See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232163543

The Stretch-Shortening Cycle: Proposed

Mechanisms and Methods for Enhancement

Article in Strength and conditioning journal · August 2010

DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3181e928f9

CITATIONS READS

29 2,495

2 authors:

Anthony N Turner Ian Jeffreys

Middlesex University, UK University of South Wales
75 PUBLICATIONS 363 CITATIONS 60 PUBLICATIONS 782 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

RAMP Warm ups text book View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ian Jeffreys on 10 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

The Stretch-Shortening
Cycle: Proposed
Mechanisms and Methods
for Enhancement
Anthony N. Turner, MSc, CSCS1 and Ian Jeffreys, MSc, CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT*D2
1
London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, London, England; and 2University of Glamorgan Pontypridd, Wales,
United Kingdom

SUMMARY Investigations have revealed improve- economical sprinting (i.e., efficient

ments in the range of 18–20% (15) to usage of the SSC) can recover approx-
EFFICIENT STRETCH-SHORTENING
20–30% (13) and a difference in max- imately 60% of the total mechanical
CYCLE (SSC) MECHANICS RESULT
imum jump height of approximately energy (40% being replenished by
IN ENERGY CONSERVATION AND metabolic processes during the follow-
2–4 cm (9). Moreover, by increasing
ENHANCED PROPULSIVE FORCES. ing cycle). In addition, the contribution
the load applied and the rate of loading
BASED ON THE CURRENT REVIEW during the countermovement, for ex- of nonmetabolic energy sources in-
OF RESEARCH, ELASTIC ENERGY ample, after a run-up or a depth jump, crease with increases in running veloc-
THROUGH TENDON RECOIL AND jump height may further increase ity (24,101,102).
AN INCREASE IN ACTIVE STATE (4,8,77,78). This phenomenon is a con- The SSC is therefore essential to many
BECAUSE OF AN INCREASE IN THE sequence of what is termed the stretch- sporting movements, with performance
WORKING RANGE SEEM THE shortening cycle (SSC), which describes dependent on its efficient use within
MOST PLAUSIBLE EXPLANATION an eccentric phase or stretch followed a movement skill. Consequently, many
FOR THE SSC MECHANISM. USING by an isometric transitional period coaches look to incorporate training
THE RESEARCH PRESENTED, THE (amortization phase), leading into an drills such as plyometrics, which can
SSC MECHANISM MAY BE BEST explosive concentric action. The SSC is enhance the athlete’s use of the SSC
DEVELOPED USING THE PLYO- synonymous with plyometrics (37) and (68,77,85,91,93,95,97). The successful
METRICS PYRAMID ENSURING is often referred to as the reversible integration of these exercises, however,
THAT THE ATHLETE IS TECHNI- action of muscles (112). Other exam- may only be achieved with an under-
CALLY COMPETENT AT EACH ples of SSC actions include the natural standing of the underpinning mechan-
STAGE BEFORE PROGRESSING IN parts of movements such as running ics. Several mechanisms have been
INTENSITY AND COMPLEXITY. or walking or the windup movement proposed to explain the SSC phenom-
STRENGTH TRAINING AND SSC in throwing. enon, with varying emphasis and con-
TRAINING SHOULD BE PER- Aside from an enhanced concentric clusions reached across the literature.
FORMED CONCURRENTLY. SSC contraction (propulsive force), efficient Investigators have reported the sig-
DRILLS SHOULD BE BASED ON usage of the SSC also affords the nificance of elastic strain energy
STRENGTH CAPACITIES AND athlete with a reduction in the meta- (11,33,64,74,77), involuntary nervous
SPORT-SPECIFIC VARIABLES. bolic cost of movement (9,10). This processes (12,13), increased active range
may be evidenced with data suggesting of movement (9,10), length-tension char-
that the energetic cost of running for acteristics (30,34), preactivity tension
INTRODUCTION animals with heavy limbs is about the
t is well established that a vertical same as those with light limbs (as

I jump preceded by a countermove-

ment (i.e., a prestretch) will increase
vertical displacement above a squat
heavier limbs would increase the load
applied and the rate of loading) (40).
In addition, Verkhoshansky (101) and
KEY WORDS:
stretch-shortening cycle; elastic energy;
tendon; stiffness; spindle; Golgi tendon
organ
jump (one with no prestretch) (10). Voigt et al. (102) reported that

Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 87
Mechanisms and Training Strategies of SSC

(68,95), and enhanced coordination explain the differences in jump height reaches a critical threshold, the sub-
because of the innate action of the among various types of jumps. In sequent concentric contraction exhib-
prestretch (9,10). The purpose of this summary, therefore, an inverse rela- its no further increase in force/EE
article, therefore, is to review the most tionship may exist between EE release return and may even result in reduced
current theories to discuss and define and force production via the contrac- force output. This is likely because the
the processes that underpin the SSC. A tile components. Put simply, the change from the eccentric contraction
second aim is to identify training strate- greater the release of EE, the greater into the propulsive concentric contrac-
gies to enhance the SSC processes to the reduction in cross-bridge formation tion (i.e., amortization phase) takes too
optimize performance. and concomitant force output from long (106). This may be a consequence
these structures. Research by Licht- of involuntary neural inhibition (dis-
STORAGE OF ELASTIC ENERGY wark and Wilson (74) may also provide cussed later in this article) ultimately
During hopping, jumping, and running, support for this theory. Their research causing the EE to be released and lost
for example, our legs exhibit similar suggests that muscles act at high values as heat energy during the amortization
characteristics to a spring, whereby of efficiency by contracting fibers at phase (69). In addition, Wilson et al.
the leg spring compresses on ground favorable speeds, which are often (106) found that the SSC had a half-life
contact and stores energy, before different from the speed of the whole of 0.85 seconds and that by 1 second,
rebounding at push-off and releasing muscle-tendon complex (MTC). the benefits diminished by 55%. This
energy (50). It is currently recognized Therefore, through the use of EE, investigation, however, examined the
that the tendon is the primary site for some fibers are deactivated during countermovement within a bench
the storage of elastic energy (EE) periods of shortening. They do suggest, press (of male weightlifters) and thus
(64,74). The magnitude of stored EE however, that during maximal efforts, results may be more indicative of
(often referred to as strain or potential EE can enhance force production. The upper-body mechanics. Therefore, if
energy) is hypothesized to be pro- correlation reported above by Ver- EE is to be optimally used, the load
portional to the applied force and the khoshansky (101), therefore, maybe experienced within the eccentric phase
induced deformation (112). Previous because of the fact that improved should be within the limits of the
research supports that elasticity plays performance in long-distance events athlete and the amortization phase
a substantial role in enhancing the with respect to the SEC is because of should be as rapid as possible. It is
motor output in sport movements its ability to conserve energy and well recognized that these variables
(13,33,64,74,77) and likely explains therefore provide an efficient energy differ among athletes and, most im-
the 20–30% difference seen between release/conservation system as op- portantly, are measurable and trainable
a countermovement jump (CMJ) and posed to one that increases force per (37,87). This can further be exampled
a squat jump (SJ) (13). In addition, stride. Although this does seem plau- by reviews from Newton and Dugan
Verkhoshansky (101) reported a high sible, many investigators still cite that (87) and Flanagan and Comyns (37)
correlation (r = 0.785) between the EE can indeed improve force output. who reported that untrained individu-
tendon’s capacity to store EE and the Perhaps, however, this occurs during als generally attain higher vertical
performance of distance runners. maximal rather than submaximal force displacements after the CMJ compared
Although recognizing the fundamental outputs when energy conservation is with drop jumps. As the individual’s
role of EE, some investigators do not not a priority. For example, the SEC SSC mechanics develop, however, this
support its significant role in enhancing may actually increase force per stride reverses and higher values are achieved
force production (9,10). Instead, they during the 100-m sprint or increase during drop jumps. Moreover, with
place emphasis on its ability to reduce competitive jump displacement in the progressive training, the athlete can
the metabolic cost of movement. For long jump or high jump. In addition, continue to increase the drop height
example, Bobbert et al. (10) suggests many authors report that the contrac- with concomitant increases in jump
that if propulsive displacement is equal tile components, when not lengthening height.
between 2 athletes, the athlete who or shortening, are in fact undergoing an
most optimally uses SSC mechanics isometric action, which is optimal for MECHANICAL MODEL
would incur less metabolic work. They force generation during SSC activities To further understand the role of EE,
argue that lengthening of the series (39,63,105). The role of EE appears it is important to consider the me-
elastic component (SEC), namely, the contentious and will be discussed chanical model of muscle function
tendon, occurs at the expense of length further in this article along with devised by Hill (49). Hill (49) suggests
over which the contractile elements additional mechanisms that may fur- that force can be analyzed as the
can produce force. This is in agreement ther explain the increase in power summation of 3 components: a con-
with Bobbert and Casius (9) who output after an SSC. tractile component, namely, actin and
explained that despite the SEC con- It should be noted that there is a point myosin; a parallel elastic component
tributing to maximum jump height of diminishing returns whereby once (PEC), comprising the sarcolemma
through storage of EE, it does not the eccentric loading (stretch phase) and muscle fascia; and a SEC,

88 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2010

comprising the cross-bridges, struc- describes these as short and long subjected to the same forces (112). The
tural proteins, and tendons. The PEC SSC, respectively, whereby the former distribution of stored energy among
is responsible for force exerted by has a ground contact time (GCT) of these tissues therefore is dependent
a relaxed (passive) muscle when it is ,250 milliseconds (e.g., a drop jump) on their deformation, which in turn is
stretched beyond its resting length. Its and the latter .250 ms (e.g., a CMJ). a function of stiffness or its inverse
contribution of stored mechanical en- It has also been suggested that the value compliance (112). Put simply,
ergy is considered small and conse- prestretch of active muscles alters the whichever tissue structure stretches
quently so too is its contribution to properties of the contractile machinery the most will store the most EE. For
propulsive force. Conversely, the SEC (10), whereby cross-bridges may be- example, during passive stretch, the
is put under tension by the force come ‘‘stuck’’ on stretch and release stiffness of the PEC is less than 100
developed in actively contracted slower than when followed by an times that of the tendon and thus
muscles. Because an actively con- isometric or concentric action (72). In the majority of deformation occurs in
tracted muscle resists stretching, par- addition, the force produced by teta- the PEC (71). Conversely, during active
ticularly if the stretching is imposed nized single muscle fibers may be movement, the stiffness of the muscle
rapidly (28,29,63), the SEC results in augmented by a prestretch (28,29). tissue and its surrounding PEC far
considerable storage of energy. This enhancement has been shown exceeds that of the tendon, therefore
Most research describes the tendon as to increase with the speed of prestretch reversing the storage site for EE (110).
the workhorse of the SEC (64,74); and to decrease with the amount of As a consequence of the tendon’s sup-
however, the additional components time elapsed after the prestretch erior ability to store and release energy,
have still been credited with signifi- (28,29,63). a goal of all athlete training programs
cance. The following sections thus pro- Finally, the structural protein titin, should be the optimal transfer of
vide a brief review of the components which spans half the sarcomere from potential energy arising from a pre-
of the SEC that may contribute to the the M-line to the Z disc, has been stretch being delivered to these struc-
enhanced power output after the SSC. proposed as an explanation of passive tures. This transfer, however, can only
force enhancement (72). It has been be optimized through the development
CONTRACTILE FILAMENTS AND suggested that titin attaches to actin in of muscle stiffness throughout the
STRUCTURAL PROTEINS a calcium-dependent manner so that its prestretch. Stiffness and compliance
The time span for cross-bridge mainte- length becomes smaller and stiffness are therefore key terminology when
nance has been estimated to be in the increases on muscle activation when explaining the efficiency of the SSC
region of 15–120 milliseconds (96). The calcium is released from the sarcoplas- and the enhanced power output noted
amortization period therefore needs to mic reticulum into the sarcoplasm in trained athletes. The following
be minimal to augment energy return (69,72). The role of titin within the sections thus provide an overview of
from these structures (96) because SSC mechanics is relatively novel and the stiffness-compliance continuum
energy is lost at the instance of de- as such requires further research. and the performance-related benefits
tachment (37). To the contrary, Fleck of muscle stiffness.
and Kraemer (37) hypothesize that the TENDONS
period of amortization is simply too Tendons are considered the key site for
long to allow any significant contribu- energy storage within the SEC because STIFFNESS AND COMPLIANCE
tion from cross-bridge maintenance, of their ability to extend and store Zatsiorsky and Kraemer (112) explain
which they estimate to be in the region energy and recoil and release energy that while the stiffness of a tendon is
of 30 milliseconds. They therefore (64,74). Kubo et al. (64) suggests that constant, the stiffness of a muscle is
suggest that alternate mechanisms are the EE stored in tendons is a key variable and depends on the forces
responsible for the SSC phenomenon. mechanism underpinning the SSC exerted (i.e., the muscle is compliant
Bosco et al. (14), however, suggests phenomenon. This is in agreement when passive and stiff when active).
that there is a difference in cross-bridge with Lichtwark and Wilson (74) who Through training, particularly plyo-
life times between fast-twitch (FT) and suggest that tendon recoil is responsi- metrics (68,77,85,91,93,95,97), it is
slow-twitch (ST) fibers, suggesting that ble for both increasing power output possible to develop high forces and
they exhibit different viscoelastic prop- and conserving energy during locomo- maintain high levels of stiffness in
erties. In agreement, Siff (96) explains tion. The elastic properties of a tendon muscles, exceeding that of tendons.
that muscles that are rich in FT fibers are therefore very important for power In such a scenario, whereby the muscle
would benefit from a rapid short-range production and efficiency. does not stretch, the tendon is forced
SSC. Conversely, slower larger ampli- In contrast to the tendon, muscle tissue to. As discussed above, this is optimal
tude jumps with a longer transient is not efficient at energy storage and with elite athletes demonstrating a
period would benefit muscles rich in return. However, because muscle and superior ability to store EE primarily
ST fibers. Schmidtbleicher (94) tendon are arranged in series, they are in their tendons (2,24,46,50).

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 89

Mechanisms and Training Strategies of SSC

Leg stiffness can be defined as the ratio contraction between the plantarflexor tendon stiffness reduces elongation and
of maximal ground reaction force to and dorsiflexor muscles and the knee impairs elastic strain energy. In sup-
maximum leg compression during the extensor and knee flexor muscles will port, investigations by Kubo et al. (64)
mid stance phase (50) or by dividing the increase joint stiffness throughout the reveal that tendon stiffness in the knee
change in force by the change in length whole leg in preparation for ground extensors is inversely correlated with
(55). Komi (58) suggests that higher impact (54). In agreement, Kuitunen countermovement prestretch augmen-
stiffness levels of lower limb muscles et al. (67) found that as running speed tation. This is conceivable because
during SSC exercises increase the increased, preactivation of the plantar prestretch augmentation has been
amount of stored and reused EE. Also, flexors and knee extensors increased, shown to be significantly greater in
Bojsen-Moller et al. (11) found that increasing MTC stiffness and the individuals with compliant tendon
power, force, and velocity parameters ability to tolerate and absorb high- structures because this allows for
obtained during jumping had a signifi- impact loads at the beginning of the greater EE storage under a given extent
cant and positive correlation to tendon contact phase. Moreover, the preacti- of force (18,64,83) Conversely, with
stiffness. In agreement, leg stiffness has vation of the triceps surae muscle a stiff tendon, all the shortening must
been shown to augment with an in- coupled with the stretch reflex and occur in the muscle tissue, which under
crease in jump height and hopping Golgi tendon organ (GTO) inhibition the high velocities of the SSC is not
height (3,31,32), and knee joint stiffness, will ensure high muscular stiffness at optimal for contractile force (74).
that is, the ability to resist flexion, has ground contact to support and propel
been shown to be crucial to performance In summary, despite stiffness possibly
the body (59). Finally, Gollhofer et al. increasing in both tissues (7), the ratio
after a drop jump (53). Arampatzis et al. (43) and McBride et al. (77) found that
(3) also demonstrated that GCT and of muscle to tendon stiffness increase
increase in preactivation and eccentric may be such that optimal efficiency is
ankle joint stiffness were inversely re- phase muscle activity increased con-
lated during drop jumps. Similarly, maintained based on anatomical loca-
centric work output. tion and continued imposed demands.
Kuitunen et al. (67) also demonstrated
that subjects with the highest stiffness in In a study by Hobara et al. (50), it was For example, Lichtwark and Wilson
the ankle joint had the shortest GCT at shown that power-trained athletes (e.g., (74) suggest that tendon stiffness is
all running speeds and that these times sprinters) show higher leg stiffness and optimal to achieve the highest effi-
are also related to decreased flexion ankle stiffness than endurance-trained ciency in both walking and running.
in joints such as the knee and hip. athletes and untrained individuals. Fur- Also, the human Achilles tendon can
Furthermore, a positive correlation ex- thermore, these athletes exhibit less strain up to 10.3% during 1-legged
ists between rate of force development GCT and longer aerial time during hopping (73), whereas the anterior
(RFD) and connective tissue stiffness in hopping. This is in agreement with tibialis tendon has a maximum re-
the lower body (11) and the upper body Arampatzis et al. (2) who also reported corded value of 3.1% (75). In addition,
(106). Heise and Martin (46) and that, as well as exhibiting higher max- Markovic and Jaric (76) also explain
Dalleau et al. (24) reported a further imal plantar flexion moments, sprinters that the muscular system is adapted to
positive correlation between leg stiff- also have higher stiffness in the triceps provide maximum mechanical output
ness and running economy, concluding surae tendon and that a significant re- under accustomed loads of daily living.
that economical runners possessed lationship exists between the two (r = Therefore long-term exposure to high-
a running style that was stiffer during 0.817). The higher tendon stiffness is er or lower loads would then result in
ground contact. Therefore, in agree- likely to reduce the probability of shifting the optimal loading for maxi-
ment with Wilson and Flanagan (105), tendon strain injuries (excess elonga- mal mechanical output. Similarly, it has
there appears to be a strong relationship tion may lead to partial or complete also been reported that the stiffness of
between the amount of stiffness in a tendon ruptures), which would occur the lower limbs may be limited to
human system and various parameters as a consequence of stronger muscles prevent injury, whereby high stiffness
of sports performance. (2,83). In addition, the increased ten- may increase stress to the anatomical
don and muscle stiffness may increase structures during ground contact
DEVELOPING MUSCLE STIFFNESS joint stability through its resistance to phases (16,24,80).
Leg stiffness largely depends on ankle joint displacement (16). Therefore, it In support of the research by Markovic
stiffness (3,31,32), and joint stiffness in may be concluded that both muscle and Jaric (76), human tendon stiffness
general depends on antagonistic co- and tendon tissue show plasticity to has been shown to increase only after
contraction (17,54,89). These in turn sufficient external mechanical loads. resistance training using heavy loads
are regulated by muscle tension at Both undergo hypertrophy and share (61,66,92) and isometric squats (61,66).
landing (preactivation; 50) and the the characteristic of enhanced collagen Therefore, any increase in muscle
concerted actions of the involuntary synthesis resulting in stiffer muscles strength would be offset by stiffer
reflexive neural processes (discussed and also stiffer tendons. It may be tendons (65). Conversely, jumping,
later in this article). For example, co- deduced, however, that this increased sprint training (86,99), and drop jump

90 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2010

protocols (62) have produced no support this hypothesis. Many studies For example, Kyrolainen et al. (68)
significant changes in tendon proper- have reported a nonsignificant change reported that after 4 months of SSC
ties. This led investigators to conclude in EMG activity after a prestretch training, the preactivity of muscles
that an exercise protocol centered on when compared with a non-prestretch increased and this change led to
ballistic contractions (rapid accelera- action (33,65,98). It may be concluded, increased MTC stiffness.
tion against resistance) cannot change therefore, that reflex activity does not When this data are examined alongside
the tendon properties and that adapta- account for the increased force caused the above theories underpinning the
tions leading to increases in joint by the SSC (9,10,65). It is also in- efficacy of muscle stiffness, additional
stiffness are therefore related to the teresting to note that myoelectric conclusions can be proposed. When an
significant changes in mechanical activity does not change during max- athlete is trying to generate maximal
properties of the muscle (e.g., active imal vertical jump performance with or muscular effort and attain high levels of
cross-bridges) not the tendon (65). Siff without additional loads (96). This muscle stiffness, there becomes a trade-
(96) also hypothesized that increases in suggests that ballistic actions maxi- off between the 2 reflexes and voli-
strength and stiffness are achieved with mally activate motor units regardless of tional muscle activation. It is evident
increased loading and increased rate of muscle shortening velocity and force that it is not simply a case of the athlete
loading. Therefore, training should production during the concentric contracting as hard as possible. Ulti-
emphasize exercises with high accel- phase (33,65,77,98,103). mately, the final power output is
eration methods. Taken collectively, regulated by subconscious neural re-
Neural reflexes, however, despite pos-
the research may allow for the follow- flexes. Moreover, the intensity of each
sibly not explaining the difference in
ing deduction. Strength training should reflex, which is not constant, deter-
precede plyometric training to develop vertical displacements of various
jumps, are likely intimately involved mines the final outcome (112). There-
sufficient strength in the muscles and fore, the objective of drop jumps, for
tendons and reduce the probability of in the final power output after SSC-
type activities. The nervous stimulation example, may be to expose the athletes
tendon injuries. After strength training, to fast muscle stretching rather than
however, plyometrics (and ballistics to the muscle during the eccentric
phase of an SSC is modified by the to immediately generate large forces
alike) must be performed to create (112). Although nervous reflexes may
a more favorable environment for concerted actions of the muscle spindle
and GTO (68,95). Zatsiorsky and not explain the potentiation after the
structural adaptations in the muscle SSC, they may be able to limit it. As
only, whereby increases in the muscle Kraemer (112) summarized this re-
lationship with the following example: suggested above, however, it may take
to tendon strength ratio are noted and up to 4 months of plyometric training
stiffness becomes optimal for force during landing after a drop jump, the
stretch applied to the leg extensor to inhibit the GTO and enable the
production/maintenance. The above potentiation of the muscle spindle, if
literature summarized the role of EE in causes the muscle spindle to contract
indeed it does occur.
the increased propulsive force noted that muscle. However, the sudden high
after SSC actions. The following sec- muscular tension causes the GTO to
tions focus on additional mechanisms, simultaneously inhibit its activity. This WORKING RANGE
namely, the neurophysiological model, drop in muscle tension prevents the Investigations by Bobbert et al. (10)
active state development, isometric muscle and tendon from incurring and Bobbert and Casius (9) and a
muscle actions, and length-tension damage. Therefore, if athletes are not comprehensive review by Van Ingen
characteristics. accustomed to these exercises and et al. (100) reported that the greater
loads, the activity of the extensor jump height seen in the CMJ com-
NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL MODEL muscles during takeoff is inhibited by pared with the SJ was exclusively
It has been suggested that the muscle the GTO. In support, Schmidtbleicher because of the fact that greater active
spindle may be responsible for the et al. (95) reported that in subjects state could be developed during the
potentiation after a prestretch because unaccustomed to intense SSC move- prestretch. This results in an increased
of its initiate reflex recruitment of ments, EMG activity was reduced from impulse (force 3 time) and thus a
additional motor units or increased 50 to 100 milliseconds before ground greater change in vertical velocity of
rate of firing of already recruited units contact and lasted for 100–200 milli- the body. They suggested that this may
(12,16). This mechanism may partly seconds. After plyometric training, be because of the greater moments
contribute to the development of however, it is possible to reduce the occurring at the hip, knee, and ankle
a high level of active state, enabling inhibitory effects (disinhibition) of the joints, enabling the production of
the muscles to generate larger forces GTO, whereby the athlete is able to greater force and work over the first
and thus more work during the sustain high landing forces without part of the propulsive phase. This also
concentric phase before the start of a decrease in exerted muscular force led to an increase in vertical velocity
push-off (10). Electromyographic (68,95). The intensity (e.g., dropping over the entire concentric range (100)
(EMG) analysis, however, does not height or load) may then be increased. and greater ground reaction force at

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 91

Mechanisms and Training Strategies of SSC

the start of push-off in the CMJ between CMJ and SJ heights would MUSCLE-TENDON
compared with other jumps (10). vary among individuals depending on INTERRELATIONSHIP AND
their ability to develop force. A small ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS
The time delay in reaching peak force
difference would be seen in those who Kubo et al. (60) examined the MTC of
is in part because of the finite rate of the human medial gastrocnemius dur-
increase in muscle stimulation by the could develop force quickly, whereas
a large difference would be seen in those ing ankle dorsiflexion to plantarflexion.
central nervous system, the propaga- The movement consisted of dorsiflex-
tion of the action potential on the who developed forces at slower rates.
The authors attributed this to the faster ion at 2 different speeds of lengthening,
muscle membrane, time constants of followed by plantarflexion. The inves-
calcium release and cross-bridge for- cross-bridge cycling rates of FT fibers
and hence the ability to build maximal tigators revealed that the tendon length
mation, and the interaction between increased to a greater extent in the fast
contractile elements and the SEC force at greater rates than ST fibers. To
the contrary, however, Bosco et al. (14) lengthening condition. No significant
(10,84,111). In addition, the slack, change was found in the fascicle length
caused by the crimped orientation of found no difference in jump heights
after short SSCs between individuals during the first half of plantarflexion,
tendon fibers (71) (described by the toe whereas the tendon rapidly shortened.
region of the tendon force-deformation with predominantly FT or ST muscle
Both the tendon and muscle rapidly
curve), must be stretched out of the fiber composition. However, and in
shortened in the second half of plan-
SEC before it will transmit any force to agreement with Van Ingen et al. (100),
tarflexion, suggesting that during the
the skeletal system (49). This factor is the investigators reported that individ-
transition from prestretch to shorten-
reportedly a significant contributor to uals with predominantly ST muscle
ing, the muscle contracted isometri-
the time to develop peak force (111). fibers benefited most from longer SSCs
cally. These findings are in agreement
Collectively, this delay in reactivity is such as the CMJ. Finni et al. (33)
with Fukunaga et al. (38) who found
known as the electromechanical delay provided further contention to the
that during the stance phase of walk-
(EMD) and describes the interval above theories by reporting that partic-
ing, the medial gastrocnemius muscle
between the time of onset of muscle ipants jumped higher when using
contracted isometrically, whereas the
activity and the time of onset of a CMJ compared with a condition that
tendon lengthened by 7 mm. During
mechanical output (19,84). This time allowed for the build up of maximal
the push-off phase, however, both the
delay is consequential to commencing isometric force before the vertical jump.
tendon and muscle rapidly shortened.
movement from zero to low muscular They therefore concluded that other The isometric action may be of benefit
tension, and its negative effects can be factors, such as EE, must contribute because it likely avoids the lowered
reduced by enabling the muscle to to the enhanced performance after a force output that occurs with increas-
build up a maximum active state before prestretch. ing velocity and can also far exceed the
the start of the propulsive phase Research supporting the significance of force output of concentric contractions
through either an isometric contrac- the development of active state, how- (27). Fukunaga et al. (38) and Wilson
tion (e.g., preloading) or a counter- ever, may gain further credibility when and Flanagan (105) hypothesized that
movement (10). Moreover, it has been examined concurrently with research before the isometric action, muscles
hypothesized that increases in MTC concerning the time available to de- independently lengthen toward their
stiffness would decrease the EMD, velop peak force (i.e., RFD). Aagaard (1) optimal length-tension relationship
allowing muscles to generate tension hypothesized that in skilled athletes, to increase concentric force output.
more rapidly and counteract deleteri- this takes between of 0.25 and 0.4 This is in agreement with Lichtwark
ous forces at joints (105). seconds, with force linearly increasing and Wilson (74) who suggested that
In support of an active range, Bobbert throughout. Other researchers, how- muscles contract at favorable speeds,
et al. (10) found a direct relationship ever, suggest that maximum force de- which may differ from the MTC. In
(r = 0.88) between the time to velopment may require 0.6 to 0.8 further support, Ishikawa et al. (56)
stimulate the gluteus maximus and seconds (27,58). A prestretch therefore found that the medial gastrocnemius
vertical ground reaction force in provides additional time over which only lengthened during the early
a non–countermovement jumping task. force can be developed, ensuring that stance phase of walking, whereas the
In addition, with the use of a simulated by the time of the concentric contrac- soleus continued to lengthen until the
spring model, Bobbert and Casius (9) tion, the accumulated force is above that end of the stance phase, when both
further demonstrated that by increasing of the starting force of the SJ, leading to muscles rapidly shortened at toe-off.
the rate of muscular stimulation during more powerful propulsion. Fundamen-
an SJ, the difference in vertical ground tal to coaches, RFD is trainable, with LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP
reaction force was reduced because this advancedathletes from power-orientated As mentioned above, muscle or facial
in turn reduced the distance covered at sports reaching peak values quicker length may be another mechanism
a submaximal active state. They there- (112) and perhaps explaining their involved in increasing force output after
fore concluded that the difference increase in jump heights. an SSC. Finni et al. (33) demonstrated

92 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2010

that the vastus lateralis generates more the required technical mastery to be the athlete’s progression of physical
force with a prestretch compared with able to perform the entire gamut of capacities.
no prestretch, yet there is no difference plyometric exercises in a fashion that
in EMG activity (as discussed above). both maximizes performance gains and INTRODUCING PLYOMETRIC
The force enhancement may therefore EXERCISES—THE PLYOMETRIC
also minimizes injury risk. PYRAMID
be related to a longer muscle or fascicle
Ideally, in terms of maximizing perfor- In introducing any skill, there needs
length before the concentric phase,
mance, plyometric training should be to be a sequence of progression that
placing the muscle in a more advanta-
preceded by strength training to reduce allows an athlete to master basic
geous position on the length-tension
the risk of injury to the MTC and components before moving onto more
diagram to produce force (36). In
increase the quality and quantity of type advanced exercises. Developing a pro-
agreement, Ettema et al. (30) explained
II fibers. The latter point is of signifi- gressive system requires a basic knowl-
that during the start of propulsion in
cance because of the high correlation edge of the factors that determine
both the CMJ and SJ, the muscle fibers
between the percentage of type II fibers plyometric intensity. Armed with this
are on the descending limb of their
and peak power output (23) and is knowledge, exercises can be sequenced
length-tension relationship. However,
therefore likely to increase the athletes’ to provide appropriate stimulus for
in the CMJ, because of stretching of
net potential to develop power (58). As an athlete based on the aim of the
the SEC, they are less beyond their
a consequence of the size principle of program and on their physical and skill
optimal length and are therefore able to
motor unit recruitment (47), strength capacities at any time. Jeffreys (57) lists
produce greater force over the first part
training, that is, $85% 1 repetition the determinants of plyometric inten-
of their concentric range.
sity as follows:
maximum (RM), #6 repetitions, 2–6
METHODS TO ENHANCE SSC sets, 2- to 5-minute rest (6), is required to 1. The speed of movement, the greater
MECHANISMS the speed the greater the intensity.
recruit these type II fibers (45).
Because the SSC clearly plays an 2. The points of contact, with single-
Although this sequence of strength
important role in performance in many leg drills being more intense than
training preceding plyometric training
sports, then developing this capacity double-leg drills.
is undoubtedly physiologically sound, it
via effective training practices is crucial. 3. The amplitude of movement, with
may not optimize sequential develop-
Reportedly, the optimal method to greater amplitudes ground contact
train SSC motor skills is plyometrics ment based on a motor skill basis, and forces and hence increasing
(68,77,85,91,93,95,97). The following holding back the introduction of plyo- intensity.
sections outline how plyometric exer- metric development until a sound base 4. The athlete’s weight (or additional
cises can be progressively integrated of strength has been developed may not load), with the greater weight lead-
into an athlete’s training program and maximize long-term development. The ing to higher intensities.
also outline appropriate methods of reality of modern sports is that perform- Additionally, exercises where an ath-
performance evaluation. The practical ers will compete in their sports at a very lete moves from an eccentric move-
suggestions herein will be made based young age. Sports, such as basketball, ment to a concentric movement (e.g.,
on the evidence for the SSC mecha- football, soccer, and the like, inherently a depth jump) are more intense than an
nisms highlighted in the preceding contain a large number of SSC activities eccentric movement alone (e.g., a drop
sections. and involve numerous jumping and land), other things being equal.
Plyometrics cover a wide range of landing activities. These activities are In essence, plyometric ‘‘skills’’ revolve
jumping, hopping, and bounding-based more often than not undertaken before around 2 basic capacities, jumping and
exercises that have the fundamental an adequate strength base has been landing. Although these are basic skills,
aim of enhancing SSC performance. established, and therefore, the develop- a failure to adequately develop these
Although appearing relatively simple ment of effective landing techniques, for will hinder the optimal application of
tasks, for example, a CMJ or a drop example, takes on a very important role. plyometric exercises, limit athletic de-
jump, plyometric exercises are in fact Additionally, and as described above, velopment, and also expose the athlete
very complex and fundamental move- plyometric exercises contain a large skill to greater injury potential. Based on the
ment skills. As such, appropriate time component in addition to a physical evaluation of plyometric intensity and
should be allocated to the development component. It therefore seems logical to the need to develop jumping and
of these skills, and the strength and progressively develop both compo- landing skills, Jeffreys (57) advocated
conditioning coach should ensure that nents in a concurrent fashion, rather the use of the plyometric pyramid as
the athlete displays mastery in these than having to develop the skill capa- a method of introducing plyometric
before progressing to additional drills. cities from scratch once the strength exercises. This involves 3 categories of
This requires a progressive system of base has been established. It is, however, exercise, all of which have a given aim
exercises to be set up, through which an prudent to ensure that plyometric and are able to alter intensity within
athlete can pass to ensure that they have exercises are prescribed based on each stage. Throughout these stages,

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 93

Mechanisms and Training Strategies of SSC

Figure . Jump up to box (left), drop land (middle) step from box (right) (before drop land or drop jump). When performing these
drills, coaches should ensure that the athlete uses the appropriate foot contact and displays the correct limb alignment
(i.e., shoulders in line with the knees, helping to place the center of gravity over the body’s base of support, and ensuring
no valgus or varus movement at the knees. In addition, the shoulders should be pulled down and back with the hands to
side, ready to react.).

the main focus is on technical de- STAGE 2: JUMP AND STICK (and duration of ) used in the sub-
velopment, thus ensuring that on This stage builds on the athlete’s sequent stage (35). In addition, and
completion of the process, athletes landing capacity developed in stage 1 described in the preceding text, this
are adequately prepared for the full and develops their ability to control stage also requires the development of
range of plyometric exercises. eccentric forces. Initially, exercises in muscle stiffness through preactivation
this stage can involve low-amplitude tensioning and antagonist co-contraction
movements, but progression can be and may therefore take several weeks
STAGE 1: JUMP TO BOX provided by increasing the amplitude to develop (68). The Figure (middle)
This stage develops basic jumping of movement and by moving from illustrates an athlete demonstrating
abilities and also, crucially, landing double- to single-leg landings. As well, effective landing technique during
ability in a controlled environment. by further developing landing tech- a drop land.
By excluding the time gravity has to nique, this stage allows the athlete to
act and by teaching landing technique adapt to high landing forces (eccentric STAGE 3: SHORT-RESPONSE
to beginner athletes or athletes with loads) through learned GTO disinhi- JUMPS
current landing problems, landing bition. This stage, and the amplitudes This stage begins the true plyometric
forces can be minimized. Varying the within, should be dictated by the training where the SSC is used to
height of the box can provide a chal- quality of the movement and not be enhance subsequent concentric perfor-
lenge to the athlete’s jumping ability, progressed until the athlete can stick mance. Here, the athlete performs
while still minimizing landing forces. the landing with appropriate levels jump activities of initially low ampli-
Moving from a double-leg to a single- of control and with appropriate foot tude, where the aim is to minimize
leg landing can further challenge the contact. Heel contact, for example, is GCT, while maintaining effective land-
athlete’s landing ability. The Figure suggestive of GTO inhibition and ing mechanics and body control.
(left) illustrates an athlete demonstrat- the athlete’s inability to optimally store Again, this stage should be progressed
ing effective landing technique when energy in the tendons, which is to involve greater amplitude of jumps
using the jump to box. essential to the amortization phase and the utilization of single-leg

94 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2010

activities. Ankling drills provide a good progressions). Conversely, a drop jump efficient SSC mechanics should result
example of a short-response jump. In (fast SSC) and its derivatives (e.g., in greater jump heights from greater
addition, there is research suggesting multiple hurdle jumps, bounding and drop heights. An additional method for
that overall leg stiffness is correlated by single-leg progressions) would be more monitoring prestretch augmentation is
ankle stiffness (2,31,32); therefore, an- suitable to train top speed sprinting described by McGuigan et al. (79) and
kling may provide a prudent starting (82) and the take-off phase of the long Walshe et al. (110) who compared the
point. The Appendix provides descrip- jump (109) and high jump (24) because CMJ with the SJ and used the
tion of the ankling drill. these SSC actions have a GCT less following formula: % prestretch aug-
Athletes who have moved through than 250 milliseconds. To this end, the mentation = ([CMJ 2 SJ] 3 SJ21) 3
these stages should have developed the GCT and the type and direction of 100. Alternatively, reactive strength
required skills to enable them to use forces should guide plyometric choice. may simply be calculated as CMJ 2
the full gamut of plyometric exercises. During plyometric exercises, strength SJ height (107). Although monitoring
The appropriate exercise to elicit the and conditioning coaches should place the athlete’s training adaptations to
required physical adaptations can then emphasis on the importance of maxi- plyometrics training is considered fun-
be progressively introduced into the mizing jump height (where applicable) damental, the optimal method to do
program. while minimizing GCT (105,107,108). this still needs to be fully elucidated
Although this seems logical, it has and may simply depend on the avail-
START WITH THE END IN MIND important implications for appropriate ability of specialist equipment.
When constructing plyometric pro- progression within plyometric pro-
grams, coaches need to be acutely grams. For example, where fast SSC PLYOMETRICS AS PART OF A
aware of the fundamental aim of their TOTAL PERFORMANCE PLAN
activities are required, the use of
training and the precise physical ca- additional loads, increased height of As with all training modalities, plyo-
pacities they are trying to develop. This jumps, and the like may bring about an metrics should not be performed in
allows the programming variables to be undesired increase in GCT and hence isolation and instead as part of a total
appropriately applied to elicit specific change the underlying nature of the performance program that includes
training effects. exercise. Therefore, care should be multiple modalities. It is therefore
taken when progressing plyometric advised that the strength and condi-
One key factor when considering tioning coach should include addi-
appropriate plyometric drills is the activities so as not to negatively affect
the main aim of the exercise. This is tional ballistic exercises (explosive
GCT involved in the activity to which resisted movements in which the body
the drill is aimed at. Hennessy and also the case where an attempt to make
plyometrics more ‘‘sport specific,’’ by or object is subjected to full accelera-
Kilty (48) and Schmidtbleicher (94) tion) such as weightlifting movements
found low correlations between jump including balls and the like could result
in a degradation of the physical because these may enhance the ath-
heights after a CMJ and a drop jump, lete’s power output throughout the
suggesting that these SSC activities are performance, thus negating the ulti-
mate training aim of the activity, that is, triple extension (of the hips, knees, and
measuring different movement charac- ankles) (51) inherent to lower-body
teristics. To this end, Schmidtbleicher enhancing SSC performance.
SSC motor skills. These exercises are
(94) categorized plyometric activities also advocated to enhance Rate of
EVALUATING THE SSC
as either slow SSC (.250 milliseconds) MECHANISM Force Development (RFD) (35,44,51)
or fast (,250 milliseconds) SSC, As GCT is an important variable in specifically within the first 200 milli-
depending on their GCT. plyometric training prescription, mon- seconds (43) of force production. This
As an example, therefore, a CMJ (slow itoring of this important variable is may therefore assist in the develop-
SSC) may be more suitable to train the important and can be achieved using ment of active state, which as dis-
acceleration phase of the 100 m, as training/testing equipment, such as cussed, may be a fundamental tenet of
Plisk (87) hypothesized that the force contact mats and force plates, and is SSC activities (9,10,100). Moreover,
exerted by the front leg during push-off available in real time, possibly facilitat- these may be of additional significance
is applied for .250 milliseconds in elite ing athlete motivation (34,86). More- because the vast majority of athletic
sprinters, with some investigators over, calculation of the reactive SSC movements occur within 0.3
reporting ranges of 0.34–0.37 milli- strength index (height jumped/GCT) seconds (111). As previously men-
seconds (81,83). Similarly, ski jumping during activities, such as drop jumps, tioned, strength training will also play
(60), shot putting (70), and a standing can provide strength and conditioning a part in maximizing SSC activity.
takeoff in platform diving (83) have coaches with a good indication of an Although further research still needs
GCT in excess of 250 milliseconds and athletes’ SSC ability (35,36,89,107,108, to be carried out into the optimal
would benefit from CMJ training or 110). This is usually tested over the application of plyometrics, some re-
derivatives of (e.g., tuck jump, split-SJ, following drop heights: 30, 45, 60, and search suggests that its concurrent
jump over barrier, and single-leg 75 cm (89). As previously mentioned, combination with power/ballistic

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 95

Mechanisms and Training Strategies of SSC

training (combination method) may mechanism have also been demon- (104) who conducted a similar review.
produce superior results across a wide strated after submaximal intensity They further speculated that the de-
variety of athletic performance varia- workouts (41,42,52,58,88) and after velopment of active state predomi-
bles requiring power and speed when completion of a marathon run (5). nated in enhancing force output in
compared with using either method in Therefore, as the SSC mechanism may a long SSC, whereas a short SSC relies
isolation (22,55,90). be negatively influenced by fatigue, the more heavily on the reuse of EE.
Additionally, SSC activity may be quality of movements should always be
affected by its prior contractile history, a critical factor in assessing perfor-
and this needs to be taken into account mance during a session and will help Anthony
when planning programs. For example, a coach gauge appropriate volumes of N. Turner is
Comyns et al. (20) examined the acute plyometric activities. This knowledge a Senior Lecturer
effects of 3 back squats performed should also guide the application of and Strength &
using 65, 80, and 93% 1RM on the plyometrics within the annual macro- Conditioning
performance of a DJ to determine if an cycle, with the activity being most Coach at Middlesex
optimal resistive load exists for effective in cycles without excessive University,
complex training (see the references fatigue. London, England.
Docherty et al. (25) and Ebben (26) for CONCLUSION
a review of complex training). Results Efficient SSC mechanics result in
showed that all resistive loads reduced energy conservation of locomotion Ian Jeffreys is
(p , 0.01) flight time and that lifting at and enhanced propulsive forces. This Senior Lecturer in
the 93% load resulted in an improve- efficiency, however, is largely a conse- Strength and
ment (p , 0.05) in GCT and leg quence of an individual’s ability to Conditioning at the
stiffness. These results may suggest that transfer all stretch to the tendon University of
heavy lifting will enhance the fast SSC through maintenance of muscle stiff- Glamorgan, Wales,
mechanism (possibly through postac- ness. In turn, this can only be achieved and the Proprietor
tivation potentiation) because of with sufficient plyometric training, and Performance Director of All-Pro
a stiffer leg spring action, which in enabling GTO disinhibition and sub- Performance in Brecon, Wales.
turn may benefit performance. How- sequent preactivation tensioning and
ever, it should also be noted that concomitant antagonistic co-contrac-
although some activities may provide REFERENCES
tion. Reportedly, the optimal method 1. Aagaard P. Training-induced changes in
the potential to enhance SSC activity, to train SSC movement skills is neural function. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 32:
others may decrease it. Magnusson plyometrics, and appropriate drills in- 61–67, 2003.
(75), for example, reported that static clude drop lands, whereby the body 2. Arampatzis A, Karamanidis K, Morey-
stretches resulted in an acute reduction adapts to high landing forces, and drop Klapsing G, De Monte G, and Stafilidis S.
in muscle stiffness and therefore should jumps, whereby the focus shifts to Mechanical properties of the triceps surae
be avoided in warm-up activities for reducing the amortization phase and tendon and aponeurosis in relation to
sessions where SSC activity is involved. therefore the loss of EE. In addition, intensity of sport activity. J Biomech 40:
1946–1952, 2007.
QUALITY NOT QUANTITY plyometric training should be preceded
by strength training to reduce the risk 3. Arampatzis A, Schade F, Walsh M, and
Comyns et al. (21) examined the effect Bruggemann GP. Influence of leg
of a maximal SSC fatigue workout on of injury to the MTC and increase the
stiffness and its effect on myodynamic
the performance of a DJ performed 15, quality and quantity of type II fibers. jumping performance. J Electromyogr
45, 120, and 300 seconds after fatigue. Finally, because of the significance of Kinesiol 11: 355–364, 2001.
The results indicated that the fatigue active state, it is suggested that athletes
4. Aura O and Viitasalo JT. Biomechanical
workout significantly reduced flight train RFD through the use of ballistics characteristics of jumping. Int J Sports
time (p , 0.001) and peak force (p , such as plyometrics and weightlifting. Biomech 5: 89–97, 1989.
0.01) and increased GCT (p , 0.05) at The potentiation effects of the muscle 5. Avela J and Komi PV. Interaction between
the 15-second interval, suggesting that spindle remain contentious because of muscle stiffness and stretch-reflex
the efficiency of the SSC mechanism insignificant EMG tracings. Based on sensitivity after long-term stretch-
shortening cycle exercise. Muscle Nerve
was reduced. However, the results also the current review of research, EE via
21: 1224–1227, 1998.
showed a potentiation effect at the tendon recoil and an increase in active
6. Baechle TR, Earle RW, and Wathen D.
300-second interval because of a signif- state because of an increase in the
Resistance training. In: Essentials of
icant increase in peak force and leg working range seems the most plausi- Strength Training and Conditioning.
stiffness (p , 0.05). Significant to the ble causes of the increase in force seen Baechle TR and Earle RW, eds.
former research finding, the negative after SSC actions. These findings are in Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008.
effects of fatigue on the SSC agreement with Wilson and Flanagan pp. 395–425.

96 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2010

 7. Birch HL. Tendon matrix composition and 20. Comyns TM, Harrison AJ, Hennessy L, 32. Farley CT and Morgenroth DE. Leg
turnover in relation to functional Jensen RL. Identifying the optimal stiffness primarily depends on ankle
requirements. Int J Exp Pathol 88: 241– resistive load for complex training in male stiffness during human hopping.
248, 2007. rugby players. Sports Biomech 6: 59–70, J Biomech 32: 267–273, 1999.
8. Bobbert MF. Drop jumping as a training 2007. 33. Finni T, Ikegaw S, and Komi PV.
method for jumping ability. Sports Med 21. Comyns TM, Harrison AJ, and Hennessy LK. Concentric force enhancement during
9: 7–22, 1990. The effect of a maximal stretch-shortening human movement. Acta Physiol Scand
9. Bobbert MF and Casius LJ. Is the cycle fatigue workout on fast 173: 369–377, 2001.
countermovement on jump height due to stretchshortening cycle performance. 34. Finni T, Ikegawa S, Lepola V, and Komi P.
active state development? Med Sci Sport Proceedings of the XXIV International In vivo behaviour of vastus lateralis muscle
Exerc 37: 440–446, 2005. Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, during dynamic performances. Eur J Sport
Conference Archive 24, Salzburg, Austria, Sci 1: 1–13, 2001.
10. Bobbert MF, Gerritsen KGM, Litjens MCA, July 14–18, 2006.
and Van Soest AJ. Why is 35. Flanagan EP and Comyns TM. The use of
countermovement jump height greater than 22. Cormie P, McCaulley GO, and McBride JM. contact time and the reactive strength
squat jump height? Med Sci Sports Exerc Power versus strength-power jump squat index to optimise fast stretch-shortening
28: 1402–1412, 1996. training: Influence on the load-power cycle training. Strength Cond J 30: 33–
relationship. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39: 38, 2008.
11. Bojsen-Moller J, Magnnusson SP,
996–1003, 2007.
Rasmussen LR, Kjaer M, and Aagaard P. 36. Flanagan EP and Harrison AJ. Muscle
Muscle performance during maximal 23. Coyle EF, Costill DL, and Lesmes GR. dynamics differences between legs in
isometric and dynamic contractions is Leg extension power and muscle fiber healthy adults. J Strength Cond Res
influenced by the stiffness of tendinous composition. Med Sci Sports 11: 12–15, 21: 67–72, 2007.
structures. J Appl Physiol 99: 986–994, 1979.
37. Fleck SJ and Kraemer WJ. Designing
2005. 24. Dalleau G, Belli A, Bourdin M, and Lacour JR. Resistance Training Programs.
12. Bosco C, Komi PV, and Ito A. Pre-stretch The spring-mass model and the energy Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2004.
potentiation of human skeletal muscle cost of treadmill running. Eur J Appl pp. 231–237.
during ballistiv movement. Acta Physiol Physiol Occup Physiol 77: 257–263,
38. Fukunaga T, Kawakami Y, Kubo K, and
Scand 111: 135–140, 1981. 1998.
Kanehisa H. Muscle and tendon
13. Bosco C, Montanari G, Ribacchi R, 25. Docherty D, Robbins D, and Hodgson, M. interaction during human movements.
Giovenali P, Latteri F, Iachelli G, Faina M, Complex training revisited: A review of its Exerc Sport Sci Rev 30: 106–110, 2002.
Coli R, Dal Monte A, Las Rosa M, Cortelli G, current status as a viable training
39. Fukunaga T, Kubo K, Kawakami, Y,
and Saibene F. Relationship between the approach. Strength Cond J 26: 52–57,
Fukashiro S, Kanehisa H, and Maganaris CN.
efficiency of muscular work during 2004.
In vivo behaviour of human muscle tendon
jumping and the energetic of running. Eur 26. Ebben WP. Complex training: A brief during walking. Proc Biol Sci 268: 1–5,
J Appl Physiol 56: 138–143, 1987. review. J Sport Sci Med 1: 42–46, 2002. 2000.
14. Bosco C, Thihanyi J, Komi P, Fekete G, 27. Edman KAP. Contractile performance of 40. Goldspink G. Muscle energetic and
and Apor P. Store and recoil of elastic skeletal muscle fibers. In: Strength and animal locomotion: In Mechanics and
energy in slow and fast types of human Power in Sport (2nd ed). Komi PV, ed. Energetic of Animal Locomotion.
skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Alexander Mc and Goldspink G, eds.
116: 343–349, 1982. Science, 2003. pp. 114–133. London, United Kingdom: Chapman and
15. Bosco C, Viitalsalo JT, Komi PV, and 28. Edman KAP, Elzinga G, and Noble MIM. Hill, 1977. pp. 57–81.
Luhtanen P. Combined effect of elastic Enhancement of mechanical performance 41. Gollhofer A, Komi PV, Fujitsuka N, and
energy and myoelectric potentiation by stretch during tetanic contractions of Miyashita M. Fatigue during stretch-
during stretch-shortening cycle exercise. vertebrae skeletal muscle fibers. J Physiol shortening cycle exercises. II. Changes in
Acta Physiol Scand 114: 557–65, 1982. 281: 139–155, 1978. neuromuscular activation patterns of
16. Butler RJ, Crowell HP, and Davis IM. 29. Edman KAP, Elzinga G, and Noble MIM. human skeletal muscle. Int J Sports Med
Lower extremity stiffness: Implications for Residual force enhancement after stretch 8(Suppl): 38–47, 1987.
performance and injury. Clin Biomech of contracting frog single muscle fibers. 42. Gollhofer A, Komi PV, Miyashita M, and
18: 511–517, 2003. J Gen Physiol 80: 769–784, 1982. Aura O. Fatigue during stretch-shortening
17. Carter RR, Crago PE, and Gorman PH. 30. Ettema GJ, Huijing PA, and De Hann A. cycle exercises. I. Changes in mechanical
Nonlinear stretch reflex interaction during The potentiating effect of pre-stretch on performance of human skeletal muscle. Int
cocontraction. J Neurophysiol 69: 943– contractile performance of rat J Sports Med 8(Suppl): 71–78, 1987.
952, 1993. gastrocnemius medialis muscle during 43. Gollhofer A, Strojnik V, Rapp W, and
18. Cavagna GA. Storage and utilisation of subsequent shortening and isometric Schweizer L. Behaviour of triceps surae
elastic energy in skeletal muscle. Exerc contractions. J Exp Biology 165: 121– muscle-tendon complex in different jump
Sport Sci Rev 5: 89–129, 1977. 136, 1992. conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup
19. Chen HY, Liau JJ, Wang CL, Lai HJ, and 31. Farley CT, Blickhan R, Sato J, and Taylor CR. Physiol 64: 283–291, 1992.
Jan MH. A novel method for measuring Hopping frequency in humans: A test of 44. Häkkinen K, Komi P, and Alen M. Effect of
electromechanical delay of the vastus how springs set stride frequency in explosive type strength training on
medialis obliquus and vastus lateralis. bouncing gaits. J Appl Physiol 191: isometric force- and relaxation-time,
Ultrasound Med Biol 35: 14–20, 2009. 2127–2132, 1991. electromyographic and muscle fiber

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 97

Mechanisms and Training Strategies of SSC

characteristics of leg extensor muscles. interaction and elastic energy usage in neuromuscular performance and
Acta Physiol Scand 125: 587–600, human walking. J Appl Physiol 99: 603– mechanical efficiency. Scand J Med Sci
1985. 608, 2005. Sports 1: 78–87, 1991.
45. Harris GR, Stone MH, O’Bryant HS, 57. Jeffreys I. Total Soccer Fitness. Monterey, 69. Labeit D, Watanabe K, Witt C, Fujita H,
Proulx CM, and Johnson RL. Short-term California: Coaches choice, 2007. pp. Wu Y, Lahmers S, Funck T, Labeit S, and
performance effects of high power, high 137. Granzier H. Calcium-dependent
force, or combined weight-training 58. Komi PV. Stretch-shortening cycle. In: molecular spring elements in the giant
methods. J Strength Cond Res 14: Strength and Power in Sport (2nd ed). protein titin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
14–20, 2000. Komi PV, ed. Oxford, United Kingdom: 100: 13716–13721, 2003.
46. Heise GD and Martin PE. ‘‘Leg spring’’ Blakwell Science, 2003. pp. 184–202. 70. Lanka J. Shot putting. In: Biomechanics in
characteristics and the aerobic demand of 59. Komi PV and Gollihofer A. Stretch reflexes Sport: Performance Enhancement and
running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 750– can have an important role in force Injury Prevention. Zatsiorsky VM, ed.
754, 1998. enhancement during SSC exercise. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell
47. Henneman E, Clamann H, Gillies J, and J Appl Biomech 13: 451–460, 1997. Science, 2000. pp. 435–457.
Skinner R. Rank order of motorneurons 60. Komi PV and Virmavirta M. Determinants 71. Latash ML and Zatsiorski VM. Joint
within a pool: Law of combination. of successful ski-jumping performance In: stiffness: Myth or reality? Hum Mov Sci
J Neurophysiol 37: 1338–1349, 1974. Biomechanics in Sport: Performance 12: 653–692, 1993.
48. Hennessy L and Kilty J. Relationship of the Enhancement and Injury Prevention. 72. Lee EJ, Joumaa V, and Herzog W. New
stretch-shortening cycle to sprint Zatsiorsky VM, ed. Oxford, United insights into passive force enhancement
performance and trained female athletes. Kingdom: Blackwell Science, 2000. in skeletal muscles. J Biomech 40: 719–
J Strength Cond Res 15: 326–331, pp. 349–362. 727, 2007.
2001. 61. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, and Fukunaga T. 73. Lichtwark GA and Wilson AM. In vivo
49. Hill AV. The heat of shortening and the Effects of different duration isometric mechanical properties of the human
dynamic constants of muscle. Proc R Soc contractions on tendon elasticity in human Achilles tendon during one-legged
Lond B 126: 136–195, 1938. quadriceps muscle. J Physiol 536: 649– hoping. J Exp Biol 208: 4715–4725,
50. Hobara H, Kimura K, Omuro K, Gomi K. 655, 2001. 2005.
Muraoka T, Iso S, and Kanosue K. 62. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, and Fukunaga T. 74. Lichtwark GA, and Wilson AM. Is Achilles
Determinants of difference in leg stiffness Influences of repetitive drop-jump and tendon compliance optimised for
between endurance- and power-trained isometric leg press exercises on the tendon maximum muscle efficiency during
athletes. J Biomech 41: 506–514, 2008. properties in knee extensors. J Strength locomotion? J Biomech 40: 1768–1775,
51. Hori N, Newton RU, Nosaka K, Stone MH. Cond Res 19: 864–870, 2005. 2007.
Weightlifting exercises enhance athletic 63. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Takeshita D, 75. Maganaris CN and Paul JP. In vivo human
performance that requires high-load Kawakami Y, Fukashiro S, and Fukunaga T. tendinous tissue stretch upon maximal
speed strength. Strength Cond J 27: In vivo dynamics of human medial muscle force generation. J Biomech 33:
50–55, 2005. gastrocnemius muscle-tendon complex
1454–1459, 2000.
52. Horita T, Comı́ PV, Nicol C, and during stretch-shortening cycle exercise.
Acta Physiol Scand 170: 127–135, 76. Markovic G and Jaric S. Positive and
Kyröläinen H. Effect of exhausting stretch-
2000. negative loading and mechanical output in
shortening cycle exercise on the time
maximum vertical jumping. Med Sci
course of mechancial behaviour in the 64. Kubo K, Kawakami Y, and Fukunaga T.
Sports Exerc Sci 39: 1757–1764, 2007.
drop jump: Possible role of muscle Influence of elastic properties of tendon
damage. Eur J Appl Physiol 79: 160– structures on jump performance in 77. McBride JM, McCaulley GO, and Cormie P.
167, 1999. humans. J Appl Physiol 87: 2090–2096, Influence of preactivity and eccentric
1999. muscle activity on concentric performance
53. Horita T, Komi PV, Nicol C, and Kyrolainen H.
during vertical jumping. J Strength Cond
Interaction between pre-landing activities 65. Kubo K, Morimoto M, Komuro T, Yata H,
Res 23: 750–757, 2008.
and stiffness regulation of the knee joint Tsunoda N, Kanehisa H, and Fukunga T.
musculoskeletal systems in the drop Effects of plyometric and weight training 78. McCaulley GO, Cormie P, Cavill MJ,
jump: Implications to performance. Eur J on muscle-tendon complex and jump Nuzzo JL, Urbiztondo ZG, and McBride
Appl Physiol 88: 76–84, 2002. performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39: JM. Mechanical efficiency during
1801–1810, 2007. repetitive vertical jumping. Eur J Appl
54. Hortobagyi T and DeVita P. Muscle pre-
Physiol 101: 115–123, 2007.
and coactivity during downward stepping 66. Kubo K, Yata H, Kanehisa H, and
are associated with leg stiffness in aging. Fukunaga T. Effects of isometric squat 79. McGuigan MR, Doyle TLA, Newton M,
J Electromyogr Kinesiol 10: 117–126, training on the tendon stiffness and jump Edwards DJ, Nimphius S, and Newton RU.
2000. performance. E J Appl Physiol 96:305– Eccentric utilization ratio: Effect of sport
314, 2006. and phase of training. J Strength Cond
55. Houk JC. Feedback control of muscle: A
Res 20: 992–995, 2006.
synthesis of the peripheral mechanisms. 67. Kuitunen S, Komi PV, and Kyrolainen H.
In Medical Physiology. Mountcastle VB, Knee and ankle joint stiffness in sprint 80. McMahon TA, Valiant G, and Frederick
ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1974. running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 166– EC. Groucho running. J Appl Physiol
pp. 668–677. 173, 2002. 62: 2326–2337, 1987.
56. Ishikawa M, Komi PV, Grey MJ, Lepola V, 68. Kyrolainen H, Komi PV, and Kim DH. 81. Mero A. Force-time characteristics and
and Bruggmann GP. Muscle-tendon Effects of power training on running velocity of male sprinters during

98 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2010

 the acceleration phase of sprinting. Res Q sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res power requirements: A brief review.
Exerc Sport 59: 94–98, 1988. 14: 295–301, 2000. J Strength Cond Res 22: 1705–1715, 2008
82. Mero A and Komi PV. Force-, EMG-, and 94. Schmidtbleicher D. Training for power 106. Wilson GJ, Murphy AJ, and Pryor JF.
elasticity-velocity relationships at events. In: Strength and Power in Sport. Musculotendinous stiffness: Its
submaximal, maximal and supramaximal Komi PV, ed. Oxford, United Kingdom: relationship to eccentric, isometric, and
running speeds in sprinters. Eur J Appl Blackwell Science, 1992. pp. 169–179. concentric performance. J Appl Physiol
Physiol 55: 553–561, 1986. 95. Schmidtbleicher D, Gollhofer A, and Frick U. 76: 2714–2719, 1994.
83. Mero A, Luthanen P, Komi PV. A Effects of stretch shortening time training 107. Young W. Laboratory strength
biomechanical study of the sprint start. on the performance capability and assessment of athletes. N Stud Athletics
Scand J Sports Sci 5: 20–28, 1983. innervation characteristics of leg extensor 10: 88–96, 1995.
84. Muraoka T, Muramatsu T, Funkunaga T, muscles. In: Biomechanics XI-A (Vol 7-A).
DeGroot G, Hollander A, Huijing P, and 108. Young WB, Pryor JF, and Wilson GJ.
and Kanehisa H. Elastic properties of Effect of instructions on characteristics of
human Achilles tendon are correlated to Van Ingen Schenau G, eds. Amsterdam,
the Netherlands: Free University Press, countermovement and drop jump
muscle strength. J Appl Physiol 99: 665–
1988. pp. 185–189. performance. J Strength Cond Res 9:
669, 2005.
232–236, 1995.
85. Myer GD, Ford KR, Brent JL, and Hewett TE. 96. Siff MC. Supertraining. Denver, CO:
Supertraining Institute, 2003. pp. 40–47. 109. Zatsiorsky VM. Studies of motion and
The effects of plyometric vs. dynamic
motor abilities of sportsmen. In:
stabilization and balance training on power, 97. Spurrs RW, Murphy AJ, and Watsford ML.
Biomechanics IV. Nelson RC and
balance, and landing force in female The effect of plyometric training on
Morehouse CA, eds. Baltimore, MD:
athletes. J Strength Cond Res distance running performance. Eur J Appl
University Park Press, 1974.
20: 345–353, 2006. Physiol 89: 1–7, 2003.
pp. 273–275.
86. Nakagawa Y, Satoh T, Fukuda Y, and 98. Thompson DD and Chapman AE. The
Hirota K. Effect of aerobic and anaerobic mechanical response of active human 110. Zatsiorsky VM. The review is nice. I
training on collagen fibers of tendons in muscle during and after stretch. Eur J Appl disagree with it. J Appl Biomech
rats. J Phys Fitness Sports Med 37: Physiol 57: 691–697, 1998. 13: 479–483, 1997.
100–108, 1988. 99. Tipton CM, Mathes RD, Maynard JA, and 111. Zatsiorsky VM. Biomechanics of strength
87. Newton RU and Dugan E. Application of Carey RA. The influence of physical activity and strength training. In: Strength and
strength diagnosis. Strength Cond J 24: on ligaments and tendons. Med Sci Sports Power in Sport (2nd ed). Komi PV, ed.
50–59, 2002. 7: 165–175, 1975. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell
Science, 2003. pp. 114–133.
88. Nicol C and Komi PV. Fatigue effects of 100. Van Ingen Schenau GJ, Bobbert MF, and
marathon running on neuromuscular De Hann A. Mechanics and energetics of 112. Zatsiorsky VM and Kraemer WJ. Science
performance. I. Changes in muscle force the stretch shortening cycle: A stimulating and Practice of Strength Training.
and stiffness characteristics. Scand J Med discussion. J Appl Biomech 13: 484– Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006.
Sci Sports 1: 10–17, 1991. 496, 1997. pp. 33–39.
89. Nichols TR. The regulation of muscle 101. Verkhoshansky YV. Quickness and
stiffness. Med Sports Sci 26: 36–47, 1987. velocity in sports movements. N Stud
APPENDIX: ANKLING
Athletics. 11: 29–37, 1996.
90. Nuzzo JL, McBride JM, Cormi P, and During ankling, the knees should
McCaulley GO. Relationship between 102. Voigt M, Bojsen-Moller F, Simonsen EB, remain straight as the athlete steps from
countermovement jump performance and and Dyhre-Poulsen P. The influence of one foot to the other. Throughout the
multijoint isometric and dynamic tests of tendon Youngs modulus, dimensions and swing phase, the foot should be doris-
strength. J Strength Cond Res 23: 699– instantaneous moment arms on the flexed with the big toe pointing up toward
707, 2008. efficiency of human movement. the shin. At ground contact and the
91. Potteiger JA, Lockwood RH, Haub MD, J Biomech 28: 281–291, 1995. instant before, the muscles of the foot and
Dolezal BA, Almuzaini KS, Schroeder JM, 103. Walshe AD, Wilson GJ, and Ettema GJ. ankle should forcefully contract (creating
and Zebas CJ. Muscle power and fiber Stretch-shorten compared with isometric MTC stiffness) and propel the body
characteristics following 8 weeks of preload: Contributions to enhanced forward as the ankle moves into plantar
plyometric training. J Strength Cond Res muscular performance. J Appl Physiol 84: flexion. Only the ball of the foot should
13: 275–279, 1999. 97–106, 1998. contact the ground and the initial foot
strike should be directly below the body’s
92. Reeves ND, Maganaris CN, and Narici MV. 104. Walshe AD, Wilson GJ, and Murphy AJ. center of gravity. This exercise should
Effect of strength training on human patella The validity and reliability of a test of lower initially be performed on the spot and then
tendon mechanical properties of older body musculotendinous stiffness. Eur J progressed to moving forward. Ankling is
individuals. J Physiol 548: 971–981, 2003. Appl Physiol 73: 332–339, 1996. an inherent part of jumping and running
93. Rimmer E and Sleivert G. Effects of 105. Wilson JM and Flanagan EP. The role of activities and may therefore be consid-
a plyometrics intervention program on elastic energy in activities with high force and ered a fundamental plyometric exercise.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 99

View publication stats