Sowing the Seeds of the Lotus

A Journey to the Great Pilgrimage

Sites of Buddhism, Part III

John C. Huntington

The literary study of the fOUf events literally thousands of narratives of of the major themes in Buddhist an
.1 of the Illusion of the Pairs. the individual events from the period from the fourth to the twelfth century
Descent from Trayaslrimsa, the Tam- of S3kyamuni's enlightenment to his in central and eastern India, the very
ing of the Mad Elephant and the Girt porinirvii'Ja. Some of them are ap- heanland of Buddhism and the region
of Honey by the Monkey in the life parently much more potent in terms of in which the events occurred? What-
of Sakyamuni Buddha and the siles demonstrating the Buddha's religiosity ever the reasons, along with the four
associated with them is much more than these, especially the Gift of 'primary events', the four 'secondary
complicated than that of the Birth, En- Honey and the Taming of the Elephant. events' came to epitomize the life of
lightenment, First Sermon and Parinir- What force of intuition, didacticism or the Buddha as a paradigm for the lives
viiIJo. These fOUf events, belonging to soteriological methodology binds these of all future Buddhas (see last part of
the period of Sakyamuni's ministry. events together into what became one this article).
are invariably known by some term
such as 'secondary events' in that they
are nOI part of the group of fOUf per-
mitted devotion by Sakyamun.i in the Srivasli and Jeta's Grove (Jetavana) Monastery
MahOparinirvii1)Q-siilra (see Part I in
Orien/alions, ovember 1985, pp. (Because one of his disciples rose in the air to obtain a particularly fine
46-61). Yet, there is no Question bUI begging bowl, the Buddha issued a precept against the performance of
that all of the sites involved are miracles_ Assuming they would not be tested because the Buddha had
legitimate early siles and three of them, forbidden the practice among his disciples, a group of six heretics
Rajagrha, Vaisali and Sravasti, play insisted that they would perform miracles (in competition) only with him.)
enormously important roles in the life King Bimbislira heard their talk, and went to the Teacher, and said,
of the Buddha as where the majority 'Revered Sir, is the repon true that you have forbidden your disciples to
of sillras were taught. Because of this perform miracles?' 'Yes, great king.' 'The heretics are saying, "We will
fact, they are, at the least, equal in perform miracles with you;" what do you intend to do about this?' 'If
importance to the sites of the 'primary they perform miracles, I will do the same.' 'Have you not laid down a
events', especially fer the subsequent precept forbidding the performance of miracles?' 'Great king, I have
developments of the Buddhist religion. not laid down a precept for myself; the precept was intended only for
Regreuably, none of the sites of my disciples.'
the four 'secondary events' has been
accorded the same archaeological (Burlingame, Buddhist Legends IDhammapada-AUhakathifl, vol. 3, p. 39)
attention as that of the four 'p'rimary
events'. The actual physical locations
of the events are not specifically normal powers. Whether the sun was
known and, indeed, for one event, the
Gift of Honey by thc Monkey, there
W ith these words, Siikyamuni
Buddha agreed to a traditional
'conjurer's contest' to demonstrate the
stopped in its course in the sky by the
great saint pointing at it and com·
is only one reference to its having validity of his religion over lhat taught manding it to stop because he could
taken place at Vaisali; other descrip- by the 'heretics' (in a Buddhist context, not pay his wine bill and wished the
tions of the event do not mention a anyone who is non-Buddhist). Tradi- king to excuse him from it, or, as in
sitc. tionally, and throughout the history of the Illusion of the Pairs, the Buddha
The major unresolved issue is, why Asian religions, royal or imperial multiplied himself into many counter-
were these four events selected from patronage was all too often decided parts of himself, there was always both
many others in the Buddha's life to be not by the subtleties of philosophy but a didactic aspect intended [0 educate
given such prominence? There are by the apparent demonstration of para- the inteUectual and a brute demonstra-

32
tion of control over the metaphysical
intended [0 win over the less easily
educable.
Known in literature either as the
Mahiipriilihiirya ('Great lIIusion' or
'Miracle') and the Yamakapriiliharya
('Pair Illusion' or 'Miracle'), there are
both differing versions of the narrative
and disagreement between the narra-
tives as to exactly where the event took
place.
According to the Dhammapada·
AUhakalhii, the Buddha promised King
Bimbisara of Rajagrha in Magadha
(or, according to the Divyiivadiina,
Prasenajit of Kosala whose capital was
5ravasti) to perform a miracle under
a mango tree outside the gates of the
city of 5ravasti (between the town
and the Jetavana monastery in the
Divyiivadiina). The Buddha, arriving
there the day before, discovered that
the mango trees had all been cut down.
Being offered a mango by the gardener
Gal)c;la, 5akyamuni ate it and ordered
Ananda to have the gardener plant
the seed, which upon being planted
instantly split and developed into a
fully grown, mature tree, heavily laden
with fruit. During the evening, Indra
(Sakka), caused discomfort. to the
heretics (or built a pavilion for the
Buddha's miracle, according to JQlaka
story number 483). [In the morning)
the Buddha caused a jewelled walk to
appear extending from the eastern to
the western rims of the world. In
the evening, he emerged from the
ｇ｡ｮ､ｨ ｫｵｾｲ (Fragrant Hall) (where he
had been waiting for the appropriate
time] and descended the jewelled walk
into the midst of a vast assembly and
performed the 'Pair lIIusion'. From
the upper part of his body there emitted
flames, while from the lower part there
emitted water and he alternated this
from all sides. At times he walked up
and down (while doing this) and a
counterpart stood or sat or lay down.
On that day, as he performed the Illu·
sion, he taught the Dharma to the
multitude. Seeing that none in the
multitude was capable of questioning
him, his double asked him questions.
According to the Divyiivadiina, after

(fig. I) SlH::yamuni demonstrating the 'Illusion

of the Pair'
From Paitava, ancient KapiAa, Afghanistan,
c. late 3rd-early 4th century
Kabul Museum

33
(FII. 2) Minialure medilaLional 5CUIPCUft
dtpktina Slkyamuni &monstratina lhe
'Ortal Illusion'
From N1IandJ:, c. 100h ctnlUC)'
Nilandl Mustum

(FII. J) llIu$lralion from an A#USQhQgjkJ

ｐｲ ｬｪ［ＧｾｰＯｬｲ｡ｭｩｉｊ manuscript dtpieting
Sakyamuni demonstrating tht 'Great Illusion'
1165 (year 4 of Govindap1la)
Bharlt Kala Bhavan, Vlrlrullii
 he had performed the 'Pair Illusion', (Fig. 4) 5akyamunl demonstrating the 'Great
he then performed the 'Oreat Illusion' Illusion'
in which a lotus rose from the ground From antechamber of Cave 6, Ajal}ll1:,
410-80
upon which the Buddha sat and multi-
plied himself endlessly with all counter-
parts actively preaching the Dharma.
As is obvious from the above, the
differences in relating the events are
a matter of emphasis and not of
substance. In the Dhammapada-
AUhakothO, it is the rising in the air
and the emitting of flames and water
that are emphasized while the produc-
tion of the counterparts is kept an-
cillary to the teaching that followed. In
the Divylivadlina. the multiplication is
a separate event and is emphasized in
that it fills the sky with Buddhas. In
early literature, there seems to have
been an emphasis on the lIlusion of the
Pairs performance' and not the Great
Illusion because it occurs in several
occasions in Pali literature not as the
Miracle at Sravasti but at different
times and locations following some
sermon or other event. One concludes
from this that the primary event, which
would then have been replicated in
subsequent literature, was only the
Yamakaprlitihlirya and that either the
multiplication of the counterparts was
a minor aspect that became emphasized
or that it was actually added at some
later date during the editing of the
texts. Only a thorough text analysis
can determine this, and it has yet to be-
done.
There are two major forms of
representation of the lllusion of the
Pairs and of the Great Illusion.
The first, found only in Gandhara
(in present-day Pakistan) and in
neighbouring Kapi§a (in present-day
Afghanistan), shows a Buddha rising
in the air and emitting water from his
feet and flames (or radiance, prabhii)
from his shoulders (Fig. 1). This
convention seems not to have had
wide popularity. Even in the Bactro-
Gandhiiran school, it survives in less
than ten stone images while its
existence in the rest of the Indian sub-
continent is unverified. Interestingly,
the second type, that of the multiplica-
tion of Buddhas (Fig. 2) is found
widely throughout India from the
Ajama caves to eastern India and
seems to have been very popular, with
ultimately (by no later than the fifth
century) one of the ａｾＡ｡ｭｨｬｩｰｲｴﾭ
harya (eight sreat events in the life of
Buddha) conventions being based on it.

35
 (Fig. 5, top) Railing pillar relief depicting the
spreading of coins over the Jetavana
From Bodhgayi, c. 12(}.100 BC
Bodhgaya Museum

(Fig. 6) Railing pillar relief depicting {he

spreading of coins over the Jelavana
From Bharhut, c. 100-80 BC
Indian Museum, CalcuHa

There are several variations on the con-

vention, yet the theme invariably has
the same fundamental morphological
basis - a large central lotus rises out
of the ground plane supporting a cen-
tral Buddha while branches from the
main lotus stalk support additional
Buddhas. There may be as few as on-
ly three Buddhas, as is typical in most
later representations of the event (Fig.
3), or as many as one hundred or more
images of the Buddha. each barely
distinguishable from the cenlral figure,
as at Ajaryt3. (Fig. 4). Although this
author can find no specific textual
source for it, the scene is generally
believed to represent the ultimate
universality of all Buddhas. While each
individual is in one sense a distinct,
autonomous being with his unique
characteristics, each is at once identical
to the universal absolute (Dharma-
kayo) underlying all Buddhas. Since
the teachings of the Buddha are aimed
at expressing how the individual prac-
titioner will attain his own enlighten.
mem ana buddhahood, the message of
the Great Illusion at Sravasti is nothing
less than every devotee's identity with
the Dharmakaya.

K nown as Saheth-Maheth (Set

Mabet) on the maps, the dual sites
of Sravasti city (Mahe{h) and the
ancient Jetavana monastery (Saheth
or Set) today are best reached by
automobile via either Balarampur or
Bahraich. (It must also be noted that
photographic restrictions are strictly
enforced and that specific written
permission must be obtained to photo·
graph at the site from the Office of the
Director-General at the Archaeological
Survey of India in New Delhi before
going to the site.)
The wealthy merchant from Sravasti,
Sudatta (best known by his appellation
Anathapil).e,iada or AnathapilJe,iaka,
'Incomparable Bestower of Alms to
the Poor'), met Sakyamuni while
visiting a wealthy householder in
Rajagrha and was converted to a lay

36
(Fig. 1) Relief depicling pilgrimage to the
Jetavana
On the nonh IOrul'}o of sand, Stiipa. I, late
1st century Be

follower. During one of their meetings,

Sudatta requested that the Buddha
come to his home place, 5ravasti,
where he would provide the Buddha
and his monks with all that would be
required by them. The Buddha asked
Sudatta if there was a monastery
(vihara) where the monks could stay
and Sudatta agreed to provide one.
Returning to Sravasti in the company
of the Buddh;t's disciple, 5ariputra,
Sudatta sought and finally agreed to
buy a pleasure garden belonging to
Prince leta. leta did not wish to sell
and, presumably in jest, said he would
sell only if the price was the amount
of gold coins required to cover the
ground itself. Sudatta agreed to this
exorbitant demand. According to one
version of the story, just as Sudatta
was about to finish covering the
ground, he ran out of coins and leta
offered the remaining ground to the
Buddha along with a temple on it. slightly later in date. the gift is still been worked into the composition. In
According to another version, just as emphasized but other elements of the the Jetavana composition (Fig. 7), the
Sudatta was completing the covering narrative are also included in the scene. devotees pay homage (pujl1) at three
of the ground, leta asked to retain one Both the ｋｯｾ｡ｭ｢ ｫｵｴｩ ..hall to the far huts (presumably Ihe lecture hall has
portion so that he might make his own left and the Gandhakutl at the top are been added) and approach offering
gift to the Buddha. In either case, the clearly identified by inscriptions. In platforms placed in front of the struc-
purchase of the ground was con- addition, in the lower centre of the tures. (Since the platforms are depicted
summated and a vihara was built on composition, a mango tree enclosed in as in the huts within the Bharhut reliefs,·
the best piece of property near 5ravasti a caitya railing is presumably the this signals a major change in the
to which the Buddha and his followers sacred mango tree under which the definitions of ritual space connected
were invited to visit. Buddha sat while performing the Illu- with the sites. It seems that the in-
This munificent act was well known sion of the Pairs. Above the tree, teriors of the huts had become so
in early times and sculptural represen- almost in the centre of the composi- sacred that only the elite of the monk
tations of it are encountered at both tion. stands the patron Sudatta with an and lay devotees could approach
Bodhgayii (Fig. 5) and Bharhut (Fig.6). ewer, ready to pour water over the them.) In the Saner scene showing
In the representations of the letavana hands of the Buddha (the act of giving devotion to the pTtha of the sacred
(Fig. 7) and of the pltha of the Great the Jetavana to the Buddha). While mango tree scene (Fig. 8). the devotees
Illusion (Fig. 8) at Sand, the gift of still emphasizing the gift with the right have literally become the predominant
Sudatta has been ignored in favour of half of the composition where workers element of the composition. Lined in
concern over visiting the site as a place spread the coins. the left half of the rigid rows around the tree, they do nOI
of pilgrimage. Indeed, there is a distinct composition has been used to illustrate so much illustrate the site of the
progression in concept between the the places of pilgrimage at the site- miracle or the miracle itself but the
four scenes that is very important to the two buildings in which the Buddha later ritual at the pTtha. Thus, the
recognize. In the Bodhgaya scene, 5akyamuni resided and the mango metamorphosis of the message is com-
nothing is shown but the action of tree - places where one can gain merit plete; its sculptural presentation has
workmen placing the coins on the by visitation. The Sand reliefs, which changed from the site of great muni-
ground. The emphasis in this scene is are still later in date, are radically ficence. to the site of the events, to the
obviously the overwhelming cost of the different in concept. In both, a com- place where one can obtain merit by
gift. In the Bharhut relief. which is pletely new element, devotees, has homage at the site.

37
 (Fig. 9, opposite lOp) Gandhakuli
Jetavana monastery, c. 5th-6th century ruins
as seen

(Fig. to, opposite bottom) ｋｯｾ｡ｭ｢ ｫｵｬｩ

Jetavana monastery, c. 5th·6th century ruins
as seen
(Fig. 8) Relief depicting pilgrims paying
devotion to the plrhu of the 'Illusion of the
Pairs' or the 'Great Illusion'
On the north torufJu of Slii'ici, Stiipa I, late
Ist century Be

omrary to ancient pilgrims who

C may have seen structures similar
to those shown in the Bharhut and sand
reliefs, the modern visitor is treated
only to the foundations of buildings
that date from the sixth century and
later. This is not to say that the early
remains are missing but that the exca-
vation levels have not been taken down
that far. To excavate to further depths
would necessitate destroying, at least
in part, what is presemly at the site.
Perhaps someday, partial excavation
(for example, the north half of each
building site) will reveal the founda-
tions of the buildings of greater anti-
quity. Even with this limitation of not
being able to see the foundations of the
ancient buildings themselves, the con-
tinuity of purpose at the site still gives
one a profound sense of the presence
of Sakyamuni. Indeed, for anyone
aware of the history of Buddhism, a
visit to the excavated letavana and, by
contrast, totally unexcavated Sravasti
is to bask in the full vitality of the
period of the Buddha's ministry. In-
deed, the poignancy of this feeling
was experienced by Faxian, the fifth-
century Chinese pilgrim:

When Faxian and Daojing first arrived

at the Jetavana monastery, and thought
how the world-honoured one had formerly
resided there for twenty-five years, pain-
ful reflections arose in their minds. Born
in a border-land [China) along with like-
minded friends, they had travelled through
so many kingdoms; some of those friends
had relUrned (to their own land), and some
had (died), proving the impermanence and
uncertainty of life; and IOday they saw the
place where Buddha had lived now un-
occupied by him.

Even today, walking among the ruine'd

structures of the Jetavana one is
reminded at every turn of the pre-
sence of Sakyamuni Buddha. Here he
walked; at this well he drew water; he
stayed in the ｋｯｾ｡ｭ｢ ｫｵｾｩＬ where he
taught. Buddhist literature is filled
with the teachings and events of the

38
39
 (Fig. II) Image of 'Bodhisattva' [Buddha] of
the 'Bata' Iype
From the ｋｯｾｭ｢｡ｫｵｻｲＮ Jetavana monastery,
c. 2nd quarter 2nd century AD
Indian Museum, Calculta

twenty-five rainy seasons Sakyamuni

lived at Jetavana and no brief account
can do it justice.
The present form of the Gandhakuli,
a structure in which the Buddha once
resided, had become a temple by the
time of the foundations now seen at
the site (Fig. 9). Approached from the
east through an open courtyard, the
small temple is knqwn to have had an
image of the Buddha in its interior. In
Faxian's time, this was purported to
have been the 'original' sandalwood
image of the Buddha carved at tne
-order of King Prasenajil during Ihe
.absence of Sakyamuni after his per-
forming the 'Great Illusion' at Sravasti
(regarding the Buddha's absence, see
below). However, by the time of
Xuanzang in the seventh century, the
temple was in ruins and no" image
remained. The ｋｯｾ｡ｭ｢ ｫｵｾＱ had also
become a temple (Fig. to) and, as
recently as the 1862-63 archaeological
tour by General Alexander Cunning-
ham, contained a massive stone image
of the so-called 'Bala type' (Fig. II),
which Cunningham removed to the
Indian Museum where it is now on
display. An inscription on the image,
although much damaged, provides
very useful information and, by com-
parative epigraphic evidence, yields
a date, during the early ｋｵｾ｡ｬｊＮ period,
of circa 120-40 AD. Significantly, one
of the three donors of the image was
a Tripi!aka master by the name of
Bala. Given the style of the piece and
the existence of two other Bala offer-
ings, it is presumed that it is the same
Bala who donated the Mathura and
Sarnath images (see Part II, February
1986, pp. 28-43, Fig. 18). In addition,
the inscription states that the image is
for the acceptance of the SarvastivadiJ;t
teachers of the ｋｯｾ｡ｭ｢ ｫｵＡＱＬ thus un-
equivocably identifying the hall in
which it was found.
The events of Sakyamuni's life that
took place at Sravasti could literally fill
a book. Indeed, the Dhammapada
Commentary is mostly devoted to a
narrative of the Buddha's life at

40
Sr4vasti. Regreuably, the enUre city than at any other site, at Sravasti there of the nun (bhikfUfJi) UtPallt, or
remains an unexcavated archaeological is the possibility of laying bare the very ｕｴｰ｡ｬ ｶｾ｡Ｌ who had ｾｯｷ･､ to be the
field. Yet within the low walls. rolling streets on which the Buddha walked first to see the Buddha on his descent
mounds and few stiipas and tanks during his alms rounds and the places from ｔｲ｡ｹｳｴｲｩ ｬｾ｡Ｎ Because she was a
which are all that are perceptible to the where his conversions and ministra- woman (strictly speaking, a slightly
modern visitor, S4kyamuni and his tions occurred. In spite of the fact that lower form of life than a male in the
contemporaries created much of the actual remains of Sakyamuni survive sixth<entury Be Indic societal con-
history of Buddhism. and it was here at other sites and some sites are more text), there was no hope that she would
that many of the great teachings of intimately associated with his attain- be able to crowd her way to the froOl
Buddhism were offered for the first ments. it is at Sravasti that his ministry of the multitudes that had gathered for
time. One can only hope that interest - his special relationship with his the descent. The Buddha, knowing of
in the site by visitors and pilgrims will disciples and lay devotees - still may her vow and her past accumulation of
encourage future excavation. More be felt and understood. merit, changed her into a universal
monarch (cakravortin) with the attend-
ing seven treasures (Tomo, literally
SiiJikiisya
'gems': a perfect minister, general,
As the Teacher performed his miracle (the llIusion of the Pairs), he wife, horse, elephant, wish-granting
considered within himselC. 'Where have Buddhas of the past kept gem and Wheel of the Law) and,
residence after performing this miracle?' Straightway he became aware according to Xuanzang, the four kinds
of the following, 'It has been their invariable custom to enter upon of troops to defend her so that she
residence in the World of the Thirty-three (Trayastriril.Sa) and to might take her rightful place at the
expound 'he Abhidhamma (Abhidharma) Pitaka to their mothers.' front of the multitude of kings and
princes. Reaching that point, she
(Burlingame. Buddhist Legends [Dhammapada-AuhakarM). vol. 3, p. 47) returned to her original appearance
and was the first to greet the descend-

s o thinking, Sikyamuni left his

disciple Mahamogallana in charge
of his disciples and lay followers and
Disturbed at his absence and longing
to see the Master again, multitudes
gathered at Sravasti to await his return.
ing Buddha, 'whereupon the Buddha
predicted her future enlightenment.
It is also interesting to note that the
ascended directly to the Trayastrirhsa They demanded of Mahamogallana to narrative of Faxian relates that Indra
heaven of Indra where, for three know when the Teacher would return. accompanied the Buddha carrying the
months, he taught Abhidharma to his MogaiIana ascended to TrayastrimSa umbrella while Brahm3 accompanied
mother and the other devas residing and asked the Buddha when and where the Buddha carrying a yak tail ny-
there (Fig. 13). Although it is not he would descend, to which the latter whisk (cauTi'). He funher noted that
cenain if this event of the Buddha's replied: the Mauryan king ASoka caused the
residence in Trayastrirhsa ever became steps to be excavated down to the level
imponant in Indian art or icono- 'MogaImna, seven days hence I 'AiU desoend of ground water, erected a pillar with
graphy, the event invariably falls be- for ｾｨｴ great Terminal Festival to the gate a lion on top of it and built a vihOra
tween the performance of the Illusion of ｴｨｾ city of Sarilkassa [Slnkbya]; those over the steps with an image of the
of the Pairs, or the Great Illusion, who ･ｲｩｳｾ､ to see me must go ＧＮｾｲ･ｨｴ Buddha sixteen cubits high standing in
and the subsequent Descent from ... ｗｨｾｮ the season of the rains had passed the middle of the stairs.
Trltyastririlsa. Interestingly, it is the and the Terminal ｬ｡ｶｩｴｳｾｆ had been cele- Although somewhat different in
only time during the Buddha's ministry brated, ｾｨｴ Teacher informed Sakka [Indra,
King ｾｬｩｲｴｳ｡ｹｲｔｦｯ Heaven), 'Great King, narrative content from the literary ver·
that he is ever said to have been absent it is my ｮｯｩｴｾｮｩ to return to the path of sions of the story, early images of the
from his disciples and lay followers. ｭｾｮＮＧ ｔｨｾｲ･ｵｰｯｮＬ Sakka ､･ｴ｡ｾｲ｣ three stairs pftha are well known and the site
There are several narratives relating the ladders, one of gold, one of jewels and one seems to have had a very imponant
making of images of the Buddha as of silver. The feet of ｴ ｨ ｾ ladders rested place in early Buddhist pilgrimage and
surrogates of him during his absence against the gate of the city of Sarilkas.sa and pilgrimage symbolism. Curiously, and
because followers missed him so keenly. their tops against the summit of mount uniquely among surviving representa-
BOth the image made for King Sineru rSumeru}. On the right side was the tions of the Descent from TrayastririlSa,
Prasenajit of Kosala, nOted above, and ladder of gold for the deities, on the left the depiction from Sand (Fig. 12)
that made for King Udayana of side the ladder of ｳｩｬｶｾｲ for Mahl Brahml shows only a single staircase descen·
KauSimbr during this period continued and his lrain, and in the middle the ladder
of jewels for the Tathllgata [Buddha). ding between teaching plthas under
to be of panicular importance for cen- ...The deities descended the ladder of gold, trees; one is at the top of the stairs
turies after this period. (The Udayana Mahll Brahml and his train descended where the Buddha would have sat in
image and the story of its origin, upon the ladder of silver, and the Supremely ｡ｾｭｩｲｴｳ｡ｹ ｔ and the other is at the
although very important in East Asian Enlightened One himself descended upon foot of the stairs where the Buddha
Buddhism, are well known to have the ladder of jewels... Maha Brahma held would have taught after his descent.
been later, circa first century Be, a parasol lover the Buddha to protect him Other early representations of the
emulations modelled on the image type from the sun). (Ibid. p. SJ) pitha, from the Bharhut reliefs and
and the narrative of the Prasenajit those in the Gandharan idiom, all show
image, which itself probably was not To this narrative both Faxian the triple stairs. It would seem in the
actually the 'original' image.) and Xuanzang also added the account case of the Sanci relief that it may be

4'
 (Fla. 12) Relief depietilll worship of the
p;,Jw whue Sikyamuni displayed the 'iIIIUion
of lhe Gods' Descenl'
On the nonh torona of Slna, StUpa I, late
1st century DC

and clearly acting as his servants or

attendants by Brahma's carrying the
umbrella (Brahmi's pole of the um-
breUa conventionally supports the here
damaged canopy above the head of the
Buddha in spite of the change in angle)
while Indra carries a bowl of sweets.
In this example, the stairs are simple
geometric forms with rows of conven-
tionalized gems bordering the stairs on
which Sakyamuni is about to walk.
Sakyamuru's gesture with his right
hand is vQrada-mudrli (often inter-
preted as the 'bestowal [of gifts]'). His
'gift', of course, is not something
material but the offering of the predic-
tion of enlightenment and the promise
of future attainment. Implicit in the
gesture is the ability to practise as a
monk. In short, in the thousand years
from the Sind relief to the time of the
stele from KurkiMr. the ml;Ssage of
the 'Descent from ｔｴＮｬｩｹ｡ｳｲｩｬＮｾﾷ has
changed from the promulgation of the
teachings, especially theAbhidharma,
to the direct promise of enlightenment
to all observers of the stele.
The real importance of the Devaro-
haf)a-prlitihlirya. however. seems, so
far as this author is aware, to be lost
to modern scholarship. Above all else,
the event demonstrates the Buddha's
domination over the traditional gods.
Indra, the king of the TrayastrilMa
gods (the thirty-three gods of the
ancient Vedic literature) behaves
before the enlightened Sakyamuni as
an eanhly king would before the
holiest of priests or teachers. Even
Brahma. the archetype of the priest in
the transcendent realms, is subservient
to the Buddha. This is not to say that
the Btnldha is either a universal God
a representation of either a secon- Gods' Descent'). In later representa- or some sort of minor god; on the con-
dary surrogate or possibly a spedfic tions, from the Gupta period (320-500) trary, he has achieved such status
representation of a particular form of onward in Indian art, the emphasis because he: is a human but one who has
the stairs that was made sometime in changed entirely. In an example from made the attainment that places him
the middle of the first century BC. In the site of Kurkihlr near Bodhgayi in beyond any or all gods. His followers
any case, the emphasis is clearly on the modem Bihar state (Fig. 14), we see know him as the mortal teacher of
teaching pilhas and not on the stairs, the Buddha attended by Indra and Transcendent Wisdom (prajiilf) and as
perhaps a characteristic of early think- Brahmi descending the triple stairs, the 'doer' of compassionate actions
ing about the events of the Devarohaf)a- with lndra and Brahmi much reduced (karuf)li). He has mastered the two to
prlilihlirya (literally 'Illusion of the in scale compared with the Buddha attain his enlightenment (bodht). For

42
reasons this writer has never under-
stood, the detailed and complex
accounting of the practice of IBrah_
manism' outlined in the early literature
of Buddhism has, with the exception
of Helmut von Glasenapp's Brahma et
Bouddha (Paris, 1937), gone almost
completely unstudied. In the nikaya
of the Pali canon, there are detailed
accounts of how Buddhist practi-
tioners, especially monks, will altain
union with ｾｭｨ｡ｲｂ as a result of their
having realized the four Brahmavi-
hifras, the states of benevolent love
(mailri), compassion (karu,!o), sym-
pathetic joy (mudilii) and [viewing
with] equanimity or detachment (of the
pure mind] (upelqii). AJso in the Pali
canon, laymen are often assured of
rebirth in the realms of Trayastririlsa
as the result of some action benefitting
the Buddhist community. In short,
there was apparently a dual religious
system in Brahmanism at the time of
the Buddha promising afterlife for the
religious in Brahma's BrahmaIoka and
to the laymen in Trllyaslririlsa.
Ultimately, we learn in texts such as
the Arharvaveda (a pre-Buddhist text
of about 1000 to 800 Be) that it was
the union of Indra (who is the self of
knowledge: prajnfilman) and ｂｲ｡ｨｭｾ
that provided the final release of
the practitioner. ThUS, Indra and
Brahm.a fonned the basis of the wisdom
and compassion duality in the pre-
ｓｾｫｹ｡ｭｵｮｩ period and it is by tran-
scending both of their respective
achievements that Sakyamuni achieved
his ultimate attainment. It has to be
understood that the dual cult of Indra
and Brahma was the orthodoxy of the
time and that the Buddha was in a
position of superseding their cult with
one of his teachings of the Dharma. logical areas in northern India, for it (F'lJ. 13) Slltyamuni preathin. the A bltidh(1r-
Thus, the subordination of lndra and covers several square kilometres. Some m(1 to IUs mOther and the rest of the gods of
l'tfyastrirhia
Brahma to ｓｾｫｹ｡ｭｵｮｩ may have been, archaeologists at the University of Gangararna monastery. Colombo. Sri Lanka,
in its time, the single most important Kanpur have initiated a site survey, but 20th century
statement of the entire set of the their work has only begun in the last
ａｾ｛｡ｭ ｨ ｰｲｬｩ iharya. few years and nothing has been ｾ｢ｵｰ
lished so far. Although the vast ex-
nfortunately, except for the iden- panse of tbe ruined city (about equal China and may have been in error.
U tification of an 'ASokan' elephant
capital by Cunningham, virtually
in size to imperial Rome) beckons
those concerned with archaeology in a
Alternatively, the elephant may well
have been damaged prior to his having
nOlhing has been accomplished in the more general way, from the viewpoint seen it (apparently the capitals of such
way of excavation at either the city of of the Buddhist pilgrim, only the closely tall pillars were frequently struck by
Sltnkasya or the Stupa of the Triple fenced 'Asokan' capital (Fig. 15) and lightning and damaged before their
Stairs. Today, the site is difficult to the ruined Stupa of the Triple Stairs are final falls). Thus, since the location of
reach by a very long drive from either there to visit. the SIUpa at the gate of the city and
Delhi or Lucknow and has no rest Faxian mentions a lion capital. not the presence of the pillar (actually only
house facilities. The ancient city of an elephant one, at Sailkasya, yet he the capital has so far been found)
S3ilkasya is one of the largest archaco- wrote from memory after his return to matches the descriptions of the Chinese

43
44
(Fig. 14, opJ}()Sile) Sakyamuni displaying
the 'Illusion of the Gods' Descent'
From Kurkihlir, Bihar state, c. 10th century
Indian Museum, Calcutta

(Fig. 15) Elephant capital of the 'ASokan'

pillar at sailklisya
c. 250 BC

travellers perfectly, there is little doubt

that the site is the location of the
descent. The capital is quite different
in style from the rest of the Mauryan
capitals for it has much softer detailing
of the minor features. This suggests
that it may be either the product of
provincial workmanship or may be of
a different date than, for example, the
Sa-math and Sa:ncT capitals. However,
the style of the elephant itself is clearly
mid Mauryan (about the middle to the
end of Asoka's reign).
The stiipa (Fig. 16) is presently
topped by a Saivite shrine, and because
the shrine is in active daily worship,
it is not eligible for excavation under
present Indian guidelines for religi-
ous monuments. Circumambulation
demonstrates conclusively that the
mound is a stlipa, indeed, a very large
one of the exact type that would have
been raised at so important a loca-
tion as the place where the Buddha
demonstrated his dominion over the
traditional gods.
Difficult to reach and offering little
to see once one arrives there, the
Sailkasya site at once both defines the
westernmost activity of Siikyamuni
and is the place of the demonstration
of the pre-eminence of the Buddhist
religion in the Indic sphere. For the
true pilgrim, it is one of the key sites
of the route.
n.b. Those readers familiar with Alfred
Foucher's widely held 'aniconic' ('without
images') theory of early Indian art will find
these interpretations slightly divergent from
that theory. The aniconic theory suggests
that, because the Buddha was so sacred, the
'severest doctors' of the religion would not
allow images to be made of him. According
to Foucher, this situation existed unlil used to represent SAkyamuni. Therefore, cussing early images of which there is vir·
about the middle of the first century the representations of the pilha of Bud- tually no reason to doubt. Second, there
AD, when 'popular pressure' and/or dhism illustrated here have been taken sym- are early Buddha images that still survive
'Mahayanist tendencies' introduced images bolical1y and have usually been discussed from pre-Christian era dates, at leasl one
of a quasi-'deified' Buddha. According to as 'the Buddha preaching' rather than the of which is dated 10 the equivalent of 36
Foucher's theory, there existed a pre-image observationally obvious 'pltha of the First BC under the Han dynasty in China. The
period (widely known as the 'aniconic Sermon'. There appear to be two basic implication of this last image is that the
period of Buddhism', i.e. c. BC 483-50 AD) flaws 10 the aniconic theory. First, there is tradition had to exist in India, be trans-
during which only 'aniconic' symbols were relatively extensive Buddhist literature dis- rerred 10 Gandh3:ra, passed on to China

45
(Fig. 16) Stiipa of the Triple Stair5(1) at
Sitikisya
Date ullcertain

and become popular enough that sufficient Map of the Eigtit Holy Site$ of Buddhism
images were made sothat one had a chance
of survival. This suggestS a substantially TIBET
earlier date than any yet discussed in
modern scholarship for Ihe origin of the NEPAL
Buddha image -long before the railings of
Bodhgayi, Bhirhut and Sand and other UTTAR
similar 'aniconic' images discussed above.
Thus, this author feels that it is unwise to
further perpelUate the modern scholarly
mYth of the aniconic phase of Buddhist art
when it may not have existed at all and cer-
tainly did not exist for anything like the
length of time suggested for it by the
theory's originator. (See the list of 'sug-
gested fuoher reading' at the end of the last
pan of this anicle for references.)

John C. Huntington is Professor in the Depan-

menl of His.lory of Art at The OhIO State
Um\·fiSJty.

46