Fluid Mechanics - I

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Fluid Mechanics – I

Syllabus
Chapter – 1: Introductory concepts on the fluid mechanics.

Chapter – 2: Fluid Statics

Chapter – 3: Fluid Kinematics

Chapter – 4: Fluid Dynamics and Application of Linear Momentum


to Control Volume

Chapter – 5: Characteristics of Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Chapter – 6: Flow Through Closed Conduits

Chapter – 7: Free Surface Flow


Chapter – 1: Introductory concepts
on the fluid mechanics
Definition of fluid
A substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress.

No-slip boundary condition


No relative motion between fluid and boundary, i.e., fluid in contact with
lower plate is stationary, whereas fluid in contact with upper plate moves
at speed U.
Newtonian Fluid
Continuum Hypothesis
Fluid be-haves as a continuum, i.e., the
number of molecules within the smallest
region of interest (a point) are sufficient that
all fluid properties are point functions (single
valued at a point).
Knudsen number, Kn=a/L

Viscosity
A property by which the resistance offered by a moving fluid layer to its adjacent fluid layer.

y U(y)
dy
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Chapter – 2: Fluid Statics
Hydrostatics: Pressure field generated by a fluid at rest.

Pressure
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since by definition a fluid
subjected to a shear stress must deform and undergo motion. Normal stresses
are referred to as pressure p.

Basic Equation of Fluid Statics p   X


Pressure variation, when gravity is the only body force acting
downwards:
dp
  g
dz
Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum
Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids

Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation

Pressure Measurements
U-tube or differential manometer
Differential manometer

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

Magnitude of resultant
hydrostatic force on plane
surface is product of pressure
at centroid of area and area of
surface.
Center of Pressure
Center of pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases with
depth. Center of pressure is determined by equating the moments of the
resultant and distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces


The horizontal component
of force acting on a curved
surface is equal to the force
acting on a vertical
projection of that surface
including both magnitude
and line of action.
Buoyancy

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

If C is above G, then the


body is stable.

If G is above C, then the


body is unstable
Floating Bodies and Metacentric Height

Metacentric height: MG
Stable: MG>0
Unstable: MG<0
Neutral: MG=0
Chapter – 3: Fluid Kinematics
Lagrangian description of fluid flow z

S  ix  jy  kz
dx
u  F  x0 , y0 , z0 , t  y x

 
dt
S  S S0,t v
dy
 G  x0 , y0 , z0 , t 
dt
dz
w  R  x0 , y0 , z0 , t 
dt

Eulerian description of fluid flow Steady flow Uniform flow


v  v t  v  v t 
 
v  v S0,t
 
v  v S0  
v  v S0
a  a S ,t 
a  a S  a  a t 
0
0
Acceleration
DV V  V V V  V
a   u
t  x
v
y
w
z
 
 V  V 
Dt  t
Local
Convective

D    
  u  v  w  Total / Substancial / Material derivative
Dt t x y z
Streamline (Eulerian)
An imaginary line such that tangent to the line at a point at a given instant
represents the direction of the velocity vector at that point at that instant.
dx dy dz
 
u v w
Two streamlines never intersect
dx
Path line (Lagrangian) u 
dt
Streak line P
Linear Strain Rate

Volumetric Strain Rate

Shear strain rate

Strain rate tensor


Vorticity
It is generally customary to deal with twice the angular velocity, which is called
the vorticity of the element.

 d  d  u2 u1 v u
      
 dt dt  x1 x2 x y
Chapter – 4: Fluid Dynamics and Application
of Linear Momentum to Control
Volume
System

Control mass system Control volume system Isolated system


(Closed system) (Open system, CV)

Rate of Mass
outflux
Conservation of mass in Fluid Flow

CV

Rate of Mass
influx

Net rate of mass increase in the CV + Net rate of mass efflux from the CV = 0

Net rate of mass efflux from the CV = Rate of Mass influx – Rate of Mass outflux
Differential form of the Conservation of mass in a control volume
    u     v     w 
   0
t x y z
For incompressible flow, Density = Constant
u v w
  0
x y z
 u 0
Concept of stream function in 2D flow only
For two-dimensional flow, a function,     x, y, t  is defined such that it satisfies the
 continuity equation.
u
y u v
Such that u and v satisfies the continuity equation in the 2D,  0
 x y
v Note: two stream functions may crosses each other.
x
2
 1 Volume flow rate within the stremlines per unit width =
 2  1
Integral form of the continuity equation
Rate of For steady and incompressible flow:
dA Mass
outflux
U2, A2  V .n dA  0
CV A

Rate of  U1 A1  U 2 A2
Mass influx
U1, A1

Euler’s Equation
Resulting equation relating the relationship between velocity and pressure field for
an ideal fluid, that is the fluid whose viscous effect is neglected.
Du u u u u 1 p
 u v w  Xx 
Dt t x y z  x
Dv v v v v 1 p
 u v w  Xy 
Dt t x y z  y
Dw w w w w 1 p
 u v w  Xz 
Dt t x y z  z
Euler’s equation along a streamline

s
v v 1 p z
p(s, t) v   g
z t s  s s
v(s, t) p
g Flow work:

Bernoulli’s Equation: Mechanical Energy equation

Assumptions invoked: a) Ideal fluid. b) Steady. c) Incompressible. d) Gravity as


the only body force. e) Along a streamline.

By integrating the Euler’s equation:


v2 p
 gzC
2 
Various terms
v2 p
 Kinetic energy per unit mass.  Pressure energy per unit mass.
2 
gz Potential energy per unit mass.

v2 p
 Energy/Unit weight= Velocity Head.  Pressure Head.
2g g
z Datum Head.

At any points between 1 and 2


2
v12 p1 v2 2 p2
  z1    z2  hf1- 2
1 2g  g 2g  g
Head loss
Application: Outlet velocity while emptying a tank
Application: Finding exit velocity of the a tank
Fluid Inlet velocity=V1
1
in Inlet pressure=p1

If the fluid is inviscid, to find


h the exit velocity

Fluid
2 out

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 along the streamline and assuming
head loss to be zero 2 2
p1 V1 p2 Vexit
  z1    z2
 g 2g  g 2g
p2  patm
z1  z2  h

Vexit  V12  2  p1  patm   2 gh


Conservation of Momentum
Net force acting on a CV = Net rate of change of momentum within the CV
+ Net rate of efflux of momentum across the control surface


 F  t CV Vd   CS V V d A  
Analysis of Finite Control Volume

•Inertial control volume CV moving with uniform velocity or


stationary, no acceleration
•Non-inertial control volume CV moving with an acceleration
Application: Force exerted on a pipe bend
Outlet
V2 , A2

Fy

V1 , A1 p2
Inlet
Fx
CV
F
p1
g
By the application of Momentum conservation theorem at the CV, we have shown that
Fx  m V2 cos   V1   p2 A2 cos   p1 A1
Fy  mV2 sin   p2 A2 sin   g m   AV
1 1   A2V2

Force required to keep the bend stationary: FxB   Fx , FyB   Fy


Also we have solved a numerical problem on the
force exerted on a pipe bend.
Application: Liquid jet hitting an incline plate

Plate
Q, A, V
Liquid jet 
To determine force exerted by the fluid on the plate?
We assume the fluid to ideal and throughout the domain the atmospheric. Let us consider
a control volume containing the jet volume. n
Q1, V
Fs  0
O
Q  AV CV
A
Q 
Therefore, the momentum balance,
Q2, V
 Q2V   Q1  V    QV cos   Fs  0 s

 Q2  Q1  Q cos 
Q Q
From continuity, Q2  Q1  Q Q2  1  cos   1 1  cos  
, Q 
2 2
Now, to find the force, Net efflux of momentum from the control volume along on

 Q2  0   Q1  0   QV sin   Fn
Outflux Influx

 Fn    QV sin 

Therefore, force is acting on the plate,

Fp   Fn   QV sin 
For practical purposes, if the plate is moving with a velocity u, then work done by the jet

P  Fp sin  u   QV u sin 2 
Problem # 1
The fluid flow over a stationary flat plate forms boundary layer, as shown in the
figure. The streaming fluid has uniform velocity U . The velocity distribution within
the boundary layer can be approximated by

  y  y 
2

u  U  2      
     
 
If the density of the fluid is  and width of the plate perpendicular to the paper is
w, determine the mass flow rate across the surface bc of the control volume abcd.
U
U b CV
c
y

x
a d
Solution: Applying the conservation of the mass in the CV

 V .n dA  0
A
Now,

 V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA  0
A Aab Abc Acd Ada
  (1)
 V .n dA     u dA     u w dy     U
Aab Aab 0 0
 w dy    U  w



  y  y 
 2
 2  U  w
 V .n dA    u dA    u wdy    U  2       wdy 
Acd Acd 0 0      
  3

 V .n dA  0
Ada
No mass flow across the surface da, since no slip boundary at the wall.

Putting the above values in Eq. (1), we obtain the mass flow rate across the surface bc as,

mbc   V .n dA    V .n dA   V .n dA   V .n dA
Abc Aab Acd Ada

2  U  w  U  w
 mbc   U  w  0 
3 3
Problem # 2
Gravel is dumped from a hopper, at a rate of 650 N/s, onto a moving belt, as shown in the
figure. The gravel then passes off the end of the belt. The drive wheels are 80 cm in
diameter and rotate clockwise at 150 r/min. Neglecting system friction and air drag,
estimate the power required to drive this belt.

CV

Solution
The CV goes under the gravel on the belt and cuts through the inlet and outlet gravel
streams, as shown. The no-slip belt velocity must be

Then the belt applies tangential force F to the gravel, and the force balance from the
momentum conservation theorem is

Hence, Since,

Therefore, the power required to drive the belt is


Problem # 3
A pump in a tank of water directs a jet at 45 m/s and 5 kg/s against a vane, as
shown in the figure. Compute the force F to hold the cart stationary if the jet
follows (a) path A; or (b) path B. The tank holds 550 liters of water at this instant.

CV

Solution
Let, be the CV encloses the tank and passes through jet B.
(a) For jet path A, no momentum flux crosses the CV, therefore F = 0.
(b) For jet path B, there is momentum flux, so the x-momentum relation yields:
Now we don’t really know uB exactly, but we make the reasonable assumption
that the jet trajectory is frictionless and maintains its horizontal velocity
component, that is, uB ≈Vjet cos60°.
Thus we can estimate
 kg 
F  muB   5    45cos 60   112.5 N
 s 

Assignment Problem
Water at 20°C flows through the elbow shown in the figure and exits to the
atmosphere. The pipe diameter is D1 = 10 cm, while D2 = 3 cm. At a weight
flow rate of 150 N/s, the pressure p1 = 2.3 atm (gage). Neglecting the weight of
water and elbow, estimate the force on the flange bolts at section 1.

Answer: 2100 N
Flow measurement devices: Application of
Bernoulli’s Equation
Basic Principle:
The flow meter provides a geometrical change to the flow of fluid, usually a co-
axial contraction to the path of the fluid flow, so that a pressure drop is registered
in the flow of fluid between two sections.

Venturimeter
(Developed by Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi in 1797)
8-100

Throat Diverging
Converging
section section
1 2
Converging passage and a gradual
p1  p2 diverging passage in the direction
of flow to avoid the loss of energy
due to separation.
Measurement of flow rate by the Venturimeter

V2 , p2 , Fluid density 
A2

V1 , p1 ,
m
A1

If we apply Bernoulli’s equation between stations 1 and 2, we have


From continuity,

Therefore, V22  A22   p1   p2 


 1  
   z 
1   z 2
2 g  A12    g    g 

 
Here, h1 and h2 are the piezometric pressure heads at sec. 1 and sec. 2 respectively,
and are defined as

Hence, the volume flow rate through the pipe is given by

(1)
If the pressure difference between Sections 1 and 2 is measured by a manometer
as shown in the figure, we can write,

Substituting piezometric head difference in Eq.(1), we obtain,

If the pipe is horizontal, we have, z1=z2, therefore, h1  h2  h1  h2

Therefore,
However, for a real fluid, there will be an additional pressure drop because of the
friction at the solid surface.
Therefore, the actual pressure drop is more than that of estimated by a inviscid
flow. Hence, h is more than that have been obtained by the manometric
equation.

Hence, A1 A2 2 g  m   1 h
Qactual  Cd 
A12  A22

Coefficient of discharge,
Theoretical flow rate

Generally, Cd  f  Q, A1 , A2 

For the higher flow rate, Cd  f  Re  Re = Reynolds number of the flow


Generally, for higher flow rates, coefficient of discharge virtually constant and has values
Cd  0.95  0.98 Requires calibration for practical use.
Orificemeter
Its consists of a orifice plate, that is a plate with a hole at the centre.

D/2
Orifice meter
m Vena contracta

Placing the orifice meter causes contraction of the streamlines and as a result forms
a vena contracta, that is the minimum cross-sectional area which is very close to
the orifice.
Therefore, Vc  V1 , p1  pc
Considering the fluid to be ideal and the downstream pressure taping to be at the vena
contracta (Sec. c-c), we can write, by applying Bernoulli’s theorem between Sec. 1-1 and
Sec. c-c, 2 2
p1 V1 p V
  z1  c  c  zc
 g 2g  g 2g
From the equation of continuity

Vc2  Ac2 
 1  2    h1  hc 
Therefore,  

2g  A1 

2 g  h1  hc 
 Vc 
 Ac2 
1  2 
 A1 

2g 
 
 m   1  h
Vc   
 Ac2 
1  2 
 A1 
Recalling the fact that the measured value of the piezometric pressure drop for a real fluid is
always more due to friction than that assumed in case of an inviscid flow, a coefficient of
velocity Cv and hence,
 
  
 2 g  m  1  h 
Vc  Cv     
  Ac2  
 1  2  
  A1  
Therefore, the flow rate, Q  AcVc
 

 2g   m 
 1  h 
   
Q  AcCv 
  Ac2  
 1  2  
  A1  
Ac
Now, we define the coefficient of contraction as Cc 
A0
Ac = Area of the vena contracta, and A0 = Area of the orifice (measureable)
 
 2g    m 
 1  h 
   
Hence, Q  A0CcCv 
  Ac2  
 1  2  
  A1  
Now, CcCv  Cd
 
 2g   m 
 1  h 
     C    m  1  h 
Q  A0Cd      
 
Therefore,

 Ac2 
     
 1 2 
  A1  
Where, C is a constant, also called the constant of the orifice meter.
To precociously calculate the value of C for the orifice meter, we need to do the
calibration experimentally. Usually, the value of Cd for the orifice meter lies in the
range 0.60-0.65.
Flow Nozzle

The basic equations for calculation of flow rate are the same as those for a venturimeter.

Comparisons of various flow meters


Flow meter Accuracy Cost Loss of total energy Cd
Venturimeter High High Low 0.95-0.98

Orificemeter Low Low High 0.6-0.65

Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium 0.75-0.8


Concept of Static and Stagnation pressures

Static pressure: It is the hydrostatic pressure, that is pressure exerted when the fluid
is at rest.
For the flow of a real and Stoksian fluid (the fluid which obeys Stoke’s law) the
static or thermodynamic pressure becomes equal to the arithmetic average of the
normal stresses at a point. The static pressure is a parameter to describe the state
of a flowing fluid.
How to measure the Static pressure?

No component of velocity in this direction


Pressure measuring Static pressure, p
device
Stagnation pressure: The stagnation pressure at a point in a fluid flow is the pressure
which could result if the fluid were brought to rest isentropically.

Uniform velocity fluid

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between


points A and B
p V 2 pB
 
 g 2g  g p0  p
1
p0  pB  p  V 2 Corresponding equivalent pressure head
2
p0 1
By definition, stagnation pressure V 2  is the dynamic pressure.
Where, p is the static pressure. 2
Hence, when the fluid is brought to rest, the total conversion of the KE into the pressure
energy.
Pitot Tube for Flow Measurement
The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was adopted first by a French
Scientist Henri Pitot in 1732 for measuring velocities in the river.
Concept

Measures stagnation pressure

Measures static pressure

Sense the static


pressure
Measures the
stagnation
pressure/stagnation
tube

Pitot static tube Flow velocity V  2  p0  p    2H 

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