HERCOR COLLEGE

Km. 1 Lawaan, Roxas City, Capiz 5800

ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-2021

Department: College of Criminal Justice Education ___________ Course Code: __CFLM102

Name of Instructor: Jomel David A. Beceño, Reg. Crim. ________ Schedule: ________________
Course Descriptive Title: Leadership, Decision Making, Management Semester: Summer_2020-2021_____
and Administration

Name of Student: _______________________________________________________________ Year and Section:

_______________
Student ID Number: _________________________________ Contact Number:
__________________________________________
Email Address: _____________________________________ Alternate Contact Number:
__________________________________

Character Formation 2 – Leadership, Decision Making, Management and Administration

LEARNING MODULE

Course Description:
The course covers the understanding of personal values, characteristics, and goals including the normative foundations of
leading which includes the wide array of leadership and management approaches and refine their leadership and
management styles. Understand the frames of judgment and skills needed to affect positive change in a wide array of
settings and to transform cultures, organizations, and institutions through effective leading, management, analysis, and
decision-making in a self-aware manner to think and act strategically.

WEEKLY SCHEDULE
This semester, we will utilize modular learning method. Upon receiving this learning module, you shall be guided with
the lessons, discussions, and tasks need to be completed. On the “DISCUSSIONS” part of this module is for your
advance reading, make sure to read and understand the provided notes and feel free to use book references provided
therein.

In addition, there will be pre-assessment and assignments given in every chapter and must be submitted following your
scheduled time/send on my social media accounts:
Email: [email protected]
Facebook Account.: Jomel David Beceño

FINAL CONTENT

OVERVIEW PAGE

OVERVIEW
For this entire Midterm Module, you will study what is the essential functions of Management and Police Management
with their own specific topics of interests under each.

Chapter 3: [Administration and Decision-Making]

For better understanding of the terms and discussions, you may refer to the following book/internet references:

 Character Formation 2 (2021) – N. Caballero and L.J. Barican

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

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 1. Know the definition of Police Administration.
2. Recognize and familiarize the different theories of Police Administration.

Lesson 3.1 – Police Administration

Understanding Administration
Administration refers to actions which are concerned with coordinating and managing an organization or
organization’s work. There is also administration of government, charities, and many other forms of
organizations.

“Administration” is the performance of tasks needed to operate an agency for general purposes. It can
have a function of course, or of policy. For example, as companies change their plan, it is the duty of
administrative personnel to make the appropriate communication adjustments to end the previous policy and
begin enforcing the new direction.

Typically, administration is defined by the person representing the organization, either appointed or
elected, to a position and is responsible for the administrative functions and policy decisions of the organization
they are appointed or elected to manage.

ADMINISTRATION MANAGEMENT
It is an act of administering the whole organization It is a systematic way of managing people and things
by a group of people. within the organization.
Administration is a high-level activity. Management is the business and functional level.
Policy formulation is performed. Focuses on policy implementation.
Functions include legislation and determination. Functions are executive and gubernatorial.
Performs all the important decisions of the Makes decisions under the boundaries set by the
organization. administration.
Role is decisive in nature. Plays an executive role in the organization.
Concerned with framing policies and setting All about execution of plans and intended actions.
objectives.
Administrator is responsible for the administration. Manager looks after the management of the
organization.
Focuses on making the best possible utilization of the Management focuses on managing people and their
organization’s resources. work.
Administration vs Management

What is an Administrator?

An administrator is a person who makes sure an organization is running at full capacity. Their particular
roles depend on the form of company, organization, or agency they operate in. An administrator may be
someone assigned to oversee an organization for its affairs.

Administrators formulate short and long-term strategies that set specific priorities and objectives. To put
it another way, they strive to get the organization where it needs to go. To ensure that these plans work, the
planner must above all understand how, where and who of the program as a whole. The functions of the
administrators are essential to the organization they operate. Their roles usually involve a wide variety of duties
including filing and administration.

Police Administration

Refers to the organization and management of policing. The conceptual breadth of the term “police
administration” is elastic. It can refer to how the policing function is organized at the national or societal level
or more specifically to how individual police agencies and units are organized and managed. This bibliography
leans in the latter, narrower direction, focusing primarily on the work that police administrators and managers
do and, on the behavior, and activity that goes on within police organizations. The context in which the term
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“police administration” is also used to create an important distinction. The term refers both to the study of
police organizations and to the practice of organizing managing police. This is reflected in the literature of
police administration and in this bibliography.

It refers also to the control and operation of law enforcement agencies, and the subsequent discharge of
policies, that keep the peace, increase public safety, and prevent crime.

 From a command perspective, police administration involves setting an agency policy and making
operational decisions that best achieve the aforementioned goals without violating the law or the public
trust.
 From a human resources perspective, police administration involves making ethical and lawful decisions
related to the hiring, management, retention, discipline, and termination of law enforcement personnel.

Police Administrator

A police administrator is typically responsible for overseeing a staff, department or police force, as well
as developing budgets and managing community relationships. Some common job titles in police administration
include chief of police, director of security operations and chief probation officer.

Functions of a Police Administrator

 Oversee and organize the agency.

 Hire uniformed and non-uniformed personnel.
 Responsible for the discipline, management, retention and separation of personnel.
 Communicate decisions to other officers and accountability for the actions of the subordinates.
 Other administrative functions such as development of budgets, plans, operational modules, and the
likes.

THEORIES OF COMMUNITY POLICING

Social Structural Theory – emphasize the relation between social structure and criminal behavior, asserting
that disadvantaged economic conditions are primary influential factors in criminal activity.

Social Disorganization: Cultural Deviance:

- Deteriorated Neighborhoods - Development of subcultures as
- Inadequate Social Control result of disorganization and
- Law Violating Groups stress.
- Conflicting Social Values - Sub-cultural values in opposition
to conventional values.
Strain Theory:

- Unequal Distribution of Wealth

and Power Crime
- Frustration
- Alternative Methods of
Achievement

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Modern Management Technology Theory – emphasizes the use of systematic mathematical techniques to
analyze and understand the inter-relationship of management and workers in all aspects, in individual
motivation and emotions, in order to create a working environment that is maximally productive. It is actually
comprised of three other management theories:

 Quantitative Theory – is based on efficiency and mathematical equations out for necessity for
managerial excellence in World War II. This is a simple number-based theory that relies on calculating
the risks, benefits, and drawbacks of any action before it is taken. This approach applies statistics,
computer simulations, information models, and other quantitative techniques to management.
 Systems Theory - theory treats companies like a living organism, with all parts necessary for the
organization to survive. Posits that the head to the entry-level employee must work in harmony in order
for the organization to survive. Organizations using this theory think that departments and employees
must work as a collective group and not an isolated unit. Synergy and interconnectedness between
departments are key with this theory.
 Contingency Theory – holds that every situation requires a different leadership style, and therefore no
one theory can work for an organization. This theory posits three main variables for determining what
leadership strategy to employ – organization size, technology being used, and the overall style of
leadership in the company. This theory also puts a lot of responsibility on the leaders of an organization
as it believes that leader’s traits directly influence and affect people that they manage.

Democratic Theory – examines the definition and meaning of the concept of democracy, as well as the moral
foundations, obligations, challenges and overall desirability of democratic governance. Political decisions are
good decisions, and how important it is that they be made by good or appropriate procedures. This can produce
that would make the best decisions may become utterly elitist or authoritarian.

 Process vs Outcome – procedural versus substantive democracy.

 Exclusiveness versus Inclusiveness;
o Gender roles
 Individualism versus Authoritarian.

Zero Tolerance Theory – a policing strategy that involves relentless order maintenance and aggressive law
enforcement, against even minor crimes and incivilities. Zero Tolerance has the following principles:

 The setting of clear organizational goals to reduce crime, disorder and fear.
 The development of concrete plans for crime reduction.
 Organizational decentralization which pushed responsibility and accountability to a local level.
 A focus on the quality-of-life issues as well as serious crime.
 Targeting of crime hotspots and the use of problem-solving.
 The introduction of Compstat (Computer Comparison Statistics).
o Compstat is a computer program used by police departments which provides for the weekly
crime reports, accountability, increase information flow, among others.

Public Relations Theory – a theory whose role is to dissect and critically examine their relevant elements and
apply them coherently to professional practice. It also explores how public relations, in relevance to how
communication is controlled, the public may be persuaded or manipulated.

 Persuasion
o An attempt to influence a person’s actions through an appeal to his/her self-interests.
o A public relation person must be aware of what the audience wants to know.
o Gained knowledge is mutually beneficial.
 Manipulation
o The audience might not need to know the message, but they are coerced or tricked into that
knowledge when there is little to no benefit to them.
o This can result in loss of credibility or negative feelings.
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Communitarian Theory - a theory centered at a philosophy that emphasizes the connection between the
individual and the community. It’s overriding philosophy is based upon the belief that a person’s social identity
and personality are largely molded by community relationships. It views the rebuilding of community is a
process of social organization involving self-help, institutional integration and consensus-building.

Organizational Structure and Culture Theory –This theory emphasizes the importance of the culture that
exists in the organization and how it is correlated with the existing structure it possesses.

End of Lesson 3.1.

For better understanding of the terms and discussions, you may refer to the following book/internet references:

 Character Formation 2 (2021) – N. Caballero and L.J. Barican

 https://www.changeboard.com/article-details/16960/problem-solving-vs-decision-making-what-is-the-
difference-/
 https://www.soas.ac.uk/cedep-demos/000_P506_RM_3736-Demo/unit1/page_16.htm
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Know the definition of Decision-Making.

 Identify the importance of having correct decisions.
 Internalize several strategies in arriving to a logical decision-making.

Lesson 3.2 – Decision-Making

What is Decision-Making?
Decision-making can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is considered to
be ideal, or at least acceptable. Consequently, it is a mechanism that can be more or less logical or irrational and
based on overt or implicit knowledge and beliefs. In dynamic decision-making processes, implicit information
is often used to fill holes (Brockmann, 2016). Typically, all implicit and explicit, of these forms of information
are used together in the decision-making process.

Characteristics of Decision-Making
 Objectives must have to be set first.
 Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance.
 We need to build alternate acts.
 The alternatives must be measured against all targets.
 Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all objectives.
 The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences.
 The preliminary decision is reviewed for more potential implications.
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  Decisive action is taken and further action is taken to avoid any negative effects from issues and to
continue all processes all over again.
 There are usually followed steps leading to a decision model that could be used to assess an optimal
production schedule.
Nine (9) Characteristics of a Good Decision
 Decisions positively impact others.
 Decisions are replicable.
 Decisions foster opportunity to empower others.
 Decisions include others.
 Decisions are executable.
 Decisions are systematic.
 Decisions are accountable.
 Decisions are pragmatic.
 Decisions involve self-awareness.

TECHNIQUES IN DECISION-MAKING
1) GROUP DECISION-MAKING
 Also known as “Collaborative Decision-Making”, is a situation faced when individuals collectively
make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable to any
single individual who is a member of the group. This is because the result applies to certain systems
of individuals and social power. Community decisions often vary from those taken by individuals.
 Collaborative decision-making in workplace environments is one of the most effective models for
creating buy-in from other stakeholders, building trust and promoting innovation. In keeping with the
concept of cooperation, collective decisions often appear to be more successful than decisions made
by a single person. In this way, such collective agreements have the ability to deliver better net output
results than individuals working alone. (Larson, 2010)
 This may not be used in emergency or crisis type of decision-making as decisions in such
scenarios require immediate action.
 Group fragmentation of ideas may often occur due to individual differences in approach for the
direction intended for the group to be taken.
 Decisions made in a group may not hold a single person accountable.
 It costs more resources than an individual decision-maker.
2) INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING
 Individual decision making does not involve a group or even more than one person. Individual
decision-making is quick and generally cost-effective, because it does not require gathering others
and scheduling a meeting or multiple meetings or sending a single email. Individuals have a tendency
to think and question before performing, which is a fruitful in analysis and forecasting of an
individual’s behavior. (Juneja, 2017)
 Individual decision-making saves time, money and energy and makes one accountable for the
decision being made. Individuals do not escape liabilities and responsibilities.
 Individual decision-making holds only the one who made the decision accountable.
 An individual making the decision may not be able to collect more complete information in
contrast to a group.

Decision-Making Approaches
1) Rational or Analytical Approach
 Exemplified by systematic decision-making.
 Defines upfront success factors.
 Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each success factor.
 Decision-making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption of the desired
solutions except for major unforeseeable or unpredictable incidents.
 Consideration of the implications of the final decision.
2) Intuitive Approach
 Relying on emotions or feelings.
 Careful planning is not possible or not desired.
 People will point to a “gut feeling” or “hunch” as the cause for a choice, reflecting that explanation is
not accessible through conscious thought.
3) Random or Chance Approach
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  An approach wherein a decision is made on impulse or without a thorough thought.
 Flipping a coin or using a “decision wheel” would be representative of this approach.
 It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can promote denial of
responsibility.
4) Similar Decision-Making
 GOFER (Five Decision-Making Steps, L. Mann, 1980)
 Goals clarification: Survey values and objectives.
 Options generation: Consider a wide range of alternative actions.
 Facts-Finding: Search for information.
 Effect Consideration – Weigh the positive and negative consequences of the options.
 Review and Implement – Plan how to review the options and implement them.
 DECIDE (K. Guo, 2008)
 Define the problem.
 Establish or Enumerate all the criteria.
 Consider or Collect all the alternatives.
 Identify the best alternative.
 Develop and implement a plan of action.
 Evaluate and monitor the solution and examine feedback when necessary.

PROBLEM-SOLVING VS DECISION-MAKING
Problem-solving is an analytical process used to identify the possible solutions to the situation at hand. Making
decisions is a part of problem solving. Problem solving is a complex process, and judgment calls – or decisions
– will have to be made on the way.

Decision-making is a choice made by using one’s judgment. The art of making sound decisions is a particularly
important skill for leaders and managers. You may need to make numerous decisions as part of the problem-
solving process. And of course, leaders and managers will need to use their decision-making skills to determine
which solution to pursue. They will also typically need to confirm and set into motion next steps to fix the
problem.

Which is more important – Problem Solving or Decision Making?

Both problem solving and decision-making go hand in hand, but success in one doesn’t automatically lead to
the other. Those in leadership and management roles need to understand the difference between the two and aim
to make lifelong improvements in both skillsets

Decisions are made when multiple opportunities for action present themselves. You can make decisions, yet
never solve the problem. You can be adept at problem solving, or finding the root of an issue, and still lack the
decision-making skills to choose and action viable steps to bring about a successful outcome.

Quick decisions don’t always lead to best-case solutions. A purist approach to problem solving doesn’t take into
account that sometimes an organization needs to make the best decision under the existing circumstances.

DECISION-MAKING FOR PUBLIC MANAGERS

1) Obł’oj, 2007
a. Verbalization of goal, which creates the foundation for keeping hope in aspirations of each
member of the organization. The task of a leader is to create some kind of metaphors, general
future states. It is the members of the organization, who, in the way of inspiration by the leader,
should create visions consistent with their dreams and expectations.
b. Motivation to work towards realization of own dreams, characterized with innovativeness,
calculated risk, courage or experimenting. The dreams need to be real, but in the spirit of
breaking bureaucratic conventions and correctness, since this gives a new sense to the work and
actions of the whole organization.
c. Seeing long-term future. The vision must be broader, than separate several year strategies or the
nearest governance period. This allows building solid foundations for goals, which should be
achieved, with taking into account the changes of forms and tools for their realization in the way.

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 2) Zi’ołkowski, 2007
a. Strategic planning should be a conscious, systematic and future-oriented process of constant
preparation and decision making regarding future level of development of local government
entity (LGE) and the level of satisfaction of population’s needs, and coordination and integration
of undertaken actions to adopt planning decisions with acknowledgement of external
(opportunities and threats in environments) and internal (weak and strong sides) conditions.

FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION-MAKING

1) Individuality – personal logic plays a vital role in your choices, the way you make a choice will
always be affected. Individual personality is an unavoidable consideration combined with maturity and
experience constructive self-awareness can help you weigh how much your intuition impacts your
decision-making process. What is interesting about choices is that they are all yours. No other being o
earth will make the same exact choices, or even the logic behind arriving to such choices or the
procedures arriving to the same choices.
a. Decision-making is simply multi-determined. Meaning that there are multiple forces at work
simultaneously.
b. Individual characteristics and influences factor in. These blend with your beliefs, your desires
and your inspiration as you navigate the decision-making process every day.
c. Your individual “style” matters. As your style informs whether you rationally or emotionally,
impulsively or cautiously, spontaneously or deliberately, approach decisions.
d. We make decisions following a personal belief. We arrive to a decision after weighing in the
reasons why we made the decision whether internal norm, ethics or any other meaning. Others
make choices to minimize anxiety or increase self-esteem and/or the likelihood of closeness or
distance from others.
2) Cultural – while decision-making is a mental process, the underlying cross-cultural disparities in
decision making can be a major contributing factor in cross-cultural communication, negotiation, and
conflict resolution performance.
a. Cultural Decision-Making Models
 The Universal Model. Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a
small difference in how people from different cultures make their choices.
 The Dispositional Model. The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that decision-
making differences are cross-cultural and support the cause of cross-cultural study. They
assume that the variations found reflect the omnipresence of cultural inclinations in individual’s
minds and are expected to appear in all situations and situational contexts.
 The Dynamic Model. This view often considers cultural knowledge as not monolithic
construct that is continuously present, but as a collection of discrete knowledge that is
operational as a function of the situation as they promote the development and testing of
complex models reflecting the processes by which culture influences decision-makers.
b. Effect of Culture on Decision-Making
 Priming – the automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to
elements of the social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or purpose.
From the common schematic representations of a certain society the stereotyped behaviors that
later affect our decisions.
 Time Pressure – Cultural knowledge appears to represent a broad sampling of events in life,
wherein personal knowledge is more based on individual or atypical experiences. Cultural-
based participants are prepared day after day with collection of values, and behavioral habits
that contribute to building up cultural awareness. Personal awareness is a record of a particular
event and is not replicated in too many ways which takes more time and effort.
 Peer Pressure – Individuals in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not
encounter social pressure according to their cultural values. According to what collectivist
culture dictates, Japanese and Chinese students are more likely to decide, compared to
American and Italian students, whether they will eat in fast-subject to the norms adopted in their
societies, and less likely to make choices dependent on their personal attitudes.
 Pressure for Excuse - When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural
awareness is recruited. The need to include explanations evokes an information-processing
approach focused on top-down application of rules and standards, rather than bottom-up
processing based on personal experience. This can be clarified with the aid of the supposition

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 that when asked to offer reasons, individuals feel the need to adapt because they do not want to
be the outsiders.
3) Cognitive Ambiguity – widespread common cultural awareness offers validated context for
individuals to view potentially ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with a sense of
epistemic protection and protecting against ambiguity and unpredictability. The degree to which persons
of all cultures need firm answers varies. It is found that the people with high tolerance for ambiguity are
less likely to act with consent of their society. In doing so, these individuals tend to avoid options that
they consider as unknown or they are uncertain to, and are therefore more inclined to select an option for
which is probably achieve a more favorable outcome. It is for this reason, that individuals are more
inclined to decide in line with a society’s bias towards certain things and perceive it as “true” rather than
to take risk.
Eight Stages of Moral Decision-Making (Pijanowski, 2009)
 Create and nurture the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how problems are
understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a moral dilemma.
 Recognize the problem exisits.
 Identify competing explanations for the problem, and evaluate the drivers behind these interpretations.
 Sift through various possible actions or responses and determine which is more justifiable.
 Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral course of action and then
prioritize and commit to moral values over other personal, institutional or social values.
 Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision.
 Reflection in action
 Reflection on action

INFORMATION DATA LEAD DECISION VS RESEARCH LEAD DECISION

 Information Data Decision – It is the use of transforming data into knowledge to be used or factored
into decision-making.
 Users of Information – this definition relies solely between the different users of information.
Therefore, it may be helpful to consider who might be the users of information.
 Planners have clear information requirements as they seek to identify and solve problems as
outlined above.
 Implementers of projects need to monitor what they are achieving and the impacts of their
activities, in order to adjust their activities.
 Policy-makers, like planners, must be informed about problems, their causes, and means of
overcoming them.
 Donors seek to take actions to support other stakeholders and at the same time pursue their own,
sometimes contradictory, objectives.
 Service Agencies (such as extension and research) need to make decisions about how to invest and
what activities to engage in.
 Academics are major users of information being utilized in education and spread awareness.
 Qualities of Good and Useful Information
 Comprehensive. The coverage of issues is important for a particular decision. Information should
be complete.
 Consistent. It should be a continuous flow of information as to facts and conclusions.
 Clearly Presented. It should be easy to comprehend without excessive details.
 Relevant. It should bear resemblance or related to the problem under consideration.
 Reliable and Accurate. Information should always be up to date and is generally free of
misinformation.
 Representative. It should represent the situation as a whole, while being free of bias or one-sided
in its coverage.
 Timely. It should be regarded to the timing of decisions.
 Generalized. It should only be applied to specific situations similar to those from which it was
obtained.
 Directed and Delivered. It should be given to the relevant decision-makers who needs such
decisions.
 Cost-Effective. It should provide information in the most cost proportionate method by
maximizing resources to obtain such information through the use of the least number of resources
to gain the potential benefits and improved decision-making.

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 Research Lead Decision-Making – it is the use of research at every point in the planning process,
identifying the benefits and risks, among others and to use the research as the basis for arriving to such
decision.

End of Lesson 3.2.

End of Final Module

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