SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

Preprint 05-31

INDUSTRIAL VALIDATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE

EQUATION – A BREAKTHROUGH TOOL FOR IMPROVING PLANT
GRINDING PERFORMANCE
Robert E. McIvor, Metcom Consulting, LLC, Ishpeming, MI

Abstract energy. Since energy costs and the closely related costs
for grinding media dominate grinding circuit operating
The “Functional Performance Equation for Ball costs, changes (i.e., process improvements) requiring
Milling” was first presented in 1988. It now has been used capital expenditure can then be financially justified.
successfully in more than a dozen mineral processing The writer was also taught the intricacies of slurry
plants. This powerful, yet simple tool provides a new pump and hydrocyclone process application engineering
level of understanding of closed circuit grinding. It shows while working for equipment manufacturers. It was
how grinding circuit efficiency is in reality comprised of learned how the hydrocyclone water and solids mass
two distinct efficiencies. It demonstrates how circuit splits and separation performance curve are calculated
production rate is related, collectively, to these two from the feed and product percent solids and size
efficiencies, mill energy input, and the grindability of the distributions, and that the cyclone selection procedure
ore. It links circuit performance to design and operating uses the same relationships. Given the cyclone feed,
variables that can be manipulated, and creates an effective achieving desired products is a process of choosing the
strategy for making plant improvements. This paper cyclone (dimensions and operating conditions, including
covers the derivation and industrial validation of this those provided by the pump) that provide the right
equation. As part of an engineering and management particle separation curve and water split.
system that also incorporates suitable metrics and process But what was found to be extraordinary as well was,
control, other operators can now use this tool to make that in the case of a closed circuit operation, the pump and
improvements and to manage the performance of their cyclones could be chosen to not only manipulate the
grinding operations with clarity and confidence. cyclone product size distributions, but the cyclone feed
size distribution as well (McIvor, 1984). The same
engineering procedures that were used to select cyclones
Introduction: The Initial Breakthrough in and pumps for a new application could be used to make
cyclone and pump changes in an existing plant in order to
Understanding manipulate the internal size distributions and related mass
flows (the circulating load) of a closed grinding circuit.
The writer’s interest in grinding was first sparked at Combining this new found knowledge with the critical
Allis-Chalmers, where grinding process technology was relationship between grinding circuit efficiency and
led by Fred C. Bond and Chester A. Rowland. These circulating load, as published by Davis in 1925 and
icons of grinding mill process engineering provided a Gaudin in 1939 (see Figure 1), created the realization that
rigorous mill sizing for application discipline, which there was a potentially important opportunity to improve
today remains the world standard (Bond, 1961; Rowland, grinding circuit efficiency. An observed poor (low)
2002). Having established a standard relationship for circulating load ratio could be increased by suitable pump
comparison of lab (predicted) versus plant (actual) energy and cyclone changes, thus increasing circuit efficiency.
use, a plant grinding circuit efficiency metric was also This in turn could be verified by Bond work index
created (Rowland, 1976). The ratio of plant operating to analysis, and the related operating cost savings used to
ore work index, provided a quantitative measure of justify the cost of the plant improvements.
overall grinding circuit efficiency. Using this, a
metallurgist could potentially find out whether changing a
circuit design or operating variable increased (or
decreased) efficiency in the plant grinding process.
Importantly as well, Bond work index analysis is based on

1 Copyright © 2005 by SME

 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

Subsequent investigations, including examination of

other plant, laboratory, and pilot plant data, and computer
modeling exercises, showed that a complex model to
determine the “true” size distribution of the mill contents
was not necessary. Rather, a simple arithmetic average of
the percentage of “coarse” material (the circuit P80 being
the typical cut off size) in the mill feed and discharge size
distributions yields a meaningful, quantitative measure of
the percentage of coarse material in the mill. The
validation of this and subsequent aspects of this new
method for improving plant grinding performance is the
subject of the rest of this paper.
Figure 1. Relationship between circulating load and
mill capacity.
Derivation of the Functional Performance
Although the circulating load effect published by Equation
Davis and Gaudin was broadly known, it was not at all
understood. The question was “Just why is circuit Circuit “Classification System Efficiency” and
performance so drastically affected by circulating load “Effective Mill Power” Defined
ratio?” The literature, including Davis’s and Gaudin’s Refer to the standard closed grinding circuit shown in
own writings, offered no explanation. Figure 3. The above described observations lead to the
It was while examining size distribution data from following definition of ball mill circuit “classification
two plants (Figure 2) that had about the same circuit system efficiency” (or CSEff). It is the percentage of
product size (P80’s), but totally different circulating load “coarse” material in the ball mill, relative to the target
ratios - one extremely low (<150%), and one extremely grind size, typically the circuit target P80. The “coarse”
high (>500%) - that a revelation occurred. Seeing very material is targeted for further grinding, while the “fines”
different size distributions into and out of the two ball have reached target product size or finer. It follows that
mills, the reason the huge difference in circuit efficiencies the circuit CSEff is also the relative percentage of mill
shown by the Davis relationship suddenly became clear. power being expended on “coarse” material versus
With the low circulating load, the ball mill was relatively “fines”. Similar to the efficiency of a drive component,
full of fines (product size or finer material), and so most such as a motor, it is the percentage of the mill energy
of the grinding energy of the mill was being wasted! With that is delivered and used for the intended purpose.
the high circulating load, the mill was relatively full of
coarse material, and relatively little of its energy was
being wasted! The drastic effect that circulating load has
on circuit efficiency was reflected by the corresponding
proportions of coarse versus fine material in the mill!

Figure 3. Simplified schematic of the Selbaie ball mill

circuit.

The CSEff can be calculated as the arithmetic

average of “coarse” material in the ball mill feed and
discharge. It represents the net outcome of all the factors
which create the size distributions of the material entering
Figure 2. Ball Mill feed and product size distributions and leaving the mill. Two key factors in this regard are;
at different circulating load ratios.

2 Copyright © 2005 by SME

 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

first, the classifier performance, which controls the which is being applied to coarse material (i.e., the
percentage of “fines” versus “coarse” material reporting efficiency of the mill grinding environment).
to the cyclone underflow/mill feed; second, the length of To incorporate the material’s grindability into the
time in the mill, which determines the amount of “fines” above equation 3, divide and multiply the specific
that accumulate during each pass through the mill.. Low grinding rate of coarse particles by the lab grindability of
circulating load equates to long mill residence time and the same material.
the build up of fines. Another factor which plays a role is
the breakage characteristic (the tendency to create fines PRNP = TMP x CSEff x SGRC/LabGr x LabGr (4)
during a breakage event) of the ore. But it is the
combination of classifier performance and circulating We can then define the ratio of plant to lab
load ratio that is key in determining the net outcome of grinding rates as the relative “ball mill grinding
circuit performance in terms of CSEff. efficiency”, or BMGEff.
The “effective mill power” (or EMP) can then be
defined relative to the total mill power (or TMP) as SGRC/LabGr = BMGEff (5)
follows. It is the percentage of total mill power draw (or
mill energy, the power draw over time) delivered to the Substituting in Equation 4 gives us the
“coarse” ore, as defined by CSEff. “Functional Performance Equation” for ball milling.

EMP = TMP x CSEff (1) PRNP = TMP x CSEff x LabGr x BMGEff (6)

Equation 6 demonstrates that the production rate of

The Ball Mill Circuit Functional Performance Equation the circuit is dependent on four factors. One is the power
A practical measure of a given circuit’s productivity draw of the mill. Another is the nature of the ore in terms
(as used by Davis, for example) is the relative production of its grindability. It also shows that there is not one
rate of new product (or “PRNP”) size material (in Davis’s “efficiency”, but rather there are two active and distinct
case, minus 150 mesh, or 106 microns). The production of efficiencies involved in determining the circuit production
new product (or “fines”) comes about from the rate. These are the “classification system efficiency” of
application of power to the “coarse” material. This is the the circuit, or the percentage of the mill energy used on
“effective mill power”, as defined above. So it can be coarse particles; and, the “ball mill grinding efficiency”,
stated that the production rate of “fines” of the circuit which characterizes how well the energy being applied to
equals the specific grinding rate of “coarse” material the coarse particles is being utilized.
(SGRC), i.e., per unit of power or energy applied to it, The Functional Performance Equation was in fact
times the amount of power applied to it ( the “effective developed and named as an outcome of “Value Analysis
mill power”). This statement can be written as the and Engineering” (Miles, 1972; Wales and Pfeiffer, 1986)
following equation. of closed circuit grinding. Given the information outlined
in the introduction to this paper, this process identified
PRNP = EMP x SGRC (2) that the purpose of the grinding circuit is to generate as
much new product with as little energy as possible. It then
Substituting EMP from Equation 1: identified that the purpose of the equipment (pumps,
cyclones, and mill) was twofold; first, classification, to
PRNP = TMP x CSEff x SGRC (3) maximize the use of energy on coarse material; and
secondly, efficient size reduction of the coarse material by
The specific grinding rate of coarse material (SGRC) effective use of this energy.
will depend on two factors, the grindability of the ore (the
opposite of its resistance to size reduction), and the
efficiency of usage of the energy that is applied to the Industrial Use and Validation
coarse particles. This efficiency will be determined by
factors such as grinding ball sizing and percent solids in The examples that follow are from mineral
the mill. A standardized lab grindability test can be processing plants which have granted permission to
carried out on the coarse material that is being fed to the present the data. They are intended to show how the
mill. Then, the ratio of the plant mill specific grinding rate functional performance equation is a tool that can be used
(SGRC) of coarse material to the standardized lab mill to better understand and effectively improve grinding
grinding rate (or “LabGr”) of coarse material will be a circuit performance, as well as to demonstrate how the
relative measure of the efficiency of usage of this energy validity of this equation has been tested and assured.

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 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

Sample Calculation and Dimensional Analysis The total mill power draw (TMP), measured at the
Table 1 presents the data from Les Mines Selbaie pinion, was 523 kW.
grinding circuit survey no. 2, which was performed with The ore grindability, from the Bond test in this case,
the crusher fines stream off, on a standard closed grinding was 2.32 gms/rev (grams of new product per revolution of
circuit (as depicted in Figure 3). the Bond test mill).
The classification system efficiency, CSE, is the
average of the amount of plus 106 micron material in the
Table 1. Les Mines Selbaie Grinding Circuit Survey mill feed and discharge.
No.2, 1985
CSEff = [(100% – 21.8%) + (100% – 36.1%) / 2] = 71.0%

Circuit Feed Rate 70.3 t/h So far, the functional performance equation for this
survey is as follows.
Feed Size, F80 1,160 um
% - 106 um 30.3% PRNP = TMP x CSEff x LabGr x BMGEff

Bond Test W.I. 11.8 kWh/t 33.3 t/h = 523 kW x 71.0% x 2.31 gms/rev x BMGEff
Grindability 2.31 gms/rev
Solving, BMGEff = 0.0388 (t/kWh)/(gms/rev). The
Cyclone Overflow P80 115 um units are the ratio of the specific grinding rate of coarse
%-106 um 77.6% material in the ball mill in tons per kilowatt-hour being
applied to the coarse material, over the grinding rate of
Ball Mill Feed %-106 um 21.8% coarse material in the lab mill in grams per revolution.
Discharge 36.1% This has also been termed the “grinding rate ratio”.
So finally, the functional performance equation for
Mill Power Draw 523 kW this plant experiment can be written as follows.

For Selbaie Baseline Survey No.2, (1985), at 106 um:

PRNP = TMP x CSEff x LabGR x BMGEff
The work index performance of the circuit is
calculated as follows.
33.3 t/h = 523 kW x 71.0% x 2.31 gms/rev x 0.0388
(t/kWh)/(gms/rev)
W, the work input equals 523kW / 70.3 t/h = 7.44 kWh/t
Verbally, during the survey, the circuit was
W = WIo [(10 / P80^2) – (10 / F80^2)]
producing 33.3 t/h of new minus 106 micron product. It
was doing so by applying 71% of the mill power to coarse
Solving, WIo = 11.7 kWh/t
material, which had a lab grindabilility of 2.31 grams per
revolution. The ball mill grinding efficiency (or grinding
The work index efficiency equals the test work index
rate ratio between the plant mill and the test mill) was
divided by the operating work index.
0.0388 (t/kWh)/(gms/rev).
WIEff = 11.8 / 11.7 = 101%
A Strategy for Plant Improvements
Having written the outcome of a single, baseline
The functional performance of the circuit is
plant survey, the strategy for improving grinding circuit
calculated as follows.
performance becomes “To increase the values of CSEff
and BMGEff by manipulating the variables that affect
The normal target P80 at this operation was 150 mesh
them.” Mill power draw variables (load level, speed, etc.)
(106 microns), and used as the basis for the following
may also be examined if it is deemed desirable to do so.
calculations.
Comparing survey data to those from other plants
will offer information on where the best opportunities for
The production rate of new product, PRNP is
improvement lie, whether in classification or grinding
calculated from the circuit tonnage and the percent minus
efficiency, or both. Improving classification system
106 microns in the circuit feed and product.
performance will lie with the pumps and cyclones, and in
reducing the cyclone overflow percent solids, if that is
PRNP = 70.3 t/h (77.6% – 30.3%) = 33.3 t/h

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 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

acceptable downstream. Key variables for improving mill

grinding efficiency will be those associated with internal
mill operating conditions, of which the grinding media
sizing and percent solids come to mind. Engineering
guidelines for media sizing (McIvor, 1997) and mill
rheological conditions (Klimlpel, 1984) can be examined
to identify the best opportunities in this regard. Suitable
tradeoffs can be reached when a given variable affects
both CSEff and BMGEff, for example, if the reduction of
fines in the mill reaches the point where it negatively
impacts grinding because of the resulting slurry rheology
(again, as indicated by Klimpel, 1984).

Evaluation of Different of Grinding Media Figure 4. Simplified schematic of the Dome ball
Some years after the above described test, Les Mines circuit.
Selbaie undertook an investigation of different types of
ball mill grinding media (McIvor et al, 1991). This lead to Functional Performance of Dome Survey No. 1
a subsequent circuit survey for evaluation of ball mill (calculated at the actual P80 of 60 microns):
grinding efficiencies (mill percent solids was maintained PRNP = TMP x CSEff x LabGr x BMGEff
constant), as summarized below. 53.9 t/h = 865 kW x 85.5% x 1.32 gms/rev x 0.0552
(t/kWh)/(gms/rev)
For Selbaie New Media Grinding Survey, 1989:
PRNP = TMP x CSEff x LabGr x BMGEff Functional Performance of Selbaie Survey No. 2
(calculated at the actual P80 of 115 microns):
32.1 t/h = 539 kW x 71.5% x 1.69 gms/rev x 0.0493 PRNP = TMP x CSEff x LabGr x BMGEff
(t/kWh)/(gms/rev) 33.7 t/h = 523 kW x 68.5% x 1.79 gms/rev x 0.0525
(t/kWh)/(gms/rev)
Comparison with the above results from baseline
Survey No.2 shows that the mill grinding efficiency The classification system efficiency at Dome, with
increased from 0.0388 to 0.0493, or approximately 25%. two stage cycloning and high cyclone feed water addition,
During the 1989 survey, the work index efficiency is higher than that of Selbaie, by a factor of approximately
calculated out to 117%, or about a 16% relative increase. 25%. The grinding efficiency at Dome also calculated out
Each method confirms that a very significant to be slightly higher. With an operating work index of 8.5
improvement was achieved, although basic differences in kWh/t, compared to an ore work index of 11.5 kWh/t, the
the two models (e.g., Bond’s 1952 third theory) dictate work index efficiency for the Dome survey calculated out
that they will not coincide quantitatively. at 136%, compared to 101% for Selbaie No.2. Note that
the constraint on total water addition before flotation at
Evaluation of a Different Classification System Selbaie made adoption of the same practice as Dome
The Dome Mill grinding circuit employed coarse impractical.
gold removal in the grinding circuit primary cyclone
underflow (See Figure 4.). As a result of water addition in Evaluation of Pebble Mill Operating Percent Solids
the coarse gold removal process, a second stage of Following extensive preparations to maximize the
cycloning was used on the primary cyclone underflow to quality of the data, a series of surveys were carried out on
raise the percent solids of the material feeding the ball the Tilden pebble milling circuit (Figure 5) over a period
mill (the secondary cyclone underflow) to a suitable level. of several years. The first fourteen plant tests were
The secondary cyclone overflow was returned to the mill directed at a evaluation of a number of different variables,
discharge sump. The primary cyclone overflow was such as grate discharge design, media (pebble) sizing, and
therefore very dilute, going to a thickener before carbon pump and cyclone adjustments (McIvor et al, 2000). The
in pulp gold recovery. A survey was conducted on this last two were run at extremes of low and high mill feed
circuit, including a Bond grindability test with a closing water addition rates to develop the trend line of the
screen of 200 mesh (75 microns). For comparison with pebble mill grinding efficiency (PMGEff) vesus mill
the Selbaie circuit, the elements of the functional percent solids relationship. The results are shown in
performance equation relative to each of the circuits’ P80 Figure 6. This lead to the practice of operating the mills at
product sizes were calculated, as follows (McIvor et al, increased percent solids, which yielded major energy cost
1992). savings as a result.

5 Copyright © 2005 by SME

 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

Figure 5. Tilden pebble milling circuit.

Figure 7. Mill grinding efficiency vs.Standardized

grindability.

A Final Degree of Validation

Given the above finding, it is possible to factor out
the effect of grindability on grinding efficiency, and then
reexamine other observed relationships, for example, mill
grinding efficiency versus percent solids. The result is
shown in Figure 8. A significant portion of the variability
observed in the grinding efficiency versus percent solids
relationship disappeared. Recall that the mill grinding
efficiency is the last calculated parameter in the sequence
of completing the functional performance equation from a
set of plant test data, as described above. These results
therefore reflect the ultimate accuracy of the equation and
Figure 6. Mill grinding efficiency vs. Percent solids. all of its elements.

Insight into a Cause and Effect Relationship

In order to see if any other information on cause and
effect relationships in the pebble mill grinding circuits
might be gleaned from this extensive collection of plant
test data, a statistics specialist was engaged to carry out
analysis of variance (Joglekar, 1995). The results went far
beyond anyone’s expectations. The analysis revealed that
the pebble mill grinding efficiency was correlated to the
grindability of the mill feed, as measured in a batch
grindability test. See Figure 7. The observed increase in
mill grinding efficiency with harder to grind ores might
well be explained by oversized media providing a better
match for grinding of tougher ore particles. This
possibility was supported by other evidence which
suggested that smaller pebbles would be more efficient
for these mills. However, the key observation in the Figure 8. Adjusted mill grinding efficiency vs. Percent
current context is that the use of the functional solids.
performance equation, in conjunction with rigorous data
gathering methods, was able to identify that mill grinding
efficiency changed as a function of the grindability of the
ore itself. Such a finding is believed to be unique in plant,
or any other, comminution studies.

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 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

Summary and Conclusions isolate the effect of different design and operating
variables under his/her control. As these examples attest,
Since its inception, Functional Performance methods it can make development and execution of a plan to
have been applied in fifteen to twenty mineral processing improve and manage plant grinding performance a very
plants. Some of these studies have been published by the effective exercise. Combined with other available tools,
plant operators (e.g., Blythe, 1992). The writer has been i.e., Work Index analysis, computer modeling, and a
closely involved in ten such projects, several of which are systematic approach which also incorporates suitable
described in the references. The others were carried out metrics and process control (McIvor, 1989-2004),
by individuals who became familiar with the method and Functional
moved on to other operations. Of those that the writer is
familiar with, several studies provided unexpected Performance Analysis provides the process engineer
conclusions that there was no effect from changes in with the opportunity to take plant grinding operations to a
certain design or operating variables. One audit showed new level of performance.
that the circuit was operating near its potential peak of
classification system efficiency. Two generated
significant efficiency gains through mill water Acknowledgements
optimization. Three studies produced benefits through use
of more efficient grinding media. One of these was in This work was made possible by the generous
open circuit ball milling, to which it can also be applied sharing of knowledge, and the inspiration to learn,
(McIvor et al, 1994). Four studies produced provided by Gilles Cardin, Tom Steele, Bob Jermyn, Chet
improvements in classification system efficiency through Rowland, Andy Mular, Terry Kirk, Richard Klimpel, Ken
pump and/or cyclone modifications. Operating cost Wood, and Jim Finch. The staff at the Tilden concentrator
savings are measured in the millions of dollars annually. is also recognized for their dedication to quality in plant
Several more studies are ongoing. test work.

For a ball mill circuit, the functional

performance equation is as follows. References
Production Rate of New Product = Total Mill Power 1. Bond, F.C., 1952, “The Third Theory of
Draw x Classification System Efficiency x Material Comminution”, Trans. AIME, v.193, pp. 484-495.
Grindability x Mill Grinding Efficiency 2. Bond, F.C., 1961, “Crushing and Grinding
Calculations”, British Chemical Engineering, pp.
The Functional Performance Equation is simple and 378-385 and 543-548, June and Aug.
practical. It isolates the four factors that determine circuit 3. Blythe, P.M., 1992, “Productivity and Cost
output. The ore grindability is a circuit input, one which Reduction Strategies at Gibraltar Mines Limited
clearly affects circuit output, and needs to be measured in Milling Operations”, CIM District 6 Meeting.
terms of its role of doing so. The mill power draw is 4. Davis, E.W., 1925, “Ball Mill Crushing in Closed
another circuit input, one that can be set through certain Circuit with Screens”, Bulletin of the University of
design or operating variables available to the operator. Minnesota School of Mines Experimental Station,
This equation also isolates the two distinct efficiencies v.28, no.42, pp.14-18.
that determine circuit productivity. Classification system 5. Gaudin, A.M., 1939, Principles of Mineral Dressing,
efficiency can be measured and optimized (maximized) First Edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
with certain design and operating variables that can be 6. Joglekar, A.M., 1995, International Qual-Tech Ltd.,
manipulated to do so. In doing so, over grinding is internal report to Cliffs Mining Services Company.
reduced, with the important implication that this has for 7. Klimpel, R.R., 1984, “The Influence of Material
recovery of valuable minerals, for example in flotation Breakage Properties and Associated Slurry Rheology
(McIvor and Finch, 1991). Mill grinding efficiency can be on Breakage Rates of Coal/Ore Slurries in Tumbling
measured and optimized (maximized) with the design and Media Mills”, Particular Science and Technology,
operating variables that affect it. Factors that affect both v.2, pp. 147-156.
can be recognized (and measured) as such. 8. McIvor, R.E., 1984, “A Material Balance Calculation
A grinding circuit is a complex system in that there Procedure for Grinding Circuit Hydrocyclone
are numerous variables at work and interacting that affect Selection”, CIM Bulletin, pp.50-53, Dec.
the output. The functional performance equation allows
the observer to understand the system more clearly, and to

7 Copyright © 2005 by SME

 SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 28-Mar. 2, 2005, Salt Lake City, UT

9. McIvor, R.E., 1988, “Technoeconomic Analysis of

Plant Grinding Operations”, Ph.D. Thesis, McGill
University.
10. McIvor, R.E., 1988, “Classification Effects in Wet
Ball Milling Circuits”, Mining Engineering, pp. 815-
820, Aug.
11. McIvor, R.E., 1997, “The Effect of Media Sizing on
Ball Milling Efficiency”, Comminution Practices,
SME, pp.279-292.
12. McIvor, R.E., 1989-2004, “Improving Plant Grinding
Performance” training program for industrial
operations.
13. McIvor, R.E., Duval, L. and Leclercq, L., 1991, “Use
of Functional Performance Analysis for Plant
Grinding Media Testing and Selection”, Proceedings
of Cobre ’91, v. 2, pp. 145-155.
14. McIvor, R.E. and Finch, J.A., 1991, “A Guide to
Interfacing of Plant Grinding and Flotation
Operations”, Minerals Engineering, v.4, no. 1, pp. 9-
23.
15. McIvor, R.E., Lavallee, M.L., Wood, K.R., Blythe,
P.M. and Finch, J.A., 1992, “Functional Performance
Characteristics of Ball Milling, Mining Engineering,
pp. 269-276, Mar.
16. McIvor, R.E., Roux, Y. and Roy, M., 1994,
“Comparative Efficiency Determinations of Open
Circuit Ball Milling at la Compagnie Miniere Quebec
Cartier”, CIM Bulletin, pp. 69-70, July-Aug.
17. McIvor, R.E., Weldum, T.P., Mahoski, B.J. and
Rasmussen, R.S., 2000, “Systems Approach to
Grinding Improvements at the Tilden Concentrator”,
Mining Engineering, pp. 41-47, Feb.
18. Miles, L.D., 1972, Techniques of Value Analysis and
Engineering, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill, New York.
19. Rowland, C.A., 1976, “The Tools of Power Power:
The Bond Work Index, A tool to Measure Grinding
Efficiency”, Denver SME Meeting.
20. Rowland, C.A., 2002, “Selection of Rod Mills, Ball
Mills, and Regrind Mills”, Mineral Processing Plant
Design, Practice, and Control, SME, pp. 710-754.
21. Wales, H.M. and Pfeiffer, J.D., 1986, McGill
University Value Engineering Workshop.

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