Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57 – 76

www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

The timing and evolution of the post-glacial transgression across the

Sea of Marmara shelf south of İstanbul
K.K. Eriş a,⁎, W.B.F. Ryan b , M.N. Çağatay a , U. Sancar a ,
G. Lericolais c , G. Ménot d , E. Bard d
a . .
Istanbul Technical University Faculty Of Mines, Emcol, Geology Department Ayazağa, Istanbul Turkey
b
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA
c
Laboratoire de Environnements Sedimentaires, IFREMER, France
d
College de France, CEREGE, UMR-6635, France

Received 18 August 2006; received in revised form 21 March 2007; accepted 13 April 2007

Abstract

High-resolution seismic reflection profiles and analyses of the sedimentary substrate at the Sea of Marmara (SoM) entrance to the Strait
of İstanbul (SoI, Bosphorus) provide a detailed record of the transgression that took place after the SoM reconnected with the
Mediterranean. The sediments progressively fill a paleo shelf valley that incised the margin from the SoI to the shelf break at the time of the
pre-Holocene lowstand. We map seven seismic reflection units that can be confidently correlated to sediment cores by lithology and
physical properties. Sediments in the cores are dated by radiocarbon methods. Early channel and levee deposits within the paleo valley
belong to the Younger Dryas cold stage and record outflow from the Black Sea via the SoI. Small clinoform packages on the valley margin
formed in proximity to climbing paleo shorelines. The elevations of these deposits conform to the sealevel history recorded in Barbados
corals. The younger part of the succession includes a subaqueous prodelta sourced from the Kurbağalıdere River. Its relatively young age
when the Holocene sea had almost reached its modern level suggests that the thick progradational and aggradational clinoform
development was primarily a response to sediment supply rather than the filling of expanding accommodation space. Our findings refute
the hypothesis of Aksu et al. (Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R.N., Mudie., P.J., Rochon, A., Kaminski, M.A., Abrojano, T., Yaşar, D., 2002a.
Persistent Holocene outflow fromn the Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean contradicts Noah's Flood hypothesis, GSA Today 10,(6),
3–7., Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R.N., Kaminski, M.A., Mudie, P.J., Gillespie, H., Abrojano, T., Yaşar, D., 2002b. Last glacial–Holocene
paleoceanography of the Black Sea and Marmara Sea: stable isotopic, foraminiferal and coccolith evidence. Mar. Geol., 190, 119–149.)
and Hiscott et al. (Hiscott, R.N., Aksu, A.E., Yaşar, D., Kaminski, M.A., Mudie, P.J., Kostylev, V.E., MacDonald, J.C. Isler, F.I., Lord, A.R.,
2002. Deltas south of the Bosphorus Strait record persistent Black Sea outflow to the Marmara Sea since ∼10 ka, Mar. Geol., 190, 95–118.,
Hiscott, R.N., Aksu, A.E., Mudie., P.J., Kaminski, M.A., Abrajano, T., Yaşar, D., Rochon, A., 2007. The Marmara Sea gateway since
∼16 ky BP: non-catastrophic causes of paleoceanographic events in the Black Sea at 8.4 and 7.15 ky BP. In Yanko-Hombach,V., Gilbert,
A.S., Dolukhanov, P.M. (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question, Springer, The Netherlands, 89–117.) that this deposit was supplied from the
SoI and that its presence requires a persistent Black Sea outflow since 10 14C ka bp (not corrected from the reservoir age or calibrated).
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: seismic stratigraphy; sealevel; Holocene; Marmara Sea; delta; sapropel

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.K. Eriş), [email protected] (W.B.F. Ryan), [email protected] (M.N. Çağatay), [email protected]
(U. Sancar), [email protected] (G. Ménot), [email protected] (E. Bard).

0025-3227/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2007.04.010
58 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

1. Introduction 2002; Sperling et al., 2003; Hiscott et al., 2007). [Note

that our radiocarbon dates are reported as measurements
The Sea of Marmara (SoM) serves as a gateway (Fig. 1) without the modern ∼ 415 yr reservoir correction (Siani
between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Stanley et al., 2000) and without dendrochronological calibra-
and Blanpied, 1980). Relatively high salinity marine tion (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993) and are labeled 14C ka
water from the northern Aegean enters today as an bp. Reservoir corrected and calibrated dates are labeled
undercurrent via the Çanakkale Strait (Dardanelles). This as cal ka BP.]
water of Mediterranean origin crosses the SoM and The SoM connection with the Mediterranean led to
continues into the Black Sea via the Strait of İstanbul (SoI, the initial drowning of the outer shelf, the introduction
Bosphorus) while low salinity water exits on the surface of marine mollusks, foraminifera and dinoflagellates,
from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean in the opposite and a shift of ∂18O to heavier values compared to the
direction (Ünlüata et al., 1990; Latif et al., 1991). Neoeuxine measurements (Çağatay et al., 2000; Sper-
When global sealevel dropped below the Çanakkale ling et al., 2003; Major et al., 2004).
Strait bedrock sill at around − 83 m during Marine The sea transgressed the SoM shelf in tandem with
Isotope Stage 2 (MIS 2) of the last glacial period, the global eustacy. Lambeck et al. (2007) have predicted an
SoM lost its Mediterranean input and freshened accord- envelop for sealevel rise in the Çanakkale Strait region
ingly from Black Sea outflow supplied by rivers, rain and taking into account glacio-hydro-isostatic effects based
ice sheet melting. Marmara sediments record the on realistic ice and earth models calibrated against
freshening of this seaway by the presence of a Neoeuxine observational data. Their calculations infer a breaching
fauna including Dressina rostriformis (mollusk), Am- of the Çanakkale sill at − 83 m between 15.0 and
monia beccari (benthic foraminifera) and Spiniferites 13.7 cal ka BP or ∼ 12.9 to 11.8 14C ka bp using the
cruciformis (dinoflagellate cyst), all sensitive indicators CALIB 5.0 calibration of Stuiver et al. (2005). Their
of fresh to slightly brackish conditions (Çağatay et al., calculations place the sealevel curve for Çanakkale
2000; Kaminski et al., 2002; Mudie et al., 2002, 2004). Strait approximately 15 m above their predicted and
The ∂18O in mollusk shells decreased by more than 4‰ observed curves for Pelopennese, the Mediterranean
relative to modern values to reflect the composition of coast of France, the Levant, and the southern Black Sea
the Black Sea's Neoexine lake (Major et al., 2002, 2004, shelf (Fleming et al., 1998; Lambeck et al., 2007). The
2006). vertical offset is attributed to the intercontinental setting
Since the SoM has a relatively broad continental of the SoM and its presumably reduced response to the
margin with a shelf break located between − 90 to effects of water loading. However, their predicted ma-
− 100 m, much of the shelf (N 57% the present area of the rine connection occurs N 1000 yr earlier than the first
SoM) transformed into a terrestrial landscape during observed marine and transgressive signal in the sedi-
MIS 2 as the surface of the SoM dropped to its outlet ments of the SoM.
spillway in the Çanakkale Strait. A prominent shoreline Çağatay et al. (2003) have described a second and also
terrace at − 83 ± 2 m marks the stillstand (Çağatay et al., widely-distributed terrace on the SoM shelf at −65 m that
2003; Polonia et al., 2004). Sun-shaded multibeam ba- they attributed to an early sealevel slowdown or stillstand
thymetry west of the entrance to the SoI (Cormier et al., in global sealevel rise during the Younger Dryas climatic
2006) illuminates the continuity of this shoreline over cooling event. This event at 11.5 to 10.4 14C ka bp
tens of kilometers. The subbottom reflector correspond- (without marine reservoir correction) and at 12.8 to
ing to the eroded surface correlates with reflector Q1 11.6 cal ka BP has been recognized in sediment cores
(Hiscott et al., 2002; Aksu et al., 2002a; Hiscott et al., from the SoM and follows by N 1000 yr the reconnection
2007) and with the excavated walls and floor of the with the Mediterranean (Sperling et al., 2003).
buried Bosphorus (SoI) shelf valley (Ryan et al., 1997a; Two buried delta-like deposits with characteristic
Ryan, 2007) leading southward from the SoI entrance to topset, foreset and bottomset clinoforms are observed in
the SoM slope. reflection profiles that cross the Marmara shelf in the
With the rise of global sealevel accompanying north- vicinity of the SoI entrance. One deposit west of the SoI
ern hemisphere deglaciation during the Bølling/Allerød (Fig. 1C) is off the mouth of the Ayamama River (Kurt,
stages (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1990; Siddall et al., 1994). The second is east of the SoI (Fig. 1D) and lies
2003), Mediterranean marine waters soon returned to directly offshore a bay fed by the Kurbağalıdere River
the SoM. Dating by AMS carbon 14 methods shows the (Oktay et al., 2002; Gökaşan et al., 2005). The source of
marine connection beginning around 12 14C ka bp this deposit and the timing of its appearance remains
(Çağatay et al., 2000; Major et al., 2002; Hiscott et al., controversial (Hiscott et al., 2002, 2007).
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 1. (A) Bathymetric map of the Sea of Marmara (SoM); (B) bathymetry of Bakırköy shelf region and the Ayamama River offshore delta; (C) southern entrance to the Strait of İstanbul (SoI) showing
the location of B and D panels; and (D) SoI's entrance to the SoM and the drainage basin of the Kurbağalıdere River. Contours are in meters.

59
60 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

Fig. 2. Bathymetric map of Sea of Marmara entrance to the Strait of İstanbul created by using the digitized seabed echo-return from reflection profiles
supplemented with additional SHOD soundings around the margins. Color strips indicate the multibeam swath coverage. Solid lines are tracks of surveys
of R/V Çubuklu. The thick portions of these lines are illustrated profiles. Solid dots mark the locations of cores discussed in the text. Broken lines are the
seismic profiles studied by Hiscott et al. (2002). A prominent valley exits from the SoI and continues to the shelf edge. Contours are in meters.

In this study, we present detailed seismic stratigraphic discuss the chronostratigraphic evolution of the trans-
analysis of a network of reflection profiles on the shelf gressive sediments up through formation of the delta-like
south of the entrance of SoI, together with the inves- deposits and shed light on water exchange between the
tigations of sediment cores that sampled strata corre- Marmara and the Black Seas as the Holocene rise of
sponding to the reflecting horizons. Our objectives are to sealevel progressed.

Table 1
Uncalibrated AMS Carbon 14 dates (without reservoir correction and without calibration to tree rings) in cores discussed in this study (mbss, meters
below sea surface; mbsf, meters below sea floor)
Site, location, water depth (mbss), dated material (lab. number) Unit Core depth (mbsb) Age (ka bp) Source
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, TSU03-13, − 34 m, mollusc (A-13668) Unit 2 1.55 4.38 ± 0.1 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, −68 m, bivalve (SACA-002573a) Unit 2 3.27 5.77 ± 0.6 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (OS-50131) Unit 3 3.56 6.46 ± 0.055 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (SACA-002574) Unit 4 5.9 8.38 ± 0.07 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (SACA-002575) Unit 5 9.4 9.82 ± 0.08 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (OS-53538) Unit 5 11.26 10.45 ± 0.05 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (OS-50130) Unit 6 12.36 10.9 ± 0.065 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, M02-111, − 72 m, bivalve (TO-11150) Unit 6 2.84 10.95 ± 0.1 Hiscott et al. (2002)
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, M02-110, − 62 m, bivalve (T0-11149) Unit 5 2.75 10.58 ± 0.1 Hiscott et al. (2002)
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, M98-9, − 64 m, bivalve (T0-7792) Unit 5 1.13 10.22 ± 0.1 Hiscott et al. (2002)
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 61

2. Methods of data acquisition and analysis 10 m for the shotpoint locations. Depths of reflectors
below the sea surface were calculated using average water
High-resolution reflection profiles were acquired and sediment velocities of 1500 and 1700 m s− 1,
during two surveys of the Department of Navigation, respectively. We created our bathymetric map of the
Hydrography and Oceanography (SHOD) using the R/V southern entrance to the SoI from the digitized seafloor
Çubuklu in 1993 and 1997 (Fig. 2). The signals from a returns of the reflection profiles supplemented by multi-
300 J sparker source were initially recorded on paper and beam swath data obtained from the R/V Odin Finder in
were subsequently scanned and digitized. The signals 2000 using the Simrad EM300 system and by additional
contained sufficient energy to penetrate through the SHOD echo-soundings around the coast (Fig. 2). Our
transgressive sediment cover. Trisponder radio ranging shotpoint positions, digitized soundings, gridded swath
with three shore-based beacons produced an accuracy of bathymetry and the tracklines from Hiscott et al. (2002)

Fig. 3. Generalized seismic stratigraphic units with their reflection characteristics observed in the profiles and their interpreted depositional facies both
within paleo shelf valley and on the shelf margin. The letters A through K represent eight reflector surfaces mapped throughout the region surveyed.
62 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

were entered into a GIS application (ESRI ArcView) been deposited since the SoM reconnected with the
along with the SHOD coastline and the locations of our Mediterranean and the onset of the marine transgression.
cores and others reported in relevant publications. The lowstand unconformity surface is represented in the
Tracklines were oriented in an orthogonal pattern to seismic profiles by reflection surface K that incised a
allow all digitized reflectors on the N–S lines to be paleo Bosphorous valley into the shelf with its thalweg
cross-tied to the E–W lines at intersections (Fig. 2). We reaching − 110 m at the shelf break. Surface K correlates
incorporated the published profiles of Hiscott et al. with reflector Q1 of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007). Our
(2002, 2007) and correlated our reflectors to theirs using lowermost seismic Unit 7 onlaps surface K and initiates
common track intersections and by obtaining the the filling of the paleo valley (Fig. 3). Unit 7 extends
subbottom depth of their reflectors by measuring the laterally to shoreface deposits along a wave-cut terrace
traveltime from the seafloor since their profiles situated at − 81 m on the east side of the paleo valley
(obtained by a deep-towed device) are not uniformly (Fig. 4). Reflection surface G truncates Unit 7, onto
referenced to the sea surface. We then constructed which Unit 6 was deposited (Fig. 3).
contoured surfaces for each of the nine reflectors that we Unit 6 consists of highly-reflective, conformable, but
traced throughout the network of reflection profiles. wavy strata that formed ridges along the sides of a
One gravity core (TSU03-13, 40° 56.789' N, 29° contemporary channel within the confines of the older
00.09' E, − 37 m) from the R/V MTA Sismik-1 in 2003 is paleo valley (Figs. 4, 5 and 6A). The ridges display a
located on the eastern part of our E–W reflection profile relief exceeding 15 m and align downstream along the
K3 (Fig. 2) and reaches into the topset deposits of the floor of the paleo valley. The ridges have the charac-
delta-like sediment body east of the SoI. A long piston teristic shape of channel levees. Reflector surface E
core (MD-2750, 40° 56.70' N, 28° 56.15' E, − 68 m) truncates the top of Unit 6, extends as shallow as −65 m,
from the R/V Marion Dufresne in 2004 was targeted and correlates with reflector β3 of Hiscott et al. (2002,
directly on our E–W reflection profile K4 and recovers 2007). As noted by these researchers, surface E is pop-
the upper half of the sediment succession filling the ulated by small mounds a few meters high and generally
Bosphorous shelf valley south of the SoI entrance. Three b100 m across (Fig. 6B).
additional gravity cores described in Hiscott et al. (2002, The levee unit is overlaid by Unit 5 over truncation
2007) are also located in Fig. 2. surface E, which is more acoustically transparent and
The percentage of the sand-plus-silt fraction of the significantly less-stratified than Unit 6 (Fig. 3). Unit 5 is
sediment was determined by wet sifting of the samples characterized by moderately continuous, sub-parallel
through a 63 μm sieve. Physical properties measurements internal reflections that result in a preferential filling of
of Core MD-2750 took place on whole round cores using the relief of the paleo valley and a draping of the ridges
a shipboard Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger equipped (Figs. 4, 5 and 6). Unit 5 strata onlap the margins of the
with gamma density, P-wave velocity and magnetic sus- paleo valley and are eroded at their top by reflector
ceptibility sensors (Boyce, 1976; Gerland and Villinger, surface D. Unit 5 can be traced shoreward to − 56 m on
1995; Breitzke, 2000). Organic carbon (Corg) was ana- the paleo valley margin (Table 2).
lysed by the Walkey–Blake method (Gaudette et al., 1974). Unit 5 is followed upward by Unit 4 over unconform-
Sediment ages were obtained by AMS C-14 dating of able reflection surface D (Fig. 3). Unit 4 is characterized
bivalve shells after careful cleaning to remove any coat- by faint but continuous parallel internal reflectors within
ings and after examination under the microscope to en- the paleo valley axis (Figs. 4, 5 and 6). On the valley
sure that the carbonate was unaltered. The radiocarbon margin, this unit is associated by the formation of − 63 m
analyses were carried out at the University of Arizona, paleo-shoreface deposits between reflectors D and C,
the Woods Hole NOSAMS and the Saclay ARTEMIS characterized by progradational clinoforms with acous-
facilities. Laboratory errors are expressed as ± 1σ. We tically strong internal reflectors (Fig. 5). Unit 3 is sepa-
report the radiocarbon ages in Table 1. rated from Unit 4 by reflection surface C and represents
a laterally continuous, regularly stratified package of
3. Results weak internal reflectors (Fig. 3).
Unit 2 lies more or less conformable on Unit 3 (Fig. 3).
3.1. Seismic stratigraphy However, in marked contrast to previous deposits, Unit 2
is substantially thicker on the margins and thins rapidly as
We identified eight reflector surfaces not including it passes into the paleo valley floor from its rim (Figs. 5, 7
the seafloor and seven seismic units sandwiched be- and 8)). Reflector surface B marks the base of Unit 2. On
tween the reflectors (Fig. 3). All units appeared to have the eastern margin, Unit 2 consists of oblique clinoforms
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 4. Portion of the E–W reflection profile K4 showing clinoforms at −75 m and − 68 m on the margin of the paleo shelf valley and a wavy deposit in the axis of the valley, sandwiched between
reflector surfaces G and E. Piston Core MD-2750 penetrates through surface E into the wavy deposit interpreted here as a depositional levee. Prograding sequences on the paleo valley margin are
delimited by reflectors K–G and E–D. Surfaces B, D, E, G and K are partly erosional. Surface K marks the lowstand exposed landscape drowned by the transgression that commenced when the
Mediterranean Sea reconnected with the SoM.

63
 64
K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 5. Portion of the E–W reflection profile K2 showing broad and presumably wave-cut terraces at − 63 m on the paleo valley margin. Prograding sequences on the paleo valley margin are delimited
by reflectors D–C. A large sediment body with early progradational and later aggradational foreset beds appears between reflector surfaces A and B on the eastern rim of the valley. The clinoforms in
this cross-section are strikingly similar in appearance to those in other Late-Holocene subaqueous prodeltas that formed on many Mediterranean margins after the attainment of the modern sea-level
highstand, about 6 14C ka bp.
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 6. A) N–S reflection profile down the paleo shelf valley showing the development of two sediment ridge interpreted as levee bounding a central channel. Cores MD-2750 and M02-111 are projected onto
this profile and show that the core of the ridges formed prior to 10.45 14C ka bp and was then draped by sediments until the time represented by reflector surface C. At that time the ridge tops are truncated. B) E–W

65
profile B10 showing the axis of the modern and paleo shelf valley and locations of cores M02-111, MAR98-09 and M02-110 studied by Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007). A bioherm has grown on reflector surface E.
66 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

Table 2 valley floor. The youngest topsets of Unit 2 are only

Attributes of the reflector surfaces. Ages are uncalibrated present along the southern and southeastern rim of the
Reflector Minimum Maximum Erosion Age Reflector delta. Erosion along reflector surface A has removed
surface depth (m) depth (m) (ka bp) surface topsets from the seaward rim of the deposit to expose the
description
tops of truncated foresets prior to the subsequent phase of
A 15 76 Yes 3.8 Truncates forests Unit 1 deposition. Unit 1 consists of a package of moder-
of the delta
ately continuous and regular reflectors, representing on-
B 16 82 No 6.2 Base of the delta
clinoforms lapping sediments over truncation surface A (Figs. 5, 7
C 50 83 No 8.0 Conformable and 8)). Unit 1 resumes the preferential filling of the paleo
with B surface valley (Fig. 3). Our Unit 1 and 2 deposits are equivalent to
D 56 86 Yes 8.8 Mainly truncating the Unit 1 and 2 deposits of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007).
E and F surfaces
Our surface A corresponds to their reflector β1.
E 65 87 Yes 10.5 Truncated by D
surface
F 68 88 No 10.9 Partly truncated 3.2. Sediment cores and radiocarbon ages
by D surface
G 75 91 Yes 11.5 Showing little Core TSU03-13 was taken near the rim of the delta
erosion
where young topsets are clearly visible (Figs. 7 and 8).
K 78 110 Yes 12.2 Incised into older
units to create the This location is b 100 m from shotpoint F931 on the N–
original paleo S Huntec DTS reflection profile A–B illustrated in
shelf valley Hiscott et al. (2002) and can be projected over a distance
of 900 m onto our N–S profile B2 to a position near
shotpoint 7 (Figs. 6 and 7). In the vicinity of the topset–
with acoustically strong reflectors that have the appear- foreset transition, the thickness of the overlying Unit 1 is
ance of prograding foresets. According to the architectural only a few meters. Because TSU03-13 is a gravity core,
features of the foresets, the Unit 2 on the margin its 1.65 m of recovery under represents the total depth of
comprises lower progradational and upper aggradational penetration into the sediment substrate. Gravity cores
parts of a delta complex (Figs. 5 and 7). The direction of typically under-recover due to wall friction, and actual
foreset dip has been determined at track intersections recovery is often just 70 to 90% of the total section
(Fig. 9) and forms a pattern of seaward growth from the penetrated. The observed sandy gravel with lithic rock
Kurbağalıdere River estuary as previously proposed by fragments up to 5 mm in diameter in the bottom 0.12 m
Gökaşan et al. (2005). Unit 2 is more than 20 m thick on of this core and the abrupt transition from gravel to
the inner shelf. It thins abruptly to b 6 m in the region of overlying mud (Fig. 10) are compelling indicators that
the youngest foresets and is barely 1 m thick on the paleo the core passed through reflector surface A and entered

Fig. 7. N–S profile B2 presenting another cross-section through the prodelta on the eastern margin of the paleo shelf valley and oriented perpendicular
to the section in profile K2 of Fig. 5. Core TSU03-13 penetrated into young topset beds near the break in slope from youngest topset to foreset bed.
The same evolution from early prograding to later aggrading is observed. In this cross-section the deposit between surfaces A and B represents a
relatively-brief portion of the total interval of accumulation from the lowstand surface K to the modern seabed.
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 67

Fig. 8. E–W reflection profile K3 across the prodelta deposits sandwiched between reflector surfaces A and B. Top panel is the gray scale reflection
profile and bottom panel contains the reflector interpretation. Core TSU03-13 is located directly on this profile. Notice the delta foresets dip in
opposite directions from the prodelta apex. Core TSU03-13 sampled young topset beds composed of lithic gravel and sand containing a mollusk shell
dated at 4.36 ± 0.1 14C ka bp.

into the highly reflective topset deposits of Unit 2 as Piston core MD-2750 recovered 13 m of the sediment
illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8. A radiocarbon date of 4.38 cover on the western flank of our inferred levee deposits
± 0.1 ka bp from a single mollusk valve within the gravel (Unit 6 in Figs. 4 and 6A). Instead of under-recovering the
at 1.55 m requires surface A to be younger than this age. substrate, some giant piston coring devices may in fact

Fig. 9. Thickness of the large prodelta on the eastern rim of the paleo shelf valley. Contours are in meters. Solid lines are isopachs derived from our
measurements of the thickness between reflector surfaces A and B and dashed lines are measurements of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) between their
reflectors β1 and β2. The light gray area is the outline of prodelta deposit according to Gökaşan et al. (2005). Arrows are our measurements of the true
direction of foreset dips determined by vector additions at profile intersections. The solid dots are locations of the cores discussed in the text. Our
isopach shows the sediment body thickening towards the coastal bay into which the Kurbağalıdere River (thick solid line) discharges.
 68
K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 10. Lithology and grain size in cores TSU03-13 and MD-2750 showing correlation of Unit 1 and Unit 2 boundary between the two sites. Also plotted are variations in gamma density, P-wave velocity
and magnetic susceptibility measured with the Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger through the plastic liners of Core MD-2750. The percent sand plus silt and the percent organic carbon were measured on
closely-spaced samples. Letters A through E represent the correlations of sediment properties in Core MD-2750 to the reflector surfaces made possible by the precise location of this core on profile K4.
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 69

produce over-recovery. The abrupt change from sand from Units 2, 3 and 4 by high magnetic susceptibility
below to clay above across a visual erosional boundary on (Fig. 10).
the split face of the core at 11.26 mbsf indicates that this
level corresponds to reflection surface E and that the sand 4. Discussion
belongs to Unit 6 (Fig. 10). This unit is differentiated from
the sediments above by its relatively coarse-grained 4.1. Chronology of the depositional units and reflector
nature. Its sand-plus-silt fraction amounts to 10–47% of surfaces
the total sediment. The coarse-grained components in
the deposit are also revealed in the gamma-density and P- Our radiocarbon dates allow us to construct an age-
wave velocity profiles, which show a fining upwards depth model for Core MD-2750 and use the model to
within the top of the unit (Fig. 10). Magnetic susceptibility place the seismic units in a chronological context (Fig. 11).
values increase upwards in correspondence with increas- The model reveals sedimentation rates of N 3 m ka− 1 from
ing clay content. The Unit 6 sediment is light brown in 11 to 9 14C ka bp that decrease markedly to 0.5 m ka− 1
color and moderately bioturbated. An AMS C-14 analysis from 8 14C ka bp to the present. The roll off in the
on a mollusk valve within Unit 6 at 12.36 mbsf gives an sedimentation rate at ∼8.4 14C ka bp proceeds by a
age of 10.9± 0.065 14C ka bp (Fig. 10; Table 1). considerable amount of time the dramatic slowing of
Unit 5 sediments comprise marine shelly homogeneous
clay in the lower part and pass upward into finely-parallel
and cross-laminated silt characterized by increasing organic
carbon content (Fig. 10). The laminated sediments are
darker in color, show little sign of bioturbation, and have
uniform low magnetic susceptibility and low gamma
density. An AMS C-14 analysis on a mollusk valve from
the lowermost part of Unit 5 at 11.26 m gives an age of
10.45 ± 0.05 14C ka bp, and another measurement within
Unit 5 at 9.4 mbsf gives an age of 9.8± 0.080 14C ka bp
(Fig. 10; Table 1). The Unit 5/4 boundary at 6.75 m displays
an angular truncation of the underlying laminations that
correlates with erosion seen in the reflection profiles along
reflector surface D.
Unit 4 sediments are also finely-laminated silt and
little different from the upper part of Unit 5, but pos-
sessing high organic carbon contents reaching 2.5% of
the bulk composition (Fig. 10). An AMS C-14 analysis
on a mollusk valve from the top of Unit 4 at 5.1 m gives
an age of 8.4 ± 0.070 14C ka bp (Fig. 10; Table 1). They
pass abruptly at 4.6 m to mollusk-bearing bioturbated
clay of Unit 3 possessing higher gamma density. The
depth below the seafloor of this marked change in lithol-
ogy corresponds to reflector surface C. Organic carbon
contents decrease upwards through Unit 3. A mollusk
shell at 3.56 m near the top of Unit 3 has a radiocarbon
age of 6.46 ± 0.055 14C ka bp (Fig. 10; Table 1).
Unit 2 in the MD-2750 core is a shelly, clayey silt
that fines upwards (Fig. 10). The organic carbon content Fig. 11. Age-depth model for Core MD-2750 based on radiocarbon
is low compared to the underlying Units 3, 4 and 5. An ages plotted as dots. Units 1 through 6 are placed according to their
AMS C-14 analysis on a mollusk valve from base of depths in the core and ages of the boundaries (letters A through E) are
Unit 2 at 3.2 m gives an age of 5.8 ± 0.060 14C ka bp interpolated from the model. All ages are without reservoir correction
(Fig. 10; Table 1). The top of Unit 2 at 2.15 m is heavily or calibration. The duration of the Younger Dryas is shown using its
conventional terrestrial carbon age, but with a marine reservoir
bioturbated and corresponds to reflector surface A. Unit correction added so that it registers correctly on the illustrated time
1 consists of clay intercalated with silty sand and con- scale. The range of early Holocene Sapropel is depicted based the high
taining marine mollusk shells. It distinguishes itself organic carbon content in Units 3, 4 and 5.
70 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

(Fig. 4). It presumably accompanies a rising sea after

formation of a wave-cut terrace developed over reflector
surface K at ca. − 81 m on the eastern margin of the paleo
Bosphorus valley (Fig. 4). This terrace can be correlated
with the 12 kyr BP old − 85 m shoreline observed in
different parts of the SoM (Çağatay et al., 2003; Polonia
et al., 2004). Reflection surface G truncates Unit 7, onto
which Unit 6 was deposited (Fig. 3). Considering that the
minimum depth of reflector G is around − 75 m and the
wavebase of about 5–6 m, approximate age of this
reflector can be estimated as 11.5 14C ka bp from global
sealevel curve of Fairbanks (1989) (Fig. 12).
In core MD-2750, the levee unit (Unit 6) is overlaid
by Unit 5 over truncation surface E, which corresponds
to the onset of the early Holocene Sapropel (Çağatay
et al., 2000; Tolun et al., 2002) as indicated by high Corg
values (N 1.5 wt.%) and its stratigraphic position in Core
MD-2750 (Fig. 10). This sapropelic layer was previ-
ously dated 10.6–6.4 14C ka bp by Çağatay et al. (2000).
Its onset age is consistent with the 14C ages of 10.45 14C
ka bp obtained above truncation surface E and 10.5 14C
ka bp obtained from the age model (Fig. 11). On the
basis of these chronostratigraphic data, we can tenta-
tively estimate the age of Unit 6 between 11.5 and
Fig. 12. The Barbados sealevel curve from Fairbanks (1989) plotted 10.5 kyr BP, which implies that Unit 6 with its wavy
without subtraction of the marine reservoir age. Shown are the level of levee and channel strata was deposited during the
the Çanakkale Strait bedrock sill at − 83 m and the minimum depths of Younger Dryas cold stage when, according to Major
the reflectors E and B (stars), corresponding to termination of levee et al. (2002, 2006), the Black Sea discharged its fresher
deposition and onset of the deltaic deposition. Radiocarbon measure-
ments on Core MD-2750 assign Unit 6 to the Younger Dryas stage.
waters into the Sea of Marmara. At that time the
Also shown is a segment of profile K3 with its Unit 2 clinoforms Neouxine Black Sea lake was at a highstand. Neoeuxine
located on the depth axis according to the level of its reflectors below sediments are found on the shallow Black Sea margin, in
the modern sea surface. Our dating places Unit 2 between 6.2 and 3.8 the subsurface of coastal limans, and on the floor of the
14
C ka bp. Therefore the youngest topsets must have formed around Sea of Azov (Ryan et al., 2003; Ryan, 2007). Our Units
25 m below the contemporary sealevel, confirming that this feature is
an offshore subaqueous prodelta deposit.
6 and 7 are equivalent to Unit 5 of Hiscott et al. (2002)
as shown in Fig. 13.
According to our age model for Core MD-2750,
sealevel rise at 6.5 14C ka bp seen in the predicted marine shelly clay of Unit 5 dates from 10.5 to 8.8 14C
Dardanelles sealevel curve of Lambeck et al. (2007) as ka bp (Fig. 11). In reflection profiles the onset of Unit 5
well as the more gradual slowing recorded by C-14 dating begins with the appearance of small mounds on surface
of corals from Barbados (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., E (equivalent to reflector β4 of Hiscott et al., 2002) that
1990; Fig. 12). We plot the minimum depth and age of the look like bioherms (Fig. 6B). Unit 5 drapes across
reflectors E and B on sealevel curve of Fairbanks (1989), reflector surface E and over the mound, but is quite thin
which correspond to termination of the levee deposition on the bedrock promontory at the eastern margin of the
and onset of the deltaic deposition (Fig. 12). The paleo shelf valley. Here Unit 5 was sampled at − 65 mbsl
magnitude of the offset suggests a relatively shallow by Core MAR98-9 of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) with
wavebase (5–6 m) at that time below which sediment radiocarbon dates of the shells ranging upwards from
accumulation became permanent. 10.22 to 8.81 14C ka bp (Fig. 6B). The same shelly clay
Unit 7 represents the initial transgressive deposit in was again sampled by these researchers a few years later
the paleo Bosphorus shelf valley (Fig. 3). Lowermost in their Unit 4 at a similar depth of − 64 mbsl in Core
part of the Unit 7 correlates with shoreface deposits M02-110 with an age of 10.58 14C ka bp (Fig. 6B).
comprising a thin prograding clinoforms with topsets Somewhat older clay at a deeper depth below the seabed
at − 75 m implying a landward migration of the coast and with a lithology corresponding to our Unit 6 was
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 71

in Units 5 and 4, we consider these three units to repre-

sent the early Holocene Sapropel (Çağatay et al., 2000;
Tolun et al., 2002). Unit 3 is bounded at the top by
reflection surface B, onto which deltaic Unit 2 was de-
posited. According to Corg profile in Fig. 10, reflection
surface B corresponds to termination of the early
Holocene Sapropel that has been dated at ∼ 6.4 14C ka
bp (Çağatay et al., 2000; Sperling et al., 2003) and 6.0
14
C ka bp (Hiscott et al., 2002). This is in agreement
with a C-14 age of 6460 ka bp obtained from the upper
part of the Unit 3 in Core MD-2750 (Fig. 10). However,
our age model places reflection surface B closer to 6.2
14
C ka bp (Fig. 11).
Unit 2 contains the oblique prograding and aggrading
clinoforms with strong internal reflectors on the eastern
margin of the paleo Bosphorus shelf valley (Figs. 5
and 7) first illustrated in Ryan et al. (1997a) and then
described in more detail by Aksu et al. (2002b) and by
Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) as their Δ1 delta. Whereas
our age model would place Unit 2 and hence Δ1 be-
tween 6.2 and 3.8 14C ka bp (Fig. 11), these other
researchers have proposed an age between 10.58 and
8.81 14C ka bp. Furthermore Gökaşan et al. (2005)
suggest an even earlier onset age of 11 14C ka bp. These
Fig. 13. Correlation of our seismic stratigraphic units and those of older age assignments for the progradational package
Hiscott et al. (2002) based on mapping the same reflectors that we
create a discrepancy with our younger ages that warrants
cross-tied at mutual track intersections (see Fig. 2). The prodelta
deposit on the eastern margin of the paleo shelf valley corresponds to further discussion.
our Unit 2, but in Hiscott et al. (2002) it is mapped as a somewhat As to the upper age of Unit 2, our core TSU03-13
thicker deposit between their reflectors β1 and β2. All our reflector directly sampled young topset deposits near the final
ages are determined from the age model based on C-14 datings from topset/foreset transition (Figs. 7 and 8). These deposits
cores MD-2750 and TSU03-13, except for reflection surfaces G and K
consist of sand and gravel composed of lithic rock
which are dated according their minimum depth on the Barbados
sealevel curve (see Fig. 12) considering wavebase of about 5 m. fragments including quartz, feldspar, greywacke and
some limestone mixed with shells (Fig. 10). Aksu et al.
(2002a) and Hiscott et al. (2002) assigned an older age
sampled in Core M02-111 at − 75 mbsl (Fig. 6B). Its to the delta-top reflector β1 (equivalent to reflector sur-
mollusks give an age of 10.95 14C ka bp. face A in this study) by tracing reflector β1 southwest
Unit 5 is followed upward by Unit 4 over unconform- from the most seaward foresets to a location on the
able reflection surface D (Fig. 3). Unit 4 is represented previously described bedrock promontory where the
by finely-laminated mud drape in the paleo shelf valley sediment cover of a few meters thick. In Hiscott et al.
and by paleo-shoreface deposits at − 63 m between (2002) reflector β1 is obscured in the seabed reverber-
reflectors D and C on the eastern margin of the paleo- ation. In addition, the dated materials in Core MAR98-
strait's channel (Fig. 5). The shoreface deposits indicate 09 are just over a meter thick. Although their 500-Joule
progradational clinoforms characterized by acoustically source is broadband, the seabed reverberation with a
strong internal reflectors. According to the age model, frequency content centered at 1000 Hz obscures
age of the Unit 4 can be delimited between 8.0 and 8.8 reflectors more closely spaced than 1.5 m. However,
14
C ka bp (Fig. 11). This is the interval where the these researchers affirm that they can discriminate not
organic carbon content is the highest (Fig. 10). only the seabed return, but reflectors β1 and β2 within
The marked contrast in lithology from Unit 4 to Unit the 1.25 m-thick interval recovered.
3 corresponds to the rapid decrease in sedimentation Our approach has been instead to trace the reflector
rate. Based on the rich abundance of organic material surface A widely throughout the region and tie this
throughout Units 5, 4 and 3 of Core MD-2750 (Fig. 10) surface carefully together at track intersections (Fig. 2).
and the almost varve-like appearance of the split surface On numerous profiles reflector A can be traced from the
72 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

topset/foreset transition all the way to Core MD-2750 in clusion of Syvitski et al. (2005) that the opposite effect
the paleo valley without interruption. The truncation of of different human activities on the sediment yield on a
reflection surface A implies subaqueous erosion of the global scale is almost in balance. Thus, the Kurbağa-
delta platform after termination of the delta deposition. lıdere River, with its present sediment discharge, is
Unit 1 is sufficiently thick that reflector surface A is not large enough to form the observed offshore deposit of
obscured by the reverberant seafloor. Our radiocarbon ∼ 290 × 106 tons.
age of 4.38 ka bp from just below the youngest topset
horizon on the delta top (Figs. 7 and 8). Considering the 4.3. Origin of the deltaic deposit (Unit 2)
4.38 14C ka bp age from upper part of the delta topset,
the age of the deltaic unit (Unit 2) can be delimited Source and depositional period of the delta can be
between 6.2 and 3.8 14C ka bp (Fig. 13). confidently deduced from the correlation of the seismic
stratigraphic units with the chronostratigraphic units in the
4.2. Kurbağalıdere River: its drainage area and water cores. The seismic units identified by us and Hiscott et al.
and sediment discharges (2002) can be correlated, while two sets of profiles used
by Hiscott et al. (2002) and this study cross each other at
Present day Kurbağalıdere River has several small the intersections (Fig. 2). Seismic interpretations of both
tributaries, draining a total area of 46 km2 with a steep studies can be compared and correlated with high
topography (Fig. 1D). The drainage area exposes mainly confidence (Fig. 13). Seismic stratigraphic Units 2 and
schist, greywacke, limestone and quartzite of Paleozoic 3 of this study correspond to the deltaic unit (Unit 2
age and Neogene sand and gravel derived from this between β1 and β2 reflectors) of Hiscott et al. (2002).
bedrock. The highest elevation of the catchment is Unit 3 defined by us is clearly not a part of the delta,
around + 180 m. Present day mean discharge rate is because the delta foresets downlap onto reflector B lying
about 80 m3/yr (DSİ İstanbul, unpublished data). The above Unit 3 (Figs. 5, 7 and 8)). This important disparity
suspended sediment load of the Kurbağalıdere River has in the seismic interpretation, produces significant differ-
not been measured. We estimate this load to be around ences in the delta isopach maps of the two studies (Fig. 9).
60,000 t/yr based on the measured load of other rivers in Our isopach map of the Unit 2 topsets and foreset
the southern Marmara region (Table 3; EİE, 1993). deposits shows a N22 m-thick lobe thinning radially
Although this value may be representative for the mod- from the mouth of a bay fed by the Kurbağalıdere River
ern era of greater İstanbul, it would have been different (Fig. 9). Foresets dip at an average of 7° not only towards
in the pre-industrial and pre-historic past. In the SE, but towards S, SW, W, and NW with some true dips
Marmara region, it is estimated that total sediment of up to 12°. This delta geometry strongly suggests that
flux of rivers to be 35% more than the measured the delta is sourced from the Kubagalıdere River. The
suspension sediment flux because of retention behind delta also extends northwards towards the SoI. This
reservoirs and additional bedload (Kazancı et al., 2004). northward extension is because of the strong outflow of
The bedload constitutes about 10% of the total sediment the Mediterranean water to the Black Sea through the
influx (Milliman and Meade, 1983). The total sediment SoI, which started about 8.4 14C ka bp (Major et al.,
retained behind dams and the bedload is assumed to 2002, Ryan et al., 2003). Such an outflow could easily
balance the opposite effects of deforestation and cul- redistribute the deltaic sediments further north of the
tivation (Stanley and Hait, 2000), based on the con- Kurbağalıdere River mouth. There is no other river of
reasonable size in the north of the Kurbağalıdere River to
cause a northward extension of the delta from the river's
Table 3 mouth. A similar transport mechanism by the undercur-
Mean discharge and suspended sediment discharge rates of rivers
around Marmara and western Black Sea regions (EİE, 1993)
rent has been suggested for the formation of the − 35 m
southern sill of the Bosphorus by Algan et al. (2001).
Rivers Mean discharge Suspended sediment
There, the sediment input by the Alibeyköy and
(m3 a− 1) discharge (t a− 1)
Kağıthane into the Golden Horn estuary was eventually
Gönen River 477 × 106 188,000
transported northwards into the strait's channel and piled
Devrenkani River 227 × 106 177,760
Kocaçay River 633 × 106 375,000 up between Dolmabahçe and Üsküdar to form the
Soğanlı River 864 × 106 1,210,000 southern sill (see Fig. 1C).
Karasu River 142 × 106 82,000 Contrary to the interpretations of Hiscott et al. (2002)
Boluçayı River 251 × 106 140,000 and Gökaşan et al. (2005) that this deposit formed during
Kurbağalıdere River 80 × 106 60,000
the course of a rapid sealevel rise, our dating places its
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 73

growth after sealevel had nearly reached its modern level Core MD-2750 that Black Sea outflow best explains the
about 6.5 14C ka bp (Fig. 12). Thus the transition from formation of the wavy levee deposit of Units 6 that
early progradation to later aggradation must be related appeared abruptly within the axis of the paleo Bosphorus
primarily to sediment supply and the ultimate filling of shelf valley during the Younger Dryas cold period.
accommodation space rather than to new space made by Our Unit 6 is equivalent to the upper part of Unit 5 of
continuing sealevel rise. As mapped out in plan view the these researchers (Fig. 13). They describe their Unit 5 as a
outline of the topsets and foresets of Unit 2 coincides well depositional lobe and call it Δ2. They also presumed that
with the same deposit mapped by Gökaşan et al. (2005). it was sourced from the SoI, except for them Δ2 is much
On common lines our picks of the reflectors belonging to older than the Younger Dryas and dates from ∼29.5 to
the prograding and aggrading packages are the same as 23.5 14C ka bp within MIS 3. Subsequently, in Hiscott
theirs. Also the radial pattern of the seaward migration of et al. (2007) the age of Δ2 is revised downward to
the foreset reflectors is identical. Gökaşan et al. (2005), between ∼16 and 14.7 14C ka bp in order to deliver
Alavi et al. (1989) and Oktay et al. (2002) have each made material to it by Black Sea outflow at the time of the rapid
compelling arguments for the sourcing of this deposit melting of the Eurasian ice sheets (Major et al., 2002;
from the Kurbağalıdere River. Topset/foreset transition in Ryan et al., 2003). The revised age by Hiscott et al. (2007)
the deltaic deposits occur at −32 m. Considering a wave for Δ2 does not seem plausible for the following
base of about 6 m according to the Barbados sealevel observation. The reflector E surface at the top of Unit 6
curve of Fairbanks (1989), the water depth above the and equivalent to β3 of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) can be
topsets exceeded 25 m during the entire period of growth traced as shallow as −70 m. This elevation is well above
of this thick deposit. In fact the predicted sealevel curve of the level of the bedrock sill in the Çanakkale Strait outlet.
Lambeck et al. (2007) would only increase the apparent All researchers concurs that at the time of rapid ice sheet
water depth. Consequently, all the clinoforms comprising melting from ∼16- to 14.7 14C ka bp, the SoM was
this deposit must have formed in a relatively deep isolated from the Mediterranean and the surface of the
subaqueous environment much like the young Holocene external ocean remained well below the outlet. Thus it
prodeltas found elsewhere in the Mediterranean and Black seems implausible for the surface of the SoM to have been
Seas (Shopov et al., 1986, 1992; Amorosi and Milli, 2001; 20 m above the outlet and with the SoM behaving as a
Cattaneo et al., 2003). flow-through lake of the Black Sea to Mediterranean
In this regard the Kurbağalıdere River prodelta appears gateway (Stanley and Blanpied, 1980). To counter this
during the decelerating of sealevel rise around 6 14C ka bp objection, Hiscott et al. (2007) propose a −70 m high
and terminates at around 3.8 14C ka bp after the dual-flow elevation for the outlet sill. However, this level corre-
regime between the SoM and the Black Sea was sponds to the modern seabed sill in the Çanakkale Strait
established (Çağatay et al., 2000; Algan et al., 2001; using maps provided by SHOD. We have had the oppor-
Aksu et al., 2002a,b; Kerey et al., 2004). If we calibrate tunity to examine a large number of reflection profiles
our radiocarbon measurements with the Marmara reser- within the Çanakkale Strait made available by SHOD and
voir age given by Siani et al. (2000) and using the CALIB can attest that the bedrock sill is below −80 m (Ryan et al.,
5.0 program (Stuiver et al., 2005), the Kurbağalıdere 1997a; Yaltırak et al., 2000). The −83 m sill depth we use
River delta aggraded its especially thick topsets during the in this paper is further substantiated by the continuous
course of the early to middle Bronze Age. We propose that shoreline at the same elevation along a large stretch of the
the increase of sediment supply from this river's northern shelf of the SoM west of the SoI (Çağatay et al.,
watershed sufficient to build the bulk of the topsets in 2003; Polonia et al., 2004; Cormier et al., 2006).
the span of b 2 ka might have been in part the consequence As to the hypothesis of persistent outflow from the
of increased soil runoff from deforestation made possible Black Sea to the SoM over the past 10 14C ka bp, both
by efficient wood harvesting with the bronze axe. Hiscott et al. (2002) and ourselves observe numerous
mounds scattered across reflector surface E (Fig. 6B). If
4.4. Implications for Black Sea water exchange to the SoM these mounds signal a return to higher marine salinity
suitable for the colonization of algal-serpulid bioherms
Aksu et al. (2002a,b) and Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) as proposed by them, then the freshwater discharge from
used their early date for the formation of this prodelta and the Black Sea may have briefly shut down at the
their interpretation that it was sourced directly from the conclusion of the Younger Dryas. Bioherms appear at
SoI to propose persistent outflow from the Black Sea this time all across new seabed of the rapidly submerging
since ∼ 10 14C ka bp. However, it seems from our northern shelf of the SoM (Aksu et al., 1999; Çağatay
mapping of reflector surfaces and their calibrations to et al., 2003, 2004; Polonia et al., 2004).
74 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

4.5. Implications for the SoM connection with the Black redistributed ice and water is permitted but not required by
Sea our observations.
During the later Holocene, discharge from the
Ryan et al. (1997a,b) proposed an abrupt connection Kurbağalıdere River drained a topographically high
of the SoM with the Black Sea in the early Holocene that area southeast of the SoI and built a large radial prodelta
resulted in a rapid drowning of the margins of the Black on the eastern rim of the paleo shelf valley starting at 6.2
14
Sea's Neoeuxine lake by saltwater introduced over an C ka bp well after the salt water from the SoM had
SoI cataract. This hypothesis is controversial and is not penetrated into the Black Sea to transform its brackish
widely accepted. Arguments for and against it have been lake into a semi-marine water body. The increase in
summarized in Ryan et al. (2003) and Ryan (2007). It is sediment supply during 6.2–3.8 14C ka bp resulted in
not the purpose of this paper to give support to the flood observed climbing topset–foreset transitions. Growth of
hypothesis, other than to state that our new and this prodelta may have been partly in response to the
relatively young dating of the Unit 2 Kurbağalıdere clearing of forests in watersheds made practical by the
River prodelta removes this feature as an argument for invention of the bronze axe. Our findings do not
persistent Black Sea outflow since 10 14C ka bp. The necessarily conflict with the hypothesis of a persistent
prodelta is therefore not as a nullifier of the flood Black Sea outflow since 10 14C ka bp as proposed by
hypothesis, but simply sediment from a nearby river. Aksu et al. (2002a,b) and Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007), but
Strontium isotope analyses on shells from the Black neither do they require persistent outflow. The appear-
Sea provide an excellent proxy for past marine connec- ance of bioherms all across the floor of the shelf valley
tions (Major et al., 2004, 2006). The strontium isotope at the conclusion of the Younger Dryas may be a signal
composition of the Black Sea's Neoeuxine lake switched that fresh water outflow from the SoI temporarily ceased
abruptly to marine values at 8.35 14C ka bp. At this time and salinity in the SoM increased once again.
the sedimentation rate in Core MD-2750 decreased to
b20% of its prior value. The onset of a vigorous flow of Acknowledgements
salty Mediterranean water into the SoI via the paleo
Bosphorus shelf valley starts with this connection. It is We thank the Turkish Department of Navigation,
interesting to note erosion or non-deposition of the levee Hydrography and Oceanography (SHOD) for providing
crests occurs at this time as depicted by the configuration the seismic reflection profiles and supplementary ba-
of surface C in Fig. 6A. thymetry data. We also acknowledge the officers and
crew of the research vessels Çubuklu, MTA Sismik-1,
5. Conclusions Odin Finder and Marion Dufresne for their expert
help during the data acquisition. Discussions with
Seismic–stratigraphic and chronostratigraphic analy- Marie-Helene Cormier, Emin Demirbağ, Naci Görür,
ses near the SoM entrance to the SoI provide important Damayanti Gurung, Candace Major, Cecilia McHugh,
new information on sedimentation in this region since Alina Polonia, Mehmet Sakınç, Leonardo Seeber and
the connection of the SoM with the Mediterranean. The Hüseyin Yüce have been very instructive. Support has
sedimentary sequences in this area were deposited over a been provided by TÜBITAK and by the US National
lowstand erosional surface in the course of a shelf-wide Science Foundation grants OCE971130, OCE-0096668
transgression. The sediment cover includes seven seismic and OCE-0222285.
units that can be confidently correlated with radiocarbon-
dated chronostratigraphic units in cores. Within the References
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observe a wavy deposit formed during the Younger Dryas water levels of the Marmara Sea and vigorous outflow into the
Aegean Sea from the Marmara Sea-Black Sea drainage corridor.
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along the margin of the shelf valley between 11.5 and 9.8 Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean contradicts Noah's Flood
14
C ka bp indicate that the sealevel in the SoM rose in hypothesis. GSA Today 10 (6), 3–7.
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