sauerkraut, cheese,
and graham crackers.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 24. Magnesium is distributed in bones.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 25. Functions of magnesium are to promote metabolic reactions
in mitochondria associated with ATP production and to help breakdown ATP to
ADP.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 26. An excess of magnesium produces diarrhea and a deficiency
produces neuromuscular disturbances.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 27. Sources of magnesium are milk, dairy products, legumes,
nuts, and leafy green vegetables.

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D. Trace Elements
(Outcome 18.8.12) 1. Trace elements are essential minerals found in minute
amounts.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 2. Examples of trace elements include iron, manganese, copper,
iodine, cobalt, zinc, fluorine, selenium, and chromium.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 3. Iron is distributed in blood, liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 4. Functions of iron are to promote formation of hemoglobin,
vitamin A, and various enzymes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 5. Sources of iron are liver, meats, apricots, raisins, cereals,
legumes, and molasses.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 6. An excess of iron produces liver damage and a deficiency
produces anemia.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 7. Manganese is distributed liver, kidneys, and the pancreas.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 8. Functions of manganese are to synthesize certain enzymes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 9. Sources of manganese are nuts, legumes, cereals, and leafy
green vegetables.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 10. Copper is distributed in liver, heart, and brain.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 11. Functions of copper are to promote hemoglobin synthesis,
bone development, melanin production, and myelin formation.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 12. Sources of copper are liver, oysters, crabmeat, nuts, cereals,
and legumes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 13. Iodine is concentrated in the thyroid gland.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 14. Functions of iodine are to synthesize thyroid hormones.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 15. Sources of iodine are iodized table salt and seafood.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 16. An excess of iodine produces decreased synthesis of thyroid
hormones and a deficiency produces a goiter.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 17. Cobalt is widely distributed.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 18. Functions of cobalt are to synthesize several enzymes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 19. Sources of cobalt are liver, meats, and milk.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 20. An excess of cobalt produces heart disease and a deficiency
produces pernicious anemia.

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 (Outcome 18.8.12) 21. Zinc is distributed in the liver, kidneys, and the brain.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 22. Functions of zinc are to synthesize several enzymes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 23. Sources of zinc are meats, cereals, legumes, nuts, and
vegetables.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 24. An excess of zinc produces slurred speech and problems
walking, and a deficiency produces depressed immunity, loss of taste and smell, and
learning difficulties.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 25. Fluorine is distributed in teeth and bones.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 26. Functions of fluorine are to serve as structural materials for
teeth.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 27. Sources of fluorine are fluoridated water.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 28. An excess of fluorine produces mottled teeth.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 29. Selenium is distributed in the liver and kidneys.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 30. Functions of selenium are to promote formation of various
enzymes.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 31. Sources of selenium are lean meats, cereals, and onions.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 32. An excess of selenium produces vomiting and fatigue.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 33. Chromium is distributed widely.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 34. Functions of chromium are to promote metabolism of
carbohydrates.
(Outcome 18.8.12) 35. Sources of chromium are liver, meats, and wine.
IX. Healthy Eating
A. Introduction
(Outcome 18.9.13) 1. An adequate diet provides sufficient energy, essential fatty
acids, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals to support optimal growth, and to
maintain and repair body tissues.
(Outcome 18.9.13) 2. It is not possible to design one diet for everyone because
individual nutrient requirements vary greatly with age, sex, growth rate, amount of
physical activity, and level of stress, as well as with genetic and environmental
factors.

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 (Outcome 18.9.13) 3. RDA stands for United States Recommended Daily
Allowance.
(Outcome 18.9.13) 4. RDA values are set high because this ensures that most people
who follow them are receiving sufficient amounts of each nutrient.
B. Malnutrition
(Outcome 18.9.14) 1. Malnutrition is poor nutrition that results from a lack of
essential nutrients or a failure to utilize them.
(Outcome 18.9.14) 2. Undernutrition is an inadequate intake of nutrients and
overnutrition is excess nutrient intake.
(Outcome 18.9.14) 3. Primary malnutrition is malnutrition from diet
alone.
(Outcome 18.9.14) 4. Secondary malnutrition is when` an individual's characteristics
make a normally adequate diet insufficient.
C. Starvation
1. Introduction
(Outcome 18.9.14) a. A healthy person can stay alive for 50 to 70 days
without food.
(Outcome 18.9.14) b. Starvation is seen in hunger strikes, in prisoners of
concentration camps, and in sufferers of psychological eating disorders.
(Outcome 18.9.14) c. After one day without eating, the body’s reserves of
sugar and starch are gone.
(Outcome 18.9.14) d. By the third day of starvation, hunger ceases as the
body uses energy from fat reserves.
(Outcome 18.9.14) e. Gradually during starvation, metabolism slows to
conserve energy, blood pressure drops, the pulse slows, and chills set in.
(Outcome 18.9.14) f. Eventually skin becomes dry and hair falls out because
the proteins in these structures are broken down to release amino acids that are
used for more vital functions in the body.
(Outcome 18.9.14) g. Near the end of starvation, the human is blind, deaf,
and emaciated.
2. Marasmus and Kwashiorkor

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 (Outcome 18.9.14) 1. Marasmus is a form of starvation resulting from
undernourishment with a lack of calories and protein.
(Outcome 18.9.14) 2. Children under the age of two with marasmus often
die of measles and other infections because their immune systems are very
weak.
(Outcome 18.9.14) 3. Kwashiorkor is characterized by protruding bellies and
develops when a child has recently been weaned from breast milk
(Outcome 18.9.14) 4. Ascites is the swelling of a child's belly due to a lack of
plasma proteins.
3. Anorexia Nervosa
(Outcome 18.9.14) a. Anorexia nervosa is self-imposed starvation.
(Outcome 18.9.14) b. Anorexia nervosa is most common in adolescent
females from affluent families.
(Outcome 18.9.14) c. Treatments of anorexia nervosa are intravenous
feedings and therapy.
4. Bulimia
(Outcome 18.9.14) a. Bulimia is a condition in which a person binges and
purges food.
(Outcome 18.9.14) b. A dentist is sometimes the first to spot a person with
bulimia because teeth often decay from frequent vomiting.
X. Life-Span Changes
(Outcome 18.10.15) A. Throughout life, dietary requirements generally remain the same but
the ability to acquire those nutrients may change drastically.
(Outcome 18.10.15) B. Changing nutrition with age often reflects effects of medical
conditions and social and economic circumstances.
(Outcome 18.10.15) C. Medical conditions that affect the ability to obtain adequate nutrition
are depression, tooth decay, periodontal disease, diabetes mellitus, lactose intolerance, and
alcoholism.
(Outcome 18.10.15) D. The BMR rises from birth to about age 5 and declines until
adolescence, when it peaks again.

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