1 s2.0 S0169555X22003208 Main

Geomorphology 416 (2022) 108427
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/geomorphology
Lava deltas, a key landform in oceanic volcanic islands: El Hierro,

Canary Islands
A. Rodriguez-Gonzalez a, J.L. Fernandez-Turiel b, *, M. Aulinas c, d, M.C. Cabrera a,
C. Prieto-Torrell c, d, G.A. Rodriguez a, H. Guillou e, F.J. Perez-Torrado a
a
Instituto de Estudios Ambientales y Recursos Naturales (iUNAT), Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
b
Geosciences Barcelona, GEO3BCN, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
c
Departament de Mineralogia, Petrologia i Geologia Aplicada, Facultat de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Spain
d
Institut de Recerca Geomodels, Facultat de Ciències de la Terra, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès s/n, Barcelona 08028, Spain
e
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement/IPSL, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cédex, France
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Marine and subaerial erosion of volcanic ocean islands form coastal cliffs and shore platforms, particularly
Lava delta during stable sea levels. Posterosional lava flows can spill over these coastal cliffs and fill the platforms, leading
Lava flow to the progradation of lava deltas. This work aims to analyze this volcanic rocky coast setting at the island scale
Shore platform
and to assess the volcanic constructional and erosive degradational effects on the coast at the scale of one vol
Insular shelf
El Hierro
canic edifice. El Hierro Island, Canary Islands, exemplifies a rocky coast with an active sea-cliff profile, reflecting
Canary Islands its early evolutionary stage as a young ocean volcanic island with no fringing reef. The occurrence of a
contemporary insular shelf formed during the Holocene sea-level highstand (<7 ka) allows constraining the ages
of those eruptions forming lava deltas affecting this geomorphological landform. A detailed bathymetry around
the island allowed us to distinguish 17 eruptions fulfilling this criterion. The Montaña del Tesoro, which occurred
about 1050 years BP, is one of these eruptions and was selected as a case study for morphometric modeling
integrating subaerial and submarine data at the scale of a volcanic edifice. This eruption was a Strombolian
basaltic volcanic event that produced a scoria cone, pyroclastic fall deposits, and lava flows that reached the
ocean in the eastern rift zone of El Hierro island. We combine field-based observations with topographic and
bathymetric data analysis to reconstruct the pre- and post-eruption Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and,
comparing with present-day DEM, to analyze morphometrically the influence of volcanism on the coastal
landscape's development. The resulting landform complexity required the discretization of the lava field ac
cording to the coastline evolution and lava front sectors, and the subaerial or submarine lava placement. The
pyroclastic materials' total erupted bulk volume (12,829,578 m3) corresponds to a volcanic eruption index (VEI)
of 3. This event was primarily effusive. From a dense rock equivalent (DRE) volume of 25,615,424 m3, 87 %
flowed as lava, 10 % formed the cinder cone, and 3 % the tephra fall deposits. We quantitatively demonstrate
that dominant degradation occurs in the lava field, mainly disturbed by marine erosion. Marine erosion removed
9 % of the erupted volume of lava flows against 1 % by fluvial erosion. This work provides methods and results of
great interest with different implications in oceanic volcanic islands, among which we can mention coastal
planning (e.g., rock coast evolution) and volcanic risk assessment (e.g., the importance of Holocene sea-level rise
on the development of shore platforms facilitating the progradation of lava deltas).
1. Introduction (Stephenson et al., 2013; Woodroffe, 2014). Coastal cliffs likely exist on
about 52 % of the global shoreline (Young and Carilli, 2019). Rocky
Rocky coasts represent the majority of the world's shorelines shorelines are common on oceanic islands (Woodroffe, 2014), and on
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Rodriguez-Gonzalez), [email protected] (J.L. Fernandez-Turiel), [email protected]
(M. Aulinas), [email protected] (M.C. Cabrera), [email protected] (C. Prieto-Torrell), [email protected] (H. Guillou), franciscojose.perez@
ulpgc.es (F.J. Perez-Torrado).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108427
Received 30 December 2021; Received in revised form 3 August 2022; Accepted 23 August 2022
Available online 28 August 2022
0169-555X/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al. Geomorphology 416 (2022) 108427
those islands located on oceanic plates, volcanism is the most important conditions of these islands can be extrapolated to other ocean volcanic
geological process (Nunn, 1994). islands as, for example, the absence of coral reefs, the type of tide
Seawater penetrating lava flows are usual on ocean islands in hot (mainly semidiurnal with tidal ranges between 1.5 and 3.5 m), the sig
spot archipelagos (Carracedo et al., 2001; Mattox and Mangan, 1997; nificant differences between windward and leeward shores of islands
Soule et al., 2021; Thouret, 1999). In this setting, the coastal landscape (with a wetter exposed side and a drier rain-shadow side, and the ge
is the result of complex evolutions involving the interaction of aggra ology (dominated by ocean island basalts or OIBs) (Gómez et al., 2015;
dational (e.g., effusion, deposition) and degradational (e.g., terrestrial Jeffery and Gertisser, 2018).
and marine erosion, deformation) processes, which therefore contribute This work aims to analyze this volcanic rocky coast setting at the
effectively to the creation of the island's relief (Ramalho et al., 2013; island scale and to assess the constructional and erosive degradational
Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2011; Woodroffe, 2014). effects on the coast at the scale of one volcanic edifice. The spatial scale
During the emergent stage of volcanic ocean islands, volcanic ranges from hundreds of meters to kilometers, so it can be considered a
constructional activity prevails, and coastal evolution is essentially macro-scale, according to Gómez-Pazo et al. (2021). We analyze El
driven by intermittent lateral growth through the formation of lava Hierro Island's rocky coast and the Montaña del Tesoro eruption case
deltas (Ramalho et al., 2013; Soule et al., 2021). When the sea level is study, a Holocene Strombolian basaltic volcanic event that produced a
relatively stable, surface erosional processes form cliffs that, when scoria cone, pyroclastic fall deposits, and a lava flow that reached the
retreat, leads to a rock ledge, or shore platform, sometimes developing coastline forming a delta. It exemplifies lava flowing in a subaerial-
boulder beaches (Kennedy, 2015; Kennedy et al., 2014; Paris et al., submarine system with decisive wave action. The availability of
2011; Quartau et al., 2010). At most volcanic islands, lava flows often detailed (1 m contour line equidistance) bathymetric data (Dirección
reach the coastline, spilling over cliffs and filling the shore platforms, General de Costas, 2003) allows the connection between subaerial and
facilitating the progradation of lava deltas and potentially increasing the submarine volcanic morphometry. We integrate field-based observa
submarine slope instability (Bosman et al., 2014; Di Traglia et al., 2018, tions with topographic and bathymetric data to reconstruct the pre- and
2022; Lipman and Moore, 1996; Ramalho et al., 2013). Lava deltas post-eruption digital elevation models (DEMs) and, comparing with
represent a significant hazard, especially on populated ocean island present-day DEM, to analyze morphometrically the subaerial and sub
volcanoes (Poland and Orr, 2014). The detailed characterization of these marine impacts of the eruption. The Montaña del Tesoro eruption pro
lava-fed deltas provides information of great interest for different pur vides a further analogue for analyzing coastal evolution in emergent
poses, among which we can point out coastal, volcanic, and paleo volcanic ocean islands.
environmental studies (e.g., Perez-Torrado et al., 2015; Quartau et al.,
2015; Smellie et al., 2013; Soule et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2020). 2. Regional setting / study area
On the other hand, the relevance of wind-generated waves and tides
to the development of coastal cliffs has long been recognized as an 2.1. Geographical and geological setting
essential contributor to long-term coastline evolution (Bird, 2008;
Sunamura, 1992). In general, geomorphological erosion processes result The study area is El Hierro Island, Canary Islands, Spain (Fig. 1a and
from a fluid-structure interaction phenomenon. The fluid medium brings b). The Canaries Archipelago, consisting of a roughly linear 500 km long
into play the energy it transports to work on the structures it impacts, east-west aligned chain of seven main islands and several islets, is
causing their erosion. In particular, wind-generated waves are the most located about 100 km off the NW African coast, between 29◦ 25′ and
important erosive agent along most coasts, but their effectiveness varies 27◦ 37′ N and 18◦ 10′ and 13◦ 20′ W (Fig. 1a), and it is part of the Maca
with wave energy, coastal degree of exposure to their attack, tidal range, ronesian region. The archipelago's total land area is about 7446.95 km2,
and with the nature of the material exposed to wave attack, among where 2,175,952 people lived in 2020 (ISTAC, 2021). The largest island
others (Ramalho et al., 2013; Trenhaile and Kanyaya, 2007). is Tenerife, with 2034.38 km2 (928,604 inhabitants in 2020), and the
Although there is no interruption between the subaerial and the smallest is El Hierro, where 11,147 inhabitants lived in 2020 on a sur
submarine parts when lava flows enter the sea, it is not always possible face of 268.71 km2 (ISTAC, 2021).
to reconcile land and offshore data consistently, primarily due to the This archipelago developed in a geodynamic setting characterized by
difficulty of accessing seamless topography-bathymetry data sets a thick, rigid, and old oceanic lithosphere (Jurassic, 156 Ma) (Roeser,
(Quartau et al., 2014, 2015). Otherwise, most studies focus on the 1982; Roest et al., 1992) lying close to a passive continental margin and
deeper parts of volcanic islands. They are challenging to carry out on a slow-moving plate (the African plate) (Negredo et al., 2022). The
because they are dangerous and time-consuming. Moreover, studies volcanic activity is associated with a hotspot (Carracedo, 1999; Carra
with integrated subaerial and submarine data are usually performed at cedo et al., 1998; Negredo et al., 2022), such as the Hawaiian Islands (e.
the island scale (e.g., Llanes et al., 2009; Masson et al., 2008; Quartau g., Sun et al., 2021), Galapagos Islands (Hoernle et al., 2004), the Cabo
et al., 2014, 2015), not at a scale of the volcanic edifice. Consequently, Verde Islands (e.g., Ancochea et al., 2010, 2012; Ramalho et al., 2010),
little is known about the platform-forming eruptions surrounding these or La Reunion Island (Lénat et al., 2009). This activity probably started
islands. in the late Cretaceous–early Miocene and extended into the Holocene,
Understanding these shore subaerial-submarine aggradational-deg generating the Canary Volcanic Province (CVP), an ~800-km-long and
radational systems provides valuable insights into the relationships be ~400-km-wide volcanic belt. The spatial and chronological evolution of
tween the volcanological evolution of the islands and their coastal the Canarian volcanism, from east to west, is due to the progression of
landscape development over time (Glass et al., 2007; Quartau et al., the cold, thick, rigid, and slow-moving (~2 cm/y) African plate (Silver
2014, 2015; Zhao et al., 2019, 2020). In addition, when radiometric et al., 1998) over a mantle plume (e.g., Carracedo, 1999; Geldmacher
dates are unavailable, shore platforms can provide relative chronolog et al., 2005; Holik et al., 1991; Zaczek et al., 2015) (Fig. 1a). Historical
ical constraints to estimate the timing of posterosional volcanism (Car eruptions are unknown only on La Gomera, Gran Canaria, and Fuerte
racedo et al., 2001; Quartau et al., 2014, 2015). Knowledge of the ventura islands (Longpré and Felpeto, 2021). Like other intra-plate
development of shore platforms is necessary for coastal planning pur hotspot volcanic islands (e.g., Hawaii, Cape Verde), the Canary Islands
poses and the assessment of geologic hazards (Zhao et al., 2020), as also display the hotspot volcanic stages of evolution: juvenile (shield)
demonstrated during the 2021 eruption on La Palma Island (Vega et al., stage, volcanic quiescence stage, and rejuvenated stage. The eastern
2021). most islands (Fuerteventura and Lanzarote) are in the rejuvenated stage,
The Canary Islands lie outside reef-forming seas and are a natural where the erosive processes play a significant role, while the western
laboratory to study the effects of volcanism, flank collapses, and marine most ones (El Hierro and La Palma) are in the juvenile stage, which is
action without attenuation by surrounding coral reefs. Some boundary characterized by high eruption rates and fast volcanic growth
2
20º W 18º 16º 14º 12º 10º
N
Lars/Essaouira Smt.
Madeira (68 Ma)
Montaña del
archipelago
Tesoro
32º N
Anyka/Rybin Smt.
(55 Ma)
/y)
cm Dacia Smt.
b (~2
ent (47 Ma)
m
ve
mo
te
pla Selvagem
r ic an (29 Ma) Conception Bank Smt.
Af
30º
(>17 Ma)
E
V INC
CANARIAN VOLCANIC PRO
Tenerife
La Palma (1.7 Ma) (11.9 Ma) Lanzarote
Gran Canaria Fuerteventura
La Gomera (9.4 Ma)

(14.6 Ma) (20.2 Ma)
AFRICA
28º
El Hierro (1.12 Ma) Amanay

a Hijo de Banquete Smt. 0 100 km
Tenerife Smt. (0.2 Ma) (<15 Ma)
Fig. 1. Regional setting of El Hierro in the volcanic province of Canary Islands (a) (Geldmacher et al., 2005; Guillou et al., 2004; Ryan et al., 2009), and location of
the Montaña del Tesoro in El Hierro Island (b).
(Carracedo et al., 2001). eruption is that its lava flow cascades over a paleo-cliff's edge and
El Hierro Island is the most southwesterly (Fig. 1) and youngest of spreads over a shore platform. The town of Tamaduste is built upon the
the Canary Islands, with the oldest subaerial rocks dated at 1.12 Ma platform lava of the Montaña del Tesoro eruption (Fig. 2b).
(Guillou et al., 1996). It is the emergent summit of a volcanic shield that The Montaña del Tesoro eruption was dated at 9 ± 6 ka (± 2σ) BP by
rises from ~4000 m deep seafloor to 1502 m above sea level at the the K/Ar radiometric method (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012b).
island's center (Pico Malpaso). The estimated volume (subaerial and Although this method is not very accurate for Holocene eruptions, it
submarine) of El Hierro reaches from 3200 km3 (Benito-Saz et al., 2019) confirmed the youth of this volcanic event. Risica et al. (2022) obtained
to 5500 km3 (Schmincke and Sumita, 2010). However, considering the two probable ages by the Palaeosecular Variation (PSV) curve
palaeosurface supporting the island is irregular and not a plane, the (1205–1041 and 965–941 y BP) and one from charcoal found in the soil
volume estimates reach 6065 km3. The most characteristic feature of El below the Montaña del Tesoro's lapilli that yielded a radiometric age of
Hierro is its tetrahedron shape, with edges formed by three convergent 1080–958 cal AD. These new ages place the Montaña del Tesoro erup
volcanic ridges (rift zones) at 120◦ and separated by wide embayments tion around 1050 years BP.
(Carracedo, 1994; Gee et al., 2001a) (Fig. 2a). The three-armed rift
system controls the present-day structure, morphology, and recent vol
2.2. Climatic and geomorphic setting
canic eruptions of El Hierro (e.g., Acosta et al., 2005; Carracedo, 1994,
1996, 1999). This triple-armed shape of El Hierro is further enhanced by
The climate of the Canary Islands is subtropical, moderated by the
the scars of several giant gravitational landslides that truncated all three
oceanic Canary Current and prevailing northeast trade winds, and it is
flanks and removed ~10 % of its total volume (Carracedo et al., 2001;
conditioned especially by altitude. According to the Köppen-Geiger
Gee et al., 2001a, 2001b).
climate classification, the Canary Islands present hot desert (BWh) and
The subaerial development of the island resulted from the over
cold desert (BWk), hot steppe (BSh) and cold steppe (BSk), hot and dry
lapping growth of three principal volcanic edifices: (1) Tiñor Volcano
summers (Csa), and dry and warm summers (Csb) climates (AEMET,
(1.12–0.88 Ma), (2) El Golfo Volcano (545–176 ka), and (3) the recent
2012). Geomorphology and altitude determine particular geographic
rift volcanism (<158 ka) (Becerril et al., 2013, 2014, 2016; Carracedo
and climatic characteristics for each island. In El Hierro, we find an
et al., 2001; Guillou et al., 1996). Their rapid and unstable growth turns
altitudinal zonation BWh-BSh-BSk-Csb from the coast to the highlands.
out to be one of the conditioning factors for the occurrence of the five
Annual average air temperature variation ranges from 20 ◦ C at sea level
giant gravitational landslides identified at El Hierro: Tiñor (<880 ka),
to below 10 ◦ C in the highlands of the Canary Islands, e.g., 12 ◦ C in El
(2) Las Playas I (545–176 ka), and II (176–145 ka), (3) El Julan (>158
Hierro (AEMET, 2012). The precipitation is unevenly distributed due to
ka), (4) El Golfo (133–21 ka) and (5) Punta del Norte (unknown age)
orographic effects and exposure to the prevailing and persistent north
(Carracedo, 1999; Carracedo et al., 2001; Longpré et al., 2011; Masson,
easterly trade winds. Annual average precipitation varies between 100
1996; Masson et al., 2002; Urgeles et al., 1997; Watts and Masson,
and 1000 mm/y for the Canaries Archipelago and 100–800 mm/y for El
1995). These large-scale landslides (commonly in debris avalanches) are
Hierro.
a prominent feature of the Canary Islands (Mitchell et al., 2003). The
Erosional landforms prevail in the general landscape of the east
dissection by fluvial processes is poorly developed on El Hierro Island.
ernmost islands of Canaries Archipelago. Instead, the western and
Montaña del Tesoro is a 121 m high cinder cone located at the
younger islands generally exhibit a rugged relief where the principal
northeastern rift system within 1.5 km to the capital Valverde and about
volcanic forms are well noticeable. The coasts of the Canary Islands
2 km to the island's small airport (El Hierro Airport) (Figs. 1b and 2).
show rough cliffs, shore platforms, and basaltic sand and gravel beaches,
Together with Montaña de Aguarijo and Montaña Chamuscada, repre
especially on the older eastern islands.
sent the principal platform forming eruptions at the NE rift (Prieto-
The coastal landscape of the Earth has been profoundly modified by
Torrell et al., 2021). The most distinct feature of the Montaña del Tesoro
the gradual sea-level rise caused by the melting of continental ice sheets
3
b N
-100
-40
-45
-150
0
0
-50
-200
17
-35
3,082,000
0
b
-250
1
Montaña del
Tesoro
-30
0
Montaña
Aguarijo
Valverde
Tamaduste T
2
J
Montaña del Tesoro G
Montaña
Chamuscada
14
15 EL GOLFO
13 J 3
NE
12
16
Frontera
T
FT
3,072,000
11
RI
G
G
10 RIFT NW Malpaso
J
1502 m LAS
9 J PLAYAS
El Pinar
8 N
CEA
RIF
SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS EL JULAN O

IC
TS
Piedmont deposits
NT
VOLCANIC FORMATIONS
LA
7
}
1 Lava deltas
Recent volcanism
AT
Rifts volcanism (<158 ka)
G
3,062,000
El Golfo lateral collapse
6
Cliff forming eruptions
0 2 km
J El Julan, Las Playas and San Andrés lateral collapses
4
El Golfo volcano (545 - 176 ka) 5
T Tiñor lateral collapse La Restinga
Tiñor volcano (1.12 - 0.88 Ma)
193,000 203,000 213,000 a
Fig. 2. (a) Simplified subaerial geology of El Hierro Island (Prieto-Torrell et al., 2021), coordinate system WGS84-UTM Zone 28 N (EPSG: 32628). The lava deltas
identified in the contemporary shore platform are indicated (see Table 3 for details). (b) Satellite image of the study area showing shore platform bathymetry
(Cartográfica de Canarias GRAFCAN, 2021).
since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), about 20,000 years ago (Lam 2.3. Meteoceanic setting
beck et al., 2014; Osman et al., 2021). The post-LGM marine trans
gression has been recorded in the Canaries' coasts by migration of Due to its geographical location, the Canaries are within the fairly
marine erosion towards inland, forming shore platforms (Carracedo regular Trade Winds belt on the southern edge of the Azores High. The
et al., 2001; Rijsdijk et al., 2013). Carracedo et al. (2001) observed as trade winds regime exhibits a clear seasonal pattern throughout the
lavas forming cliffs had ages older than about 20 ka, while those forming year, mainly governed by the relative intensity and location of the Ice
coastal platforms yielded younger ages. This fact was used for the landic Low and Azores High-pressure systems. During summer, trade
relative dating of volcanic eruptions that reach the coast, distinguishing winds blow with moderate or weak intensity from the N-NNE directional
the pre- and post-LGM eruptions. sector with frequencies between 90 % and 95 %, while in winter, its
The young relief of El Hierro presents steeply plunging cliffs that are intensity decreases significantly, and its frequency is reduced to about
associated with laterally eroded cones and lava flows. In addition, there 50 %. The weakening of the Azores high-pressure system during the
are shore platforms that record the past climate changes on sea level winter allows for the sporadic arrival of some storms, mainly from the
variations which, in turn, have been covered by lava flows. This complex North-Northwest Atlantic sector. Spring and autumn represent transi
scenario is captured in the eruption of Montaña del Tesoro (Fig. 2). tional periods between these situations (Guerra-Medina and Rodríguez,
2021; Pérez et al., 2014).
4
Wave climate in the archipelago is naturally related to atmospheric similar to those reaching the study area. In particular, the wave data set
conditions, and consequently, average wave conditions are relatively includes hourly values of spectral significant wave height, Hm0, peak
mild, especially during the period when trade winds prevail. However, period, Tp, and mean wave direction, Dm. The frequency of occurrence of
the approach of low-pressure atmospheric systems from the northern different wave conditions has been examined by elaborating empirical
part of the Atlantic, the passage of atmospheric storms, or even some joint distributions of Hm0 and Dm, as well as Tp and Dm, displayed in
episodic extratropical storms close to the islands, generally traveling polar coordinates (wave rose) to facilitate their interpretation.
towards the eastern coasts of the northern North Atlantic, can lead to the Wave energy flux, or wave power, by unit of wavefront, has been
generation of moderate or severe wave conditions. However, severe computed as P– – C Te H2m0, where Te is the wave energy period and has
wave conditions on the archipelago's exposed coast are often swell been obtained by assuming a Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum so that Te =
waves irradiated from more or less distant storms (Chiri et al., 2013). 0.86 Tp. The constant C equals 0.49, which includes sea water density
This is the reason why the Canary Archipelago belongs to the class of and acceleration of gravity (e.g., Chiri et al., 2013). Directionality and
swell-dominated coasts (Davies, 1980; Semedo et al., 2011). the timing of occurrence of the most severe wave conditions during each
In addition to meteorological conditions, a proper understanding of year have been identified and shown as polar plots, including informa
the wave conditions in the archipelago requires bearing in mind other tion on the associated significant wave height and peak period (Fig. 8).
aspects related to its distance from the African continent and its complex Experimental measurements of sea level were obtained from the tide
geometric configuration. The short distance between the African coast gauge network (REDMAR) of Puertos del Estado and consist of hourly
and the easternmost islands considerably limits the development of values of the sea water level covering the period from May 2004 until
wave fields approaching the islands from the east. On the other hand, March 2022 at La Estaca Harbor (Fig. 7). The tidal gauge used from 2004
due to the relative position of each island within the archipelago, the to November 2009 was a pressure sensor; from then until today, it has
northern and western flanks of the archipelago are the most exposed to been a radar-type sensor. It is interesting to note that with a series of this
wave action while acting as a protective barrier for the opposite faces length, nearly 18 years, the nodal cycle of the Moon, 18.6 years, is
and the islands in the shaded areas generated by them. Another almost wholly included, thus covering all amplitudes and phases of the
important feature in this respect is the existence of deep channels be astronomical tide.
tween some islands, which allows the propagation along the main axis of Seawater level observations indicate the height of the sea surface
such channels for wave fields arriving from that direction to a given above the tidal datum. They may be understood as the combination of
coastal stretch (Guerra-Medina and Rodríguez, 2021). In brief, average two components: the astronomical tide due to the time-varying gravi
wave conditions are mild but with significant local variations due to the tational attraction of the Moon and Sun, and the meteorological residue,
sheltering effects among islands and the orientation of the different or perturbation of the sea level elevation caused by meteorological
coastal stretches (degree of exposure) (Di Paola et al., 2020). conditions. Harmonic analysis of sea level measurements allows to
Regarding tidal conditions, the tidal regime in the Canary Islands is separate both contributions (e.g., Rodríguez et al., 1999). The repre
microtidal, with a semidiurnal tide pattern and a tidal range oscillating sentative statistical parameters were derived once the empirical proba
approximately between 0.5 m and 3 m, and a mean value close to 1.5 m. bilistic distribution of sea water level, astronomical tides, and
Furthermore, meteorological residuals are almost negligible, ranging meteorological residues were obtained.
between ±20 cm approximately, but with a modal value nearly null
(Guerra-Medina and Rodríguez, 2021). 3.3. Fieldwork mapping
3. Methods The geological mapping of the Montaña del Tesoro eruption, and the
reconstruction of the geomorphology and topography before and after
3.1. Rock coast assessment this volcanic event, required intensive and meticulous fieldwork. This
fieldwork identified and analyzed the volcanic landforms, i.e., the cone,
Coast morphology was analyzed through profiles around El Hierro the lava flow and its levées, the pyroclastic fall deposits, and the un
Island. We surveyed cross-sections based on the Digital Elevation Model derlying relief (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2010, 2012a). The geological
(DEM) made from the LIDAR point clouds of the second coverage with a mapping of these units was carried out with a tablet (iPad Pro 11 Wi-Fi
mesh pitch of 2 m (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, 2015) and 1:1000 + cellular model + GPS / GNSS receiver) that allows digitizing with a
multibeam swath (sonar) bathymetric (Dirección General de Costas, pencil device the contact lines and geolocation points (photos, sketches,
2003) digital maps (5 m and 1 m contour line equidistance, respec samples, etc.) by using the FieldMove application (Fig. 3). We use high-
tively). Then, we decided to segment the platform width arbitrarily into resolution raster maps (e.g., orthophoto, LIDAR, topography), as MBtiles
two classes, <25 m and > 25 m wide, considering the width as the files (512 × 512 tile size and 16 Zoom Levels), as a reference (base) layer
distance between the coastline (sea level or 0 m) and the bathymetric for this application. Since the new vector elements are displayed on the
curve of − 1 m. This segmentation was performed using QGIS to assess reference map, we can visually verify the accuracy as we map. The
the development of the insular shelves. In addition, we explored the vector data structure allows geologic data to be represented in a single
occurrence of lava flows affecting the shore platform that clearly vector object, making it easy to digitize and store large and complex map
modified the previous bathymetry. data. Subsequently, we can separate the data into different thematic
layers (e.g., unit contacts, outcropping structures, or individualized
3.2. Wave climate and tides eruptions), gaining flexibility in designing the maps of interest. Finally,
the acquired data is exported to a KMZ file and entered into a
Datasets used to characterize wave climate and tidal regime in the Geographical Information System (GIS) environment to accurately es
study area include wave data obtained from the coupling of wind and timate the required morphological parameters and derivates, such as
numerical wave models, as well as seawater level information, recorded eruption output volume, slope, and terrain aspect (Fig. 3).
using a tidal gauge, and have been provided by the Spanish Port Au
thority (Puertos del Estado). 3.4. Paleogeomorphological reconstruction
The reanalysis database containing wave information through wind
and numerical wave models is called SIMAR and provides information Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) images or geophysical profiles
covering 64 years, from January 1958 to March 2022. The location of have not been available for detailed observations of submarine land
the selected computational grid node is indicated in Fig. 7. This node is forms. However, the 1:1000 multibeam swath (sonar) bathymetry
located close to Montaña del Tesoro and exposed to wave conditions (Dirección General de Costas, 2003) permitted the reconstruction of the
5
Literature review
and data collection
FIELDWORK MAPPING GIS
LAYER FORMAT
Geology Orthophoto Topography LIDAR LAYER
Raster Bathymetry DEM
Base Map LIDAR, topography,
ortophoto,...
Vector FIELDWORK MAPPING DATA

KMZ file ►shapefile
Point: vent, hornito,
Geological skylight,...
Mapping Line: contact, levée,
flow direction,...
Samples Data processing Data processing
Polygon: cone edition of geological mapping geomorphological reconstruction
Object Vector
Georeference
Point: sample, photo,
Laboratory Present-day Post-eruption Pre-eruption
sketch,... topography, geology topography, geology topography
EXPORT Geological Spatial-Temporal

KMZ file
map evolution
Fig. 3. The conceptual flowchart shows the fieldwork mapping and Geographical Information System (GIS) study methodology.
submarine lava flows and their front. For the paleogeomorphological and maximum proximal thicknesses for post-eruption (VPE) and present-
reconstruction, field-derived data were combined with the available day (VP) stages. This method is used due to the minimal changes that
1:5000 topographic (Cartográfica de Canarias GRAFCAN, 2006) and the their low thicknesses introduce in the landscape at the more detailed
before-mentioned bathymetric digital maps (5 m and 1 m contour line work scale (1:1000) (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a).
equidistance, respectively) to modify by hand the present-day contour The complexity of the landforms configuring the lava flows is a
maps and derive the pre- and post-eruption relief. The pre-eruptive challenge that needs another strategy. The lava flow field was dis
submarine terrain is reconstructed by observing the slope break pro cretized according to the coastline evolution and lava front sectors and
duced by the lavas over the platform on the bathymetric contours. The their subaerial or submarine placement (Fig. 4). In this way, Sector 1
post-eruption landscape is reconstructed from the visible lava thick includes the area from vent to pre-eruption coastline CL1; Sector 2, the
nesses along the current coastline, the arrangement of their erosional area from pre-eruption (CL1) to current (CL3) coastlines; Sector 3, the
remnants, and the bathymetric contours' morphology. We assume for area from current (CL3) to post-eruption (CL2) coastlines; and Sector 4
this modeling the current sea level in the pre- and post-eruption evol represents the area from the post-eruption coastline (CL2) to submarine
utive stages for these reconstructions and a negligible degradation in lava flow front. The resulting partial lava flow volumes and areas were
distal submerged lava fronts. used for the morphometric analysis of the post-eruption and present-day
Three coastlines are recognized (pre- and post-eruption and current stages (Table 1). They were the basis for determining any other volumes
coastline; CL1, CL2, and CL3, respectively) (Fig. 4). The post-eruption and derivates of interest.
and current coastlines reflect the lava flow foreparts that gained land Total post-eruption lava flows volume (VLE) is the sum of subaerial
from the sea (CL2) and then retreat due to marine erosion (CL3) (Fig. 4). and submerged volumes (Fig. 4), being
Modifications of present topographic and bathymetric contour lines and VLE = subaerial volume [VL1E + VL2E + VL3E] + submerged volume
the derivate Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) were processed using [VL2sE + VL3sE + VL4sE] (Fig. 4c).
TNTGis 2020 software (Microimages Inc.). The pre- and post-eruption For degradation (Fig. 4), the volume eroded by fluvial action (VLef) is
DEMs were produced with a cell resolution of 5 × 5 m using the mini estimated from
mum curvature method as the interpolation algorithm that continuously VLef = denuded subaerial volume in Sector 1 (VL1E - VL1) + denuded
compares the results with the current DEM (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., submerged volume in Sector 2 (VL2E - VL2) (Fig. 4a, d);
2010). Terrain slopes were determined from the DEMs, computed with and the volume eroded by marine action (VLem) is
sufficient smoothing, and using a differential geometry approach based VLem = denuded subaerial volume in Sector 3 (VL3E - VL3) + denuded
on the weighted averages of all points within the 3 × 3 neighborhood submerged volume in Sector 3 (VL3sE - VL3s) (Fig. 4d).
(Warren et al., 2004). The comparison between the pre- and post- The VL2sE and VL2s are the same in Sector 2 because they are pro
eruption DEMs and the present-day DEM allows us to identify the tected by subaerial lava and configure the current cliff on the coast. The
geomorphological evolution of the study area and perform the volume values are also the same for VL4sE and VL4s because there is no
morphometric analysis. wave action; therefore, it does not present erosion and maintains the
original morphology.
If not explicitly stated, all volume estimates are expressed as bulk
3.5. Morphometric modeling
erupted volume, including the solid and void volumes of the different
volcanic units, without dense rock equivalent (DRE) corrections. For
The DEMs allowed the calculation of several morphometric param
DRE volumes, correction factors assume (e.g., Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al.,
eters related to the cone, lava flows, pyroclastic sheet-like fall deposits,
2010) a porous volume fraction of 75 % for the volcanic cone (Mangan
and basement (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2010, 2011, 2012a). We apply
and Cashman, 1996) and 25 % for basaltic a'a' lava flow (Wolfe, 1988).
a cut-and-fill analysis process for volume estimates to the three DEMs
obtained (pre-eruption, post-eruption, and present-day). This process
4. Results
compares two raster surfaces of the same area and identifies locations
where their elevation values differ.
4.1. El Hierro shoreline
The total original volumes of the eruption (VTE) and the cone (VCE)
are obtained from the difference between the post-eruption and pre-
The coastal landscape of El Hierro Island is dominated by stacks of
eruption DEMs. For volume estimates of pyroclastic sheet-like fall de
lava flows (Fig. 5a), but also there are some spectacular sections of
posits, we determine an average volume based on the minimum distal
6
I CL1 CL3 CL2 I’

VLef
VL1 VLem
VL2 VL3 VL4s
d VL2s VL3s
present-day landform
I I’ Present-day
VL1E CL1 CL2 coastline (CL3)
VL3E Post-eruption
VL2E VL4sE coastline (CL2)
Pre-eruption
VL2sE VL3sE coastline (CL1)
c
post-eruption landform Submarine
lava flow front
I I’ Ravine
CL1
Terrestrial lava-flows
Submarine lava-flows
b
Volcanic cone
pre-eruption landform
CL3 CL2 CL1
Basement
I VLef VL1 VL3s

VL2
VL4s I’
VLef VL3
a
Sector 1 2 3 4
Fig. 4. (a) Simplified geological sketch map of the Montaña del Tesoro eruption. (b-d) Cross-sections of the pre-, post-, and present-day evolutive stages. Three
coastlines are recognized (pre- and post-eruption and current coastline; CL1, CL2, and CL3, respectively). The lava flow field was sectorized to facilitate the study:
Sector 1 includes from the vent to the pre-eruption coastline (CL1); Sector 2 from the pre-eruption coastline (CL1) to the current coastline (CL3); Sector 3 from the
present coast (CL3) to the post-eruption coastline (CL2); and Sector 4 from the post-eruption coastline (CL2) to the lava flow front. See the text for an explanation of
the different volumes (V).
noteworthy the practical absence of beaches.

Table 1
Concerning the shore shelves, the <25 m wide platforms represent
Partial lava flow volumes are discretized according to the coastline evolution,
65.6 % of the coastline (87.6 km), while 34.4 % consists of >25 m wide
lava front sectors, and their subaerial or submarine placement. This discretiza
tion is used for the present-day (PrD column) and post-eruption (PtE column) platforms (45.9 km). The maximum continuous length is 11.0 km in the
stages of landscape evolution. first case, and the minimum is 0.3 km (n = 32 segments). For the >25 m
wide platforms, the maximum continuum length is 6.0 km and the
Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3 Sector 4
from vent to from pre- from current from post-
minimum 0.2 km (n = 32 segments). The >25 m wide platforms lie
pre-eruption eruption (CL1) (CL3) to post- eruption mainly in the northern and western areas of the island (Fig. 6).
coastline to current eruption (CL2) coastline (CL2) The study area is affected by predominant winds coming from the
(CL1) (CL3) coastlines to submarine NNE direction, corresponding to the persistent trade winds, blowing
coastlines lava flow front
with moderate or weak intensity and impinging almost perpendicular to
PrD PtE PrD PtE PrD PtE PrD PtE Montaña del Tesoro coastal stretch, mainly during summer.
Terrestrial VL1 VL1E VL2 VL2E VL3 VL3E – – The occurrence of wind-generated surface gravity waves evidences
Submerged – – VL2s VL2sE VL3s VL3sE VL4s VL4sE the strong atmosphere-ocean coupling resulting from the exchange of
Erosion VLef VLef VLem – energy and momentum at the sea surface interface. The energetic con
tent of a wave field grows with the wind speed, the duration of the
volcanic cones (Fig. 5b), both forming steep cliffs. Cliff morphology period during which wind transfers energy and momentum to the sea
varies around the island, from plunging cliffs to shore platforms with surface, and the extension of the surface over which these fluxes take
arches (Fig. 5c and d), sea stacks, blowholes, and sea caves. It is place, known as fetch. The sea surface exhibits a complex and random
7
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 5. Characteristic coastal landforms of El Hierro Island. (a) Plunging cliff on stacks of lava flows on the coast of the Mar de las Calmas. (b) Cliff on a volcanic cone
on the coast of the Mar de las Calmas; note a large amount of debris at its base (white arrows). (c) The Puntas de Guitérrez Arch cut in young basalt flows on the NW
rift (near profile 1 in Fig. 6) (red arrow indicates a person as scale). (d) The Punta de la Sal Arch cut in old basalt flows on the NE rift (near profile 1 in Fig. 6) (red
arrow indicates a person as scale). (e-f) Effect of wave attack on a lava tube from Puntas de Gutiérrez. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
structure within this area, and wave fields are known as wind seas. As Gomera, in an approximately NNE direction. Waves arriving from this
waves travel out of the fetch across the ocean basins, they undergo narrow sector are mild, with heights rarely reaching 4 m. On the con
significant transformations giving rise to wave fields, referred as swell trary, the dominant (most severe) directional sector presents a higher
waves, that progressively reduce their chaotic aspect while retaining directional dispersion, covering roughly the NW-N circular range but
their random nature, with significant wave height decreasing and peak mainly centered on the NW-NNW subsector. Wave fields from this sector
periods increasing with the distance from the fetch. A standard approach are associated with sporadic storms reaching the western side of the
is to distinguish between the two types of waves according to whether island, particularly during winter, but mainly with remote storms
the peak period value is less or >10 s (e.g., Goda, 2010). located to the north-northwest of the Atlantic at a considerable distance
Inspection of the wave rose for significant wave heights, produced from the islands, giving rise to situations in which significant wave
with the hourly data for the reanalysis point shown in Fig. 7a for the heights of >3 m are relatively frequent and reaching extreme values
period between January 1958 and March 2022, reveals the existence of around 8 m.
two main wave directions of wave approach to the northeast coastal Regarding spectral peak periods in El Hierro, periods associated with
flank. The prevailing (most frequent) direction is identified along the wave conditions from the prevailing directional sector are often lower
longitudinal axis of the channel between the islands of La Palma and La than 10 s (Fig. 7b), reflecting the predominance of wind waves.
8
20 4
0
40
1 -20
20
-40
0 60
5
-20 40
20 2 20 6
20
0 0
0
-20 -20
-20
0 100 200 300
-40 -40
5 -60
-60
60 3 6
40
20
0
4
-20
0 100 200 300
20 7
1 3
2 0
Coast platform -20

> 25 m wide
< 25 m wide -40
elevation (m)
-60
sea level 7
profile -80
8
distance (m) -100
10
-120
9 -140
-160
80 10
-180
60
-200
40 20
40
8
20 0
9
0 20
-20
-20 0
-40
-40 -20
0 100 200 300
-60 -40
-80 -60
0 100 200 300
-100
0 100 200 300
Fig. 6. Distribution of areas with <25 and > 25 m wide shore platforms on the coastline of El Hierro Island. Profiles 1–10 represent typical sections of the coast,
mainly consisting of stacks of lava flows, projected to uniform height and distance. The most extensive platforms (>25 m wide) correspond to the highest active
marine erosion (profiles 1, 3, 5, 8, and 10), whereas the narrowest platforms (<25 m) lie in the areas where the wave attack is more attenuated (profiles 2, 4, 6, 7,
and 9).
However, periods have a frequency higher than 10 s in the dominant Concerning the variation of wave conditions around the island, it has
sector, reaching values higher than 20 s, showing the predominance of been observed that wave energy flux, or wave power, is higher along the
swell conditions, as it corresponds to an area with the preponderance of western edge of the island, which is exposed to storms approaching from
westerly swell. the North Atlantic and to swell arriving from more or less distant storms,
9
N a N b
28º 00’ N
28º 00’ N
Hm0 (m) Tp (s)
8 22
7
28º 48’
18
6
TG TG
5 15
4 12
3 9
2 6
1
28º 36’
28º 36’
3
0 10 km 0 0 10 km
0
18º 00’ W 17º 40’ 18º 00’ W 17º 40’
Fig. 7. Significant wave height or Hm0 (a) and peak wave period or Tp (b) roses for hourly values, at a selected computational node offshore Montaña del Tesoro, for
the period 01/1958–03/2022. TG, tidal gauge at La Estaca Harbor.
while the contribution of the trade winds virtually disappears in this side November to May with the most energetic swell conditions, especially in
(Chiri et al., 2013; Iglesias and Carballo, 2011). On the opposite flank, winter, and another from June to October with mild energetic condi
this contribution remains the only one while the wave action on the tions. In short, the wave energy flux towards Montaña del Tesoro occurs
coast is substantially lower due to the sheltering effect generated by the in two main directions. Most of the year, low and moderate wave power
island against the NW storms. Due to the orientation and geometric arrives from a narrow sector centered around the NNE direction, almost
configuration of the island, the SW coast of the island represents a perpendicular to that location, whereas more energetic waves, usually
shadow zone, protected from the action of both types of wave fields, thus long swell, approach sea cliffs obliquely from NW but roughly ranging
receiving the name “Sea of Calms” (Mar de las Calmas). between WNW and NNW.
Bearing in mind that the erosive potential of waves increases with Sea cliffs may occur in various tidal environments. In general, the
the amount of energy they carry, wave energy flux, or wave power, was most important aspect of tides in geomorphology is their vertical range,
evaluated for the most energetic annual events in terms of the direction known as the tidal range, and is defined as the difference in level be
of approach to the study area and the period of the year in which they tween one high tide and the next low tide. When the average range of
occurred. Fig. 8a depicts wave energy flux in kW/m as a function of the tides is lower than 2 m, the coast can is classified as microtidal; for tidal
direction of wave propagation during each of the major annual storms. ranges between (2–4 m), the tidal regime is considered as mesotidal,
Most energetic storms reach the Montaña del Tesoro area from the whereas coasts with tidal ranges over 4 m are macrotidal (Pugh and
WNW-NNW directional sector, mainly from the NW, with wave power Woodworth, 2014). The tidal range determines the vertical zone over
ranging between 50 and 460 kW/m. In contrast, stormy events arriving which a wave acts. Where the tide range is small, wave energy is
from the prevailing sector are much less frequent and do not exceed 150 concentrated in a narrow vertical area, and where the tide range is
kW/m. Regarding the timing of annual maximum storms (Fig. 8b), larger, wave energy is more dispersed. Thus, on microtidal coasts, wave
extreme wave conditions undergo a clear seasonal pattern so that it is energy is concentrated within a narrow vertical zone, facilitating cliff-
possible to distinguish two roughly semi-annual periods, one from base erosion. In contrast, on macrotidal coasts, cliffs are reached by
a NNW
N NNE Wave energy flux
Jan b
Dec Feb
P (kW/m)
NW NE
500
Nov Mar
WNW ENE 400
Hs (m) 300 Hs (m)

W 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 E Oct 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Apr
200
WSW ESE
100 Sep May
SW SE
0
Aug Jun
SSW SSE
S Jul
Fig. 8. Wave energy flux associated to annual maximum storms at selected computational node offshore Montaña del Tesoro, for the period 01/1958–03/2022, in
terms of approach direction (a) and time of occurrence throughout the year (b).
10
waves at different vertical levels briefly and intermittently. Table 3

On the other hand, the elevation of the sea surface is significant Coordinates of lava deltas affect El Hierro island's contemporary shore platform,
because it determines the degree of energy dissipation experienced by indicating the respective vents. Fig. 2 shows their location. Coordinate system
waves before reaching the cliff base by changing the depth of the water WGS84-UTM Zone 28 N (EPSG: 32628).
column over which they propagate (Trenhaile, 2016). In this sense, it is Number Vent Latitude (N) Longitude (W)
interesting to consider that additional factors, such as storm surges, may 1 Montaña del Tesoro 27.832605 − 17.897176
contribute to modifying local sea surface elevation in addition to as 2 La Caleta 27.803759 − 17.883599
tronomical tidal fluctuation. The resulting sea level largely controls the 3 Montaña Chamuscada 27.765188 − 17.910207
height of the wave attack (Sunamura, 2015). 4 Several vents in the La Restinga area 27.640721 − 17.976894
5 Hoya del Roque 27.638071 17.988233
The tidal regime examined using data from a tidal gauge installed at
−
6 Luna 27.656327 − 18.015148
La Estaca Harbor (Table 2) indicates that the tide in El Hierro is 7 Montaña de la Empalizada 27.673497 − 18.028299
microtidal. Consequently, the erosive action of the waves is concen 8 Montañita Negra 27.704047 − 18.134569
trated in a relatively restricted range of elevations, and it is more 9 El Meridiano 27.713890 − 18.158693
10 Montaña de Las Calcosas 27.723052 18.159820
frequent at each elevation than in mesotidal and macrotidal regimes, −
11 Montaña de Los Guirres 27.750901 − 18.155244
which facilitates the base cliffs erosion. The character of the tidal cycle is 12 Hoya del Verodal 27.758083 − 18.152315
semi-diurnal, including two similar but slightly different high and low 13 Montaña de Marcos 27.762598 − 18.142893
tides per day and a tidal range oscillating approximately between 0.4 14 Roque de Basco 27.766017 − 18.139970
and 2.8 m. The average elevation is close to 1.6 m, and the modal value 15 Arenas Blancas 27.769907 − 18.125349
16 Sabinosa 27.756294 18.101914
is around 1.9 m. Furthermore, meteorological residuals (storm surges)
−
17 Montaña de Aguarijo 27.841026 − 17.946742
are significantly small, ranging between ±20 cm approximately, but
with an almost null modal value. This factor is therefore of little
importance in determining the level at which the waves act on cliffs. Tesoro eruption are exposed in Tables 2 to 4.
4.2. Lava deltas 4.3.1. Cone

The cone is asymmetrical, with the SE flank more developed. It
The exploration of the shore platform around the El Hierro showed shows an ellipsoidal crater with a horseshoe-shaped opening oriented to
the occurrence of 17 lava flows that ran below sea level affecting this the NE in favor of the slope. The maximum axis of the cone is 830 m and
insular shelf (Fig. 2, Table 3). The vents that originated these lava flows that of the crater 308 m (Table 4). It is mainly formed by tephra con
are indicated in Table 3. Fig. 9 illustrates the morphological modifica sisting of fragments of lapilli size clasts (2–64 mm), though blocks and
tions introduced by some of these lava flows on the bathymetry. The bombs can also be found. The ash fraction (<2 mm) is low. Cone height
previous bathymetry is altered, and these changes can be used for reaches 121 m and is conditioned by relief, being the mean value of
morphometric analysis of the eruptive event. In this way, we selected the basement slope 16◦ . Cone slope ranges between 0 and 66◦ , with a mean
Montaña del Tesoro eruption (Fig. 9b) as a representative case study to value of 25◦ . Erupted volume (VCE) is 9,860,107 m3 bulk and 2,465,027
integrate subaerial and submarine data at a scale of a volcanic edifice m3 DRE (Tables 2 and 4).
and proceed with the morphometric modeling.
4.3.2. Lava flows
The Montaña del Tesoro eruption developed compound flows
4.3. Morphometric modeling of Montaña del Tesoro eruption
(Walker, 1972) that produced pāhoehoe lavas close to the emission
center, transitioning to ‘a‘ā lavas (known locally as “malpaís”) along
The Montaña del Tesoro eruption developed a main cone that grew
with the entire littoral platform. Erratic blocks and accretion balls are
on a slightly sloping surface installed on a paleo-cliff's structural roof. At
common. Subaerial ‘a‘ā lava flows should have generated piles of sub
the NE base of the main cone, a small lava shield of scutulum type (Noe-
marine sheet flows (Ramalho et al., 2013) since the pahoehoe lavas
Nygaard, 1968; Walker, 2000) developed from where the emission of all
would have produced hyaloclastites and pillow lavas foresets, and
lava flows took place. These flows fanned out towards the edge of the
polygonal feeder tubes filled with hydroclasts, among other cooling
paleo-cliff. Once this was reached, they formed numerous cascades to
structures (Perez-Torrado et al., 2015; Ramalho et al., 2013). Secondary
coalesce at their base. From here, the lava flows spread through a
lava breakouts are common on subaerial and submerged platforms. They
platform until reaching the sea, gaining ground and modifying the
are a new, morphologically distinct region of lava flow advance, formed
coastline. The pyroclastic fall was especially intense to the SE of the
from the core of an otherwise stopped or slowed portion of the lava flow
cone. The geological map of these units is in Fig. 10. Fig. 11 shows
(Magnall et al., 2018).
several details of the landforms of the Montaña del Tesoro volcano. The
Considering the subaerial and submarine paths, the lava flow length
morphometric parameters and their derivatives of the Montaña del
reached 1715 m (Table 5 and Fig. 12). The bottom width varies from 3 to
1780 m, with a mean value of 1013 m. The thickness ranges between 1
Table 2
and 38 m, with a mean value of 16 m. The length, thickness, and area
Tidal statistics at La Estaca Harbor, El Hierro. Data from Puertos del Estado tidal
occupied by lava flows depend on the terrain's morphology and the
gauges network (REDMAR). Observational period: May 2004 to March 2022
(hourly values). Tidal gauges: pressure sensor (Aanderaa) from 2004 to
presence or absence of obstacles. Two landforms mainly conditioned
November 2009 and Radar MIROS since December 2009. The zero of the tide these parameters, the paleo-cliff that induced spectacular lavafalls and
gauge is the zero of the harbor and is located 4.323 m below the B. M. MARE- the marine platform that was fossilized by these lavas and modeled the
HIERRO2 and 1.420 m below the mean sea level in El Hierro. The hydro land surface gain of the island. The lava flows traveled 500 m through a
graphic zero is found 3.995 m below said nail. gentle slope from the lava shield of scutulum type eruptive center,
Sea water level Astronomical tide Residue Tidal range reaching 600 m in width and 5 m thick at the paleo-cliff edge (Fig. 12).
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) They thickened and, above all, widened from the base of the cliff to the
Minimum 30.90 39.40 − 19.70 15.30
pre-eruptive coastline (CL1). This thickening is maintained up to 1500 m
Maximum 293.70 284.90 18.50 229.80 from the focus, coinciding with the shelf edge, drawing a new seafront
Mean 156.55 156.97 − 0.46 124.56 (CL2) about 500 m from the pre-eruptive coast CL1. The slope then
Median 156.10 156.70 − 0.40 125.60 steepers, and the thickness is drastically reduced. The contour lines of
Mode 181.80 188.90 − 0.60 138.00
bathymetry suggest the occurrence of secondary lava flows or breakouts.
11
-1
- 85 -90 -95 00
a b
-25
-40
-80
-35
-30
b
-20
-15
-10
f
c -5
d
N Lava delta
0 5 km 0 100 m
c 0 100 m d 0 100 m
Lava delta
Lava delta
-5
-30
-25
-10
-20
-15
-25
-20
-10
-15 -35
-5
-30
e f
-25
0 100 m -20 -15
-10
-5
-5
-10
-30
-15
-40 -35 -20
-45 0 100 m
-65 -60 -50 -25
-55
Fig. 9. Comparison of examples of shore platforms affected and unaffected by lava flows. (a) Location of examples. (b) Lava flows of Montaña del Tesoro eruption.
(c) Lava flows of Montaña Chamuscada. (d) Lava flows of Hoya del Verodal. (e-f) Shore platforms are unaffected by volcanism at the Sea of Calms (Mar de las Calmas)
and El Golfo.
12
Cone
Pyroclastic fall deposits N
Emerged lava flows
Submerged lava flows (by sea erosion)
Submarine lava flows
Crater
Direction of lava flows
Dating sample
3,082,000 m
HIR-5
HIR-7
3,081,000
3,080,000
0 500 m
213,000 214,000 215,000 m
Fig. 10. Geological map of the Montaña del Tesoro eruption. Coordinate system: WGS84-UTM Zone 28 N (EPSG: 32628). DEM (reclassified to 5 m resolution) from
the 1:5000 Topographic Map (Cartográfica de Canarias GRAFCAN, 2006) and 1:1000 Bathymetric Map (Dirección General de Costas, 2003).
Finally, the retreat of the post-eruption coast to the current position (CL3 pyroclastic fall deposits unit. These PDC deposits are laminated, and the
in Figs. 4 and 12), approximately 300 m, is considered associated only ash fraction dominates in their grain size distribution. The area covered
with coastal erosion processes. The erupted volume of lava flows was by tephra fall deposits is 1,979,647 m2. The estimated erupted volume
29,877,373 m3 bulk and 22,408,030 m3 DRE, covering an area of was 2,969,471 m3 (bulk) and 742,368 m3 (DRE) (Table 4).
1,842,238 m2 (Tables 4 and 5).
4.3.4. Erupted volume
4.3.3. Pyroclastic fall deposits The total bulk volume of the pyroclastic materials (12,829,578 m3),
Pyroclastic fall deposits extend around the cone, from 3 to 0.01 m cone and tephra fall deposits, corresponds to a volcanic eruption index
thick, principally to the southeast due to the prevailing trade winds from (VEI) of 3 (Newhall and Self, 1982). A comparison of DRE volumes
N-NW. They consist mainly of lapilli, although cylindrical volcanic shows that this eruption was mainly effusive, erupting 87 % of its vol
bombs are common in the deposits closest to the eruption vent. In the ume as lava flows, corresponding 10 % to the cinder cone and 3 % to
distal deposits, the predominant grain sizes are fine lapilli and ash. For tephra fall deposits (Table 6; Fig. 13). The total DRE volume erupted was
practical reasons for the morphometric analysis (small volume), the 25,615,424 m3.
scarce pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits were included in the
13
a cone (west flank) c paleo-cliff
Mt. Tesoro
lava flow
pre-platform
ravine lava flows
(substratum)
d Mt. Tesoro lava flow
b lava flow
old lava flow
(substratum)
erosive islet
e (Mt. Tesoro lava flow)
current coastal
platform
Fig. 11. (a) Erosional incision of a ravine on the main cone of Montaña del Tesoro eruption. (b) Present-day coastline and islet preserving the Montaña del Tesoro
lava flow. (c) Cascade of lavas from the Montaña del Tesoro eruption. (d) Detail of the contact between the Montaña del Tesoro lava flow, forming a cascade, and the
basement. (e) Low tide allows us to appreciate the current platform.
4.3.5. Landscape degradation coastline retreat is 0.29 m/y, considering a retreat of 300 m in 1050
The total eroded bulk volume (4,106,968 m3) comes from lava flows years.
(73 %), pyroclastic flow deposits (14 %), and cone (13 %) (Fig. 13). The A fresh, young cone with a sharp profile and a pristine lava flow
most apparent erosional degradation occurred in the lava field, mainly make up the geomorphic signature of the Montaña del Tesoro edifice,
disturbed by marine erosion. Coastal erosion does show important signs confirming that its erosional history is in the first stage of degradation
on the old lava fronts, causing them to retreat, leaving isolated large (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2011). Although anthropic activity has also
rocks as witnesses, such as the Roque de Las Gaviotas. New cliffs were modified the cone and, especially, the subaerial lava delta on which the
formed in the island and islets, where the lavas have a marked columnar town of Tamaduste was built, the original features are mostly preserved.
disjunction with column heights exceeding 20 m (Fig. 11b and e). Ma
rine erosion removed 9 % of the erupted volume of lava flows against 1 5. Discussion
% by fluvial erosion. Besides these modifications, the most effective
degradation was on the pyroclastic flow deposits, with a 20 % volume 5.1. The rock coast of El Hierro
reduction. The cone is the part of the edifice best preserved, having lost a
6 % volume. El Hierro exemplifies a young ocean volcanic island with no fringing
Considering the age of 1050 years BP for the Montaña del Tesoro reef (Woodroffe, 2014). In this early stage of evolution, its subaerial
eruption, erosion rates can be established independently for each of the growth is governed by erosive destruction, particularly along the coast,
volcanic units through the difference between the post-eruption and and volcanic construction, in which the progradation of lava deltas plays
current volumes considering the elapsed time of the degradation. These a key role (Ramalho et al., 2013).
data allow us to assess the differences between the volcanic units against Coastal landforms on the island of El Hierro show sea-cliff profiles
degradation. Cone and pyroclastic fall deposits show similar erosion (Fig. 6), with practically no beaches and a narrow shore platform as a
rates, 517 and 563 m3/y, respectively. The total erosion rate for the lava result of the significant degree of the relative effectiveness of marine
field (2832 m3/y) is the result of a low rate of fluvial erosion (322 m3/y) versus terrestrial erosion. The geometry of these shore platforms (Fig. 6)
and a higher rate of marine erosion (2510 m3/y). This marine erosion consists of a gently sloping erosional surface extending from the base of
rate also shows differences between the subaerial and submarine de the sea cliff to below sea level without a discernible topographic break.
posits of lava flows, 1401 and 1109 m3/y, respectively. The rate of Marine erosion (abrasion, chemical weathering, and biological activity)
14
Table 4 Table 5
Morphometric parameters and their derivatives of the cinder cone of the Mon Morphometric parameters and their derivatives of the lava flows of the Montaña
taña del Tesoro eruption. del Tesoro eruption.
Cinder cone Symbol Unit Value Lava flows Symbol Unit Value
Crater rim maximum elevation h m 468 Length L m 1715

Crater rim major axis acr m 308 Bottom width wb
Crater rim minor axis bcr m 212 Median m 1021
Crater rim eccentricity ecr 0.7 Mean m 1013
Crater major axis azimuth θ degrees 44 Minimum m 3
Crater depth hcr m 62 Maximum m 1780
Cone major axis aco m 830 Standard deviation m 600
Cone minor axis bco m 660 Height (thickness) h
Cone eccentricity eco 0.6 Median m 15
Cone major axis azimuth θ degrees 58 Mean m 16
Cone height H m 121 Minimum m 1
Cone slope (beta) α Maximum m 38
Median degrees 26 Standard deviation m 12
Mean degrees 25 Basement slope β
Minimum degrees 0 Median degrees 13
Maximum degrees 66 Mean degrees 17
Standard deviation degrees 10 Minimum degrees 0
Basement slope (pre-eruption) β Maximum degrees 45
Median degrees 17 Standard deviation degrees 12
Mean degrees 16 Area ALE m2 1,842,238
Minimum degrees 0 Subaerial current surface before pre-
Maximum degrees 55 eruption coastline CL1 (Sector 1) AL1 m2 660,771
Standard deviation degrees 8 Subaerial post-eruption surface before pre-
Area A m2 311,117 eruption coastline CL1 (Sector 1) AL1E m2 662,871
Bulk volume VCE m3 9,860,107 Subaerial current surface between pre-
eruption (CL1) and current (CL3) coastlines
(Sector 2) AL2 m2 473,964
is particularly active at the base of cliffs tending to make the profile's Subaerial post-eruption surface between
pre-eruption (CL1) and current (CL3)
base sharply angular. Meanwhile, terrestrial erosion produces gullying,
coastlines (Sector 2) AL2E m2 473,964
rainwash at the ground, and slumping and other mass movements tend Subaerial current surface between post-
to make the top broadly convex upward with short-term concavities eruption (CL1) and current (CL3) coastlines
associated with local runoff or mass movements (Fig. 5b). (Sector 3) AL3 m2 4195
The coastline is considered mostly uniform in lithology and structure Subaerial post-eruption surface between
post-eruption (CL1) and current (CL3)
(stacks of lava flows), but wave energy varies from highly exposed
coastlines (Sector 3) AL3E m2 275,091
sectors in the western and northern extremes of the island to the shel Submerged current surface (Sector 4) AL4 m2 430,312
tered coasts on the southern (Mar de las Calmas), central-northern, and Submerged post-eruption surface (Sector 4) AL4E m2 430,312
eastern sides of the island. As wave energy increases, so does the width Bulk volume VLE m3 29,877,373
of the affected area (Fig. 6). Thus, the shelf width is directly related to Subaerial current volume before pre-
VL1 m3 8,618,374
eruption coastal line CL1 (Sector 1)
wave exposure, as observed in other volcanic ocean islands as, for Subaerial post-eruption volume before pre- 3
example, Faial Island (Quartau et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2019) and VL1E m 8,640,753
eruption coastal line CL1 (Sector 1)
Terceira Island (Quartau et al., 2014) in the Azores archipelago, and La Subaerial current volume between pre-
Gomera in the Canaries (Llanes et al., 2009). However, this general eruption (CL1) and current (CL3) coastlines VL2 m3 10,376,888
(Sector 2)
setting shows local exceptions, with some >25 m wide shore platforms
Submerged current volume between pre-
occurring in the areas where the wave attack is more attenuated. These eruption (CL1) and current (CL3) coastlines VL2s m3 2,765,137
discrepancies are related to a geology that is different from the overall (Sector 2)
stacks of lava flows, for example, due to the presence of cinder cones or Subaerial post-eruption volume between
areas affected by giant landslide scars (e.g., Las Playas landslide, profile pre-eruption (CL1) and current (CL3) VL2E m3 10,692,941
coastlines (Sector 2)
8 in Fig. 6). Another possibility is that the contemporary shore platform Submerged post-eruption volume between
could have developed on a previous platform, which might explain the pre-eruption (CL1) and current (CL3) VL2sE m3 2,765,137
anomalous location reflected in profile 3 in Fig. 6, situated in the center coastlines (Sector 2)
of the El Golfo giant landslide. Subaerial current volume between current
(CL3) and post-eruption (CL2) coastlines VL3 m3 24,366
Although contemporary shore platform and sea cliff morphology
(Sector 3)
result mainly from the wave regime and rock resistance, it also reflects Submerged current volume between current
how the relative sea level (RSL) attained its present stillstand during the (CL3) and post-eruption (CL2) coastlines VL3s m3 2,437,023
last thousand years (Trenhaile, 2010). The Holocene RSL rise is impre (Sector 3)
cisely defined in the Canary Islands. However, models agree to consider Subaerial post-eruption volume between
current (CL3) and post-eruption (CL2) VL3E m3 1,495,223
two evolutive stages. The sea level rose rapidly (10–15 mm/y) from the coastlines (Sector 3)
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), about 20,000 years ago (Lambeck et al., Submerged post-eruption volume between
2014; Osman et al., 2021), to about 7 ka BP, remaining practically stable current (CL3) and post-eruption (CL2) VL3sE m3 3,601,068
afterward, forming shore platforms (Buchner et al., 2015; Maréchal coastlines (Sector 3)
Submerged current volume between post-
et al., 2020; Meco et al., 2018; Melo et al., 2022; Rijsdijk et al., 2013).
eruption coastline CL2 and lava front (Sector VL4s m3 2,682,251
This model is typical for western African coasts (Cooper et al., 2018; 4)
Lambeck et al., 2014; Trenhaile, 2010). Submerged post-eruption volume between
On the other hand, the uplift associated with volcanic events could post-eruption coastline CL2 and lava front VL4sE m3 2,682,251
modify shore platforms' apparent steady vertical position. For example, (Sector 4)
the magma that intruded beneath El Hierro from 2011 to 2014
15
Sector
1 2 3 4 0 500 m
40 400 c N
a 350
35 1
Profile I-I’
Topography (m)
paleo-cliff roof 300
5 Lava flow field width
30 250
Lava flow thickness (m)
Location of data point

200
25 Total lava flow
150
20 current post-eruption 100
coastline coastline
paleo-cliff base CL3 CL2 50
15 10
0
Bathymetry (m)
10
pre-eruption
coastline
15
-50 I’
CL1
-100
5
-150
Original lava flow Original lava flow Lava flow bottom 15
0 thickness width bathymetry -200
3082000
Present-day lava Lava flow bottom Location of data
2000 flow thickness topography point 350
1
300
1800
5
paleo-cliff roof b 10
1600 250
Topography (m)
200
Lava flow field width (m)
1400
5
1200 150
1000 100
pre-eruption current post-eruption
paleo-cliff coastline coastline coastline 1
800 base CL1 CL3 CL2 50
10 I
600 0
Bathymetry (m)
15
400 -50
200 -100
3081000
0 -150
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 214000 215000
I Down-flow distance (m) I’
Fig. 12. Thickness (a) and width (b) variations of the lava flows of Montaña del Tesoro eruption (solid line) determined from cross-sections perpendicular to flow
direction; data obtained every 100 m (c), following the topography and bathymetry of the traveled path (dotted line). The lava flow field was sectorized to facilitate
the study: Sector 1 includes from the vent to the pre-eruption coastline (CL1); Sector 2 from the pre-eruption coastline (CL1) to the current coastline (CL3); Sector 3
from the current coastline (CL3) to post-eruption-coastline (CL2); and Sector 4 from the post-eruption coastline (CL2) to the lava flow front.
contemporary with the present highstand, i.e., <7 ka BP eruptions.

Table 6
According to this geomorphological criterion, at least 21 eruptions
Bulk and dense rock equivalent (DRE) volumes of Montaña del Tesoro eruption.
deposited lavas on the contemporary shore platforms around El Hierro
Unit Bulk volume Bulk volume DRE Volume DRE volume in the last 7000 years, e.g., the Montaña del Tesoro eruption.
(m3) (%) (m3) (%)
Cone 9,860,107 23 2,465,027 10

Lava flows 29,877,373 70 22,408,030 87 5.2. The volcanism
Tephra fall
2,969,471 7 742,368 3
deposits The Montaña del Tesoro eruption is typical of monogenetic basaltic
Total 42,706,951 100 25,615,424 100
volcanism (Németh, 2010; Walker, 2000), and morphometric values are
characteristic of Strombolian-type eruptions from fissure vents (e.g.,
(comprising the Tagoro submarine eruption and six post-eruptive in Dóniz-Páez, 2015; Haag et al., 2019; Kereszturi et al., 2012, 2013;
trusions) produced >10 cm of horizontal ground deformation in the Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a, 2012b). Its DRE volume (25,615,424
island and > 20 cm of uplift in the central and western part, as revealed m3) is high in the Canaries setting. For example, it is in the upper part of
by GNSS and InSAR data sets (Benito-Saz et al., 2017, 2019). Although the range (103,006 to 30,441,232 m3) observed for the 24 Holocene
the uplifts related to magmatic and seismic processes are common, their eruptions of Gran Canaria (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a).
influence on the evolution of shore platforms has received little atten Considering the cone morphology of Montaña del Tesoro and the
tion. Their study has been practically confined to New Zealand (Kennedy pyroclastic materials that form it, it can be assimilated to a type 3 in the
and Beban, 2005). Although the order of magnitude of magmatic uplifts classification of Martin and Németh (2006), originated by Strombolian
is usually lower than those of seismic origin, decimetric against metric to sub-Plinian eruptive mechanisms. The morphometric results of the
scale, they must also influence the coastline's erosional processes, cone are comparable to those measured on the Holocene volcanic edi
contributing to developing a highly dynamic youthful shore platform fices of Gran Canaria island (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a), values
environment (Kennedy and Beban, 2005). also expected for Strombolian eruptions.
In this setting, a lava flow forms a delta on the contemporary shore The larger length of the main axis and shorter cone height relative to
platform, reaching the coastline (Fig. 9). The lava delta's subaerial part is an ideal cone are due to the edifice developed over irregular topography.
locally named “islas bajas” or “fajãs lávicas” in the Portuguese-speaking Though this feature could affect the ellipticity of the crater, its location is
Archipelagos. This feature is of great interest for the relative dating of mainly related to the weakest area of the cone, which is typically situ
such volcanic eruptions and allows refining the previous categorization ated over the magma feeding fissure. Orography, together with the
of recent eruptions based on lavas forming cliffs (>20 ka) and lavas structural features of feeder dyke, also influences crater depth (Tibaldi,
forming coastal platforms (<20 ka) (Carracedo et al., 2001). Thus, the 1995).
lava deltas on the contemporary shore platform indicate ages As a single eruptive event, variability in lava rheology is minimal,
and differences in local flow behavior are related to changes in effusion,
16
542,810 m3 eroded
cone (6%)
pyroclastic fall deposits
590,824 m3 eroded
(20%)
present-day volume
9,317,297 m3
(94%)
lava field present-day volume
2,378,647 m3
eroded by sea
(80%)
2,634,902 m3
eroded by ravines (9%)
338,432 m3
(1%)
total 4,106,968 m3
pyroclastic fall deposits cone
present-day volume 590,824 m3 542,810 m3
26,904,039 m3 (14%) (13%)
(90%)
lava flows
2,973,334 m3
(73%)
ERODED VOLUME
Fig. 13. Bulk eroded volumes from the volcanic units of the Montaña del Tesoro eruption concerning their present-day volumes and the total eroded volume.
local flux rate influenced by topography, and the subaerial or submarine deposits have a low preservation potential, becoming remobilized by
environment (e.g., Pinkerton and Wilson, 1994). The studied lava flows wind and water, especially in the most distal areas from the emission
are comparable to those observed in the Canary Islands Archipelago center.
(Hernández Pacheco, 1987; Longpré and Felpeto, 2021; Prieto-Torrell
et al., 2021; Romero Ruiz, 1990). 5.3. Landscape evolution
The 29,877,373 m3 bulk volume of lava flows is high in the Canary
Islands. For example, it exceeds that observed in the Holocene eruptions The geomorphological evolution of the volcanic ocean island's
of Gran Canaria, where lava flow volumes range from 900 to coastline results from volcanic aggradation processes and erosive
10,738,722 m3 (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a). Nevertheless, rela degradation (Ramalho et al., 2013; Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2011).
tive to La Palma's historical eruptions, considering that la Palma is in the The coasts affected by Holocene volcanic activity in El Hierro Island
same juvenile stage as El Hierro, this total bulk volume of lava is usual, provide an opportunity to observe the geomorphological effects of
although low compared with the recent 2021 eruption at La Palma, erosion at timescales reaching several millennia. El Hierro and La Palma
where lava flow volume exceeded 120,000,000 m3. This relatively high islands are in the juvenile stage of evolution, with high eruption rates
lava volume (87 % DRE volume) easily breaks the cone and, as a result, and fast volcanic growth (Carracedo et al., 2001). This context limits the
erratic blocks of cone material can be observed on the surface of the lava progradation of lava deltas. The coastal shelf of these juvenile islands is
flows up to thousands of meters from the eruption vent. usually between 300 and 500 m wide, which is the maximum distance
Such other Canary lava flows, the Montaña del Tesoro lava length lava deltas will reach because gravitational forces make lava flows un
(1715 m) is shorter than extreme lengths measured in lava flows from stable on the steeper slopes beyond the shelf edge (Ramalho et al.,
other volcanic oceanic islands, e.g., 51 km for an eruption of the Mauna 2013). In contrast, in stages of quiescence or rejuvenation of a volcanic
Loa volcano in Hawai'i (Lockwood and Lipman, 1987), or 140 km for the ocean island, the lava deltas reach considerably greater distances, as
Thjórsá's eruption in Iceland (Hjartarson, 1988). It is also shorter than happened with the Pliocene lava delta of Roque Nublo in Gran Canaria
comparable eruptions, e.g., Gran Canaria (median 2.6 km for 21 Holo Island (Perez-Torrado et al., 2015).
cene eruptions; Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a, 2012b) and Hawai'i Fig. 14 shows the shoreline evolution at pre-, post-eruption, and
(median 9.0 km for 87 individual flows during 33 historical eruptions; present-day stages. At the pre-eruption stage (1050 years ago), the
Malin, 1980). The coastline's distance and, mostly, the pre-existing shore landscape of the study area was characterized by an active cliff and a
platform conditioned the shortness of the studied lava flows, favoring narrow, sloping shore platform (Fig. 14a). In the case of an eruption on
breakouts and the lava field widening. the coastal cliff, this scenario is conducive to the progradation of lava
The dispersion area of pyroclastic fall deposits is asymmetrical and deltas. This is the case of the Montaña del Tesoro volcano (Fig. 14b) and
elongated to SE. This elongation responds to the eruptive column height others from ocean island volcanoes and other coastal volcanoes (Bosman
and the prevailing N–NW wind (trade winds). The influence of pre et al., 2014; Lipman and Moore, 1996; Prieto-Torrell et al., 2021).
dominant trade winds of the subtropical Azores anticyclone during Landform degradation by terrestrial processes, including fluvial pro
Holocene on the pyroclastic fall dispersion in the north side of the Ca cesses, is very low, affecting mainly the northwestern flank of the main
nary Islands is well reported (Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012a, 2018). cone (Fig. 11a). Marine erosion shows important signs on the advancing
Besides this extent (1,979,647 m2), their relatively low bulk volume (7 fronts of the lavas, causing them to retreat several hundreds of meters
%) and thickness only slightly modified the pre-existing surface, intro and leaving large isolated cliffed lavas as witnesses (Fig. 11b and e). The
ducing topography-mantling changes (Manville et al., 2009). Such results are active sea cliffs (Emery and Kuhn, 1982), resistant at the top
17
200
150
125
75
17
5
3.082.000 m
30
0
0
20
175
35
125
75
0
150
300
350
200
300
450
3.081.000
175
75
125
15
0
525
350
200
75
17
12
c
5
5
5
57
600
present-day landform
525
3.080.000
150
300
0 500 m 20
0
125 75
213.000 214.000 17
5 215.000 m
575
350
175
-75
N
50 100
15
125 -50
0
22 75
-100
5
-150
-125
-175
175
22
5
-25
275
-75
3.082.000
15
0
-50
-100
-125
50
300
125
75
100
27
5
300
-50
325
350
37
225
5
0
40
175
50
5
42
450
3.081.000
150
50 45
0 0 5
37
75
125
10
0
425
50
350
400
325
5
27
225
175
75
525
100
300
150
12
575
550 5
600
post-eruption landform b
3.080.000
500
0 500 m
175
0 375
55
450
75
200
213.000 214.000 215.000

575
100
N
150
125
75
200
22
5
250
15
50
27
0
3.082.000 m
5
0
225 20
250
125
75
300
275
250
5
32
350
30
0
225
200
50
40
0
3.081.000
150
50
0
45
75
0
125
50
350
325
5
27
225
25
200
0
75
525
300
150
12
575
550 5
600
pre-eruption landform a
3.080.000
400
500
0 0
500 m
450
55
75
200
213.000 214.000 215.000 m

25
575
Fig. 14. Shoreline evolution of El Hierro Island's littoral affected by the Montaña del Tesoro eruption. Shoreline configuration at a generic time-frame in the present
sea-level highstand (a) where the Montaña del Tesoro eruption occurs (dated at 1050 years BP) (b). A more efficient marine than fluvial erosion leads to the current
scenario (c). Same legend as Fig. 10.
18
and with a sharp angle at the sea cliff base, in the main coastline and the of lava deltas).
islets. In this setting, the remains of the subaerial and submerged lava
flows are quickly mobilized by waves, leaving a rugged, poorly sorted Funding information
deposit (Mitchell et al., 2008). The low quantity of this volcaniclastic
debris would imply the movement of relatively coarse material to the Grant PGC2018-101027-B-I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/
island's submarine slope during storms. 501100011033 and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”, by the “Eu
The estimated coastline retreat rate (0.29 m/y) is in the lower part of ropean Union”. CPT acknowledges the PhD grant 2021 FISDU 00347
the range (0.08–12.5 m/y) of compiled data on deltas formed during funded by the Departament de Recerca i Universitats de la Generalitat de
historical and Holocene eruptions (age ≤ 6 ka) from both ‘a'ā and Catalunya.
pāhoehoe lava flows, and from diverse localities (the Azores and Ha
waiian islands and Ascension Island) (Zhao et al., 2020). This is because Declaration of competing interest
the wave regime in the Canary Islands (even on the windward side) is
less energetic than on those islands. This erosion rate categorizes the The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
northeastern coast of El Hierro as a medium resistance rock coast interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work
(Prémaillon et al., 2018). reported in this paper.
In summary, the availability of seamless topography-bathymetry
data sets contributes to the broader knowledge of coastal evolution at Data availability
oceanic volcanic islands and reduces the need for expensive specific
bathymetric campaigns. This work can teach some lessons at the scale of The source of all data used are specified in the article.
an oceanic volcanic island and an eruptive event. The combination of
topography and bathymetry shows a complete picture of the effects of Acknowledgments
those eruptions forming lava deltas. The modification of bathymetry
helps to identify and accurately reconstruct recent eruptions. This work Financial support was provided by Project LAJIAL (ref. PGC2018-
provides methods and results of great interest with different implica 101027-B-I00, MCIU/AEI/FEDER, EU). CPT acknowledges the PhD
tions, among which we can mention coastal planning (e.g., rock coast grant 2021 FISDU 00347 funded by the Departament de Recerca i
evolution) and volcanic risk assessment (e.g., the importance of Holo Universitats de la Generalitat de Catalunya. This study was carried out in
cene sea-level rise on the development of shore platforms facilitating the the Research Consolidated Groups GEOVOL (Canary Islands Govern
progradation of lava deltas). ment, ULPGC) and GEOPAM (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2017 SGR
1494). We acknowledge the support of D. Fernández (GEO3BCN) on the
6. Conclusions reference management. We thank the editor D. Kennedy, and R. Ram
alho and an anonymous reviewer for their helpful reviews.
El Hierro Island presents a rocky coast with an active sea-cliff profile,
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Geomorphology 416 (2022) 108427

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Lava deltas, a key landform in oceanic volcanic islands: El Hierro,

20º W 18º 16º 14º 12º 10º

La Gomera (9.4 Ma)

El Hierro (1.12 Ma) Amanay

SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS EL JULAN O

193,000 203,000 213,000 a

Vector FIELDWORK MAPPING DATA

EXPORT Geological Spatial-Temporal

I CL1 CL3 CL2 I’

I VLef VL1 VL3s

noteworthy the practical absence of beaches.

Coast platform -20

Hs (m) 300 Hs (m)

waves at different vertical levels briefly and intermittently. Table 3

4.2. Lava deltas 4.3.1. Cone

0 100 m -20 -15

213,000 214,000 215,000 m

a cone (west flank) c paleo-cliff

d Mt. Tesoro lava flow

Crater rim maximum elevation h m 468 Length L m 1715

the magma that intruded beneath El Hierro from 2011 to 2014

Location of data point

contemporary with the present highstand, i.e., <7 ka BP eruptions.

Cone 9,860,107 23 2,465,027 10

213.000 214.000 215.000

213.000 214.000 215.000 m

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