UNIT – 1

PARTICLE CHARECTERISTICS AND SIZE ANALYSIS

 UNIT 1
SYLLABUS
GENERAL CHARACTERSISTICS OF SOLIDS
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF SIZE ANALYSIS
SHAPE FACTOR
SURFACE AREA DETERMINATION
ESTIMATION OF PARTICLE SIZE
SCREENING METHODS
SCREENING EQUIPMENTS
SCREEN EFFICIENCY
IDEAL AND ACTUAL SCREENS
 OUTLINE

1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERSISTICS OF SOLIDS –

1.1.1 Particle Shape - SPHERICITY, VOLUME SHAPE FACTOR
1.1.2 Particle Size – Mean diameter

1.2 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF SIZE ANALYSIS

1.3 ESTIMATION OF PARTICLE SIZE

1.4 SURFACE AREA DETERMINATION

1.5 SCREENING -
Ideal and Actual screens,
Screen Efficiency,
Industrial Screening Equipment.
1.6 sub sieve analysis – air permeability method.
 1.1 GENERAL CHARACTERSISTICS OF SOLIDS

Solids appear in a variety of forms like angular pieces,

continuous sheets and finely divided powders.

Solids may be
 hard and abrasive
 tough and rubbery
 soft or fragile
 dusty
 cohesive
 free flowing
 sticky.
PARTICULATE SOLIDS

•Individual solid particles are characterized by

their Size, Shape and Densities.

•Particles of homogeneous solids have the same

density as the bulk material.

•Particles obtained by breaking a composite solid

such as metal bearing ore will have various
different densities which will not be equal to the
density of the bulk material.
 1.1.1PARTICLE SHAPE
• Size and shape are easily specified for a regular
particle such as sphere, cubes etc.,
• But for irregular particles like sand grain its not
clearly defined.
• The shape of an individual particle is expressed
in terms of its sphericity which is independent of
particle size.
• For spherical particles of diameter DP the
sphericity is equal to ONE.
 1.1.1.1 SPHERICITY (ɸs )
For a non spherical particle, Sphericity is
defined as the ratio of surface area – volume ratio
of sphere (which is having equal volume of
irregular non- spherical particle) to the actual
surface area – volume ratio of that irregular
particle.
6 / DP
s 
S p / Vp
 SPHERICITY (ɸs )
For Irregular particles, ɸs <1
For many crushed materials ɸs is in between 0.6and 0.7
 Equivalent Diameter (Dp)
• Diameter is specified for equidimensional particles.

• Equivalent diameter of a non spherical particle is

defined as the equivalent diameter of the sphere
having the same volume as the sphere.

• For particles which are not equidimensional i.e., which

are longer in one direction than the other side, are
often characterized by the second largest dimension.

• For needle like particles, Dp would refer to the second

largest dimension that is the thickness of the particle
not the length of the particle.
1.1.1.2 VOLUME SHAPE FACTOR
For a given particle, volume is proportional
to its diameter cube.

VD 3
P
V  aD 3
P

Here “a” is called as volume shape factor and

it is independent of particle size.
 1.1.1.3 BED POROSITY (Ԑ)
• It is ratio between the volume of void gap
between the particles in a packed bed to the total
volume of the bed.

• Used in packed tower calculation.

• It is always less than ONE.

• Used in chemical process design.

 1.1.2 PARTICLE SIZE
TYPE OF PARTICLE MEASURED IN TERMS OF

Course Particles cm, mm or Inches

Fine Particles In terms of mesh (Screen Size)

Very Fine Particles Micro meters or Nano meters

Ultra Fine Particles Surface area per unit mass

Or
Usually in square meters per gram
 ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION FOR
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
• Average particle size can be estimated by
various ways they are
1. Volume Surface Mean Diameter
2. Arithmetic Mean Diameter
3. Mass Mean Diameter
4. Volume Mean Diameter
5. Surface Mean Diameter
6. Linear Mean Diameter.
 ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION FOR
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Volume Surface Mean Diameter Most Probably we make use of it, denoted by Ds
By Differential Analysis : By Cummulative Analysis :
1 1
DS  n D S  1 x


D
xi
0 D
i

p
i 1 pi
n

Arithmetic Mean Diameter

N D i pi
DN  i 1
NT
n
DW   xi Dpi
Mass Mean Diameter i 1 1/ 3
 
 
1
Volume Mean Diameter DV   n 
 
 D
xi

 i 1 pi 
n


xi n

D
xi
i 1 Dn
Surface Mean Diameter Ds|  Linear Mean Diameter i 1
2
n D 
| pi


xi L n

D
xi
3
i 1 D pi 3
i 1 pi
1.2 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF SIZE ANALYSIS

• DIFFERENTIAL SCREEN ANALYSIS

• CUMMULATIVE SCREEN ANALYSIS
 1.2.1 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
• The particles on any one screen are passed by
the screen immediately ahead of it, two numbers
are needed to specify the size range of an
increment.
• The screen through which the particle passing
fraction and the other on which it is retained
• Eg. 14/20 Mesh means passes through 14 mesh
and retained on 20 mesh.
•Assumption: All particles in a single fraction are
equal in size.
1.2.1 TABLE FOR DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS

MESH SCREEN MASS Mass Average ∆φn / Dn

NUMBER OPENING RETAINED Fraction Particle
Dpi, m gms ∆φn or xi Diameter,
Dn
4 4.699 ± 2 Ind mass /
Total mass
6 3.327
8 2.362

Total mass Σ ∆φn / Dn

 1.2.2 CUMMULATIVE ANALYSIS
• Cummulative analysis is obtained from
differential analysis.
• By adding cummulatively the individual
differential increments starting with that
retained on the smallest mesh and totaled for
plotting the cummulative sums (φn) against
the inverse of the particle diameter for each
and every screen in the stack.
1.2.1 TABLE FOR CUMMULATIVE ANALYSIS

MESH SCREEN MASS Mass Cummulative 1 / Dp

NUMBER OPENING RETAINED Fraction Mass Fraction
Dpi, m gms ∆φn or xi (φn)
4 4.699 ± 2 Ind mass /
Total mass
6 3.327
8 2.362

Total mass
1.2.2 CUMMULATIVE ANALYSIS
Average particle size by cummulative screen
analysis is the graphical integration of
1/Dp Vs φn.

Since there is no assumption made in this

analysis. This is more accurate than
differential analysis but its laborious one.
 COMPARISION
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS CUMMULATIVE ANALYSIS
Size estimated by tabular Size estimated by using
form graph
Assumption made in this No assumption were made,
analysis that all particles so that size estimated by
retained in that increment that is more accurate than
will have the same size. differential analysis
Easy to carry out Laborious one
DIFFRENTIAL ANALYSIS CUMMULATIVE ANALYSIS
PROBLEM
Find the volume surface mean diameter by both
differential and cummulative analysis from the
given data
Mesh No. Screen Opening Mass fraction
(Dpi) mm
4.699
4/6 3.327 0.031
6/8 2.362 0.103
8/10 1.651 0.200
10/14 1.168 0.186
14/20 0.833 0.152
 Mesh No. Screen Opening Mass fraction
(Dpi) mm
20/28 0.589 0.120
28/35 0.417 0.095
35/48 0.295 0.065
48/65 0.208 0.043
-65 0.208 0.005

Solution:
Volume surface mean diameter by
Differential and Cummulative analysis
 By Differential Analysis
Mesh No. Screen Opening Mass fraction Dpi mm ∆φn / Dn
(Dpi) mm
4.699
4/6 3.327 0.031 4.013 0.008
6/8 2.362 0.103 2.845 0.036
8/10 1.651 0.200 2.007 0.100
10/14 1.168 0.186 1.410 0.132
14/20 0.833 0.152 1.001 0.152
20/28 0.589 0.120 0.711 0.169
28/35 0.417 0.095 0.503 0.189
35/48 0.295 0.065 0.356 0.183
48/65 0.208 0.043 0.252 0.171
-65 - 0.005 0.208 0.024
1.164 = Σ ∆φn / Dn
 By Cummulative Analysis
Mesh No. Screen Opening Mass fraction φn 1/ Dpi mm -1
(Dpi) mm
4.699 0.213
4/6 3.327 0.031 0.031 0.301
6/8 2.362 0.103 0.134 0.423
8/10 1.651 0.200 0.334 0.606
10/14 1.168 0.186 0.520 0.856
14/20 0.833 0.152 0.672 1.2
20/28 0.589 0.120 0.792 1.698
28/35 0.417 0.095 0.887 2.398
35/48 0.295 0.065 0.952 3.398
48/65 0.208 0.043 0.995 4.808
-65 - 0.005 1.000 -
 Volume Surface Mean Diameter
By
Differential Analysis

Ds = 1/Σ ∆φn / Dn = 1/1.164 = 0.86 mm

By
Cummulative Analysis
Number of boxes under the curve is = 23
Ds = 23 x x axis x y axis scale factors = 23 x 0.1 x 0.5 =
1.15 mm -1
Ds = 1/φn / Dp = 1/1.15 = 0.87 mm
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA ( AW ) DETERMINATION
If the particle density is  p and sphericity S are
known then the surface area of the particles
in each fraction is given by 61
S P DP1

Result of all fraction are added to give the

specific surface area of the mixture
61 62 63 6n
AW     ..........
S P DP1 S P DP2 S P DP3 S P DPn
 NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN A MIXTURE (NW)

Number of a particles in each fraction or

increment is given by i
aP D3 Pi

Summation of these fraction will give the total

population in one mass unit of sample then
n i

1
NW 
aP i 1 3
D Pi
PROBLEM - 2
Estimate the number of particles (Nw ) and specific
area (Aw) from the following data
Volume shape factor, a = 2 Sphericity (s ) is 0.57
and the density of the material(P ) is 2,650 kg/m3
Mesh No. Dpi in mm Mass fraction
3.327
6/8 2.362 0.033
8/10 1.651 0.082
10/14 1.168 0.112
14/20
PROBLEM - 2
Mesh No. Dpi in mm Mass fraction
3.327
6/8 2.362 0.033
8/10 1.651 0.082
10/14 1.168 0.112
14/20 0.833 0.123
20/28 0.589 0.130
28/35 0.417 0.195
35/48 0.295 0.135
48/65 0.208 0.085
65/100 0.147 0.062
100/150 0.104 0.040
-150 0.104 0.003
Solution to Problem - 2
Mesh Dpi in mm Mass fraction Average i i
No. in mm Dn
Dn Dn 3
3.327
6/8 2.362 0.033 2.845 0.012 0.001
8/10 1.651 0.082 2.007 0.041 0.010
10/14 1.168 0.112 1.410 0.079 0.040
14/20 0.833 0.123 1.001 0.123 0.123
20/28 0.589 0.130 0.711 0.183 0.362
28/35 0.417 0.195 0.503 0.388 1.534
35/48 0.295 0.135 0.356 0.379 2.990
48/65 0.208 0.085 0.252 0.337 5.307
65/100 0.147 0.062 0.178 0.348 10.983
100/150 0.104 0.040 0.126 0.317 19.967
-150 0.104 0.003 0.104 0.029 2.667
Total 2.236 43.984
 n i

1
NW 
aP i 1 3
D Pi
= 8298.868 x 103
n
n

6
AW   8.88m / kg
2
S P i 1 Dn
 PROBLEM – 3
Estimate the specific surface area in cm2/ gm of
pyrite having the screen analysis as shown
below, specific gravity of pyrite is 5.
Mesh Mass % Dpi mm Mesh No. Mass % Dpi mm
No. -28+35 10.0 0.417
-3+4 0 4.699 -35+48 7.2 0.295
-4+6 4.0 3.327 -48+65 6.0 0.208
-6+8 7.2 2.362 -65+100 3.8 0.147
-8+10 12.0 1.651 -100+150 2.8 0.104
-10+14 17.6 1.168 -150+200 2.0 0.074
-14+20 15.4 0.833 SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA AW in cm2 / gm BY
-20+28 12.0 0.589 DIFFERENTIAL CUMMULATIVE
ANALYSIS ANALYSIS
37.1 38
PROBLEM – 4
 TABLE
MESH SCREEN Mass Fraction Avg Particle diameter in Cumulative fraction
OPENING Retained , increment D pi , mm smaller than Dpi
n
Dpi, mm
4 4.699 0.0000 --- 1.0000
6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.9749
8 2.362 0.1250 2.845 0.8499
10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.5292
14 1.168 0.2570 1.409 0.2722
20 0.833 0.1590 1.001 0.1132
28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.0594
35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.0384
48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282
65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.0205
100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.0147
150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.0106
200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.0075
PAN ------- 0.0075 0.037 0.0000
 Solution
Avg Particle
SCREEN Mass
diameter in Cumulative
MESH OPENING Fraction 1/Dn xi/Dpi xi/D3pi xiDpi
increment , mass fraction
Dpi, mm Retained
mm

4 4.699 0 --- 0 - - - -
6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.0251 0.25 0.0063 0.0004 0.10073
8 2.362 0.125 2.845 0.1501 0.35 0.0439 0.0054 0.35563
10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.4708 0.5 0.1598 0.0397 0.64364
14 1.168 0.257 1.409 0.7278 0.71 0.1824 0.0919 0.36211
20 0.833 0.159 1.001 0.8868 1 0.1588 0.1585 0.15916
28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.9406 1.41 0.0757 0.1497 0.03825
35 0.417 0.021 0.503 0.9616 1.99 0.0417 0.1650 0.01056
48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.9718 2.81 0.0287 0.2261 0.00363
65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.9795 3.97 0.0306 0.4812 0.00194
100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.9853 5.62 0.0326 1.0284 0.00103
150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.9894 7.94 0.0325 2.0496 0.00052
200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.9925 11.2 0.0348 4.3974 0.00028
PAN ------- 0.0075 0.037 1 27 0.2027 148.07 0.00028
Total 0.8278 8.7932 1.6775
 1.5 SCREENING
PARTICLE SEPARATION NOT INVOLVING FLUID MECHANICS
Screen:
A screen can be called an open
container usually cylindrical with
uniform spaced openings at the
base.
Its normally made of wire mesh
cloth, the wire diameter and the
interspacing between wires being
accurately specified.
1.5.1 - SCREENING
PARTICLE SEPARATION NOT INVOLVING FLUID MECHANICS

MESH:
Number of openings per linear inch counting from
center to a point for a distance of ONE INCH.

SPACE CLOTH: It is the screen made of wire or cloth.

APERTURE or SCREEN SIZE OPENING:

Is the minimum clear space between the edges of the
opening in the screen surface and it is usually
represented by inches or mm.
 SCREENING
PARTICLE SEPARATION NOT INVOLVING FLUID MECHANICS

 Screening is the method of separating particles according

to THE SIZE ALONE .
 In industries screening is done by dropping the solids or
throwing against a screen surface.
 The undersize or fines (minus material) passes through the
screen openings and the oversize or tails (plus material) are
retained and they do not
 Screens are usually designated by their mesh number.
 4 mesh indicates that screen is having 4 square opening
per linear inch.
 SCREENING
PARTICLE SEPARATION NOT INVOLVING FLUID MECHANICS

 A single screen can make the feed into two fractions, as

Oversize Material and Undersize Material.

 Screens are made of

1. Woven wire 4. Silk
2. Plastic cloth 5. Perforated pinch plate.
3. Grizzle bars 6. Wedge wire sections
 SCREENING
PARTICLE SEPARATION NOT INVOLVING FLUID MECHANICS

SCREEN BLINDNESS:

Under the screening action, elongated,

sticky, flaky or soft particles may become wedged in

to the openings of the screen and prevent other

particles to pass through. A screen plugged with solid

particle is said to be blinded.

1.5.2 - STANDANRD SCREEN SERIES
TSS – TAYLOR STANDARD SCREEN SERIES

BSS – BRITISH STANDARD SCREEN SERIES

ISS – INDIAN STANDARD SCREEN SERIES

ASTM – AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING

MACHINES SCREEN SERIES.

 1.5.3 SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS
1.5.3.1 SCREEN EFFICIENCY:
The effectiveness of a screen (Often
called the screen efficiency) is a measure to the
SUCCESS of the screen in closely separating
materials A and B.
E = EA EB
EA is the effectiveness of the over size
material, which is the ratio between the
oversize material that is actually in the overflow
to the amount of A entering with Feed.
EB is the effectiveness of the under size
material
 1.5.3 SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS
The relation to estimate the screen effectiveness
is by applying a material balance over a screen.
Let F = Mass flow rate of Feed
D = Mass flow rate of Over Flow Material
B = Mass flow rate of Under Flow Material
By over all Material Balance
F = D + B ---------------(1)
xF is the mass fraction of material A in Feed
xD is the mass fraction of material A in Overflow
xB is the mass fraction of material A in Underflow
1-xF is the mass fraction of material B in Feed
1- xD is the mass fraction of material B in Overflow
1-xB is the mass fraction of material B in Underflow.
Mass balance of Material A across the selected
screen is

FxF  DxD  BxB ------(1)

Mass balance of Material B across the selected
screen is

F (1 xF )  D(1 xD )  B(1 xB )

--------(2)
 Use eqn as B = F – D in the eqn 2
Then D  xF  xB and B  xD  xF
F xD  xB F xD  xB

DxD ( xF  xB ) xD ( xF  xB )(xD  xF ) xD (1  xB )
EA   E  EA EB 
( xD  xB )2 xF (1  xF )
FxF ( xD  xB ) xF

( xF  xB )(xD  xF ) xD (1  xB )
E  EA EB 
( xD  xB ) xF (1  xF )
2
 NOTE FOR SOLVING SCREEN
EFFECTIVENESS PROBLEMS
To estimate the effectiveness of the screen the
values of xF , xD, xB are to taken from
THE CUMMULATIVE FRACTION.
 PROBLEM - 1
A quartz mixture having the screen analysis as
shown in table is screened through a standard
10 mesh screen. The cummulative screen
analysis of overflow and undeflow are given in
the table. Calculate the mass ratio of overflow
and underflow to feed and find its overall
effectiveness.
Mesh No Dpi, mm Cummulative Mass Fraction
Feed Overflow Under flow
8 2.362 0.15 0.43 0
10 1.651 0.47 0.85 0.195
14 1.168 0.73 0.97 0.58
Solution to Problem 1:
Mass ratio of Overflow to Feed, D/F = 0.42
Mass ratio of Under flow to Feed, B/F = 0.58

Overall effectiveness, E = EA EB
= 66.9 %
Problem - 2
1 ton/hr of dolomite is produced by the ball mill
operating in closed circuit operating with 100
mesh screen. The screen analysis is given below.
Calculate the screen efficiency.
Mesh Feed Oversize Undersize
35 7.07 13.67 0
48 16.6 32.09 0
65 14.02 27.12 0
100 11.82 20.70 2.32
150 9.07 4.35 14.32
200 7.62 2.07 13.34
-200 33.8 0 70.02
Solution to Problem 2:
xF = 0.4951; xD = 0.9358; xB = 0.0232

 xF  xB  xD  xD  xF  1  xB 
E      
 xD  xB  xF  xD  xB  1  xF 
E = 91.31 %
 Problem – 3
It is desired to separate a mixture of crystals into
three fractions, a coarse fraction retained on an
8-mesh screen, a middle fraction passing an 8-
mesh but retained on a 14-mesh screen, and a
fine fraction passing a 14-mesh. Two screens in
series are used, an 8-mesh and a 14-mesh,
conforming to the Tyler standard. Screen
analyses of feed, coarse, medium and fine
fractions are given following table. Assuming the
analyses are accurate, what do they show about
the ratio by weight of each of the three fractions
actually obtained? What is the overall
effectiveness of each screen?
Screen Feed Coarse Middle Fine
Fraction fraction fraction
‘3/4 3.5 14.0
4/6 15.0 50.0 4.2
6/8 27.5 24.0 35.8
8/10 23.5 8.0 30.8 20.0
10/14 16.0 4.0 18.3 26.7
14/20 9.1 10.2 20.2
20/28 3.4 0.7 19.6
28/35 1.3 8.9
35/48 0.7 4.6
Total 100 100 100 100
Problem – 3
Screen Feed Cumula Coarse Cumula Middle Cumula Fine Cumula
tive Fractio tive fraction tive fraction tive
n

‘3/4 3.5 0.035 14.0 0.14 0

4/6 15.0 0.185 50.0 0.64 4.2 0.042
6/8 27.5 0.46 24.0 0.88 35.8 0.4 0
8/10 23.5 0.695 8.0 0.96 30.8 0.708 20.0 0.2
10/14 16.0 0.855 4.0 1 18.3 0.891 26.7 0.467

14/20 9.1 0.946 10.2 0.993 20.2 0.669

20/28 3.4 0.98 0.7 1 19.6 0.865

28/35 1.3 0.993 8.9 0.954

35/48 0.7 1 4.6 1

Total 100 100 100 100

 Fraction XF XD XB
8th Mesh 0.46 0.88 0.4
14th Mesh 0.855 0.891 0.669

Fractions Ratio by weight Overall Effectiveness:

Coarse 0.125 • For 8 Mesh = 23.24%
Medium 0.838 • For 14 Mesh = 32.32%
Fine 0.162
1.5.3.2 – CAPACITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF A
SCREEN
CAPACITY OF THE SCREEN SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS

 The capacity of a screen is  The effectiveness is the

measured by the mass of material efficiency or success of the screen.
that can be fed per unit time.

 The capacity of a screen is just  The effectiveness obtained for a

varied by the rate of feed to the unit. given capacity depends on the
nature of screening operation.

 Capacity and effectiveness are  Maximum effectiveness at the

opposing factors. minimum capacity.
 1.5.3.2 –OF
CAPACITY CAPACITY
THE AND SCREEN
EFFECTIVENESS OF A
EFFECTIVENESS
SCREEN SCREEN
 If the capacity is . The overall channel of
increased the number of passage of given undersize
contacts to touch the screen particle is a function of the
surface is minimum and the number of times, the particle
chance of passage on screen strikes the screen surface
contact is reduced by the and the probability passage
interference of the other during the single contact.
particle.
 1.5.3.2 – CAPACITY AND EFFECTIVENESS
OF A SCREEN
CAPACITY OF THE SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS
SCREEN
 When the capacity is  For having more
reduced, the screen effectiveness with a
effectiveness is more as a reasonable capacity, the
result of more contact of larger particles should hit the
particles with the screen screen surface
surface. perpendicularly and the
smaller particles should touch
parallel to the screen and
 1.5.4 - IDEAL AND ACTUAL SCREENS
IDEAL SCREEN ACTUAL SCREEN
An ideal screen is one which Actual screens do not
separates the feed mixture: give a sharp separation.
Overflow: the smallest particle
would be just larger than The over flow has an
larger particle in the appreciable content of smaller
Underflow such an ideal particles than the cut
separation. diameter.

Defines a PARTICLE CUT The mass of the two

DIAMETER DPC which makes leading streams will not be
the point of separation equal.
between the fraction DPC is
nearly equal to the mesh
opening of the screen
1.5.4 - IDEAL AND ACTUAL SCREENS
IDEAL SCREEN ACTUAL SCREEN
 IDEAL SCREEN ACTUAL
SCREEN
The performance of an ideal screen in Not so in
terms of the screen analysis of the feed actual screen
is as shown in the figure a

The cut point C in the curve the

fraction A consist of particles larger than
DPC . Screen analysis of the ideal fraction
A and B are plotted in Fig B. The first
point on the curve for B has the same
abscissa (x – axis) as the last point on
the curve for A and there is NO OVER
LAP on these curves.
1.5.5 Industrial Screening Equipment
GYRATING SCREENS: A heavy-duty gyrating screen
is illustrated in figure.

1. Two screens, one above the other, are held in a

casing inclined at an angle between 160 and 300
with the horizontal.

2. The feed mixture is dropped on the upper screen

near its highest point.

3. Casing and screens are gyrated in a vertical plane

about a horizontal axis by an eccentric that is set
halfway between the feed point.
VIBRATING SCREENS:
1. Screens that are rapidly vibrated with small
amplitude are less likely to blind than are gyrating
screens.
2. The vibrations may be generated mechanically or
electrically.
3. Mechanical vibrations are usually transmitted from
high-speed eccentrics to the casing of the unit and
from there to steeply inclined screens.
4. Electrical vibrations from heavy-duty solenoids are
transmitted to the casing or directly to the screens.
5. Ordinarily no more than three decks are used in
vibrating screens.
6. Between 1800 and 3600 vibrations per minute are
usual. A 48 by 120 in. (1.2 – 3 m) screen draws
about 4 hp (3kW).
Sizing methods Particles range
Dry Screening > 44 μm; (325 - mesh)
Wet Screening < 10 μm
Optical microscopy 1 to 100 μm
Gravity Sedimentation
Coulter counter Measures changes in resistance of
electrolyte as the small particle
pass one by one throu’ orifice.

Light Scattering techniques Very fine particles.

Sedimentation in Centrifuges
Or Ultra centrifuges
Photon correlation spectroscopy
Electron microscopy
 UNIT – 2

SIZE REDUCTION
 UNIT - 2
SYLLABUS
 LAWS OF SIZE REDUCTION
 ENERGY RELATIONSHIP IN SIZE REDUTION
 METHOD OF SIZE REDUCTION
 LAWS OF CRUSHING
 POWER REQUIREMENT
 WORK INDEX
CLASSIFICATION OF EQUIPMENTS – CRUSHER
GRINDERS, DISINTEGRATORS FOR COARSE,
INTERMEDIATE AND FINE GRINDING
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SIZE REDUCTION
EQUIPMENTS AND PROBLEMS.
 OUTLINE
2.1 LAWS OF SIZE REDUCTION
2.1.1 RITTINGER’S LAW
2.1.2 KICK’S LAW
2.1.3 BOND’S LAW
2.1.4 WORK INDEX

2.2 POWER REQUIRMENTS

2.3 ENERGY RELATIONSHIP IN SIZE REDUCTION

2.4 METHODS OF SIZE REDUCTION

2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENTS –

2.5.1 CRUSHERS
2.5.2 GRINDERS
2.5.3 DISINTEGRATORS FOR COARSE, INTERMEDIATE AND FINE GRINDING
PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNITION:
 In size reduction solid particles are cut or broken into
smaller particles or pieces.

 Throughout process industries solids are reduced in size

by different methods for different purposes.

 Chunks of crude ore are crushed into workable size.

 Synthetic chemicals are ground into powders.

 Sheets of plastics are cut into tiny cubes or

diamonds.
 COMMONLY USED FORCE FOR SIZE REDUCTION
Sl. TYPE OF FORCE USED FOR DAY TO DAY TYPICAL MACHINES
No. EXAMPLE
1 COMPRESSION COARSE REDUCTION CRACKING OF NUT CRACKER,
NUTS JAW CRUSHER ,
ROLLER CRUSHERS,
GYRATORY CRUSHERS.
2 IMPACT MEDIUM TO FINE SHRINKING OF IMPACTORS AND
PRODUCTS SOLID USING HAMMER MILLS
HAMMER
3 ATTRITION OR YIELDS VERY FINE SHARPENING OF BALL MILL, ROD MILL
RUBBING PRODUCTS KNIVES
4 CUTTING OR DEFINITE PARTICLE PLANNING OF CUTTERS OR
SHREDDING SIZE WOOD SHREDDERS
 SIZE REDUCTION
• Commonly used forces for size reduction of solids
are
1. COMPRESSION – Coarse Reduction
2. IMPACT – Medium or Fine products
3. ATTRITION – Very fine particles
4. CUTTING – definite particle size/shape

Sl.No Equipments based Coarse Medium Product Fine Product

. Product
1 Compression 
 
2 Impact
  
3 Attrition   
4 Cutter
  
 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL CRUSHER OR
GRINDER
• It should have a larger capacity.
• It should consume less power per unit of
product.
• It should give a product of uniform size or
desired size distribution.
 ACTUAL CRUSHER OR GRINDER
Characteristics of actual unit:

• Their will be effectiveness in yielding a product of

uniform size; whether the feed is uniformly sized
or not.
• The product always contains a mixture of particle.
• In some crushers the largest particle of product
can be controlled but the fines cannot be
controlled.
• In some of the grinders fines cannot be controlled
to an extent but cannot be eliminated.
 ENERGY AND POWER REQUIREMENTS IN
CRUSHING
Cost of power is a major expense in crushing
and grinding.
Therefore the factor which controls the cost is
very important.
By size reduction new surface area is created.
 CRUSHING EFFICIENCY (ηC)

It is the ratio between surface energy and new

surface area created by crushing to the energy
absorbed by the solids.
i.e. ηc = es (Awb – Awa)
Wn
where es surface energy
Awa specific surface area of product
Awb specific surface area of feed
Wn energy absorbed by the solids
 CRUSHING EFFICIENCY (ηC)

 The surface energy created by fracture is

small in comparison with the total mechanical
energy stored in the material at the time of
rupture.
 Mechanical energy is converted in to heat.
Crushing efficiency ηc is very low (0.06 – 1%).
 Mechanical Efficiency (ηm)

Energy absorbed by solids Wn is less than that fed

to the machinery parts of the total energy W,
which is used for rotating, bearing and other
moving parts.
Rest of the total energy is used for material
crushing.
It is a ratio of energy delivered to the solids for
crushing to the total energy input to the machine.
ηm = es (Awb – Awa)
W*ηc
 LAWS OF CRUSHING OR LAWS OF
COMMUNITION
• RITTINGER’S LAW
• KICK’S LAW
• BOND’S LAW
 RITTINGER’S LAW
Rittinger’s law states that the work required in crushing
is proportional to the new surface area created.
P 6es  1 1 
 
m mc  p  b Dsb a Dsa 
 
If the sphericities a and b are equal and the
mechanical efficiency is constant in the above
equation can be combined in to a single constant KR
 1 1 
 P
m
 Kr   
 Dsb Dsa 
 KICK’S LAW
Kick’s law states that the energy necessary for
crushing a given mass of material is
proportional to the logarithmic of reduction
ratio (i.e. the ratio of the initial particle size to
the final particle size).
This means that the energy required is same
when the reduction ratio is the same.
P  D Sa 
= K ln  
 k  
m  Sb 
D
 BOND’S LAW
Bond’s law states that the work required to form particles of size
Dp from very large feed in proportional to the square root of
the surface to volume ratio of the product (i.e. Sp/Vp )
P Sp


m Vp
we know that Sp  Dp 2
Dp3
Vp 
6
Sp 6
 
Vp Dp
P 6

m Dp
P Kb

 where Kb is a constant which depends
m Dp
on the type of machineand on the materialbeing crushed.
 WORK INDEX
Work index (Wi ) is defined as the gross energy in Kwh/ton for a
particle.
A very large feed is reduced to such a size that 80% of the product
passes through a 100  m screen.

If Dp is in mm, P is in kW, m is in ton/hr.

Kb
Wi 
100*10-3
K b  Wi 100*103
Kb  0.3162Wi
The work index includes the friction in the crusher and the power
given by above equation is the gross power.
WORK INDEXES FOR DRY CRUSHING OR WET GRINDING
Material Specific gravity Work index, Wi
Bauxite 2.20 8.78
Cement clinker 3.15 13.45
Cement raw material 2.67 10.51
Clay 2.51 6.30
Coal 1.4 13.00
Coke 1.31 15.13
Granite 2.66 15.13
Gravel 2.66 16.06
Gypsum rock 2.69 6.73
Iron ore (hematite) 3.53 12.84
Limestone 2.66 12.74
Phosphate rock 2.74 9.92
Quartz 2.65 13.57
Shale 2.63 15.87
Slate 2.57 14.30
Trap rock 2.87 19.32
 RELATIVE APPLICABILITY OF THESE LAWS OF
CRUSHING.
Sl.
No. Rittinger’s Law Kick’s Law Bond’s Law
1 Energy consumed in Energy required is Energy required is
comminution is proportional to the volume of proportional to the
proportional to new surface geometrically similar bodies length of crack
produced initiating breakage
2 P  1 1  P  D Sa  P Kb
 K     Kk ln  
m
r
 Dsb Dsa 
  m
m  D Sb  Dp
3 The range of Fine grinding is The range of Crushing is the The range of Coarse
the range of Rittinger’s range of Kick’s Law grinding is the range of
theory Bond’s theory
4 Best applicable in cement Best applicable in Food Best applicable in Ore
industry Industry processing
 ALTERNATE DERIVATION OF CRUSHING LAWS
A number of empirical laws have been put forward to estimate the
amount of energy required for size reduction. The following are the
laws put forward.
1.Rittinger’s law.
2.Kick’s law.
3.Bond’s law.
All these laws can be derived from the basic differential equation-
p
dE 1
 -c L
dL
This equation states that the energy ‘dE’ required to effect a small
change ‘dL’ in size of unit mass of material is a simple power function
of size.
dE -2 -2

If P is put equal to -2, dL  - c L  dE  - c L dL

then Integrate,
-2

 dE   - c L dL
 1 1
E  c -  2
 L2 L1 
 
Writing c = KrfC  1  1 
L L2 1 
Since the surface of unit mass of material is proportional to 1\L , the
interpretation of this law is that the energy required for the size
reduction is proportional to the increase in surface area.
If ‘P’ is put equal to ‘-1’.
Then,
dE = -CL-1 dL = -CdL
L
Integrating, E L 2

 Ede    C ln L
0 L1

L2 L
E  C ln  C ln 1
L1 L2
writing,
C  Kk fC
L1
 E  Kk fC ln 3
L2
This is Kick’s law.
Suppose the energy required is directly related to reduction ratio(L1/L2)
and that the energy required to crush a given amount of material
from 2cm to 1cm size is the same as that required to reduce the
size from 0.5cm to 0.25cm.In eq(2) and (3), Kr and Kk are
respectively known as Rittinger’s constant and Kick’s constant. Both
the constants are dimensionless.
Bond’s law is intermediate to both these laws
Put P = -1.5 in eq(1),
dE
 CL1.5  dE  CL1.5dL
dL
Integrating,
E L2

 dE    CL1.5
dL
0 L1

 1 1   1 1 
 E  2C    Kb   
 L2 L1   L2 L1 
Where 2C=Kb
 PROBLEMS ON CRUSHING AND GRINDING

PROBLEM 1:
A material is crushed in a jaw crusher and the average size
of particle is reduced from 50mm to 10mm. Consuming
energy at the rate of 13kW/Kg/sec. What will be the energy
needed to crush the same material of average size 75mm to
an average size of 25mm?(Assume Rittinger’s law applies and
Kick’s law applies). Which of the results would you record
being more reliable and why?
SOLUTION:
Case(1),
for reducing particle size from 50mm to 10mm.
P
    13kW / Kg / sec  P   1 1 
 m 1     
   Sb1
m D DSa1 
3
Dsa1  50mm  50x10
Case(2), Dsb1  10mm  10x103
for reducing particle size from 75mm to 25mm
P
    Energy Needed ?
 m 2
P  1 1 
Dsa2  75mm  75x103 
    
   Sb2
m D DSa2 

Dsb2  25mm  25x103

(i) Assuming Rittinger's Law applies:
According to Rittinger’s law,

P  1 1 
   Kr D    for case1
 m 1  Sb1 DSa1 
P  1 1 
   K r 
   for case 2
 m 2  DSb2 DSa2 

Dividing the above two equations we get,

13
1 3  1 3
10 x10 50 x10
P 
m2

1
25x10 3 
1
75x103
 80 26.67

P 
 m 
2
13x 26.67
80
 4.33kW/kg/sec
(ii)Assuming Kick’s law applies.
By kick’s law For case(i)
P  Dsa1 
   Kk ln                   eq3

 m 1  Dsb1 
For case(ii)
P  Dsa2 
   Kk ln                   eq4

 m 2  Dsb2 
where K k  Kick' s constant
eq3 eq4
 
P

m 1  ln Dsa1 Dsb1 
 
P
m2

ln Dsa2 Dsb2
13  
ln 5010 ln(5)
 
P

 
m 2 ln 25
75

ln(3)
  (iii)Since the size reduction is
 
P ln 3
m 2  13 ln 5 under coarse range, Kick’s
 8.874kW/kg/sec
law is more reliable.
PROBLEM 2:
In a crushing operation, a 50mm feed was
reduced in size, such that 80% of product was
passing through 5mm size screen. The energy
consumed was 15kWhr/ton. Now it is desired
to alter the product size such that the 80%
passes through 4mm screen. Calculate the
energy required in the second operation?
SOLUTION:
By Bond’s crushing law,
case(i)

P  1 
   Kb                   1
1

 1
m 
 Dsb1 Dsa1 
P
   15kWh / ton
 m 1
Dsb1  5mm  5 103 m
Dsa1  50mm  50 103 m
case(ii)

P  1 
   Kb    2
1

 m 2 
 Dsb2 Dsa2 
P
   Energy Required  ?
 m 2
Dsa2  50mm  50 103 m
Dsb2  4mm  4 103 m
divide eq1 by eq2,
1  1 
 3 
 3
 

15 5 10 50 10
 
P
m2 
1  1 
3 
 4 10 3
5010 
14.142 4.472 9.67
 
15.811 4.472 11.339
 P  1511.339
  
 m 2 9.67
 17.589kWhr/ton
Energy requiredfor second operation 17.589kWhr/ton
PROBLEM 3:
In the crushing of iron ore 80% of feed passes
through 5mm screen and 80% of product
passes through 0.5mm screen. Now it is
desired to alter the product size such that 80%
of the same passes through 0.2mm screen.
What is the percentage increase in power
consumption?
SOLUTION:
By Bond’s law,
case(i)
P  1 
   K b   1
1

 m 1 
 D sb1
D sa1 

case(ii)
P  1 
   K b 
1 2

 m 2 
 D sb 2
D sa 2 

where K b is a constant.
Dsb1  0.5mm  0.5 103 m
Dsa1  5mm  5 103 m
Dsa 2  5mm  5 103 m
Dsb2  0.2mm  0.2 103 m
divide eq2 by eq1,
1
 
P
m2 

0.2  103
 1
5  10

3 

 
P
m1 
1  1 
3 
 0.5  103
5  10 
70.71 14.14 1.85
 
44.72  14.14 1
 P   P 
   
%increase  m  2  m 1
P
 
 m 1
56.57- 30.58

30.58
 84.99%
 %increasein power consumption  85%
PROBLEM 4:
3kW has to be supplied to a machine crushing material
at the rate of 0.3kg/sec from 12.5mm cubes to a
product having the following sizes.
1) 80%-3.175mm
2) 10%-2.25mm
3) 10%-2.5mm
What would be the power which have to be supplied
to this machine to crush 0.3kg/sec of the same
material from 7.5mm cubes to 2mm cube?
SOLUTION:
n Dn n Dn
0.8 3.175 0.252
0.1 2.500 0.040
0.1 2.250 0.044
Assuming Rittinger's law applies : n
  0.336
Dn
By Rittinger's law
P1  1 1 

 Kr                       eq1

m1  Dsb1 Dsa1 
Dsa1  12.5mm  12.5 103 m
Dsb1  2.976mm  2.976103 m
P1  3kW

m1  0.3kg / sec
 P2  1 1 
  

K r                   eq2
m2  sb2
D Dsa 2 

Dsa2  7.5mm  7.5 103 m

Dsb2  2mm  2 103 m
P2  ? kW

m1  0.3kg / sec
Divideeq1by eq2
P1  1  1 
m1  Dsb1 Dsa1 
 
P2  1 1 
  
m2
 Dsb1 Dsa1 
3  1 1 
 3
 
 0.3   2.97610 12.5 103 
P  1 1 
  
0.3  2 103 7.5 103 
3 336.02  80
 
P2 500.00 1.33
286.02

366.67
3  366.67
 P2   4.29W
286.02
Assuming Kick’s law applies,
P
 1   K ln Dsa1                       eq3
   k D 
 m1   sb1 
For case(ii)
P 
 2   K ln Dsa2                       eq4
   k D 
 2
m  sb2 
where K k  Kick' s constant
divide eq3 by eq4
P
 1  Dsa1 
  ln
 
 m1    Dsb1 
P   
 2  ln Dsa2 
    Dsb2 
 2
m

ln 4.2
3
 0.3 
P2 ln 3.75
0.3
 P2  2.763kW
PROBLEM 5:
An ore is crushed from 2.5cm to 0.025cm in two steps
from 2.5cm to 0.25cm. How would you expect the
total power consumption to be distributed between
the two steps when calculated by Kick’s and
Rittinger’s law? Give your comments.
SOLUTION :
First step :
Dsa1  2.5cm  2.5 102 m
Dsb1  0.25cm  0.25102 m
P
   Power requiredin kW/kg/sec

 m 1
By Rittinger's law,
P
   K r  1  1                   eq1
  Dsb1 Dsa1 
 m 1
For secondstep:
Dsa2  0.25102 m
Dsb2  0.025102 m
P
   Power requiredin kW/kg/sec

 m 2
P
   K r  1  1                 eq2
  Dsb2 Dsa2 
 m 2
Divideeq1 by eq2,
P  1 1 
     
 
 m 1   sb1
D D sa1 

P  1 1 
   
   Dsb2  Dsa 2 
 m 2
-2 
1 1
 0.25  10 25  102

2 
1 1
0.02510 0.25102
4000- 400 3600 1
   0.1 
40000- 4000 36000 10
P P
    10  
 m 2  m 1
According to aboveequation the power requiredfor second step
is 10 times the power requiredfor first step.
By Kick’s law,
First step :
Dsa1 2.5 102
  10
Dsb1 0.2510 2

Second step :
Dsa2 0.25102
  10
Dsb2 0.025102

Since the reduction ratio is same in both the cases, the total
power supplied will be equally distributed between two steps.
PROBLEM 6:
What is the power required to crush 100 ton/h
of limestone if 80 percent of the feed passes
a 2-in. screen and 80 percent of the product a
1/8 in. screen. Work index for limestone is
12.74. (Unit Conversion: 1 inch = 25.4 mm)
PROBLEM 7
• A crusher is used for reducing limestone of crushing
strength 70 MN/m2 from 6 mm diameter of average
size to 0.1 mm diameter average size requires 9 kW.
The same machine is used to crush dolomite at the
same rate of output from 6 mm diameter average size
to a product which consists of 20% with an average
diameter of 0.25 mm, 60% with an average diameter of
0.125 mm, the balance having an average diameter of
0.085 mm. Estimate the power required to drive the
crusher, assuming that the crushing strength of the
dolomite is 100 MN/m2 and crushing follows
Rittinger’s law.
SOLUTION:
n Dn n Dn
0.2 0.25 mm 800
0.6 0.125 mm 4800
0.2 0.085 mm 2352.9
n
D  7952.9
Assuming Rittinger's law applies : n

By Rittinger's law
P1  1 1 

 Kr                       eq1

m1  sb1
D Dsa1 

Dsa1  6.0mm  6 103 m

Dsb1  0.1mm  0.1103 m
P1  9kW
P2  1 1 

 Kr  
                   eq2
m2  sb2
D Dsa 2 

Dsa2  6mm  6 103 m

1
Dsb2   0.126103 m
7952.9
P2  ? kW
 
m1  m2
Divideeq2 by eq1
P2  1  1 
m2  Dsb2 Dsa2 
 
P1  1 1 
  
m1
 Dsb1 Dsa1 
 1 1 
 3
 
 2   0.12610
P 6 103 
9  1

1 
 
 0.1103 6 103 

9  7769.84
 P2   7.11kW
9833.33
 SIZE REDUCTION
• Commonly used forces for size reduction of solids
are
1. COMPRESSION – Coarse Reduction
2. IMPACT – Medium or Fine products
3. ATTRITION – Very fine particles
4. CUTTING – definite particle size/shape
Feed and Product size of different size reduction equipments
Sl.No. Equipments Feed Size Product Size

1 Coarse Crusher 150 cm – 5 cm 5 cm – 0.5 cm

2 Intermediate Crusher 5 cm – 0.5 cm 0.5 cm – 200 mesh

3 Fine Grinder 0.5 cm – 0.2 cm About 200 mesh

4 Cutter - 0.2 – 1 cm in length

 Classification of Size Reduction
Equipments
Coarse Crusher Intermediate Fine Grinder Ultra Fine Cutter
Crusher Grinder
1)Jaw Crusher 1) Roll Crusher 1) Ball Mill 1) Fluid Energy 1) Cutter M/c
2)Gyratory 2) Hammer Mill 2) Rod Mill Mill 2) Knife cutter
Crusher 3) Impactors 3) Tube Mill 2) Agitated Mill 3) Jack plane
3)Crushing rolls 4) Ring Roller 3) Colloidal Mill 4) Dicers
Mill 4) Tumbling Mill 5) Slitters
5) Hammer Mill
 SMOOTH ROLL CRUSHER

Principle:
Compressive force

Construction and Working:

1) Two heavy metal rolls of same diameter.
2) Rotates at same speed in opposite direction
3) Clearance between rolls can be adjusted according to size of feed and size
of product required.
4) The material to be crushed is fed from top of rolls and as rolls rotate, the
material gets caught between and gets reduced in size by compression.
 Roll Crushing: Angle of Nip
• Angle of the nip is the angle between the two roll faces at the level where
they mill just take hold of the particle before it enter in to the crushing
zone.
Consider
• Crushing rolls with a spherical
particle just caught in between
them before crushing.
Let
• radius of the rolls = R
• radius of particle = r
• The line AB passes through the
centers of the left hand side roll
and the particle through the pt.
‘C’.
• Makes an angle ‘α’ with the
horizontal. A tangent OE at the
point ‘C’ makes the same angle
‘α’ with the vertical.
• Neglecting gravity and two forces act at the point ‘C’
 Roll Crushing: Angle of Nip
• One is N, the radial frictional force having a vertical component N sin α.
• Two is the tangential frictional force having a vertical component T cos α.
• Force Ft is related to the force N by coefficient of friction as
Ft = μ’T. OA R  d
μ’ T cos α = N sin α Cos  
AB R  r
μ’ = tan α
• Force N sin α component pushes the particle outside the roll but the force
μ’T cos α component pulls the particle inside the crushing rolls, the
material is said to be crushed.
• α IS ½ THE ANGLE OF NIP BETWEEN THE ROLL CRUSHER.
• A simple relation exist between the feed size of the particle, the gap
between the rolls or the clearance between them and the radius of the roll
gives a relation.
• i.e., μ’ = tan α
• This equation is used to provide a relationship between the radius of
the rolls and the size reduction that can be expected in the mill. The largest
particle dia is 2d.
 CAPACITY OF A ROLL CRUSHER
• When the material is continuously fed to a crushing roll it gives a
product of thickness 2d.
• The width is equivalent to the width of the faces.
• Then the volume of the particle is given by
π DN x 2d x W
Where D is the dia of the Rolls
N is the No: of rotations.
2d is the gap between the rolls.
W is the width of the rolls.

Now the theoretical capacity of the Roll crusher is given by:

=πDN x 2d x W x ρp kg/min.
• Where ρp is the density of the particle is kg/m3.

The actual capacity is always less than the theoretical

capacity. It normally varies from 20-30% of the theoretical capacity
 BLAKE JAW CRUSHER

Principle:
Compressive force

Construction and Working:

1) Two jaws one is fixed (anvil) and other is swinging jaw moved by eccentric
drives
2) The jaws opens and close 200 to 400 times per minute
3) Feed is admitted between two jaws, set to form V open at top; and angle
formed is 20 0 to 30 0 .
4) Has less tendency of getting choke.
 BLAKE JAW CRUSHER
Assumption
• Angles between the
pitman and its two toggles
are equal .
• effective crushing force
are the horizontal
components exerted on
the particle by the jaws.
Let
• “β” be the angle between
the pitman from the
toggle
The Forces are, • ‘L’ be the distance of the
1. F is the force on the pitman pivot of the movable jaws
2. F1 is the force on the toggle. and the toggle block on
3. F2 is the horizontal force acting the jaw.
on the particle at the toggle block
 BLAKE JAW CRUSHER
• By equilibrium of forces, F must be equal to the sum
of the vertical components of the two forces F1
One vertical component is = F1 cos β
 F = 2 F1 cos β

• The horizontal thrust F2 at the toggle block is the

horizontal component of the force F1.
 F2 = F1 sin β
We know,

• Let Fx be the horizontal thrust at a distance ‘x’

from the pivot. Then by movements.
 BLAKE JAW CRUSHER

• Angle β is nearly 90° and therefore tanβ is large.

• A small toggle force F is multiplied by the action
of the toggle to give a much force F2 for crushing.
• The amplitude motion of the movable jaw is of
course much smaller than that of the pitman.
• The greater is the force Fx so the most powerful
forces are applied nearest to the pivot where the
largest particle are crushed, nearest point of
thrust is the pivotal point just like nut cracker.
Critical Speed of Ball Mill
• Critical speed of the Ball Mill:
The speed at which the outer must ball looses the
contact with the wall of the mill depends on the
balance between the centrifugal and gravitational
forces.
Consider a ball be at a point ‘A’ on the periphery of the
Mill.
Let the radius of the mill and the ball be R and r
respectively.
Let OA make an angle ‘α’ with the vertical.
Let ‘R-r’ be the distance between the centre of the ball
and the mill. 2
Two forces act on the mill.
mu
One is gravitational force mg, (R  r)
Centrifugal force is other force acting on the mill i.e., ,

Where u is the peripheral speed (or) velocity at the

centre of the mill.
Centripetal component of mg Cosα in the force opposing
the centrifugal force.
As long as the centrifugal exceeds the centripetal force,
the ball mill not fall from the mill wall.
As the mill reaches a certain speed for the ball of fall from
the mill, i.e., when the two opposing forces are equal, the
angle at which this occurs in equal to
 Critical Speed of Ball Mill
mu 2
mg cos 
(R  r)
• where u = 2π(R-r) N, where N is the number of
rotations / min.
4 2 (R  r)2 N2
mg cos 
(R  r)

• put α =0, at the critical speed N=Nc. Cos 0=1.

• g = 4π2 (R-r) N 2
C
1 g
Nc 
2 (R  r)
• Centrifuging and Critical Speed
1. Faster the mill is rotated faster the balls are carried
inside the mill and hence a greater power is consumed.
When they are relased, greater becomes the impact at the
bottom and larges the protecting capacity of the mill wall.
2. At a very high speed, the ball are carried along with the mill
wall and it is said to be centrifuging. The speed at which
the centrifuging takes place is called the critical speed Nc.
3. The operating speed mill be less than the critical speed,
i.e., between 65-80% of NC. Little or No grinding takes place
during centrifuging.
• Cascading and Cataracting
1. Cascading and cataracting are the terms applied to the
motion of grinding media (balls).
2. Cascading refers to the rolling of balls or pepples from
top to bottom of the heap.
3. Cataracting refers to the throwing of balls through the air
to the toe of the heap
PROBLEM :1

1 g
Nc 
2 (R  r)
1 9.81
Nc 
2 (0.6  0.0375)

N c  0.665 rps = 40 rpm

Operating Speed is 65 – 80 % of Critical Speed

Operating Speed is 65 – 80 % 40 rpm.
So, the recommended Operating Speed is 26 – 32 rpm.
PROBLEM 2:
A ball mill of 48” I.D charged with 3”balls, the depth of
the mill roll is 1 feet, the peripheral speed is
1000ft/min. What is the roll speed in rpm?
Given:
r = 3 x 2.54x10-2 /2 = 0.0381 m
R = 48 x 2.54x10-2 /2 = 0.6096 m
w.k.t u = 2π(R-r)N
1000 x 12 x 2.54x10-2 = 2 x π x (0.6096 – 0.0381) N
N = 84.88 rpm
 PROBLEM 3:
In a certain jaw crusher it is necessary to apply a maximum force of 10
ton at a point of the toggle block. The toggle block is 110 cm from the
pivot. The angle between the pitman and toggle bars is 850
maximum. What is the force on the pitman when the moving jaw is
closer to the fixed jaw? What is the force on the particle at a distance
of 30 cm from the pivot?
Given:
Solution:
F2 = 10 ton (ii) LF2 = x Fx
L = 110 cm = 1.10 m 1.10 x 10 = 0.03 x Fx
β = 850 ; F = ? At x =30 cm F = 36.67 ton
x

(i) w.k.t F2 = 0.5 F tan β

10 = 0.5 F tan 850
F = 1.75 ton
PROBLEM 4:
A pair of roll is to take a feed equivalent to spheres 4
cm in dia and crush them into spheres having a
diameter of 2 cm. If the coefficient of friction
between the roll surface and the feed is 0.3.
Calculate the dia of the rolls.
Given: μˡ = tan α
r = 2x10-2 m 0.3 = tan α
α = tan-1(0.3)
2d= 2x10 m; d=1x10 m Cos  R  d
-2 -2
α = 16.699
μˡ = 0.3 Rr
R  1x10-2
D=? Cos(16.699) 
R  2x10-2
R  0.21696m
The diameter of the roll is = 2 x 0.21696 = 0.4339 m = 43.4 cm
PROBLEM 5:
The dia of a set of rolls is 1.4 m and take a feed of size
equivalent to 5 cm. If the angle of nip is 300. What is
the maximum size of the product.
Given:
2R = 1.4 m
R d
2r = 5x10 m-2 Cos 
Rr
2α = 30 0 0.7  d
Cos(15) 
μˡ = 0.29 0.7  2.5x10-2

d  0.000296m
2d = ?
2d  0.0592cm
 PROBLEM 6:
A pair of crushing rolls 1 m dia are so set have a gap of 12.5
mm in between them. What is the size of largest particle
that can be fed to rolls. Angle of nip is 310. If the rolls are
0.4 m wide and run at 100 rpm. Calculate the output per
hr in tonnes of feed (ρ = 2330 kg/m3) if ηis 12%
Given: R d
Cos 
2R = 1 m Rr
2r = ? 0.5  6.25x10-3
Cos(15.5) 
2α = 31 0 0.5  r
μˡ = 0.29 r  0.0254m
2d = 12.5 mm D  2r  0.0508m

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝑊 2𝑑 𝜌 η

= 𝜋 𝑥 1 𝑥 100 𝑥 60 𝑥 0.4 𝑥 12.5 𝑥10−3 𝑥 2.330𝑥 0.12
= 26.35 ton/hr
 Fluid Energy Mill
The particles are suspended in a high
velocity gas stream and reduction
occurs when the particles strike or rub
against the walls of the confining
chamber and reduction caused by
inter-particle attrition.

Fluid Energy Mill shown in the figure

is oval loop grinding chamber, also
circular or elliptical grinding chamber
is available in industrial scale.
1. Feed enters near the bottom of
the loop
2. Classification of the grinded
particles will be collected at
upper bend of the loop.
3. The attrition force is enhanced by
introduction of high velocity
stream around the bend as shown
in figure.
Feed size can be from 12 mm to 100 mesh and product can obtain from 0.5 to 10 micron
Colloid Mill
 OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING
• Open circuit Grinding:
– Plant operates, that materials passes only once through
the size reduction equipments.

• Closed circuit Grinding:

– Products obtained from a grinder or crusher contains
material of insufficiently crushed, it is separated from
the product and return to second crushing.
– Energy consumption is less compared to open circuit
crushing.
CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING
 UNIT-3
• Solid liquid separation in industrial
equipment based on settling, density
and centrifugal force.
 UNIT 3 Syllabus
• Gravity settling, sedimentation
• Thickener, elutriation, double cone classifier, Rake
classifier, bowl classifier
• Continuous centrifuges, Super centrifuge, Basket
centrifuge
• Problems
• Cyclones and hydro cyclones
• electrostatic and magnetic separator, heavy media
separator
• Floatation, jigging
Gravity settling tank
 Gravity settling tank
• the particles will tend to fall to the bottom of the
vessel forming a slurry at the vessel base.
• Gravity separation can be applied only to
those particles which have density greater
than water.
• A liquid slurry enters the tank containing
various size of particles
• Larger fast setting settle close to the entrance
where as where as slow settling particles
settle close to the exit.
• The vertical baffles allow for the collection of
various fractions.
 MOTION OF PARTICLES THROUGH
FLUIDS (SETTLING)
When a particle is moving through a fluid, it is
acted upon by three forces
• The external force (gravitational or centrifugal)
• The buoyancy force – acts parallel to external
force but in the opposite direction
• The drag force – appears whenever there is a
relative motion between solid and fluids. The
drag force opposes the motion of the particle
 EQUATION FOR ONE DIMENTIONAL
MOTION OF PARTICLE THROUGH FLUID

Fe

ass

Fb FD
• Co side a pa ti le of ass o i g th ough a
fluid under the action of an external force Fe.
• Let the velocity of the particle relative to the fluid be
u.
• Let the buoyancy force on the particle be Fb and
• Let the drag force be FD
• The resultant force on the particle will be Fe – Fb – FD
• This gives momentum to the particle and particle
moves down with an acceleration of du/dt,
Then the resultant force FR is given by,
m du/dt = Fe – Fb – FD - (1)
The external force can be expressed as a product of
mass and acceleration of the particle, from this force
i.e, Fe = m ae - (2)

The buoyancy force is, by Archimedes principle, the

product of fluid displaced and acceleration of the mass
from the external force.
Fb = mass of fluid displaced x ae
The volume of the particle is m/ρp
ρp = density of particle
The particle displaces the same volume of fluid.
Therefore, mass of fluid displaced is (m/ρp) ρ
The buoyancy force is,
Fb = (m/ρp) ρ x ae - (3)
ρp – density of solid
ρ – density of fluid
The drag force is given by

- (4)

Where
CD – dimensionless drag co-efficient
AP – projected area of particle measured in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of motion of particle
Substituting (2), (3) and (4) in (1)

If the external force is gravitational force ae = g

- (5)
 Terminal Velocity
In a gravitational settling g is constant. The
drag always increases with velocity. According to
equation (5), the acceleration decreases with
time and approaches zero. The particle quickly
reaches a constant velocity, which is the
maximum attainable under the circumstances,
and is so called the terminal velocity (terminal
settling velocity).
The equation for terminal settling velocity ut is
found, for gravitational settling by taking du/dt = 0
Then form(s),

- (6)
 Free and Hindered Settling
• When a particle is at sufficient distance from the
boundary of the container and from other
particles so that its fall is not affected by them,
the process is called free settling.
• If the motion is impended by other particles,
which will happen when the particles are near to
each other even though they may not actually be
colliding, the process is called hindered settling.
• The drag coefficient in hindered settling is greater
than in free settling.
 Motion of spherical particles
(under free settling)
For spherical particles of dia DP

Su stituti g fo a d AP i

- (7)
For particles moving with constant velocity under force, the drag
coefficent CD is related to the Nrep by the relation

Where b1 and n are constants and are given in the following

table for different settling range.
Range b1 n
Stoke s 24 1
Ne to s 0.44 0
Intermediate 18.55 0.6

Nrep is defined as,

Substituting for CD in (7)
 - (8)

This is the general equation. This gives the terminal velocity in

terms of Diameter of particle and properties of solid and fluid.

Stoke’s Law
Substituting b1=24, n=1 in (8)

- (9)

This is the stoke s law equation for free settling.

Nrep = 0 – 1
Ne to s ‘a ge
Substituting b1=0.44, n=0

- (10)

This is the Ne to s la e uatio fo f ee settli g.

Nrep = 1000 – 20000
I te ediate s ‘a ge
Substituting b1=18.5, n=0.6

- (11)

NReP = 1 – 1000
Free settling comparsion

Stokes Law Newton Range Intermediate Range

Nrep = 0 – 1 Nrep = 1000 – 20000 Nrep = 1 – 1000

C‘ITE‘ION EQUATION S FO‘ SETTLING
If the terminal velocity of the particle of known
diameter is desired and if e old s number is
unknown, a choice of equation cannot be made.
To identify the range in which the motion of
particle lies, the velocity term is eliminated from
Nrep by substituting ut from equation (9) for
stoke s law range to give –
 - (12)

To apply stoke s law, Nrep should be between 0 and 1. To

p o ide a o e ie t ite io k , let
- (13)

Comparing equation (12) and (13)

Setting Nrep = 1, k3 = 18, therefore k= 2.62
If the size of particle is known, k can be calculated from the
equation (13). If the value of k so calculated is less than 2.62,
then stoke’s law is valid.

Substituting for ut from equation (10) in Nrep,

- (14)

Comparing equation (13) and (14)

NRep = 1.75 k1.5
setting up NRep = 1000
1000 = 1.75 k1.5
k = 68.89
If k is greater than 68.9, the particle settle under Newton’s law.
If k is between 2.62 and 68.9, the particle settle under
intermediate range.
 g * Dp * p    g * Dp 2 * p   
Solution:

18
ut= μ=
18ut
Distance travelled
ut= time taken =25 cm /10 sec=2.5x10-2 m/s.
ut=2.5x10-2 m/s.
Dp=3 mm=3x10-3 m.
ρp=7.8 g/cc = =7.8x103 kg/m3.
ρ = . g/ = . 3 kg/m3.

μ= 9.81* 3x10 18 **2.75.8x10  1.26 x10 

3 2 3 3
x10
2 =1.28 Ns/m2.
 Nrep 
D p * ut * 

3x10 * 2.5x10 * 1.26x10 
3 2 3


Check
1.28

 g  p      
=0.0738

3  9.81* 7.8 x10  1.26 x10 *1.26 x10 

1 1

K  Dp  
 
1.282 
3 3 3

2
3 3

   
3 x10

=1.1
Q2. A spherical particle is held motionless in water flowing upwards at
a velocity of 1.2 cm/s. The particle diameter is 0.975 mm and the
density is 3.5 g/cm3. Viscosity of water is 0.98 cp. When thw particle is
released, in what direction and with what velocity will it move?
Solution:
Dp=0.975x10-3 m 1 cp=1 centi poise = 0.001Ns/m2.
μ= . cp=0.00098 Ns/m2.

 g  p    
ρp=3500 kg/m3 ρ= kg/ 3

3  9.81* 3500  1000 *1000 

1

K  Dp  
2  
  
3

   
0. 975x10 2
0 . 00098
=28.71

0.153x g 0.71xD p  p   
Since K = 28.71 > 2.62 and less than 68.9 ,the settling comes in
ut 
1.14 0.71

 0.29 x 0.43
intermediate range.

ut 

0.153x 9.81 x 0.975x10 
2500  0.196 m/s.
10000.29 x 0.000980.43
0.71 -3 1.14 0.71

The spherical particle moves downward with a velocity of 0.196-0.012= 0.184

m/s.
Q3. Dust particles are to be settled in a settling chamber. The following
data are available. Calculate the height of the settling chamber. Assume
STOKE's law is valid. Dp= 10 microns, ρp=1.6 g/ ,μ= 1.8x10-5 Ns/m2,
settling time = 2 minutes.
Solution:
Dp= 10x10-6 m ρp= 1600 kg/m3 μ= . -5 Ns/m2

g * Dp 2 * p   
t = 2 min = 2x 60 sec = 120 s ρ= kg/ 3

ut 
 
18
Given Stoke's law is valid,

9.81* 10x10 * 1600  1000

 
6
ut 
2

18 1.8 x105
ut= 1.82x10-3 m/s.
Height of settling
We have, ut=
time
Height of settling = ut x time
= 1.82x10-3 * 120 = 0.2184 m.
Q4. A falling ball viscometer operates by timing the fall of a steel ball
with a diameter of 0.625 cm and a density of 7.9 g/cc. The steel ball
falls a distance of 25 cm. what is the μ of the oil if the ti e of fall is .
sec. Justify the selection of equation. Density of the Oil=0.9 g/cc
Solution:
ut= Distance/ time = 25 cm / 4.6 s = 5.43x10-2 m/s.
Dp=0.625 cm = 0.625x10-2 m.
ρp=7.9 g/cc =7900 kg/m3
ρ = . g/ = kg/ 3

g * Dp 2 * p    g * Dp 2 * p   
Assume STOKE's law is valid,
ut  
18
 
9.81* 0.625x10 * 7900  900
18ut

 
2 2

18x 5.43x102
μ= . Ns/ 2.
 0.625x10 * 5.43x10 * 900  0.11
Check:
2 2
NREp=(Dp*ut*ρ)/μ =

 g  p     2  9.81* 7900  900 * 900 

2.75
1 1

K  Dp  
2  
2.752 
3 3

   
0.625x10

K = 1.26

Since NREp= 0.11 < 1 and K = 1.26 < 2.62 , Stokes law is VALID.
Q5. A steel sphere of 3 mm diameter falls through Kerosene at a
distance of 25 cm in 10 sec. The specific gravity of steel and kerosene
are 7.8 and 0.8 respectively. Calculate the value of μ of ke ose e
medium employed. Justify the equation you selected.
Solution:
ut= Distance travelled / time = 25 cm / 10 s = 2.5x10-2 m/s.
ρp=7.8 x 1000 = 7800 kg/m3
ρ= . = kg/ 3
Dp= 3 mm = 3x10-3 m.

g * Dp 2 * p   
Assume STOKE's law is valid,

p * p   
ut  
18
2

 
g * D

9.81* 3x103 * 7800  800

 
18ut

2

18x 2.5 x102

μ = 1.37 Ns/m2.
Check: NREp = 0.043 < 1
K = 0.92 < 2.62
Therefore, Stoke's law is verified.
Q6. What will be the terminal settling velocity of the spherical particle
of 0.037 cm dia. settling in an oil of specific gravity 0.8 and viscosity
12 cp. Specific gravity of the particle is 7.5. Justify your selection.
Solution:
Dp=0.037 cm = 0.037x10-2 m.
ρp= 7.5 x 1000 = 7500 kg/m3
ρ= . = kg/ 3
μ = cp = 12 x 0.001 Ns/m2 = 12x10-3 Ns/m2

 g  p     2 9.81* 7500  800 * 800

 
We have,

 
1 1

K  Dp    0.037x10  
3


3

   3 2

2
12x10
K= . ≈ .
Hence, law is Verified.
Q7. Calculate the terminal settling velocity of galena in water for turbulent
region at 300C. Assuming that the particle is of cubic shape of dimensions
0.0005 cm and specific gravity 7.5. The drag coefficient should be calculated
from the equation CD = 5.31 - 4.81ψ he e ψ is sphericity.

Solution:
Dp=0.0005 cm = 0.0005x10-2 m.
ρp= 7.5 x 1000 = 7500 kg/m3
ρ= kg/ 3

 
CD= 5.31 - 4.81ψ ut fo u i pa ti le ψ =

4 g * Dp *  p  
= 5.31 - 4.81

ut 
CD * 
=0.5
We have,

 
3
4 9.81* 0.0005x10-2 * 7500  1000
ut 
3 0.5 *1000

ut = 0.029 m/s.
Q8. A 50 mm plastic particle (spherical) [sp. gr. 1.3] is dropped in
water which is at 250C. Determine the terminal velocity. Assume
CD = 0.48.
Solution:
Dp= 50 mm = 50x10-3 m.
ρp= 1.3 x 1000 = 1300 kg/m3
ρ= kg/ 3

4 g * D p *  p   
CD= 0.48

ut 
CD * 
 
4 9.81* 50x10-3 * 1300  1000
3

ut 
3 0.48 *1000
ut = 0.639 m/s.
Q9. Drops of 15 micron diameter are to be settled from their mixture with air.
The specific gravity of oil is 0.9 and the air is at 250C and 1 atm. a settling time of
1 min is available. How high should be the chamber to allow settling of these
particles? The viscosity and density of air is 0.018 cp and 1.25 respectively.
Solution:
Dp= 15 micron = 15x10-6 m.
ρp= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3
  1.19
ρ = De sit of ai at 0C / 1 atm = Mass 29
Volume 22.414* 298
*1
t = settling time = 1 min = 60 sec 273
μ= .

 
cp = 0.018 x 0.001 Ns/m2

g * Dp * p    9.81* 15x10 * 900  1.19

Assuming Stoke's law is valid,
6 2
ut  
18
2

18 * 0.018* 0.001
ut = 6.12x10-3 m/s
Height of settling chamber = ut x t
= 6.12x10-3 x 60
= 0.3672 m
Since NREp = 6.069x10-3 < 1 , the settling is under Stoke's region.
Calculate the settling velocity of glass spheres having a diameter of 1.55 x 10 -4
in water at 293.15 K. The slurry contains 60 wt % of solids. The density of glass
spheres is ρp= 2467 Kg/m3. Density of water ρ = 998 kg/m3, viscosity of water =
1.005 x 10 -3 Pas.
Solution: Assuming 1 m3 of slurry, then
Dp= 1.55x10-4 m. 0.6 m3 of solid (60 wt% of solids)
ρp= 2467 kg/m3 Mass of solid = 2467x 0.6 = 1480.2 Kg
Density of water = 998 kg/m3
μ = 1.005x10-3 Ns/m2 Also, 0.4 m3 of water in slurry

ρ = Density of slurry Mass of water = 998 x 0.4 = 399.2 Kg.

Total mass of slurry = 1480.2 + 399.2
= 1879.4 Kg.
Density of slurry = 1879.4 /1
= 1879.4 Kg/m3


g * Dp * p    9.81* 1.55 x10 
* 2467  1879.4 
Assuming Stoke's law is valid,

4 2
ut  
18
2

18 *1.005 x10 3
ut = 7.69x10-3 m/s = 0.769 cm/s
 HINDERED SETTLING EQUATION

In hindered settling, the effective density of fluid can be taken as

that of the slurry and can be calculated from the composition of the
slurry and the densities of the particles and of the fluid.
The effective viscosity for hindered settling is calculated by dividing
the actual viscosity μ a empirical correction factor ψp which
depends on the fractional volume of the slurry occupied by the
liquid.
This is equivalent to the porosity of the aggeregation of particles
a d is de oted є. Fo settli g of sphe es i stoke's a ge, ψ is
given by :
ψ = e-4.19(1-є
Equal Settling particles
 g x D p A x  pA   
2

18 x 
For material A,utA =
where ut is terminal velocity of A
ρpA is density of material A
DpA is Diameter of the material A
ρ is the de sit of the ediu

utB = g x D pB x  pB   
μ is the is osit of the ediu
2

18 x 
similarly for material B,

For equal settling of particles,

g x D pA x  pA    g x D pB x  pB   
utA = utB

2 2

18 x  18 x 
  

  
2
Dp B pA

  
2
Dp A pB

 
- - - - - - 1

   

1/ 2


DpB pA

DpA  pB 
 0.153x g  x D pA   pA   
For Intermediate region:

 0.29 x  0.43
0.71 1.14 0.71

utA =

0.153x g  x D pB   pB   

 0.29 x  0.43
0.71 1.14 0.71

utB =

For equal settling of particles:

utA = utB

x  pA    x  pB   

1.14 0.71 1.14 0.71
0.153 x g 0.71 x D pA 0.153 x g 0.71 x D pB
 x  0.29  0.43
  pA   
0.29 0.43

 Dp B 
 
    
1.14 0.71

D


 
    

  pA    
pA pB

     
 
0.623
DpB
DpA  pB 
  g x DpA x  pA   
For Newton's region:

 1.75 
1/ 2

  
 g x DpB x  pB   
utA

 1.75 
1/ 2

  
utB

For equal settling of particles:

 g x DpA x  p     g x DpB x  pB   
1.75   1.75 
1/ 2 1/ 2

     
D p A x  p     D p B x  p   
  pA   
1/2 1/ 2 1/2 1/ 2

 Dp B 
 
    
1/ 2 1/ 2

D      
 pA   
 pA   
- - - - - - 2 
 pB   
pB


Dp B
Dp A
Therefore from the above results, the general equation for

  pA   
can be written as:

n

 
pB   

Dp B
Dp A 
where n = 1/2 for STOKES region
n = 0.623 for INTERMEDIATE region
n=1 for NEWTON'S region
The significance in a separation process of the equal settling ratio of
diameters is shown by the graph, in which ut vs Dp are plotted for
components A and B, for settling in the intermediate range between
stoke's law and newton's law settling. Assume that the diameter range
for both substance lies between points Dp1 and Dp4 on the size axis.
Then, all particles of the light component B having diameters Dp1 and
Dp2 will settle more slowly than any particles of the heavy substance A
and can be obtained as a pure fraction. Likewise, any particle of
substance A having diameters Dp5 and Dp4 will settle faster than any
particles of substance B and can also be obtained as a pure fraction.
But any light particle having a diameter between Dp2 and Dp4 settles at
the same speed of a particle of substance A in the size range between
Dp1 and Dp3, and all particles in these size ranges from a mixed fraction.

Equations 1 and 2 shows that the sharpness of separation is

improved if the density of the medium is increased. It is also clear from
the graph that the mixed fraction can be reduced or eliminated by
closer sizing of feed. For example, if the size range of the feed is from
Dp3 to Dp4 in the graph, complete separation is possible.
Problem 1:A mixture of silica (Sp.gr. 2.56) and galena (Sp.gr. 7.5)
particles ranging from sizes of 0.0074 cm to 0.0652 cm are to be
separated by a rising stream of water.
a)What velocity of water flow will give an un-contaminated product of
galena?
b)What is the size range of product?
c)What is the effect of separation on changing the fluid?
Solution:
To get a pure product of galena, all the silica should be lifted up.
For this, find the settling velocity of biggest particle of silica.
Dp = 0.0652 cm = 0 .0652x10-2 m
ρp = 2560 kg/m3
ρ= kg/ 3
μ= . Ns/ 2 [for water]

g x Dp 2 x p   
ut 
18
 ut 
 
9.81x 0.0652x10-2 2 x 2560 - 1000
180.001
ut  0.361 m/s

g x Dp 2 x p   
Using above ut, find Dp for galena particles.

0.361 
18
0.361 x 18 x 
Dp 
p   
2

Dp 
9.81x 7500  1000
2 0.361 x 18 x 0.001

Dp  0.319 x 10-3 m
1. Velocity of water flow should be more than 0.361 m/s.
2. The particles of galena which have dia. from 0.0319 to 0.0652
Sedimentation
• Sedimentation or settling is a process in which
water is collected in basins and given proper
detention time during which suspended solids
present in water is allowed to settle.
• Sedimentation is a process with low cost and
low energy requirements, however, proper
basin design is very important for proper
operation and better efficiency.
SEDIMENTATION:
The separation of dilute slurry by gravity settling into a clear fluid and a slurry
of higher solid content in called Sedimentation.
BATCH SEDIMENTATION:
These are several stages in the settling of a flocculated suspension, and
different zones are formed as sedimentation process. Usually the concentration of
solids is high enough that sedimentation of individual particles or flocs is hindered by
other solids to such an extent that all solids at a given level settle at a coomon
velocity.
At first, solid is uniformly distributed in the liquid is shown in figure. The total
depth of suspension is zo. After a short time, the solids have settled to give a zone of
clear liquid, zone A in figure and a zone of settled solids D. Above zone D is a transition
layer, zone C, in which the solid content varies from that in the original pulp to that in
zone D. In zone B, the concentration, since the settling rate is same throughout this
zone. The boundaries between zones D and C and between C and B may not be
distinct, but the boundary between zones A and B is usually sharp.
As settling continues, the depth of zones D and A increases. The depth of
zone C remains nearly constant and that of zone B decreases. This is shown in fig.
Eventually zone B disappears and all the solids in zones C and D. Meanwhile the
gradual accumulation of solids put stress on the material at the bottom, which
compress solids in layer D. Compression breaks down the
structure of flocs or aggregates and liquid is expelled into the upper zones.
Sometimes liquid in the flocs spurts out of zone D like small geysers as layer D
compresses. Finally, when the weight of the solid is balanced by the
compression strength of the flocs, the settling stops as shown in figure. The
entire process shown in fig(a) to fig(e) is called sedimentation.
This laboratory batch settling (batch sedimentation) test is the basis
for the design of a continuous thickener.

THEORIES OF SEDIMENTATION:
COE and Clevenger Theory:
For a given set of operating conditions (the solid material in the slurry
feed, the size-frequency distribution of the solid particles and the liquid
properties remain constant), it is assumed that the settling rate was a function
only of the 'solids concentration'(expressed as volume of solids/unit volume of
slurry). It was also assumed that if batch sedimentation tests were at different
initial pulp concentrations, the essential characteristics of the solids (degree of
flocculation) were unchanged. This assumption may not be correct always.
Kynch Theory:
First assumption of COE and Clevenger theory has been taken here.
This method is based on the mathematical analysis of batch settling test
presented by Kynch, which showed that the settling rate and the
concentration of zone that limits the capacity can be determined from single
batch settling test(for a given pulp and temperature of operation). In a batch
sedimentation test started with uniform initial concentration of solids, the
concentration of solids in the zone C must range between that of the initial
pulp concentration in zone B and that of the final slurry in zone D. If the solids
handling ,capacity per unit area is lowest at some intermediate concentration,
a zone of such concentration must start building up. It has been showed that
the rate of upward propagation of such a zone is constant and is a function of
the solid concentration-- i.e.,
Ṽ= . d /d -V ---------(1)
where V- upward propagation velocity of concentration zone of
minimum settling rate with respect to vessel
v- settling velocity of solids of minimum settling rate with respect
to vessel
c- solids concentration(wt of solids per unit volume of pulp)
Assumption:

V = f(c). i.e solid concentration

�
�=� − � ( )
Kynch states, �

,� � � �;

� � ;

� �

From assumption, V = f’ C ---------(2)

��
= � ′ (�)---(3)
��

� = � � ′ � − � (4)

From volume balance of thickener,

CLVL = Co Vo

Where, CL and Co are exit & inlet solid concentration.

VL and Vo are exit & inlet volumetric flow rate.

 CL A ZL = Co A Zo

CL A (VL+��) ѲL = Co A Zo (5)

w.k.t �� = ���
�

Simplifying above
�
CL A (VL+ � ) ѲL = Co A Zo
��

�� � ��
�� =
�� �� + ��

�� − ��
�� =
��
 Types of settling
• Type I settling , single or discrete particle, applies to
particles that settle with constant velocity -- particles
will be removed if v > vs
• If particles flocculate during settling, velocity
generally increases – Type II settling
• As particle concentration increases with depth, zone
settling occurs
• At bottom of tank compression settling occurs
 Sedimentation tank
• Settling basins may be either long rectangular
or circular in plan.
 A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 4
times their width. The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate
sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper
continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper
from where it is pumped out periodically.

Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed

over the cross section such that the flow through settling zone
follows horizontal path
. Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge
through outlet weir.
Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.
Thickening
 Thicknening
• A suspension of solids in a liquid is allowed
to settle until a clear liquid layer tops a mud
layer.
• A volume reduction of approximately 30 –
80 % can be reached with
sludge thickening before a further
treatment.
• Thickening usually takes place directly in the
sludge storage tank.
Thickner
• Gravity separation, similar to settling tank
• Additional mechanic stirring to enhance flocculation
and extraction of water and gas
• Supernatant is introduced to primary clarifier or – if
floatables and grease contents are high – to grid
chamber
• Thickened sludge is withdrawn from hopper and
introduced to sludge treatment
• For an efficient thickening process the development
of gas bubbles must be prevented
Uses:
• Thickeners and clarifiers are often used in water and wastewater
treatment plants to remove solids, chemicals, microbes and other
impurities.
• Thickeners and clarifiers are also used in the paper industry, the uranium
industry, and in alumina, coal, copper, and iron ore production.

Advantages
• Effective solid-liquid separation.
• Can be used for a variety of liquid-solid separations.

DisAdvantages
• Inefficient for small scale operation.
• Large initial investment.
• Requires large installation area.
 F
Thickener Design
V
F = Feed �n�u�, �3/��
V = Overflow output, m3/hr
L = Underflow output, m3/hr
Co =Feed solid conc. kg/m3
L Cu =Underflow solid conc. kg/m3
Solid Volume balance:
���
Liquid Volume balance: F Co = L Cu �=
�
F (1-Co) = V + L (1- Cu)
Substitute L and rewrite the eqn. and divide by surface area S .
� ��� 1 1 ��� 1 1
= − = −
� � �� � � �� �
For limiting time , conc. will be CL then; solid vol. balance,
F Co = LL CL ;
then above eqn. will become

�� �� 1 1
� = −
� �� �
LL CL
T�u� �� �o��d �and��n� ca�ac��� �e� un�� a�ea
S
Thus area for the thickener will be calculated as
�� ��
S= ��
−
�� �
 THICKNER AREA PROBLEM
The municipal water treatment plant mixes the Lime and alum to affect
the settling of the suspended material from the water. The test data
from a single batch sedimentation for settling velocity at different slurry
concentration are given below. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Determine the minimum area required for thickener to handle 65000
m3/hr of water with feed concentration of 64.5 kg/m3 and to yield an
underflow concentration of 485.0 kg/m3.
Concentration, c Settling velocity,
kg/m3 V, 10-2 m/s.
62.2 1.419
71.4 1.136
93.2 0.819
112.4 0.544
140.2 0.321
172.4 0.198
219 0.13
335 0.074
Solution:
Cu = 485.0 kg/m3 ; Co = 64.5 kg/m3; F = 65000 m3/hr
Concentr Settling 1/Cu 1/C – 1/Cu
ation, c velocity, X 10-3
kg/m3 V, 10-2 Kg/m3
m/s.
62.2 1.419 2.0618 0.01400 1.0136
71.4 1.136 2.0618 0.01193 0.9522
93.2 0.819 2.0618 8.668x10-3 0.9449
112.4 0.544 2.0618 6.834x10-3 0.7960
��
140.2 0.321 2.0618 5.07x10-3 0.6331 � �=

172.4 0.198 2.0618 3.738x10-3 0.5297 �

−
219 0.13 2.0618 2.504x10-3 0.5192 � �

335 0.074 2.0618 9.231x10-4 0.8016 � .

� �=
. � �

Area = 2243.03 m2
Elutriator
 Elutriation
• Elutriation is a process for separating particles based on their
size, shape and density, using a stream of gas or liquid flowing
in a direction usually opposite to the direction of
sedimentation.

• This method is mainly used for particles smaller than 1 μ .

The smaller or lighter particles rise to the top (overflow)
because their terminal sedimentation velocities are lower
than the velocity of the rising fluid.

• The terminal velocities of any particle in any medium can be

calculated using Stokes' Law if the particle Reynolds number is
below 1.0
• Elutriator
OPERATION:
• Material may be separated by means of an elutriator, which
consists of a vertical tube up which fluid is passed at a
controlled velocity.
• When the particles are introduced through a side tube, the
smaller particles are carried over in the fluid stream while the
large particles settle against the upward current.
• If we start with low flow rates small less dense particle attain
their terminal velocities, and flow with the stream.
• The particle from the stream is collected in overflow.
• Flow rates can be increased to separate higher size ranges.
Further size fractions may be collected if the overflow from
the first tube is passed vertically upwards through a second
tube of greater cross-section, and any number of such tubes
can be arranged in series
Classifiers
Double cone classifier
OPERATION
• They separate the coarse particles from the
fine particles by a cyclone effect.
• The feed to be separated is fed in the form of
suspension at the center of inner cone
it then flows downwards where coarse
particles are separated.
• Classification occurs in the annular space
and small fine particles are carried away as
overflow in the form of fine particles.
 Rake classifier
rake classifier
OPERATION:
• The tank is provided with a movable rake
• where the feed is introduced in the middle of
the tank and the fines which are not settled
leave with the overflow liquid and the coarse
material sink to the bottom of the tank.
• The reciprocating rake keeps the slurry in
agitation.
• The rakes scrap the settled solids from a sand
discharge chute.
 Bowl classifier
• Bowl classifier
OPERATION
• The feed is introduced in the form of
suspension through a feed inlet at the center.
• The coarse fraction collects at the bottom of
the cone where it is continuously withdrawn
from the bottom
• The fine fraction is removed from the launder
as an overflow.
• They are used in ore dressing plants.
Centrifuge
 Centrifugal separation
• Centrifugal force is used to provide the driving
force in some filters.
• These machines are really centrifuges fitted
with a perforated bowl that may also have
filter cloth on it.
• Liquid is fed into the interior of the bowl and
under the centrifugal forces, it passes out
through the filter material.
CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGE
 CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGE
• A rotating basket with a slotted wall is fed
through a revolving feed funnel.
• Feed enters small end of a funnel gains speed
and travels through the large end of the
funnel and spills off on to the wall of the
basket.
• Liquor flows down and layer of crystals settle
of woven cloth by means of reciprocating
pusher crystals reach the lip of the basket they
fall on a collection chute
SUPER CENTRIFUGE
 PROCEDURE

• The mixture continuously enters the Super-Centrifuge

through an inlet at the base of the machine into the hollow
cylindrical rotor. Rotors rotate at 17000 rpm. and generate
centrifugal force of up to 20000 times the force of gravity.
This force separates the two liquids according to their
specific gravities into concentric cylindrical layers and the
solids are deposited against the rotor wall.
The separated liquids are continuously displaced upwards
by the incoming mixture and continuously discharged
through their respective outlet ports at the top of the rotor.
The layer of accumulated solids that builds up on the rotor
wall is cleaned out batch-wise when the centrifuge is shut
down.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION : High centrifugal
effects can be obtained by using a centrifuge of
small diameter rotated at a high speed.
USES:
1- It can separate solids of small particle size
from liquids.
2- It can be used to separate immiscible liquids
from one another e.g. the two components of
emulsion.
3- It can be used for filtration of very diluted
suspensions i.e. solutions containing very low
concentration of solids.
 Basket centrifuge

3/14/2017 86
 OPERATION:
• Centrifugal filter operating in batch mode
• Perforated baskets 750 – 1200 mm in dia. and 18
– 30 inch deep
• Basket rotates at 750 – 1200 rpm
• Feed taken from inlet is centrifuged
• Clear liquid pass out leaving behind solid cake in
basket
• Wash liquid sprayed to remove soluble solids and
cake dried
• For cake removal, basket is turned at 30 – 50 rpm
and cake is cut off with unloader knife
3/14/2017 87
Cyclone Separator
 Definition

• Cyclones are mostly used for removing

industrials dust from air or process gases.
They are the principal type of gas-solid
separator
• Most common form of particulate removal
gas is spun rapidly – heavier particulate
matter to collect on outside of separator
by centrifugal force where it is collected
and removed.
 Principal of operation
• As with centrifugation the driving force behind cyclone
separation is centrifugal force and the difference in
specific gravity between the particle and the carrier gas.

• In a Cyclone the air or vapor containing particulate

material is forced into along the tangential axis. A helical
flow pattern is set up within the chamber.

• The centrifugal force causes the particles to migrate

outside of the chamber where they fall down to the
bottom of the cyclone by gravity.

• The air moves up the center of the cyclone and reaches

the top.
Co t…
Cyclone separator
 Design Procedure
• The design parameters for the cyclone separator are
as follows:

• Length of cylinder L1 = 2D2

• Length of cone L2 = 2D2
• Diameter of exit De = 0.5D2
• Height of entrance H = 0.5D2
• Width of entrance B = 0.25D2
• Diameter of dust exit Dd = 0.25D2
• Length of exit duct L3 = 0.125D2
Cyclone separator
 Cont…
• The efficiency of collection of various
pa ti les η a e dete i e fo the
empirical relation and graph developed by
Lapple 1951.
HYDROCYCLONE
 HYDROCYCLONE
 A Hydrocyclone is a device to classify, separate or sort
particles in a liquid suspension based on the ratio of
their centripetal force to fluid resistance.
 This ratio is high for dense (where separation by
density is required) and coarse (where separation by
size is required) particles, and low for light and fine
particles. Hydrocyclones also find application in the
separation of liquids of different densities.
 Based on these differences cyclone produces two
products Overflow and underflow
 HYDROCYCLONE
• A hydro cyclone will
normally have a
cylindrical section at
the top where liquid is
being fed tangentially,
and a conical base. The
angle, and hence length
of the conical section,
plays a role in
determining operating
characteristics.
Working Principle
 PRINCIPLE
• A cyclone uses centrifugal force that is
generated by a slurry entering the feed
chamber under pressure to make the
separations. This centrifugal force causes the
la ge pa ti les to e slu g to the o e all
while the finer material is kept closer to the
center. The vortex finder draws the water and
fine material to the overflow while the coarser
material makes its way out the apex.
12/19/14
 CHARECTERISTICS
 Smaller diameter, longer conical part
 greater resistance
 smaller driving force
 unsuitable for highly concentrated suspensions
 concentrated suspension through underflow
orifice, maximum volumetric concentration –0.4 -
0.5 exploitation –e.g. mineral treatment
 HYDROCLONE
 The geometry of the cyclone involves-inlet shape and
area, cyclone dimensions (cone angle, length of
cylindrical section and total length of the cyclone) and
inlet, vortex and apex diameters.
 Inertia is countered by the resistance of the liquid,
with the effect that larger or denser particles are
transported to the wall for eventual exit at
the reject side with a limited amount of liquid, while
the finer, or less dense particles, remain in the liquid
and exit at the overflow side through a tube extending
slightly into the body of the cyclone at the center.
 Material of construction
 Hydrocyclones can be made
of metal (mostly steel), ceramic or plastic (such
as polyurethane, polypropylene, or other types).
Metal or ceramic hydrocyclones are used for
situations requiring more strength, or durability in
terms of heat or pressure. When there is an
occurrence of much abrasion (such as occurs
with sand particles) polyurethane performs better
than metals or ceramics. Metal lined with
polyurethane is used in cases of combined abrasion
and high pressure.
Design equation
 Theta is the angle at the base  Di is the inlet diameter
of the hydrocyclone
 Do is the overflow diameter
 Di/Dc = 0.244
 Du is the underflow diameter
 Do/Dc = 0.313
 Dc is the chamber diameter
 Du/Dc = 0.2
 L is the height of the
 L/Dc = 3.9 hydrocyclone

 Le/Dc = 0.833  Le is the length of the outlet

tube
 Theta = 20 degrees

 pressure drop should be

between 20 psi and 60 psi.
 Uses and Applications
 An hydrocyclone is most often used to separate "heavies" from a liquid
mixture originating at a centrifugal pump or some other continuous
source of pressurized liquid

 In pulp and paper mills to remove sand, staples, plastic particles and
other contaminants.

 In the drilling industry to separate sand from the expensive clay that is
used for lubrication during the drilling.

 In oil industry to separate oil from water or vice versa.

 In metal working to separate metal particles from cooling liquid.

 To remove sand and silt particles from irrigation water for drip
irrigation purposes.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP)
 ELCTROSTATIC PRINCIPLE :-

An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is an device that removes

dust particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an
induced electrostatic attraction (i.e, like charges repel; unlike
charges attract)

Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices

that allow the flow of gases through the device, and can easily
remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the
air stream.
COMPONENTS USED IN ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR
 Electrodes
 V H) φ AC suppl
 High voltage transformer
 Rectifier
 insulators
 Hooper
 BASIC DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTROSTATIC PRECITATOR
20 – 80 KV dc

440V, 50Hz

Clean gas

Discharge
electrode

Control cabinet High voltage Rectifier Dust gas Collector

transformer electrode

Hooper
Control cabinet
Co t ol a i et is used to i te o e t the φ a suppl a d
transformer through wires.

Transformer

Transformer is used to step up or step down the voltage as

per the design of Electrostatic precipitator.

Rectifier
Rectifier is used to convert the given ac supply into dc supply.

Hooper
Hooper is used to store the dust particles and ash content
coming out from the Electrostatic precipitator.
 Electrodes : -
Collector
Based on DC current flow terminals elctrodes electrodes
can be divided as below:-
Discharge
Discharge electrode :- electrode

Electrodes wire which carries negatively

charged high voltage (between 20 to 80KV)
act as discharge or emitting electrodes.

Collector electrode :-

Electrode wire which carries positively

charged high voltage act as
Collecting electrodes.
WORKING OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Stage - 1
Several things happen very rapidly (in a matter of a millisecond) in the small area
around the discharge electrode. Electric field is emerged due to dc terminal
arrangement. The applied (-) voltage in discharge electrode is increased until it
produces a corona discharge, which can be seen as a luminous blue glow around
the discharge Electrode.

Due to the formation of corona discharge,

free electrons are emitted with high
velocity from discharge electrode.

This fast moving free electrons strikes the

gas molecule thus emission of free
electron from gas molecules takes place.
The positive ion molecule move towards
discharge electrode by electrostatic
attraction

As a result using gas molecule more

free electrons are emitted near the
discharge electrode.
Stage - 2
As the electrons leave the strong
electrical field area around the
discharge electrode, they start slowing
down. This free electron again strikes
the gas molecule but this time they
are captured by gas molecule and
became negatively charged ion.

As the gas molecule are negatively

ionized they move towards the (+)
electrode (i.e., collector electrode).

This negative gas ion fills the space of

Dust particle and becoming
negatively charged particle.

This particle are captured by collector

electrode using electrostatic
attraction.
MAGNETIC SEPARATORS
•INTRODUCTION

• Magnetic separation is a process in which

magnetically susceptible material is
extracted from a mixture using a magnetic
force.

• Since 19th century magnetic separation

processes have been used to concentrate and
separate minerals.
 APPLICATION OF MAGNETISM AS SEPARATOR

Basically Magnetism is used for five distinct type of separation

• For the removal of tramp iron in coarse and intermediate-

crushing circuits, as a protection to the crushing machinery.
• For the concentration of magnetite ores.
• For the concentration of iron ore other than magnetite, after
preliminary conversion of iron minerals to artificial magnetite by
suitable roasting.
•For the removal of small quantities of iron ore minerals from
Ceramic raw materials.
•For the concentration of slightly Paramagnetic minerals such as
those of Manganese, tungsten, chromium, tin, zinc, titanium, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC SEPARATOR

It can be classified according to the medium in which the

separation is made, the mode of the presentation of the
feed, the mode of disposal of the products, & whether
the magnets are stationary or moving.
Magnetic drum separators are important
magnetic separators that removes ferrous metal
from dry bulk products in free-flowing processing
systems. They are self cleaning unit consisting of
drums and housing normally of stainless steel. The
magnets used by the magnetic drum separators
are either ceramic magnets or rare earth magnets.
The magnetic drum separators are available both
in single or double drum configuration.
How it Works?

The processing materials enters the top of the magnetic drum

separator and flows across the surface of the drum. The
rotatory drum in the magnetic field captures the ferrous
tramps whereas non ferrous falls free from the drum into the
cleaned material flow. As the drum rotates, the ferrous metal
so captured is carried past the diverter and released outside
of the magnetic field.
Applications

The magnetic drum separator is ideal for separating iron particles

from granules & powders It is widely used in the following
industries:
•Glass
•Ceramic
•Chemical
•Fertilizer
•Plastic
•Food industry
•Iron and steel slag treatment
•Reduced pyrite ash separation
 FLOATATION
HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION
 SEPARATION TERMINOLOGY
• Separation Techniques take advantage of the differences in
characteristics between minerals:

• Flotation: Attachment of minerals to air bubbles –

hydrophibicity.

• Gravity Separation: differences in specific gravity of materials,

Stoke s la , e t ifugal fo e, sedi e tatio .

• Particle size distribution, shape, and density has large

influence on results.
 FLOTATION
• Flotation cell flow
 FLOTATION
• Column flotation cells:
• Do not use mechanical agitation
(impellers). Instead, mixing is
achieved by the turbulence
provided by rising bubbles.
• Mostly used to produce final
grade concentrates because
they are capable of great
selectivity.

• Other features:
– Tall shape – froth much
deeper
– bubble generation system -
spargers
– use of wash water - high
degree of cleaning,
entrainment virtually
eliminated.
 FLOTATION CIRCUIT
• Flotation process is broadly divided
into rougher, cleaner and scavenger
stages, each using many (bank of)
flotation cells :

• Concentrate from the rougher stage

are further concentrated in the
cleaner stage.

• Tailings from the rougher or cleaner

stage are fed to the scavenger stage.

• With all the internal recycles,

operation of a flotation plant is a
somewhat delicate balancing act.
 FROTH FLOTATION
• Chemical additives:
• Frother: a long chain alkyl alcohol, is added to stabilize the froth layer.
• Collector: organic chemical (eg. Xanthates), selectively adsorbs onto the surface of the
mineral of interest and renders it hydrophobic (afraid of water) – non-polar head
• Modifier: adjust pH of water
• Activator: cause a mineral to float with a collector when it would otherwise not float.
• Depressant: prevent a mineral from floating. Example: Starch, guar depress flotation of
clays in potash
 FROTH FLOTATION
Water – mineral surface chemistry:
1. Water is a polar molecule. Hydrogen atoms
have slightly positive charge, oxygen slightly
negative charge.
2. Thus, pH has a important effect on flotation
performance
3. Particles may have an electrical charge on
their surface when placed in water.
4. Sign and magnitude of the charge depends on
the atoms on the particle surface and the ions
in solution.
5. Surface will tend to dominate the flotation
properties of the mineral
6. Sulphide minerals can react with oxygen
(oxidize) in water used during mining and
concentrating processes.
7. These reactions can change the surface
charge usually rendering it hydrophilic, thus
non-floating.
 FROTH FLOTATION
Froth flotation:

• Most common method for separating

sulfide minerals from each other and
from waste minerals or gangue

• Also used in potash, phosphates

• A stream of air bubbles is passed

through the pulp. Being hydrophobic,
the particles attach to the bubbles
which, of course, are filled with air.

• The bubbles float to the surface and

collect in a froth layer that either
flows over the top
 HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION
• Mai p i iples: Stoke s a d Ne to s la s
Gravity and/or centrifugal force

• Separation based mainly on particle

settling rate, which is in turn dependent
on:
– Size
– Shape
– Density

• Classification is key! A large low density particle

= small high density settling rate

• Slimes (-20 micron) detrimental due to viscosity

Used for very heavy minerals (W, Sn, Au) or very
light (coal)
 HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION

• Heavy media separation (HMS)

uses differences in specific
gravity (SG), density and
buoyancy forces to separate
minerals.
• By mixing media with a high SG
along with ore that has two
different minerals each with an
SG that is sufficiently different
from the other
• Example is coal and shale. Coal
has a SG of 1.0 to 1.5. Shale has
an SG of 2.4 to 2.8. Add fine
magnetite (s.p. 4.0) to water to
make slurry SG between 1.5-2.4
• Good for coarse feed, fines
pollute the media
 Typical Beneficiation Steps

Beneficiation: the enrichment of ores and separation of unwanted

gangue minerals is subsequent treatment to get the metals more
efficiently. It Uses only mechanical, physical, and physico-chemical
methods. Can be divided into two distinct steps.
Liberation: rock is broken down by mechanical means so that the
individual mineral components become independent of each other, i.e.,
each is detached or liberated.
Separation: valuable minerals are separated from the rest by means of
physical and physico-chemical methods making use of differences in
specific gravity, magnetic properties, etc.
Heavy media separation of cleaning coal

• Heavy/dense
media:
• Media recycle
system starts to
get complex
FLOWSHEET FOR COAL PARTICLE SEPARATION
 USES
• Heavy/dense media cyclone:
• look like classifying hydrocyclones
• Used for coal and diamonds
• Typically use fine magnetite or ferrosilicon slurry, can also be water-only or
heavy liquid
• near-horizontal orientation allowing for large apex sizes
JIGGING
 Introduction
• The jig separates two or more minerals of different
specific gravities.

• It is simple in construction , easily operated, capable of

treating large quantities in a short time, and highly
efficient under various conditions.

• It is macroscopic phenomena in which the heavier and

bigger particles concentrate at the bed bottom while
lighter and smaller particles move to the upper part of
the bed.
The basic construction of a jig is shown above. Essentially it consists
of an open tank filled with a fluid with horizontal or slightly inclined
jig 'screen' near the top upon which the particles are supported and
through which the fluid flows in alternating directions.
• In this sorting results from the periodic action of asc
ending and descending pulses of water on the bed of
material being prepared
• The pulsation causes the bed to alternately dilate an
d contract while the particles with low density move
to the upper layers and those with high density move
to lower layers.
• Each layer has its own characteristic density
• And thus it is possible to separate concentrates from
the tailings and in some cases from the intermediate
product.

12/19/14
 ADVANTAGES OF JIGS
• For treatment of coal.

1) After the process of jigging they yield a dry as well as

wet finished products.

2) In treatment of course coal the moisture drained readily

and dry product is used.

3) but in treatment of fine coal it needs wet washed

products.

4) its mixed treatment method it gives synthesis a blend of

suitable moisture content for best coke making.
USES OF JIGS
• Jigs are generally course mineral concentrating devices.
• In coal washing pieces as course as 4 to 5 inches can be
washed in jigs.
• In ore concentration pieces as course as 1 inch can be
treated.
• Hydraulic jigs treat coal as fine as 1/8 inch and mineral
as fine as 20 mesh.
• Pneumatics jigs can treat minerals as fine as 65 mesh,
as course as 1to 1.5 inches.
• They retains a dominant position for the basification of
non magnetic iron ores and for the many non-metallics.
 REFERENCES
• Coulson And Richardson'S Chemical Engineering, Volume 2,
5th Edition: Particle Technology And Separation Processes
• Mc Cabe , WL Smith Harriot, Unit operations of Chemical
Engineering.
• Chemical Engineering Design by RK Sinnott
• Encylopedia of Chemical Engineering Equipment(mel)
• Industrial pollution control Engineering by C.S.Rao
• Wikipedian.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostati_precipitator
• Investigation on Jigging by ROYAL PRESTON JARVIS

• Mineral processing technology by B.A. Wills

• Principles of Mineral dressing by A. M. Gaudin

 UNIT-4
• To understand filtration theory its equipment,
operation and design calculations.
 UNIT 4 Syllabus
• Theory of filtration, Batch and continuous
filters.
• Flow through filter cake and filter media, Filter
aids
• Compressible and incompressible filter cakes
• Filtration Equipments
• Problems
FILTRATION
 FILTRATION
The separation of solids from a suspension in a liquid by means
of a porous medium or screen which retains the solids and
allows the liquid to pass is termed filtration.
 Example
• The solid remaining in the
filter paper is called the
residue.
• The residue can be dried
by spreading it out on the
filter paper and allowing
the liquid to evaporate.
• The liquid which has
passed through the filter
paper is called the
filtrate.

3/31/2019 5
 Septum or Filtering Media

Filter Paper Membrane

3/31/2019 6
 Solid Deposition

In the form of cake on the septum

Or
Trapped inside the pores of the septum

3/31/2019 7
 Steps involved in filtration

1. Draining the liquor

2. Filtration
3. Filling with wash water
4. Washing
5. Draining the wash water
6. Opening, dumping and reassembling
7. Filling with slurry.
Principle of Filtration
Constant rate and Pressure Filtration
GENERAL THEORY FOR FILTRATION
Darcy’s law—relate the flow rate through a porous bed of
solids to the pressure drop causing that flow.
kP
v


v = velocity of the liquid

P = pressure drop across the bed of thickness ℓ
P/ ℓ = pressure gradient
 = viscosity of the liquid
k = permeability of the bed, a proportionality constant
(dimension: L2)
 Type of Filter
• Cake Filter

• Clarifying Filter

• Cross Flow

• Ultra Filter cake filter

 Cake Filtration

• Cake filtration consists of passing a solid

suspension (slurry) through a porous medium
or septum (e.g., a woven wire). The solids in
the slurry are retained on the surface of the
medium where they build up, forming an
increasing thicker cake.
 Cake Filtration (continued)
• As time goes by the thickness of the cake increases, as
more solids are filtered. This results in a corresponding
increase of the pressure resistance across the cake.
• As more slurry is filtered the solids retained on the
medium provide most of filtering action. In cake
filtration the cake is the real filtering element.
• Cake filtration is intrinsically a batch process. Hence, it
can be expected that as filtration proceeds the cake will
build up and the pressure drop across the cake will
increase.
Contd…
• If the cake is incompressible (i.e., it does not
change its volume as pressure builds up) the
pressure resistance increases proportionally
to the cake thickness.

• However, since most cakes are compressible

the pressure across the cake typically
increases even faster than the cake build-up.
 Cake Filter
• A filter cake is formed by the substances that are retained on
a filter .
• The filter cake grows in the course of filtration, becomes
"thicker" as particulate matter is being retained.
• With increasing layer thickness the flow resistance of the filter
cake increases
• After a certain time of use the
filter cake has to be removed
from the filter,
e.g. by back flushing.

Filter cake
 Clarifiers (or Deep-Bed)
Filtration

• Depth filtration consists of passing a liquid,

typically containing only a small amount of
solids, through a porous bed where the solids
become trapped.
• Solid entrapment occurs within the
entire filter bed or a significant part of it.
• Depth filtration is typically a batch process

Direction of Flow in Deep-Bed Filters

• Up flow
• Down flow (most common)
 Clarifying Filter
• Any filter, such as a sand filter or a cartridge filter,
used to purify liquids with a low solid-liquid ratio; in
some instances colour may be removed as well.

Disk-and-plate clarifying filter. N-pin series of clarifying filter for electrolytic

aluminium flue gas
 Cross flow Filters
Cross flow filters – feed suspension flows under pressure
at high velocity across filter medium

• Thin layer of solids may form on surface ,but high

velocity keeps layer from building up
• Medium is ceramic, metal, or polymer with pores
small enough to exclude most of suspended particles
• Some liquid passes through as clear filtrate, leaving
more concentrated suspension behind
 Cross flow Filtration

Some of the liquid passes through the septum

leaving behind conc. solution

3/31/2019 21
 Ultrafiltration (UF)
• Ultrafiltration (UF) is a variety of membrane filtration in
which hydrostatic pressure forces a liquid against
a semipermeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of
high molecular weight are retained, while water and low
molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane.

inclined ultrafiltration downward ultrafiltration

 Membrane Filter:
• These are very common
among the ultra filtration
methods.
• Made up of cellulose,
Polyvinylchloride, Nylon
and other cellulose
derivatives.
• They rare very fine
having a very vide range
of pore size from 8µ
down to 0.22µ.
Pore size (in µ) Particles removed
0.2 All bacteria
0.45 All coliform group bacteria
0.8 All air born particles
1.2 All Non living particles considered dangerous in I.V. Fluid.
5 All Significant cell from body fluid

 Advantages:
• Bacteria are removed by sieving
• Absorption of medicament is negligible
• In every new operation, a new disc is used
• Filtration is quite rapid
• Don’t liberate particles to the filtrate.
 Disadvantages:
• Fine pores may get clogged easily
• Soluble in certain organic solutions e.g. ketones and esters
• Very brittle when dry.
Batch and Continuous filters
Classification of Filters
Filters are classified on following three different
basis:
 Mechanism
 The driving force
 Operation
On the basis of mechanism
1. Cake filters
2. Clarifying filters
3. Cross flow filters

On the basis of driving force

1. Pressure Filters
2. Vacuum filters
3. Centrifugal filters

On the basis of operation

1. Continuous filters
2. Batch or discontinuous filters
“The surface upon which solids are deposited in a filter is called the Filter
medium”.

PROPERTIES OF IDEAL FILTER MEDIA:

1. Chemically inert.
2. High retention power.
3. Sufficient mechanical strength.
4. Absorbs negligible amount of material.
5. Resistant to the corrosive action of liquid.

Selection of filter media depends on followings:

1. Size of particle to be filtered.
2. Amount of liquid to be filtered.
3. Nature of product to be filtered.
4. Purpose of filter.
• Filter paper is a common filter
medium since it offers controlled
porosity, limited absorption
characteristic, and low cost
• It has different grades and
qualities different pore size such
as coarse medium and fine.
Disadvantages:
• They shed very fine particle to
the filtrate.
• Absorb small quantity of liquid.
Woven Material:

Cotton silk wool nylon & glass etc.

 Nylon cloth:
• Superior to the cotton cloth.
• Not affected by molds, fungus and bacteria.
• Has negligible absorption properties.
• It is extremely strong as compared to cotton cloth.
 Woven wire cloth:
• Made from stainless steel.
• Easily cleaned.
• Long lasting.
• Resistant to the chemicals.
 Cotton Wool:
• Commonly used.
• Small tough of cotton wool
placed in the neck of funnel.

 Glass wool:
• Use for filtering highly corrosive
chemicals.
• May contaminate the filtrate
with glass fibers
Asbestos:
• Also used for filtering
the corrosive liquid.
• They impart alkalinity
to the filtrate.
• Alkaloids may get
absorbed.
• May contaminate the
filtrate.
Flow through filter
cake and filter
media
GENERAL THEORY FOR FILTRATION
Darcy’s law—relate the flow rate through a porous bed of
solids to the pressure drop causing that flow.
kP
v

v = velocity of the liquid
ΔP = pressure drop across the bed of thickness ℓ
Δ P/ ℓ = pressure gradient
μ = viscosity of the liquid
k = permeability of the bed, a proportionality constant
(dimension: L2)
 kP
Darcy’s law: v 


Strictly speaking, Darcy’s law holds only when

vd
5
 (1   )
where d is the particle size of the filter cake,  is the
liquid density, and  is the void fraction in the cake.

For a batch filtration,

1 dV 1 dV kP
v  
A dt A dt 

where V is the total volume of filtrate, A is the filter area,

and t is the time.
Two contributions to the filtration resistance:

 RM  RC
k
where RM is the resistance of the filter medium (constant),
and RC is the resistance of the cake (varies with V).

The basic differential equation for filtration at constant

pressure drop can thus be obtained as:

1 dV kP 1 dV P
  
A dt  A dt ( RM  RC )
 Design Equation for Batch Filtration
Cake Filter
Pressure Drop During Cake Filtration
p  pa  pb  ( pa  p' )  ( p' pb ) Lc

 pc  pm
pa

Upstream face of cake

p
Filtrate Direction of
flow of slurry
Where p = overall pressure drop
pb p’
pc = pressure drop over cake
pm = pressure drop over medium

dL
L
Design Equation for Batch Filtration
Since the cake forms a porous bed over the filter medium, the flow of
filtrate through the accumulated cake is analogous to fluid flow
through a packed bed of granular solids.
• If the particles in the cake are uniformly wet by the filtrate then
Kozeny’s equations can be used to compute the pressure drop
across the cake (-P).
The velocity of fluid through the bed is:

Where, K = Kozeny’s constant

= 25/6, for random packed particles of
definite size and shape
RH = Hydraulic radius
= flow area/wetted perimeter
Assumptions:
• Flow of filtrate through the cake is laminar.
• Particles in the cake are uniformly wet by the filtrate.
• There is no channeling of the liquid through the cake.
RH = Void volume/Total surface area of particle
=  / sp (1- )
Where,
 = Void fraction of the bed = Void volume/total volume
sp = Specific surface (surface area per unit volume) of the particles
Using value of RH
we have ,
 .
The superficial velocity of the liquid Usup is defined as the volumetric flow rate of the
liquid divided by the total (or empty) cross-sectional area and can be related U’ as,
Usup/U’ = Void area / Total area
= Void volume / Total volume = 

(-Pc) = pressure drop across the cake

Lc = thickness of the cake

Where,
The factor  is called the specific cake resistance and is a measure of the
resistance offered by the cake to the flow of filtrate. The average value of  is
determined experimentally for each sludge.

 is independent of
Incompressible pressure drop and
Filter cake position in the cake

Compressible

Formed when cake is not made up of individual rigid particles

, sp/vp vary from layer to layer

 varies with distance from filter medium

Cake nearest the surface of the media is subjected to
the greatest compressive force and has the lowest 
Pressure gradient is non-linear and local value of  may vary with time
For the computation of Lc

Lc is expressed in terms of the volume of filtrate V, cake voidage and concentration of

feed slurry. If filtrate is the solid-free liquid, then
Mass of solids in the cake = Mass of solids in the feed slurry
If x is the mass fraction of solids in the feed slurry, then,
Mass of solids in the feed slurry

Mass of solids in the cake

v is the volume of cake deposited by passage of unit volume of filtrate.

Then,
Pressure drop across the filter medium is:

Rm is to be determined experimentally.
 Rm may vary with P, as solid particles can be forced into the filter medium

 Can also vary with age and cleanliness of filter medium

 But, since it is important only during early stages of filtration, can usually be
assumed as constant
Therefore, the total resistance of filtration is

Then ultimate filtration equation is:

 Compressible and
incompressible filter cakes
Pressure drop across the filter medium is:

Rm is to be determined experimentally.
 Rm may vary with P, as solid particles can be forced into the filter medium

 Can also vary with age and cleanliness of filter medium

 But, since it is important only during early stages of filtration, can usually be
assumed as constant
Therefore, the total resistance of filtration is

Then ultimate filtration equation is:

 Design…

Empirical Equation for Resistance of Compressible Cakes

Sperry correlation
   0 (p) s
• Where s is the compressibility coefficient of the cake
• 0 for incompressible sludges
• + for compressible ones
• Usually 0.2 <  < 0.8
It has a inherent limitation that it predicts zero resistance when the (P) is zero.

Ruth correlation

Both these correlations are the functions of (-P) only. Therefore, for compressible
sludge also,  is constant if the filtration is being conducted at constant pressure.
Empirical Equation for Resistance of Compressible Cakes

Donald and Hunneman correlation

0 < n < 20

Generalized correlation
 Specific cases of filtration
Final filtration equation

Constant pressure and incompressible sludge (=const.)

where ,

For practice purpose,

Slope of line = KP which gives 

Y-Intercept of line = B which gives Rm
 Specific cases of filtration
Constant rate and incompressible sludge (=const.)

Where, and

Also

where,

-P

Slope of line = Kr or Kr’ which gives 

Y-Intercept of line = Br which gives Rm

V or t
 Specific cases of filtration
Constant pressure and compressible sludge

If    0 (p) s
Then,

Assuming v to be constant (v is constant for small values of  and for

most of filter cakes particularly compressible cakes,  is small).
-P1

Where, -P2

and -P3

Slopes of lines = Kp’ values

Y-Intercept of line = B which gives average
value of Rm
Specific cases of filtration
Constant pressure and compressible sludge

log-log plot

Kp’

Slope of line = (1-s) which gives value of s

Y-Intercept of line = (f 0v/A2) which gives
value of0
-P
 Specific cases of filtration
Constant rate and compressible sludge

If  = 0 (-Pc)s Then

since

If

Then
Incompressible Cakes
V 
RC   0  
 A
 = specific cake resistance, cm/g
0 = mass of cake solids per volume of filtrate
1 dV P

A dt  ( RM  RC )

1 dV P
 A dt  [ (V / A)  R ] (I.C.: t = 0, V = 0)
0 M

At 0  V  RM V 
      K  B
V 2P  A  P  A
 At 0  V  RM V 
     K   B
V 2P  A  P  A

 At  V  
Plot   versus    Slope = K  0
V   A 2P
Known , 0, P   can be determined.

* Often, the medium resistance RM is insignificant, B = 0.

0  V  2
t  
2P  A 
Compressible Cakes
“As these cakes compress, filtration rates drop.”

To estimate the effects of compressibility, we assume that

the cake resistance  is a function of the pressure drop.
V 
   ' (P) s
Recall: RC   0  
 A
where ’ = a constant related largely to the size and shape
of the particles forming the cake
s = the cake compressibility
    ' (P) s  log  log 's log P

 Plot log versus logP, slope = s, intercept = log’.

Ex1. Constant pressure
Filtration area = 0.01 m2 A
Solution density = 1,062 kg/m2 
Solution viscosity = 1.610-3 Pa.s 
Filtration pressure = 200 kPa P
Solid concentration = 3 kg/m3 Cs
Determine specific filter cake resistance and filter medium
resistance
Time (sec) Volume (cm3)
0 0
14 400
32 800
55 1200
80 1600
107 2000
Ex1. Constant pressure
Filtration area = 0.01 m2 A
Solution density = 1,062 kg/m2 
Solution viscosity = 1.610-3 Pa.s 
Filtration pressure = 200 kPa P
Solid concentration = 3 kg/m3 Cs
Determine specific filter cake resistance and filter medium
resistance
Time (sec) Volume (cm3)
0 0
14 400
32 800
55 1200
80 1600
107 2000
The solution

Y = aX + C
Y axis = tA/V
X axis = V/A
Slope = Cs/2P
Y intercept = Rm/P
Time (sec) Volume (cm3) Volume (m3) tA/V V/A
0 0 0 0 0
14 400 0.0004 350 0.04
32 800 0.0008 400 0.08
55 1200 0.0012 458.33 0.12
80 1600 0.0016 500 0.16
107 2000 0.0020 535 0.20

600

500

400
y = 1175x + 307.67
tA/V

300 R 2 = 0.9912
200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
V/A
 Cs
Slope   1175
2P
(1.6 10 3 ) (3)
 1175
2  (200 103 )
  9.792 1010 m / kg

Rm
yy intercept
int ercept   307.67
P
(1.6 10 3 ) Rm
 307.67
200 10 3

Rm  3.845 1010 1/ m
Ex2. Constant rate

A slurry containing 25.7 kg dry solids/m3 of filtrate across the

filter medium area 2.15 m2 at a constant rate of 0.00118 m3/s.
If the pressure drop was observed 4,000 and 8,500 Pa after
150 and 450 seconds of filtration, respectively. The viscosity of
filtrate was 0.001 Pa.s

Determine the specific cake resistance and filter medium

resistance.
 The solution (1)
dV AP
P (Pa)   Cons tan t
V
dt Cs  Rm
A
 
 AP 
 dV     dt
 Rm 
V
 Cs
 A 
t (sec)
  (2)
 AP 
V  t
 Cs  Rm 
V
Cs  V 
2  
Slope   A 
  (3)
A t 
2
CsV 2 RmV
P  
R  V 
2
At At
y int ercept  m  
Cs  V  Rm  V 
2
A t  P    .t   
A2 t  A t 
(4)
 P (Pa) t (sec)
4,000 150
8,500 450

9000
8000
7000
6000
P (Pa)

5000
y = 15x + 1750
4000
R2 = 1
3000
2000
1000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
t (sec)
 Cs  V 
2

Slope     15
A t 
2

(0.001) (25.7)(0.00118) 2
 15
2.152
  1.938 109 m / kg
Rm  V 
y int ercept     1750
A t 
(0.001) Rm (0.00118)
 1750
2.15
Rm  3.189 109 1/ m
 Example 1 ( lab scale)
Data for the laboratory filtration of CaCO3 slurry in water at 298.2 K are reported as
follows at a constant pressure (-∆p) of 338 kN/m2. The filter area of the plate and frame
press was A=0.0439 m2 and the slurry concentration was cs=23.47 kg/m3. Calculate the
constant α and Rm from the experimental data given, where t is time in s and V is filtrate
volume collected in m3.
 EXAMPLE 1 CONSTANT PRESSURE FILTRATION
CaCO3 slurry in water at 298.2K (25oC)  = ? m/kg
A = 0.0439 m2 Rm = ?m-1
cs = 23.47 kg solids/m3 filtrate
-ΔP = 338 kN/m2 K pV 2
Given: Solution: t  BV
2
t  Kp V  B
V 2

Kp/2 = 3.00 x 106 s/m6

B =6400 s/m3
 EXAMPLE 1 CONSTANT PRESSURE FILTRATION
CaCO3 slurry in water at 298.2K (25oC)  = ? m/kg
A = 0.0439 m2 Rm = ?m-1
cs = 23.47 kg solids/m3 filtrate
-ΔP = 338 kN/m2
Solution:
Kp/2 = 3.00 x 106 s/m6 Kp = 6.00 x 106 s/m6  cs
A 2p
 R
B =6400 s/m3  A p
  m
From Appendix A.2-4:  = 8.937 x 10-4 Pa.s
Substituting all the known values,
Rm = 10.63 x 1010m-1

α = 1.863 x 1011 m/kg

 Example 2 (larger scale)

The same slurry used in Example 1 is to be filtered in a plate-and-frame press

having 20 frames and 0.873 m2 area per frame. The same pressure will be used in
constant pressure filtration. Assuming the same filter-cake properties and filter
cloth, calculate the time to recover 3.37 m3 filtrate
CONSTANT PRESSURE
FILTRATION (BATCH)

Plate and frame press (batch)

 EXAMPLE 2 CONSTANT PRESSURE FILTRATION

CaCO3 slurry in water at 298.2K (25oC)

A = 0.0439 m2
• cs = 23.47 kg solids/m3 filtrate
• -ΔP = 338 kN/m2
• Plate-and-frame press having 20 frames (0.873 m2 per frame)
• Time to recover 3.37 m3 filtrate =?
Solution:
Kp = 6.00 x 106 s/m6  cs
A 2p
B =6400  R
s/m3  A p
  m
From given data:  = 8.937 x 10-4 Pa.s
Substituting all the known values plus the new area ( 20 x 0.873 = 17.46 m2),
Kp = 37.93 s/m6
B = 16.10 s/m3
K pV 2 37.93(3.37) 2
t  BV  16.1(3.37)  269.7s
2 2
 CONSTANT PRESSURE
FILTRATION dV
(BATCH)
1   
Washing of filter cake:
Leaf filter:  
 dt  f K pV f  B

 dV   1 1
Plate-&-frame filter: 

 dt  f 4 K pV f B
Time of washing: t  washing liquid
rate of washing
where

 dV  3

 dt f = rate of washing (m /s)

Total cycle filter time = filtration time + washing time + cleaning time

Cleaning time - remove the cake, clean the filter, and reassemble the filter
Vf= total volume of filtrate for entire period at the end of filtration(m3)
 Example 3
At the end of the filtration cycle in previous example, a total filtrate
volume of 3.37 m3 is collected in a total time of 269.7 s. The cake
is to be washed by through-washing in the plate-and-frame press
using a volume of wash water equal to 10% of the filtrate volume.
Calculate the time of washing and the total filter cycle time if
cleaning the filter takes 20 min
 Example 3
At the end of the filtration cycle in previous example, a total filtrate
volume of 3.37 m3 is collected in a total time of 269.7 s. The cake
is to be washed by through-washing in the plate-and-frame press
using a volume of wash water equal to 10% of the filtrate volume.
Calculate the time of washing and the total filter cycle time if
cleaning the filter takes 20 min

Time of washing: t  washing liquid

rate of washing

Total cycle filter time = filtration time + washing time + cleaning time
 EXAMPLE 3 CONSTANT PRESSURE FILTRATION
V = 3.37 m3 filtrate filtration time 269.7s
Washing liquid = 10% filtrate volume m3 = 0.337 m3
Time washing = ? Total filter cycle = ?
Cleaning time = 20 min
Solution: Kp = 37.93 s/m6
B = 16.10 s/m3
 dV
rate of washing 3
(m /s)=  dt  1 1
 f 4 K pV f  B
 dV  
1
  1  1.737x103m3 /s
 
 dt  f 4 37.93(3.37)16.1

0.337 194s
Time of washing, t washing liquid 
rate of washing 1.737x103
Total cycle filter time = filtration time + washing time + cleaning time
Substituting all the known values ,
Total cycle filter time = 269.7s + 194s + (20 x 60)s = 1663.7 s =27.73 min
 Example 4
• A plate and frame filter, is filtering slurry that gives a total of 8 m3
of filtrate in 1800 sec. and 11 m3 in 3600 sec when the filtration
was stopped. Estimate the washing time in seconds if 3 m3 of wash
water is used. The resistance of the cloth can be neglected and a
constant pressure is used throughout.
 Solution: Example 4
2𝐴2 (1−𝑀)∆𝑃
• From rate equation of filtration: 𝑉 2 = 𝑡
𝜌𝑤𝜇𝛼
• Case at intermediate time: 8m3 in 1800 s
• Case at total time: 11m3 in 3600 s
• Sub above equation and found out the unknowns,
• which is = 63.1
𝑑𝑉 𝐴2 (1−𝑀)∆𝑃 0.0158
• Sub the unknowns in = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝜌𝑤𝜇𝛼 11
1.4407𝑥10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠
• For Thorough washing,
• = 1.4407x10-3 / 4 = 3.6 x10-4 m3/s.
• Time of Washing = 3/3.6 x10-4 = 8333.33 s.
 Example 5
• A slurry is filtered in a filter of c/s area of 20 m2. the slurry consists of
particles of density 2.26 g/cc. the filter cake has a porosity of 32%. For
constant pressure filtration at 3bar.
i) What volume of slurry is required to build up a cake of 12.5 cm thick.
ii) How long will it take to form the cake if the cloth resistance is neglected.
• Data:
i) Filtrate viscosity = 1.6 cP.
ii) Filtrate density = 1.05 g/cc
iii) Solid concentration in the slurry = 4.8% by weight
iv) Specific cake resistance = 1.14 x 10 11 m/kg.
 Solution – Example 5
i) Using formula for Thickness of cake,

𝜌𝑠 1 −∈ 1 − 𝑥 − 𝜌𝑓 𝑥 ∈
𝑉 = 𝐴 𝐿𝑐
𝜌𝑓 𝑥
V = 7.145 m3

ii) W.k.t, batch filtration equation with

• ‘v’ found to be ALc/V = 0.035

• neglecting Rm and integrating above equation will give,
• Δt = V2vαμf/2A2(-ΔP) = 1.4 s m3/kg = 1.4 x 1050 x 0.048/0.94 = 75 s
 Example 6

• 48 liters of filtrate were collected in 16 min, in a leaf filter operating

under constant pressure. What is the volume of filtrate collected during
the last minute of operation. What will be the time required to wash the
cake if 5 liters of water are used under the same condition.
 Solution: Example 6

• From rate equation of filtration:

• Assuming negligible Rm, from above equation, the unknown will be , after
integrating,
2𝐴2 ∆𝑃 𝑉2 482
• = = = 144
𝛼𝑣𝜇𝑓 ∆𝑡 16
• For total time. i.e.: 48 liters in 16 min. Then up to last minute i.e. 15 min

• 𝑉 2 = 144 𝑥 15; 𝑉 = 46.47 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

• Volume of filtrate collected in last minute of operation = 48 – 46.67=1.53

liters.

𝒅𝑽 𝐴2 ∆𝑃 144
• Rate of filtration; = = = 1.5 liters/min
𝒅𝒕 2𝑉𝛼𝑣𝜇𝑓 2 𝑥 48
• Rate of Washing = Rate of Filtration (Simple Washing)
• Time of Washing = 5/1.5=3.33 min.
 Example 7
• In an industrial filter-press operated at constant pressure 100 liters of
filtrate was collected in 10 minutes. How much filtrate would be collected
in 60 minutes. What is the rate of filtration at the end of 60 mins.
 Solution Example 7

• From rate equation of filtration:

• Assuming negligible Rm, from above equation, the
unknown will be , after integrating,
2𝐴2 ∆𝑃 𝑉2 1002
• = = = 1000
𝛼𝑣𝜇𝑓 ∆𝑡 10
• The filtrate collected in 60 mins, will be, using above
equation,
• V2 = 1000 x 60 ; V = 245 litres.
• Then,
𝒅𝑽 𝐴2 ∆𝑃 1000
• Rate of filtration; = = = 2.04 liters/min
𝒅𝒕 2𝑉𝛼𝑣𝜇𝑓 2 𝑥 245
 Example 8
• If the time for simple washing of a filter cake with 100 litres of water is
120 min. estimate the time for filtration to obtain 400 litres of filtrate
assuming constant pressure operation and neglecting medium resistance.
 Solution: Example 8
Rate of Washing = 100/120=0.834 lit/ min.

Rate of Washing = Rate of Filtration (Simple Washing)

𝒅𝑽 𝐴2 ∆𝑃
Rate of filtration; 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑉𝛼𝑣𝜇 =0.834 liters/min, for 400 liters of filtrate
𝑓
2
𝐴 ∆𝑃
So, 𝛼𝑣𝜇 =0.834 x 400 = 332.8.
𝑓

Substituting in the rate equation of filtration:

the unknowns , after integrating, then, Time of filtration

𝑉 2 𝛼𝑣𝜇𝑓 4002
2
= = 240 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
2𝐴 ∆𝑃 2 𝑥 332.8
 Commonly used
Industrial Equipment for filtration
 Industrial Filtration Equipment for cake filters

1. Discontinuous Pressure Filters:

Apply large P across septum to give economically rapid filtration with
viscous liquids or fine solids.
• Plate and Frame Filter Press
• Shell and leaf Filters
2. Continuous Vacuum Filter:
Vacuum filters are simple and reliable machines and therefore have gained wide
acceptance in the chemical, food and pharmaceutical industries.
• Rotary Drum filter
• Horizontal Belt filter
3.Centrifugal filters:
Solids that form porous cake can be separated from liquids in a filtering centrifuge
used extensively in sugar refining.
• Top suspended batch centrifuge
 Plate and Frame Filter Press
• Filter presses work in a "batch" manner.
• The plates are clamped together, then a pump starts feeding the slurry
into the filter press to complete a filtering cycle and produce a batch of
solid filtered material, called the filter cake.
• A filter press uses increased pump pressure to maximize the rate of
filtration
 Plate and Frame Filter Press

• This press is made up of two units, known respectively as plates and

frames, with a filter medium, usually filter cloth, between the two.
• The frame is open, with an inlet for the slurry, while the plate has grooved
surface to support the filter cloth, and with an outlet for the filtrate.

The operation
• The slurry enters the frame from the feed channel,
• The filtrate passes through the filter medium on to the surface of the
plate while the solids form a filter cake in the frame.
• The filtrate then drained down the surface of the plate , between the
projections on the surface and escapes from the outlet.
• Filtration is continued until the frame is filled with filter cake, when the
process is stopped , the frame emptied, and the cycle re-started.
• Channels for the slurry inlet and the filtrate outlet can be arranged by
fitting eyes to the plates and frames. This has the advantages that the
filtrate from each plate can be seen and, in the event of a broken cloth,
the faulty plate can be isolated and the filtration continued with one plate
less.

• The thickness of the cake can be varied by using frames of different

thickness and, in general, there will be an optimum thickness of filter cake
for any slurry, depending on the solids content of the slurry and the
resistance of the filter cake.
• As filtration proceeds, the resistance of the cake increases and the
filtration rate will decrease. At a certain point it will be preferable in terms
of the overall output of the process, to stop and empty the press rather
than to continue filtration at a very low flow rate.

• Plates and frames may be made in various metals to provide resistance

to corrosion or prevent metallic contamination of the product. Non-metals
e.g. plastics is lighter, also varieties of wood are satisfactory materials of
construction.
• Plates and frames may be of considerable size, of about 1m square
 Advantages

• Advantages:

• 1- Construction is very simple and a wide variety of materials can be used.

• 2- It provides a large filtering area in a relatively small floor space.

• 3- It is versatile, the capacity being variable according to the thickness of the

frames and the number used.

• 4- The construction permits the use of considerable pressure difference.

• 5- Efficient washing of the cake is possible.

• 6- Operation and maintenance is straightforward , because there no moving parts,

filter cloths are easily renewable and, because all joints are external, any leaks are
visible and do not contaminate the filtrate.
 Disadvantages

• 1- It is a batch filter, so it is a time consuming.

• 2- The filter press is an expensive filter, the emptying time, the labour
involved, and the wear and tear on the cloths resulting in high costs.

• 3- Operation is critical, as the frames should be full, otherwise washing is

inefficient and the cake is difficult to remove.

• 4- The filter press is used for slurries containing less about 5 % solids

• 5- In view of the high labour costs , it is most suitable for expensive

materials.e.g.the removal of precipitated proteins from insulin liquors.
 Shell and leaf filter
Description:
In these horizontal pressure leaf filter Jacketting and cloth enveloped filters are
optional. There are 2 hydraulic cylinders to open and close the special bayonet
wedge lock closure, which is provided at the lid. The retractable filtered shell is
mounted on four external wheels and all nozzle connections are mounted on fixed
head of filter vessel. Appropriate inter-locking (preventing opening under
pressure) is also a key feature of this type of horizontal pressure leaf filter.
Range: Available in 5 sq. m to 250 sq. m.
Advantages:
Horizontal Leaf Filter is also a multi utility device that has the following
advantages: -
» Nil spillage, as a result of close and compact operation.
» No use of filtered cloth reduces operational expenses.
» High productivity due to high rate of filtration.
» Cheap and economical operational costs.
» Highly user friendly.
Shell and leaf filter

Internal Structure
 Rotary Drum Filter
• Horizontal drum that turns at 0.1-2 r/min in an agitated slurry trough
• Filter medium covers face of drum, which is partially submerged
• Vacuum and air are alternately applied as the drum rotates
• As panel leaves slurry zone, a wash liquid is drawn through filter, then cake
is sucked dry with air, and finally cake is scraped off
• From 30% up to 60-70% of filter area can be submerged
• Cakes usually 3-40 mm thick
• Drum sizes range from 0.3 m in diameter to 3 m in diameter
 Rotary Drum Filter
Parts of a Rotary Drum filter

• The Drum:
The drum is supported by a large diameter trunion on the valve end
and a bearing on the drive end. The drum face is divided into
circumferential sectors each forming a separate vacuum cell. The
internal piping that is connected to each sector passes through the
trunion and ends up with a wear plate having ports that correspond to
the number of sectors.
 Rotary vacuum filter (Rotary filter)

• In large –scale operation, continuous operation is sometimes desirable

and it may be necessary to filter slurries containing a high proportion of
solids.
• The rotary filter is continuous in operation and has a system for
removing the cake that is formed , so, it is suitable for use with
concentrated slurries.
• It is a metal cylinder mounted horizontally,
the curved surface being a perforated plate,
supporting a filter cloth. Internally, it is
divided into several sectors and a separate
connection is made between each sector
and a special rotary valve.
:

• The drum is immersed to the

required depth in the slurry, which
is agitated to prevent settling of
the solids, and vacuum is applied
to those sectors of the drum which
is submerged.
• A cake of the desired thickness is
produced by adjusting the speed of
rotation of the drum. Each sector is
immersed in turn in the slurry and
the cake is then washed an
partially dried by means of a
current of air.
• Finally, pressure is applied
under the cloth to aid the removal
of the cake.
• Removal of the washed and
partially dried cake is affected
by means of a doctor knife.
• Summary of the process:

• The drum is dipped into the slurry and vacuum applied to the outlet,
which is connected to the filtrate receiver. When the cake has formed, the
cake drained or partially dried by vacuum.

• The drum is sprayed with water to wash the cake. Retaining the vacuum
connection drains the cake and produces partial dryness then, removed by
a doctor knife.

• When the solids of the slurry are too much that the filter cloth becomes
blocked with the particles, a pre-coat filter may be used. A pre-coat of
filter aid is deposited on the drum prior to the filtration process.
• Uses:
• 1- The rotary filter for continuous operation on large quantities of slurry.
2- Suitable for slurry contains considerable amounts of solids in the range
15-30%.

• Examples of pharmaceutical application include the collection of

calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and starch, and the separation
of the mycelium from the fermentation liquor in the manufacture of
antibiotics
 References
• 1. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., and Harriot, P., “Unit
Operations in ChemicalEngineering”, 7th Edn.,
McGraw-Hill, 2005.
• 2. Badger W.L. and Banchero J.T., “Introduction to
Chemical Engineering”,Tata McGraw Hill, 1997.
• 3. Foust, A. S., Wenzel, L.A., Clump, C.W., Naus, L., and
Anderson, L.B.,
• “Principles of Unit Operations”, 2nd Edn., John Wiley &
Sons, 1994. Coulson, J.M. and Richardson, J.F.,
“Chemical Engineering” Vol. I, 4th Edn.,Asian Books
Pvt. Ltd., India, 1998.
 UNIT-5
• To understand Mixing, Agitation, Storage of
solids and various types of conveying of solids
 UNIT 5 Syllabus
• Mixing and agitation, power requirement for
mixing
• Problems
• Mixing of liquids (with or without solids)
• Mixing of powders, selection of suitable mixers.
• Bunkers, silos, bins and hoppers
• Transportation of solids in bulk, conveyer
selection.
• Different types of conveyers and their
performance characteristics.
Mixing and Agitation
 Agitation of liquids
• The unit operation is used to prepare
liquid–mixture by bringing in contact two
liquids in a mechanically agitated vessel or
container.
• Agitation refers to the induced motion of
liquid in some defined may, usually in
circulatory pattern and is achieved by some
mechanical device.
 Why agitation
• Dispenses a liquid which is immiscible with
the other liquid by forming an emulsion or
suspension of few drops.
• Suspends relatively lighter solid particles
• Promotes heat transfer between the liquid in
the tank and jacket surrounding the container.
• Blends miscible liquids
 Agitator
• The equipment consists of a
tank with an insulated
jacket, baffles, shaft with
motor, impeller.

• Other accessories such as

thermometer and dip- leg
are inserted inside the tank.
 Tank with impeller and baffle

• The role of baffles is to

remove stratification in the
radial direction and improve
mixing
• Baffles 4, Impeller 1
 Flow patterns in agitated vessels
• There are three principal currents in the vessel
during agitation (a) radial (perpendicular to the
shaft) (b) tangential (tangential to the circular path) )
(c) longitudinal (parallel to the shaft)
Two types of geometrical configuration
Points
• Tangential component induces vortex and
swirling, which in turn create stratification
responsible for non–uniform mixing. In such
case fluid particles are followed by another fluid
particle.
• At relatively higher rpm, the center of vortex
may reach impeller and air is sucked inside
which is not desirable.
• Swirling can be minimized by placing the shaft
slightly away from the center of the vessel or by
pacing the baffle against the tank wall.
Power requirement for mixing
 Power requirement
• Dimensional analysis is used to determine the
power requirement. Variables are

• As large viscous liquids require high power for

mixing similarly high density liquids also require
high power for mixing

• From buckingham pi theorem no of independent

dimensionless groups can be formed.
 Power requirement
• a) power no

• b) Reynolds no

• c) Froude no

• The other groups are

• n: rotation of the impeller

 Power requirement
• Power no is similar to friction factor

• Reynolds no is similar to speed and dia of the

impeller.

• Graphical results to calculate power no

 Power requirement
• Slope is -1 on log –log plot for Re no <10
• In turbulent flow viscous effects are
predominant and density is not important at
low Re no

• Tables are available to calculate kL

 Power requirement
• or
• At high Re no>10,000 power no is
independent of the Re no and viscosity is not
important flow is fully turbulent.

or

Tables are available to calculate P

Example 1

A flat-blade turbine with six blades is installed

centrally in a vertical tank. The tank is 1.83 m in
diameter, the turbine is 0.61 m in diameter & is
positioned 0.61 m from the bottom of the tank.
The turbine blades are 127mm wide. The tank is
filled to a depth of 1.83m with a solution of 50%
caustic soda at 65.6oC, which has a viscosity of
12cP and a density of 1498 kg/m3. The turbine
is operated at 90 rpm. What power will be
required to operate the mixer if the tank was
baffled?
Example 2

Calculate the theoretical power of a six bladed

turbine agitator with diameter 3m is running of
speed 2 rps in a tank system with standard
configuration. The tank is filled with liquid of
dynamic viscosity 1Pa.s and density 1000Kg/m3.
Assume KT=4.5 or KL=0.65 appropriately.
Solution:
𝐷2 𝜌𝑁
• Reynolds number for mixing: 𝑁𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇
32 𝑥1000 𝑥2
= 18000.
1
• For baffled mixing, NRe >10000, Np=KT =4.5,
𝑃
Then 𝑁𝑝 = 5 3 ;
𝜌𝐷𝑎 𝑛
𝑃 = 4.5 𝑥 0.23 𝑥 35 𝑥1000 = 8748𝑊
Example 3

A flat blade turbine with six blades is installed

centrally in a vertical tank. The tank is 1.83 m in
diameter, the turbine is 0.61m in diameter and is
positioned 0.61m from the bottom of the tank. The
turbine blades are 127 mm wide. The tank is filled
to a depth of 1.83 m with a solution of 50 % caustic
soda at 65 0C, which has a viscosity of 12 cP and
density of 1498 kg/m3. the turbine is operated at 90
rpm. The tank is baffled. What power will be
required to operate the mixer. Assume KT=5.8 or
KL=65 appropriately.
Solution:
𝐷2 𝜌𝑁
• Reynolds number for mixing: 𝑁𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇
0.612 𝑥1.5 𝑥1498
= 69675.
0.012
• For baffled mixing, NRe >10000, Np=KT =5.8,
𝑃
Then 𝑁𝑝 = 5 3 ;
𝜌𝐷𝑎 𝑛
𝑃 = 5.8 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.615 𝑥1498 = 2.47kW
3
Example 4

A flat blade turbine with six blades is installed

centrally in a vertical tank. The tank is 1.83 m in
diameter, the turbine is 0.61m in diameter and
is positioned 0.61m from the bottom of the
tank. The turbine blades are 127 mm wide. The
tank is filled to a depth of 1.83 m with a rubber
latex compound, which has a viscosity of 1200 P
and density of 1120 kg/m3. the turbine is
operated at 90 rpm. The tank is baffled. What
power will be required to operate the mixer.
Assume KT=5.8 or KL=65 appropriately.
Solution:
𝐷2 𝜌𝑁
• Reynolds number for mixing: 𝑁𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇
0.612 𝑥1.5 𝑥1120
= 3.47.
120
• For baffled mixing, NRe <10, Np=KL/NRe
=65/3.47=18.7,
𝑃
Then 𝑁𝑝 = 5 3 ;
𝜌𝐷𝑎 𝑛
𝑃 = 18.7 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 0.615 𝑥1120 = 5.97kW
3
Mixing of liquids(with or with out
solids)
 The equipment for mixing of liquids with out
solids include Paddles, Marine type propellers
and Turbine

IMPELLERS
• Propellers (high-speed, low
viscosity)
• Turbines (Moderate viscosity)
• High-efficiency impellers
 Vortex formation
• When an impeller rotates in
a liquid the liquid is likely to
swirl in a mass and a vortex
will form which draws air
inside and wastes energy
which is prevented by
inserting baffles whose
width being about 10 % of
the tank diameter which
result in more rapid mixing
 Paddles
• Paddles turn at slow to moderate speeds in
the center of the vessel .
• The total length of the paddle impeller is 50
to 60 % of the inside diameter of the vessel
and width is 1/6 to 1/10 of its length.
• At slow speeds paddles give mild agitation
while at high speeds it needs baffles.
• Propellers
Propeller mixers for liquids
 Propellers
• Propellers drive the liquid down to the wall flow
upwards and return to the suction of the impeller
from the top.
• To prevent swirling the impeller is mounted off
center, moved away from center line then tilted
in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the
move.
• For propellers with side entering ,inclined or off
center not more than 1/18 of tank diameter is
needed
 Turbines
• Turbines are effective over wide range of
viscosities
• In low viscosity liquid they generate strong
currents that persists through out the vessel.
• Radial and tangential currents induce swirling
which is prevented by baffles or a diffuser ring.
• The blades may be straight or curved where
diameter of the impeller is 30 to 50% of the
diameter of the vessel.
 Mixing of liquids with solids
• If the solid is not too coarse and the
liquid is not viscous the amount of solid
per unit volume is not high solids can be
suspended by use of flat bladed turbine
and if the above condition is not satisfied
then the operation goes to kneading
machine or to some type of mixing of
solids with solids.
 Kneaders
• Kneaders are high intensity mixers
for cohesive solid systems.
• kneaders achieve their mixing action by
squashing the mass flat, folding it, and
squashing it again and tear the mass apart
and shear it between a moving blade and a
stationary surface.
• Common type of kneader is banbury mixer
Banbury mixer
• A Banbury mixer is a heavy-duty two arm
mixer that contains a chamber with a rotor in
each lobe.
• The material is fed at the top of the mixer, and
a floating weight, or ram which drops on top
of the feed to confine the material to the
mixing space and exert extra pressure on the
material.
• The rotors turn towards each other at
different speeds, and the material is sheared
between the rotors and the walls.
• The saddle between the rotors is attached to a
discharge door.
• Uses
• Banbury kneaders are typically used to mix
rubber and plastic solids, to dissolve rubber
and to disperse rubber in liquids.
• Kneaders are used primarily in the plastics and
rubber industries. They are commonly used
for resins, adhesives, putty, baking dough, and
cellulose additives
Mixing of Powders
• Mixing of powders is a common operation in any
industry. Most powders are known to be
cohesive, many agglomerate spontaneously when
exposed to humid atmosphere.

• Agitation of the powder may result in migration

of smaller particles downwards and of larger
ones upwards.

• Segregation of mixtures is due to difference in

particle size, density shape and resilience.
 V type mixer
• The type of mixture used for dry powders is V
type mixer which is a rotating container type.
• V-blender consists of two cylindrical sections
joined at an angle of around 90◦The angle
between the cylinder and the centre line in the
off-axis rotating drum mixer is 40◦.
• The mixer is rotated about a horizontal axis with
mixing resulting from the tumbling motion of the
particles.
• The material falls as the blender turns, ultimately
towards the apex and then towards the legs of
the ‘V’. The particles of the material move in both
vertical and horizontal directions so that a
complete mixing occurs.
• For batch work dry • Dry mixer
mixer is often used

• It consists of a semi
cylindrical trough
provided with two or
more ribbon spirals
which is covered to
keep in dust.
 Dry mixer
• One of the spiral is right side and the other
left side so that material moves back and forth
in the trough .
• Paddles introduce air and add to powder
mobility
• Better mixture quality for free-flowing
powders.
• Not suitable for cohesive powders.
 Turbula mixer
• The Turbula shaker-mixer is
used for a homogeneous
mixing of powdery
substances with differing
specific weights and particle
sizes.
• By rotation translation and
inversion of particles it has
high efficiency.
• The mixing container is set
into a three-dimensional
movement
 Turbula mixer
• It exposes the product to continuously
changing, rhythmically pulsing motion.
• It operates by tumbling the solids inside a
revolving vessel with speeds up to about 40
rpm (about half the critical speed at which the
centrifugal force on the particles exceeds the
pull of gravity).
• Its working capacity is about 50% to 60% of
the volume.
SILOS
 Silos
• A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials.

• Silos are more commonly used for bulk

storage of grain, coal, cement, carbon
black, woodchips, food products and sawdust.

• Three types of silos are in widespread use

today: tower silos, bunker silos, and bag silos.
 Silos
• A silo is a structure for
storing bulk materials.
• Silos are more commonly
used for bulk storage of
grain, coal, cement, carbon
black, woodchips, food
products and sawdust.
• Three types of silos are in
widespread use today:
tower silos, bunker silos,
and bag silos.
 Tower silos
• Storage silos are cylindrical
Small Stave silos
structures, typically 10 to
90 ft (4 to 30 m) in diameter
and 30 to 275 ft (10 to 84
m) in height and taller silos.
Concrete silos being the
larger diameter. They are
made of Wood staves,
concrete staves, cast
concrete. Silos can be
unloaded into rail cars,
trucks or conveyors.
 Bunker silo
• Bunker silos are trenches, Bunker silo being filled and
compacted
usually with concrete walls,
that are filled and packed
with tractors and loaders.
The filled trench is covered
with a plastic tarp to make it
airtight. These silos are
usually unloaded with a
tractor and loader. They are
inexpensive and especially
well suited to very large
operations.
 Bag silo
• Bag silos are heavy plastic
8' diameter by 150 foot silo bag
tubes usually around 8 to 12 ft shown just after filling and sealing.
in diameter and of variable
length as required for the
amount of material to be
stored. They are packed using
a machine made for the
purpose, and sealed on both
ends. They are unloaded using
a tractor or skid-steer loader.
The bag is discarded in
sections as it is torn off. They
can be used as a temporary
measure when growth or
harvest conditions require
more space.
BINS
 BINS
• These are usually of cylindrical
or rectangular shape and
made of metal or reinforced
concrete.
• Bins are used to store abrasive
materials and are wider and
short in height
• Silos are tall and small in
diameter.
• The vertical portion of these
vessels is the cylinder while
the converging section is the
hopper
• All the containers are charged through the top
and discharged at the bottom.
• With these storage vessels there is a friction
between the wall and solid particles.
• This frictional force tends to reduce the
weight of solids and thus the pressure exerted
by the solids on the floor get reduced.
• The actual pressure depends on two
parameters namely the manner in which
solids are packed inside the container and
ratio of normal pressure to applied pressure.
Hoppers
• Hoppers are used primarily in materials
handling as storage vessels, transporters, and
feeders.
• In a mass flow hopper, all the material inside
the hopper moves down the walls and exits.
• The flow is based upon a first-in, first-out
principle and is uniform and reliable upon
discharge. Moisture content, temperature,
age, oil content, and solid levels must be
regulated to ensure effective flow.
Uses Mass flow hopper
• Mass flow hoppers are used
in virtually every type of
industry and come in a
variety of sizes. Hoppers are
most often used for raw
material and product
storage as well as feeders
for different processes.
Adv
• Flow will not cake or spoil.
• Controlled segregation.
Disadvantages
• Flow will not cake or spoil.
• Controlled segregation.
 Funnel flow hopper
• In funnel flow, the material Funnel flow hopper
along the funnel walls
remains stationary, while
the material in the center
falls through the outlet
creating a rat hole, or
channel. Funnel flow
hoppers have a greater
angle from the center of the
cone as shown below.
• Uses: Funnel flow is versatile and can be used in
many of the same applications as mass flow. A
funnel flow design is most effective when the
solid particulate is coarse, free-flowing and not
prone to caking and funnel flow is used when
segregation is not important.
• Advantages:
• Well known technology.
• Less expensive than mass flow.
• Disadvantages:
• Segregation spoilage and caking occur.
• Bridging occurs, preventing constant flow.
CONVEYORS
 INTRODUCTION
 Are used for handling
materials
 Used in all industries
 Consists majorly of two
major components
 Mechanical Assembly
 Conveying Assembly
 Conveyor selection
Selection of conveyor depends on
• capacity
• Shape and size of the material
• Material to be transported horizontal,
vertical
or inclined.
• Accumulation and sorting
• loading and pickup points need to be.
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Convey • Inclination
almost any angle must be
type of solid less than 220
material • Cannot
• Easy to adapt transport
to plant anything
layout greater than
1200
 Types of Conveyors

• Belt Conveyor
• Bucket Elevator
• Screw Conveyor
• Chain Conveyor
• Pneumatic Conveyor
 Types of Conveyors
Belt Conveyors
–Conveys materials along
horizontal, and slightly inclined
paths
–Driven by power operated roll
mounted underneath the
conveyor or at the one end of
the conveyor.
–supported on either rollers or
on metal slider pan and we call
them roller conveyor and slider
conveyor respectively
 Types of Conveyors
Bucket Elevators
–Used where there is need of
vertical conveying of
materials.
–Used for conveying
powdered, granular and lumpy
materials.
–Extensively employed in
building materials chemical
industries plant etc.
 Types of Conveyors
Screw Conveyors
–These are the oldest and are
of simple design, easy to
maintain.
–Permits intermediate
discharge of materials at
several points.
–Advantages being these are
compact and easily adapted to
congested locations
–Horizontal, vertical, inclined
conveyors are also available.
Screw Conveyors
 Types of Conveyors
Pneumatic Conveyors
–Involves the transportation
of a wide variety of dry
powdered an granular solids d
in a gas stream.
air.
–In most cases the gas is
normally
–Where special conditions
prevail, different gases are
used.
 Pneumatic conveyers
Advantages Disadvantages

• Energy requirements are

• Flexibility in routing higher
• Material must be dry
• Dust free transportation of
a variety of products • Incorrect design can result
in particle degradation
• Mechanical parts are at • More noisy
ground level
• Limited distance
• Units are self cleaning &
safer to operate
 Size Specification
• Size depends on the requirement :

– Speed
– Cost
– Efficiency
– Maximum load it takes
– Length of travel
 Industrial Applications

–Packing
–Inspecting
–Painting
–Assembling
–Testing
 References
• 1. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., and Harriot, P., “Unit Operations
in ChemicalEngineering”, 7th Edn., McGraw-Hill, 2005.
• 2. Badger W.L. and Banchero J.T., “Introduction to Chemical
Engineering”,Tata McGraw Hill, 1997.
• Encyclopedia of chemical Engineering Equipment.
• Mixing of solids in different mixing devices
Sadhan¯a Vol. 33, Part 6, December 2008, pp. 721–731
• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silo
 17CHC08– MECHANICAL OPERATIONS
COURSE OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES:
Slno Course Objectives Course Outcomes
Demonstrate the knowledge of
To understand how the solids are
particle characterization, size
1 characterized and methods for
analysis, storage and transportation
storage and transportation of solids
of solids
To gain knowledge over size
Appraise and select the size reduction
2 reduction equipments and industrial
equipments and industrial screens
screens
To obtain idea on the mechanical Understand and select the
3 separation equipments in process mechanical separation equipments
industries based on surface properties of solids
To gain knowledge over filtration and Exhibit the principle of filtration and
4
types of industrial filters types of industrial filters
To understand and compare mixing Compare and recognize mixing and
5
and agitation process agitation equipments

UNIT I - CHARACTERISTICS AND HANDLING OF PARTICULATE SOLIDS - 12

Characteristics of particulate solids, techniques for particle size analysis,
agglomeration and segregation; different methods for storage and transportation of
solids

Unit - I

Characteristics of particulate solids;

General Characteristics of Solids:

 Solids appear in a variety of forms like angular pieces, continuous sheets
and finely divided powders.
 Solids may be
 Hard and Abrasive
 Tough and Rubbery
 Soft or fragile
 Dusty
 Cohesive
 Free flowing
 Sticky.
Particulate Solids:
 Individual solid particles are characterized by their Size, Shape and
Densities.
 Particles of homogeneous solids have the same density as the bulk material.
 Particles obtained by breaking a composite solid such as metal bearing ore
will have various different densities which will not be equal to the
density of the bulk material.
Particle Shape:
 Size and shape are easily specified for a regular particle such as sphere,
cubes etc.,
 But for irregular particles like sand grain it’s not clearly defined.
  The shape of an individual particle is expressed in terms of its sphericity
which is independent of particle size.
 For spherical particles of diameter (DP ) the sphericity is equal to ONE.

Sphericity (ɸs):
The dimensionless term Sphericity (ɸs) is in common use to compare
particles of irregular shape.

Definition:
 Surface area of a sphere of the same volume as the particle divided by
the actual surface area of the particle.
 The ratio of Surface volume ratio for a sphere of diameter (Dp) & the
Surface Volume ratio for the irregular particle, whose nominal size is
Dp.
For Non – Spherical Particles, the Sphericity is,

ɸs = (Surface volume ratio for a sphere of diameter (Dp) / Surface Volume ratio
for the irregular particle, whose nominal size is Dp) ------------------------- (1)

= (Sp/Vp) Sphere has Same Volume / (Sp/Vp) Irregular Particles of Same Volume ----- (2)

Therefore,
(Sp/Vp) Sphere has Same Volume = Π Dp2/ 1/6 Π Dp3 = 6/Dp -------------- (2 a)

So, the equation 2 becomes,

6/Dp (Vp/Sp) Irregular Particles of Same Volume ---------- (2 b)

ɸs = (6 Vp) / (Sp Dp) ------------ (3)

Where,
Dp = Equivalent diameter sphere of equal volume of that of the particle (m)
Sp = Surface area of One Particle (m2)
Vp = Volume of One Particle (m3)

Note:
ɸs = 1 (Particle is near to the Regularity)
ɸs = 0 (Particle is far away from regularity)
ɸs = 0 to 1 (for all other particles)
ɸs = 0.6 to 0.8 for Crushed Particles

Analytical Representation for Particle Size Distribution:

1) Mixed Size Analysis

2) Average Size Analysis

Mixed Size Analysis or Mixed Particle Sizes;

 A sample of solid contains a wide range of particles sizes & densities for
which their analysis becomes extremely difficult. For this reason, the whole sample
is separated into a no of fractions, each of constant density & nearly constant
size by some mechanical means (i.e. Screening Equipment) & then each fraction
is analysed separately.

a) Total Volume of the Particle (Vs):

b) Number of Particles in Sample (Ns):
c) Total Surface area of the Particles( As or Nsp)
d) Specific Surface Area of Mixture or Total Surface Area of a unit mass of
Particles (Aw)

a) Total Volume of the Particle (Vs):

The sample of uniform particles (i.e. Constant Size) having Diameter as Dp,
Total Mass (m) & Density of each particle as ρp.

Vs = m/ ρp ------------------ (1) (ρ = m/V, V = m/ρ)

Where,
Vs = Total Volume of the solids (m3)
m = Total mass of the Solid Particles (Kg)
ρp = Density of solid particles (kg/m3)

b) Number of particles in Sample (Ns):

Ns = Vs/Vp ------------------ (2)

Where,
Vs = Total Volume of the Particle (m3)
Vp = Volume of One Particle (m3)

Substitute eqn (1) in eqn (2);

Ns = m / ρp Vp ------------- (3)
 c) Total Surface area of the Particles (As or Nsp);

As = Ns Sp ------------ (4)

Where,
Ns = Number of particles in Sample
Sp = Surface area of One Particle (m2)

Substitute eqn (3) in eqn (4);

As = (m / ρp Vp ) Sp ---------- (5)
= (m Sp)/ (ρp Vp ); (m/ ρp ) (Sp / Vp)

The relation for (Sp / Vp ) from Sphericity

(Sp / Vp ) = 6/ ɸs Dp --------------------- (6)

Substitute eqn (6) in eqn (5);

As = (6 m / ɸs Dp ρp ) ----------------- (7)
Note;
If the particle density (ρp) & Sphericity (ɸs) are known, the surface area of the
particle in each fraction may be calculated....

d) Specific Surface Area of Mixture or Total Surface Area of a unit mass of

Particles (Aw)

(Aw) = 6 X1 / ɸs ρp (Dp1) avg + 6 X2 / ɸs ρp (Dp2) avg +...... + 6 Xn / ɸs ρp (Dpn) avg

(Aw) = 6/ ɸs ρp ∑ Xi/ (Dpi) avg ------------ (8)

Where;
Xi = Mass fraction in a given Increment
(Dpi) avg = Average particle diameter (i.e. Average of Smallest & Largest diameter in
the Increment)

Average Size Analysis (or) Average Particle Sizes:

To describe the particle size of a mixture, we use average size or mean
diameters. It should be remembered that a mean size will describe only one
particular characteristic of the sample.

1) Volume Surface Mean Diameter or Sauter Mean diameter ( Ds or Dvs)

2) Mass Mean Diameter (Dw or Dm)
3) Volume Mean Diameter (Dv)
4) Arithmetic Mean Diameter (DN)
5) Number of Particles in Mixture (Nw or Nm)

Volume Surface Mean Diameter or Sauter Mean diameter ( D s or Dvs)

It is related to the specific surface area
Dvs = 6/ ɸs Aw ρp ------------------ (9)

Substitute Aw Value or Eqn 8 in eqn 9; (i.e. (Aw) = 6/ ɸs ρp ∑ Xi/ (Dpi) avg )

Dvs = 1/ ∑ Xi/ (Dpi) avg ----------------- (10)

The eqn 10 is also known as the Sauter Mean diameter

Mass Mean Diameter (Dw or Dm)

Dw = ∑ Xi (Dpi) avg ------------------- (11)

Volume Mean Diameter (Dv)

This is the diameter of the average volume of particles found in the mixture
& is found by dividing the total volume of the sample by the number of particles in
the mixture.
(Dv) = (1/ ∑ (Xi / (Dpi 3)) 1/3 --------- (12)

Arithmetic Mean Diameter (DN)

DN = 1/NT ∑ (Ni Dpi) ------------------- (13)

Note;
The mean diameter based on surface area is useful in the study of Mass Transfer,
Catalytic reactions etc..,
The mean diameter based on Volume or mass is useful in the study of spray
drying.
Number of Particles in Mixture (Nw or Nm)

Nw = 1/ a ρp ∑ (Xi / (Dpi 3) ----------- (14)

Nw = 1/ a ρp Dv 3 ------------- (15)

Volume Shape Factor or Surface Shape Factor

Volume Shape Factor:

The volume of a spherical particles is proportional to the cube of its diameter
& if we assume the same is true for irregular particles, then

Vp Dp 3 --------------- (1)

Vp = a Dp 3 ---------------------- (2)

Where;
a = Volume Shape factor
a = / 6 (for spherical particles)
Surface Shape factor;
The reciprocal of sphericity is called as surface shape factor

λ s = 1/ ɸs ---------------- (3)

Problems:
1) Finely divided clay is used as a catalyst in the petroleum industry. It has a
density of 1.2 g/cc & a sphericity of 0.5. The Size Analysis is as follows;
Average
Diameter (Dpi) 0.0252 0.0178 0.0126 0.0089 0.0038
Cm
Mass fraction Xi
0.088 0.0178 0.293 0.194 0.247
(g/g)

Find the specific surface area & the Sauter mean diameter of the Clay material.

Solution:
(i) Specific surface area (Aw) or Total Surface Area of a unit mass of
Particles (Aw)
(ii) Volume Surface Mean Diameter or Sauter Mean diameter ( D s or Dvs)

Average -
Diameter 0.0252 0.0178 0.0126 0.0089 0.0038
(Dpi) Cm
Mass fraction ∑=1
0.088 0.0178 0.293 0.194 0.247
Xi (g/g)
(Xi / Dpi) 3.4920 10 23.2539 21.7977 65 ∑ = 123.543

Specific surface area (Aw)

(Aw) = 6/ ɸs ρp ∑ Xi/ (Dpi) avg

(Aw) = (6 / 0.5 (1.2)) 123.543

(Aw) = 1235.43 Cm2/g

Sauter Mean diameter ( Ds or Dvs)

Dvs = 1/ ∑ Xi/ (Dpi) avg

Dvs = 1 /(123.453)

Dvs = 8.0943 * 10-3 Cm