Fluid Mechanics - I
Fluid Mechanics - I
Fluid Mechanics - I
Syllabus
Chapter – 1: Introductory concepts on the fluid mechanics.
Viscosity
A property by which the resistance offered by a moving fluid layer to its adjacent fluid layer.
y U(y)
dy
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Chapter – 2: Fluid Statics
Hydrostatics: Pressure field generated by a fluid at rest.
Pressure
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since by definition a fluid
subjected to a shear stress must deform and undergo motion. Normal stresses
are referred to as pressure p.
Pressure Measurements
U-tube or differential manometer
Differential manometer
Magnitude of resultant
hydrostatic force on plane
surface is product of pressure
at centroid of area and area of
surface.
Center of Pressure
Center of pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases with
depth. Center of pressure is determined by equating the moments of the
resultant and distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.
Metacentric height: MG
Stable: MG>0
Unstable: MG<0
Neutral: MG=0
Chapter – 3: Fluid Kinematics
Lagrangian description of fluid flow z
S ix jy kz
dx
u F x0 , y0 , z0 , t y x
dt
S S S0,t v
dy
G x0 , y0 , z0 , t
dt
dz
w R x0 , y0 , z0 , t
dt
D
u v w Total / Substancial / Material derivative
Dt t x y z
Streamline (Eulerian)
An imaginary line such that tangent to the line at a point at a given instant
represents the direction of the velocity vector at that point at that instant.
dx dy dz
u v w
Two streamlines never intersect
dx
Path line (Lagrangian) u
dt
Streak line P
Linear Strain Rate
d d u2 u1 v u
dt dt x1 x2 x y
Chapter – 4: Fluid Dynamics and Application
of Linear Momentum to Control
Volume
System
Rate of Mass
outflux
Conservation of mass in Fluid Flow
CV
Rate of Mass
influx
Net rate of mass increase in the CV + Net rate of mass efflux from the CV = 0
Net rate of mass efflux from the CV = Rate of Mass influx – Rate of Mass outflux
Differential form of the Conservation of mass in a control volume
u v w
0
t x y z
For incompressible flow, Density = Constant
u v w
0
x y z
u 0
Concept of stream function in 2D flow only
For two-dimensional flow, a function, x, y, t is defined such that it satisfies the
continuity equation.
u
y u v
Such that u and v satisfies the continuity equation in the 2D, 0
x y
v Note: two stream functions may crosses each other.
x
2
1 Volume flow rate within the stremlines per unit width =
2 1
Integral form of the continuity equation
Rate of For steady and incompressible flow:
dA Mass
outflux
U2, A2 V .n dA 0
CV A
Rate of U1 A1 U 2 A2
Mass influx
U1, A1
Euler’s Equation
Resulting equation relating the relationship between velocity and pressure field for
an ideal fluid, that is the fluid whose viscous effect is neglected.
Du u u u u 1 p
u v w Xx
Dt t x y z x
Dv v v v v 1 p
u v w Xy
Dt t x y z y
Dw w w w w 1 p
u v w Xz
Dt t x y z z
Euler’s equation along a streamline
s
v v 1 p z
p(s, t) v g
z t s s s
v(s, t) p
g Flow work:
Bernoulli’s Equation: Mechanical Energy equation
v2 p
Energy/Unit weight= Velocity Head. Pressure Head.
2g g
z Datum Head.
Fluid
2 out
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 along the streamline and assuming
head loss to be zero 2 2
p1 V1 p2 Vexit
z1 z2
g 2g g 2g
p2 patm
z1 z2 h
F t CV Vd CS V V d A
Analysis of Finite Control Volume
V1 , A1 p2
Inlet
Fx
CV
F
p1
g
By the application of Momentum conservation theorem at the CV, we have shown that
Fx m V2 cos V1 p2 A2 cos p1 A1
Fy mV2 sin p2 A2 sin g m AV
1 1 A2V2
Plate
Q, A, V
Liquid jet
To determine force exerted by the fluid on the plate?
We assume the fluid to ideal and throughout the domain the atmospheric. Let us consider
a control volume containing the jet volume. n
Q1, V
Fs 0
O
Q AV CV
A
Q
Therefore, the momentum balance,
Q2, V
Q2V Q1 V QV cos Fs 0 s
Q2 Q1 Q cos
Q Q
From continuity, Q2 Q1 Q Q2 1 cos 1 1 cos
, Q
2 2
Now, to find the force, Net efflux of momentum from the control volume along on
Q2 0 Q1 0 QV sin Fn
Outflux Influx
Fn QV sin
Fp Fn QV sin
For practical purposes, if the plate is moving with a velocity u, then work done by the jet
P Fp sin u QV u sin 2
Problem # 1
The fluid flow over a stationary flat plate forms boundary layer, as shown in the
figure. The streaming fluid has uniform velocity U . The velocity distribution within
the boundary layer can be approximated by
y y
2
u U 2
If the density of the fluid is and width of the plate perpendicular to the paper is
w, determine the mass flow rate across the surface bc of the control volume abcd.
U
U b CV
c
y
x
a d
Solution: Applying the conservation of the mass in the CV
V .n dA 0
A
Now,
V .n dA V .n dA V .n dA V .n dA V .n dA 0
A Aab Abc Acd Ada
(1)
V .n dA u dA u w dy U
Aab Aab 0 0
w dy U w
y y
2
2 U w
V .n dA u dA u wdy U 2 wdy
Acd Acd 0 0
3
V .n dA 0
Ada
No mass flow across the surface da, since no slip boundary at the wall.
Putting the above values in Eq. (1), we obtain the mass flow rate across the surface bc as,
mbc V .n dA V .n dA V .n dA V .n dA
Abc Aab Acd Ada
2 U w U w
mbc U w 0
3 3
Problem # 2
Gravel is dumped from a hopper, at a rate of 650 N/s, onto a moving belt, as shown in the
figure. The gravel then passes off the end of the belt. The drive wheels are 80 cm in
diameter and rotate clockwise at 150 r/min. Neglecting system friction and air drag,
estimate the power required to drive this belt.
CV
Solution
The CV goes under the gravel on the belt and cuts through the inlet and outlet gravel
streams, as shown. The no-slip belt velocity must be
Then the belt applies tangential force F to the gravel, and the force balance from the
momentum conservation theorem is
Hence, Since,
CV
Solution
Let, be the CV encloses the tank and passes through jet B.
(a) For jet path A, no momentum flux crosses the CV, therefore F = 0.
(b) For jet path B, there is momentum flux, so the x-momentum relation yields:
Now we don’t really know uB exactly, but we make the reasonable assumption
that the jet trajectory is frictionless and maintains its horizontal velocity
component, that is, uB ≈Vjet cos60°.
Thus we can estimate
kg
F muB 5 45cos 60 112.5 N
s
Assignment Problem
Water at 20°C flows through the elbow shown in the figure and exits to the
atmosphere. The pipe diameter is D1 = 10 cm, while D2 = 3 cm. At a weight
flow rate of 150 N/s, the pressure p1 = 2.3 atm (gage). Neglecting the weight of
water and elbow, estimate the force on the flange bolts at section 1.
Answer: 2100 N
Flow measurement devices: Application of
Bernoulli’s Equation
Basic Principle:
The flow meter provides a geometrical change to the flow of fluid, usually a co-
axial contraction to the path of the fluid flow, so that a pressure drop is registered
in the flow of fluid between two sections.
Venturimeter
(Developed by Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi in 1797)
8-100
Throat Diverging
Converging
section section
1 2
Converging passage and a gradual
p1 p2 diverging passage in the direction
of flow to avoid the loss of energy
due to separation.
Measurement of flow rate by the Venturimeter
V2 , p2 , Fluid density
A2
V1 , p1 ,
m
A1
Here, h1 and h2 are the piezometric pressure heads at sec. 1 and sec. 2 respectively,
and are defined as
(1)
If the pressure difference between Sections 1 and 2 is measured by a manometer
as shown in the figure, we can write,
Therefore,
However, for a real fluid, there will be an additional pressure drop because of the
friction at the solid surface.
Therefore, the actual pressure drop is more than that of estimated by a inviscid
flow. Hence, h is more than that have been obtained by the manometric
equation.
Hence, A1 A2 2 g m 1 h
Qactual Cd
A12 A22
Coefficient of discharge,
Theoretical flow rate
Generally, Cd f Q, A1 , A2
D/2
Orifice meter
m Vena contracta
Placing the orifice meter causes contraction of the streamlines and as a result forms
a vena contracta, that is the minimum cross-sectional area which is very close to
the orifice.
Therefore, Vc V1 , p1 pc
Considering the fluid to be ideal and the downstream pressure taping to be at the vena
contracta (Sec. c-c), we can write, by applying Bernoulli’s theorem between Sec. 1-1 and
Sec. c-c, 2 2
p1 V1 p V
z1 c c zc
g 2g g 2g
From the equation of continuity
Vc2 Ac2
1 2 h1 hc
Therefore,
2g A1
2 g h1 hc
Vc
Ac2
1 2
A1
2g
m 1 h
Vc
Ac2
1 2
A1
Recalling the fact that the measured value of the piezometric pressure drop for a real fluid is
always more due to friction than that assumed in case of an inviscid flow, a coefficient of
velocity Cv and hence,
2 g m 1 h
Vc Cv
Ac2
1 2
A1
Therefore, the flow rate, Q AcVc
2g m
1 h
Q AcCv
Ac2
1 2
A1
Ac
Now, we define the coefficient of contraction as Cc
A0
Ac = Area of the vena contracta, and A0 = Area of the orifice (measureable)
2g m
1 h
Hence, Q A0CcCv
Ac2
1 2
A1
Now, CcCv Cd
2g m
1 h
C m 1 h
Q A0Cd
Therefore,
Ac2
1 2
A1
Where, C is a constant, also called the constant of the orifice meter.
To precociously calculate the value of C for the orifice meter, we need to do the
calibration experimentally. Usually, the value of Cd for the orifice meter lies in the
range 0.60-0.65.
Flow Nozzle
The basic equations for calculation of flow rate are the same as those for a venturimeter.
Static pressure: It is the hydrostatic pressure, that is pressure exerted when the fluid
is at rest.
For the flow of a real and Stoksian fluid (the fluid which obeys Stoke’s law) the
static or thermodynamic pressure becomes equal to the arithmetic average of the
normal stresses at a point. The static pressure is a parameter to describe the state
of a flowing fluid.
How to measure the Static pressure?