BLOCK-1 : Regional Geography of India

INTRODUCTION :
Planning Concerns itself with decisions about the general direction, order and progress in
economic development relating to human welfare. For instance in the case of a Spatial or a regional
plan, the emphasis on viewing the position of resource development with a scheme of bases of
regionalization does not ignore the other aspects.
There are 4-Units in this block Unit-1 Introduces our planning process has mostly been
centralised and a single level sectoral planning has been going on for a long time.
Unit-2 Discusses the meaning and power of Geo- political changes.
Unit-3 Deals with Agro climate and its sub regions in India.
Unit-4 Introduces various physiographic divisions and their sub divisions of India.
We hope that the Units will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the areas.

Unit-1 : Bases of Regionalization

Unit-2 : Geo Political Change
Unit-3 : Agro Climate.
Unit-4 : Physiographic

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UNIT 1 BASES OF REGIONALIZATION
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Bases of Regionalization
1.3 Previous Consideration in Indian Regionalization
1.4 Regional Approach
1.5 The Regional Scheme
1.6 Summary
1.7 Activity
1.8 Questions
1.9 References

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To know basis of regionalization.
To understand Present and Past Consideration of Regionalization.
To understand Regionalization approach.
To understand Regional scheme.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Planning Concerns itself with decision about the general direction order and progress in
economic development relating to human welfare .In India our planning process has mostly been
centralized and a single level sectoral planning has been going on for a long time. On other hand in
the multilevel planning process, the national territory is divided into small territorial units their
number depending upon the size of a country. Its administrative geographical and regional structure.
It integrates the physical, economic and social goals within each such region and between different
sets of regions from local to national level.

1.2 BASIS OF REGIONALIZATION

(Brock, Jan, Om 1965) Regional approach in geographic studies has been longs regarded as
‗inherently geographic‘ or rather the focal concept of all geographic work . It focuses on a particular
area of the earth and studies it through the whole gamut of geographical factors-physical, biotic and
human (both visible and invisible) which working in unison and intersecting among themselves and
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with other areas over a long period of time provide relative homogeneity or a distinctive character to
it rom the neighboring areas. The central theme is not what Hart shorn decries as the phenon enology
of the landscape nor is it much concerned with the distribution of the various individual phenomena
its main concern is with the systematic study of the synthetic results and expressions of the various
phenomena a really or spatially related and interconnected in a particular region and leading to its
homogeneity, although it is quite possible that some of the factors may not be causally related.
(Dickinson 1969) Regional geography has regarded by its most devoted protagonists to be concerned
with the derivation or determination and analysis of ―the Co-variants of a real distributions on the
surface of the earth.‖ Regions are determined and further divided into individual units according to
the degree of correspondence or homogeneity of the various geographical phenomena or ―a real
variables‖ Many German regional geographers define ‗region‘ in terms of a distinctive physiognomic
(formal) and physiological (functional) similarity or homogeneity which results from a distinctive
assembly of ―spectrally arranged things‖.
Min shell 1967 the term ― region‖ is nebulous in character: the very concept, purpose and
method of study and the size and shape of the region etc. vary To that extent also, then the
―delimitation of a region is always based on a mental judgment‖ it has been regarded indeed as a
subjectively conceived idea screened through either subjectively or even instinctively chosen
defining criteria or through objective analysis of the variables or, more often, by a combination of the
two sets of factors. The chief criticism leveled against the concept of region arises out of its
incapability of being defined through a standard definition and stand to objective ―the concept of
region floats away when one tries to grasp it, and disappears when one loks directly at it, and tries to
focus‖.
Two views have been brought forth so far in terms of the regional concept: (i) first is that the
regional method is a means to an end, which strangely contrasts with, (ii) second, that is rather the
older regional concept, that ―regions actually exist ―in nature as objective fact-one could, as it where,
discern them. The first view is more purposive and prevalent these days. In fact, the method provides
a device for selecting and studying areal groupings of the complex phenomena found on the earth‖
The former concept has, however, prevailed, and has served to fill-in the gap of dualism that was
widening between the ‗topical‘ (general or systematic) on the one hand and the regional studies, on
the other. Whittles has emphasized the mutually benefiting role of the two fields: ―the study of
topical field in geography involves the identification of areas of homogeneity, which is the regional
approach; the study of regions that are homogeneous in terms in terms of specific criteria makes use
of the topical approach because the defining criteria are ‗topical‘.

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 Systematic geography is more exact, logical, exhaustive and comprehensible, and its regions
can be more objectively and technically defined, and criteria comparatively easily standardized and
applied elsewhere. Regional geography, in contrast, is not prone to that level of objectivity,
standardization and precision, but all the same it has own field, own methods and own approaches. In
fact to most geographers, the two branches of geography are complementary, and could be ―even
more complementary, even more useful as two different tools which will do different parts of one
job, if the differences between their aims and capabilities are further emphasized and clearly defined.
The procedures and approach of the regional method, however, are different from those of the
systematic geography. This method discover and analyzes the various geographical components and
factors and their association and interactions in a discrete area, judges its homogeneity, delineates
boundary and discovers its individuality and personality. This result in to a synthesis of the region as
a result of the complex association of feature. Such area is then a ‗formal‘ or ‗uniform‘ region as
distinct from the ‗nodal‘ or functional region or even a- priori region .
For Wooldridge and East, ―the purpose of Regional geography is simply the better
understanding for a complex whole by the study of its constituent parts‖. As such, the study of the
distinguishable parts and their associated environments is the best toll for the understanding of the
wholeness of a country or a region. When C.C. Carter is calling the regions as ―good servants (and)
bad masters‖ , he perhaps means that they are not ends in themselves, but can serve well as tools for
comprehensive study. (Spate 1957) Likewise, the regions offer good ‗isolates‘ for study. Even if the
earth‘s surface, as according to some, is a continuum as perhaps ‗nature‘ abhors lines and
boundaries‘, which humans, and most certainly geographers, seem ‗to adore‘ and make all-out
attempts to find, it is the human interactions with the physical factors, and more among themselves,
which add distinctive traits and characters to the natural continuum, and it is these superimposed
characters which offer boundaries, recognized instinctively or objectively by geographers. It is
because of this that even thought the region is not capable of easy or standard definition, the concept
of region is ‗capable of growth and adaptation‘ for various human objectives.
(Mathieson 1968) The frontiers of regional geography have now ―moved from a nature-
dominated regional geography to one dominated by Man‖. What we have come to refer to as the
probabilistic regional geography, depending now on a multi-variate analysis of factors, relates Nature
to stochastic human processes. From a mere description of regions dominated by ‗what‘ and ‗when‘,
the study has moved to a systematic analysis to ‗why‘ and ‗how‘ stage. The aim is now to analysis
the region in terms of the optimum use of regional resources, physical, biotic, and human including
institutional, based on a political and socio-economic rationale within a general stochastic
framework. Rather on a different plane and based on a highly revolutionary political idealogy, the
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dialectic materialists have moved the frontier of regional geography to he voluntarist approach,
which has led to the delineation and formation of regional complexes as in Russia and China by
envisaging man-in-society complete ―charge of Nature‖.
Descriptive regional studies have produced some fascinating works where the auth have
chosen, according to their own purpose and ‗mental judgment‘, various criteria to mark and delineate
the regional boundaries. Description has now been replaced by explanatory regional studies which
are now taking more and more variables with a view to approaching more concrete and precise result
and are also bringing in new hierachies for fuller comprehension of the personality of the region. Co-
variance analyses of various sets of feature within a given region are providing fruitful results. For
more objective and precise delineations, more sophisticated mathematical-statistical tools are being
devised and adopted. However, the mathematical approach of regional science had laid emphasis
more on regional models, which do not offer suitable alternatives to subjectively worked out
schemes, and which are, more often ―at best ungainly caricatures of the real world‖, As Mathieson
further puts it is subject to ―argument as to the value of a geography that requires cybernetics and
computers to solve real world problem.‖ Perhaps, ‗understanding‘ cannot be replaced in regional
delineation schemes by mathematical models, yet adequate emphasis should be given to quantitative
analysis of geographical factors and extent of their associations in given areas.
Another trend that is being discusses and even followed by some is that even in to-day‘s man
dominated world, the regional monograph are biased towards the ‗physical base‘ and start in the
‗traditional‘ or ‗conventional‘ fashion with geology-structure-climate-soil-natural vegetation and
them cultural features ad seriatim, seemingly as if the one cause and patterns, as Minshull puts it,
there is in the authors‘ minds some sub-conscious conditioning of relief and physiographiy as the
letter are tangible, relatively static, and perhaps clearly defined units. If physical factors are
important at certain orders or levels of regions, so also are human factors. Wooldridge has observed
that man is ―worthy at least to rank with tectonic force, erosion processes, climatic conditions and the
rest‖, and his occupance has given more pervasive landscape features. Man‘s works, more subtly that
what is generally supposed, accentuate the distinctiveness of the personality of the regions. It is true
that most of the modern regional monographs follow ‗conventional‘ arrangement of factors merely
to give a balanced regional account and are not usually plagued by determinism, neither do they wish
the human factors to play second to the ‗physical base‘.
However some writers have started initiating the regional treatment with the human
ensembles. Demangean is one for such treatment as for him the formal farming regions are important
‗ensembles‘ of one for landscape. Similarly, population, that important index or ensemble of all the
physical and human factors, could be an important item to begin with and then one could work
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backward and forward with different physical and culture factors. Vidal de la blache actually did
this, but he has been almost alone so far. However, it may be desired to begin the regional synthesis
of more humanized regions from culture factors and trace out toward the physical factors.
Hierarchy is inherent in regional study and is a direct result of the use of regional method to
comprehending the whole by studying its parts. As stated above, the region varies in size-it may be a
continent, a country or a district which can be regarded as a whole, of which the smallest region is a
part. Although subject to criticism on these counts, it is implied that the regions ―can be of any size
according to the intensity of the study‖, and the sub-divisions will depend upon the physical or
cultural feature that are considered pertinent to the purpose for which the region are being sought‘‘.
In regional studies , the ideas of size, shape and function are combined to devise a hierarchy; at each
higher level the region is larger ,more complicated and more generalized as to the association of the
various regionalising factors. Hierarchy of region has been achieved either by working downwards
from the world, continent or other large region to begin with, or up wards from the smallest possible
unit. The ranks, however, arrived at various levels, may not necessarily be the same in the two
processes need and significance of hierarchy of regions were felt in Germany very early, almost
about two hundred years ago and German scholars have been working on it since then, although with
different purposes and criteria, mainly based on physical factors. passarge and others have
contributed much to field. Working from the smallest unit, gegend, usually of uniform relief, they
achieved landsbaftsteil by combining gegends. Further combination of lands haft steils resulted in to
lands haft, a region with distinctive physiognomy and distinctive personality based on the association
of spatially arranged phenomena‘ Lansteil was the further larger unit, the combination of which
resulted in to the land , a large region to incorporate in general all the physical factors. The hierarchy
was taken up to the divison of the world, the generic units of which, similar to Herbert son natural
areas‘ were termed ‗regional‘ girdles (Landschaft sgurtel) on the basis of certain world-wide criteria.
Penck also worked on hieraechy, his smallest unit termed as ‗chores‘ and further combined to from
rather the much larger unit, the Landsgestalt. Troll also worked out typological schemes, first on the
basis of physical factors and later, and rather independently, on social or culture factors. Most of
these schemes, being based on physical factors alone, could not be taken for regional studies.
Unstead worked out a scheme, inspired by Herbert son‘s not of ‗tissues‘ and ‗cells‘ and recognized
such unit areas as ‗stow‘. ‗tract‘, etc. linton‘s hierarchy is also famous. Based on landform or relief
and morphology and working from below upward synthetically, like unstead, he recognized such
units and further associational areas as the ‗site‘, ‗stow‘, ‗tract‘ (similar to frech ‗pays‘), ‗section‘,
‗province‘ and ‗major‘ or continental division. He argued that synthetic method is preferable to the
analytical or dissectional method, as by working downwards one ends up with ‗major‘ division,
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‗provinces‘ and ‗sections‘ only and can go no fur, there down using same criteria. This approach may
be appropriate for a large continent or country but not for a small region. His concept of ‗sit‘, the
smallest unit uniform surface, has been recognized to be useful, like Troll‘s ‗ecotype, by workers in
workers in the field of ecology, Agronomy, land use, vegetation, Pedology, Microclimatology and
farming. His scheme is worthy of note also because he used different criteria for different
hierarchical levels-his ‗stow‘, having ‗unit‘ by repetition of similar ‗sites‘ the ‗tract‘, unity of form‘,
and section‘, ‗unity of erosion history‘. Further up he is vague, and just proceeds by way of
convenient process of combination. His scheme has also relevance to the factors of such complex
phenomena as farming and can be even used by geographers as a basis. At present most of regional
works and monographs divide the regions in different-order units and-units, although no standard
hierarchical scheme is followed.

1.3 PREVIOUS CONSIDERATIONS IN INDIAN REGIONALIZATION

(Stamp 1967) Serious and rather professional attempt for the regionalization of India are quite recent,
almost a matter of the inter-war period to begin with, although it is obvious that Indian offers a very
clear-cut macro-level division. Single feature or even multiple feature regions were carved out by
many workers and organizations but most of these works were attempts for some specific purposes
and they do not seem to have given much cognizance to the geographical factors which unit or
diversify the country. Regions brought out by the Meteorological Department of India on the basis of
a single feature such as temperature, pressure, rainfall, or even some composite feature of climate in
general, or maps of regions for census purposes prepared by the Census Department, have been of
limited value for geographers, interested in the recognition of the regional framework of the country
perhaps the earliest scheme of broad regional division was prepared by McFarlane in his volume:
Economic Geography. More substantive and well-known was, however, produced by Stamp who
drew up a working scheme of the division of Indian during 1922-24 and which he should in several
geography text books including that of Asia: A Regional and Economic Geography. Almost
simultaneously bur independently of Stamp‘s scheme was one proposed by Baker who incorporated
some unpublished ideas of W. Arden Wood. Although independently drawn, the two scheme of
Stamp Baker are in close agreement on the broad regional divisions and also in most cases on the
regional boundaries.
The factors adopted in the delineation of regions produced by Stamp are ―primarily
physiographic and structure and secondly climate‖ There are three primary of macro-level regions
and twenty-two sub-regions worked out for the whole of India. Stamp designates these regions
―Natural Regions‖. The there macro-level group of natural regional of the country are:
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 (a) The natural regions of the Mountain Wall;
(b) The natural regions of the Northern Plain; and
(c) The natural regions of the Indian Plateau.
The ―Mountain Wall‖ that falls within the present boundary was divided into four sub-
regions- (i) The Eastern Hill Region or the North-East Hills; (ii) the Himalayan Region comprising
the Himalaya Mountain chain approximately from 15,000m upwards; (iii) the sub-Himalayan Region
comprising the foot-hills between the plain and the mountains as well as the lower slopes of the
Himalaya themselves; and (iv) The Tibetan plateau covering Aksai Chin area and other parts falling
within the Jammu and ?Kashmir boundaries. The basis of this delineation is primarily climate and
partly elevation.
Similarly the sub-division of the great alluvial plain of Northern India is based on climatic
variations. Stamp recognizes this distinction between the older alluvium of the Punjab and the Uttar
Pradesh and the younger alluvium of the deltas, yet the resulting regional differences are but slight
when compared with the regional variations produced by climate, hence the dominant role of climate
as a factor in regional sub-division. The North Indian Plain falling into India‘s borders partly or
exclusively are (8) The Punjab Plains (Indo-Gengetic Plain West); (9) The Upper Gangetic Plain
with an annual rainfall of 100cm. and comprising two-third of the Uttar Pradesh; (10) The Middle
Ganges Plain-an intermediate region with a mixture of wet zone and dry zone crops. Baker has
linked the upper and middle Ganga plains and has named the division as Indo-Genetic Plain East;
(10) The Lower Ganges Plain or the delta region- the wet region-the wet region of newer alluvium
corresponding roughly with the former province of Bengal and now divided into West Bengal within
India and East Bengal of East Pakistan; (12) the Brabmaputra valley (Assam valley)—a region of
heavy rainfall like the deltas.
For the entire region south of the Northern Plain, Stamp has preferred the term Indian plateau
to the other two terms of use, the peninsular India and the Deccan. He observes that the term
peninsular India is or be reserved for the land south of the Satpura Range while ―it is unwise to refer
to the Deccan without qualification because of the multiplicity of meanings given to that name.‖ the
sub-divisions of the Indian plateau running from numbers 13 to 22 are grouped into three main
heads:-
(a) Coastal Region around the Plateau Proper covering no. 13 (Kutch, Kathiawar and Gujarat),
forming a transition between the dry Indus valley and Thar Desert on the one hand and very
humid west coast on the other; no. 14 (the west Coast region) lying between the crest of the
western Ghats and the Arabian sea comprising a narrow plain and slopes of the Western
Ghats; no. 15 (the Karnatak or Tamil regional), also referred to as the East Coast South
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 encompassing a broad coastal plain and an inland hilly tract; and no. 16 (the Northern
Circars region, including Orissa and also referred to as the East Coast North) lying between
the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal;(b) the plateau (Peninsular India Proper) comprising
sub-regions no. 17 (the Deccan Region, using the term Deccan in its strict sense),covering
the high southern portion of the plateau; no. 18 (the Deccan Lavas Region) in the north-
western portion of the plateau corresponding with the Black Cotton Area; no.19(the North-
East part) of the plateau being a complex region and comprising five further subdivisions the
Central Indian Highlands, Chotanagpur Plateau, Eastern Ghats, Chhattisgarh Plain or
Mahanadi valley and the Godavari valley; and (c) Regions north of the Satpura Mountain
line and sloping down towards the Northern Plain, forming sub-regions no. 20 (the Central
Indian Foreland lying between) the Ganges plain and the Narbada-son trough); no. 21(the
Rajput Upland) a complex region of hills and plateaus between the Vindhyas in the south and
the Aravalli Hills in the north-west, and no. 22 (the or Great Indian Desert)-
Stamp‘s work held importance for a long time, and is still regarded valuable for broad
divisions of India. The three macro-level regions of the country, in fact, suggest themselves from any
point of view that they are the most convenient major units, well established and easily
comprehensible and perceptible from the viewpoint of physical or cultural a miscegenation of the
two sets of factors. There is much scope and a case however, for the fourth division, i.e. the Indian
Coasts and Islands to be marked as a separate division, as was stated by Kazi s. Ahmad later, but
with arguments not well grounded.
(Spate 1957) it was towards the end of the 1930‘s that some other workers felt the need for a more
rigorous regionalization of Indian. Pithawala published a work on the regional division in the journal
of Chennai Geographical Association in 1939; he also added a critique to the schemes proposed by
Baker and Stamp. Pithawala adopted the factor of physiographic uniformity as a master principle
running throughout the hierarchy of regional division. One master-principle, howsoever logically
controlled and rigorously maintained, simply cannot work as a device for the regionalization of a
large country like India, much less for the lower-than-macro-level sub-divisions. It is rather an
unattainable goal. Pithawala‘s boundaries in the plains as for example, between the Indus and Ganga
pains, seem to be very confused and he has neglected the obvious fact that as the plains run almost
endlessly featureless and monotonous, they defy regional division on any meaningful boundaries and
more so. On the basis of physiographic. Boundaries in the plains must be worked out on the bases of
more substantive and composite set of factors.
Being put to criticism by Kazi S. Ahmad and some others, Pithawala revised his scheme and
also attempted to meet some of the objections, yet he could not modify his adherence to the
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fundamental guide, the physiographic principle. Although the logic of regionalization or division
claims that ―the division should proceed at every stage and as far as possible, throughout the
division, upon one principle‖; this principle obviously fails to operate in the scheme of regional
divisions of India, as also for other similar regions, because of the vast size and large physical
dimensions, and considerable physical diversity, further accentuated by a very complex cultural
heterogeneity. For such a complex region, how ever, the principle of using more important properties
of division in the higher categories than those in the lower categories seem to be more logical and
operationally helpful. Truly, then, the principle of ―use of more than one differentiating characteristic
or principle of division‖ has to be adopted to produce a meaningful hierarchy of regions.
Kazi S. Ahmed brought forth four macro-level divisions of India, separating the
Coastal Plains from the Indian plateau. As stated by Spate,Ahmad‘s division is quite sound, but as
pithawala criticized him. its lack of any suitable hierarchical order, particularly in view of the
country‘s vast dimension and scale, is lamentable. His ranking of the great ―undifferentiated mass of
the Himalayas‖ and the small sub-Montana area of the Punjab on an equal footing does not bear any
logic to the scale of the divisional scheme. It is certainly an example of ―local knowledge getting out
of hand‖.
Typically, on the still live issue of the three or four unit macro-level divisions of India, and
Pithawala differ widely and so also does Spate. Ahmad‘s plank in separating the Coastal Plains from
the Deccan region and thus providing a four-unit division is that geologically the three unit division
could be possible but relief and physiographic suggest four-unit division, while Pithawala holds that
the Coastal lowlands are mere ―shore facies‖ of the Deccan Trap and southern plateau provinces.
Spate evaluating Ahad‘s view on the whole as ―less unrealistic‖ than that of pithawala, is, however,
highly critical of the former‘s four-unit division; the basis of his criticism is. However, untenable. He
observes that if at all any departure from the standard three-fold division has to be made, ―there are
not three of four grand divisions but five, since En (eastern) littorals differ in almost every respect,
including relief and structure‖. This is rather an extreme view of things, held on the face of Spate‘s
own statement: ―there is obviously no end to this sort of fission‖. What seems important here is not
the details of the two coasts differentiating them from each other but rather the more obvious fact
that the coastal lowlands are basically different from the inner, vast plateau complex, if we have any
regard to the human factors and cultural landscape, if not relief and drainage alone, and at the top of
all they, they wear a sizeable dimension too on macro-scale, forming continuous rim of the
Peninsular Uplands.
Spate is however, correct in criticizing and rather rejecting pithwala‘s high-flown claim of
precision having been reached in the regional division on the basis of the-way-running one-criterion
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logical, that is what his physiography principle is. Pithwala claims ―Over such scientific and logical
division of the country, all matters relating to climate, natural relating to climate, natural vegetation
and even human settlements must drape them selves completely and to the satisfaction of all other
advocates of allied science.‖ It is really a very tall and exaggerated claim; it is rather naïve to think of
such ‗draping‘ of factors in clouding cultural factors around physiography it smacks of highly
deterministic views. Pithawala seems to try to explain regional variations in ―the totality of things
seen on the earth‘s surface‖ and assumes that the physical environment and human-cultural processes
co-vary spatially ― because human activities are controlled principally by physical
environment‖.Spate has divided the sub-continent into three ‗paramount‘ macro-level regions, based
primarily on structure. He is more liberal in choosing the criteria in further sub-divisions. He does
not decry amalgam of factor in practicing regionalization. As a matter of working convenience,
certain regional groupings-essentially positional or even political-are adopted ―bringing the treatment
of regions belonging to two or even three of the primary divisions into juxtaposition‖
The hills of Assam are treated, for example, with the plains, to save ―repletion and cross-
reference‖. Spate observes that ―after all, regions are so juxtaposed in nature on the map, and in
human activity‖- this statement refers to the consummate skill of a regionalist working on
regionalization with a view to end and purpose.
Spate‘s tentative scheme of division is empirically derived, ―having been arrived at in the
actual process of writing the regional descriptions‖. He has brought forth 35 regions of the first order
(under the three macro-regions excluding island), 74 of the second order with about 225 sub-
division. His view regarding regionalization is very flexible and dynamic; he is sensitive to the fact
that ―many region and sub-region might be further divided‖ on the basis of more detailed closer
studies and sharpened techniques. His hierarchy is mindful of the scale and its possible variation
―since a ridge which might rank as a sub-region in the Peninsula would be hardly more than a feature
in the Himalayas; variations in geomorphological texture and intensity of human activity compel
variation of scale‖.

1.4 THE REGIONAL APPROACH

India is a vast and humanly too complex a country for any facile generalization or
comprehension to be meaningful, and it is difficult to grasp it and to understand it in its entirely;
hence the need and scope for its regionalization, and yet the problem remains whether the dictum
that the whole can be understood through its parts, holds good for India. Moreover, the task of
regional division is a difficult and challenging one, and yet it is vastly rewarding because it is the
surer way of investigating into and finding out the really significant aspects of the geography of the
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country. Political units or divisions do not carry us far because these units have essentially been
create, recreated, misceginated together or torn asunder according to the administrative convenience;
and more often than not they were cast for political control rather than for administrative efficiency,
which demands a more pragmatic and scientific organization of space. Some of the Indian States and
Territories are too large or too small or too heterogeneous or too much otherwise to be taken for
geographic regions; in fact, more often they are found to be ―anachronistic and irrational, blurring
rather than heightening the reality of human regions‖. The linguistic states, supposed to co-vary with
the cultural sub-units of India, and meeting the political aspirations, are foundering on the bed of
economic realities before they could crystallize themselves into viable units. In the making of these
units or during the course of their reorganization, the region-forming geographic factors and been
ignored. Yet, the tried to accept such political or administrative. Regions where they can
geographically serve well, particularly in the task of delineating the lower levels of the regional
hierarchy.
The review of the various attempts for dividing Indian into suitable regions for study shows
that even the macro-level division is not simple and breeds difference of opinion among the authors,
though all face the problem with the some objective.
For regionalizing such a complex country as India, the criteria have to be multi factorial and
even divergent at the same level of hierarchy. This is because all the distinguishing factors could not
be of equal importance, and much less for all regions; also the homogeneity of a region, i.e.
distinctiveness from other regions, will be determined by only certain of the factors or a particular
group associated factors. while some other set or association from amongst the same factors will be
offering the key for other neighboring regions. This complexity in India arises not as much because
of the fact of its large size, varied structure or topography, climate vegetation, soil or physical or
positional factors discussed in the foregoing, as because of the levels and types of interactions of
human processes and factors with the different physical factors that have varied in different regions
of the same hierarchical order as also due to the human factor and processes themselves that have
varied from region to region; hence the intricately varying regional landscapes and types.
Thus, the physical factors, which do offer some broad regions because of their relatively
static and bold character, could not take us farther in our task-after all the natural areas they offer
form the medium or the material and it is the culture of man-in group which plays the agent to work
out the region.
As such, we have worked out regions, analytically working from upwards down by taking into
consideration the factors which have produced the existing regions as well as those which are
causing the emergence of new regions from the existing ones. For instance, the Son-par country of
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the Mirzapur district is emerging and carving its own region from out of the tangled tribal wilderness
characteristic of the area in general. Forces of modernization being strong this impact is fast, rather
sudden, and against all the tenets of the physical factors or even the long sweep of human history.
This point is important for the premises of present regional scheme-it brings home to the mind that
although natural zones based simply or collectively on structure, relief, soil, climate and other
physical factors are taken with some justification as boundaries because they provide relatively
stable boundaries, they ―become less and less coincident with real human regions‖, as we delve
down into details of regional analysis on the lower levels of regional hierarchy.
Another fact is also important. India being an anciently peopled country, the extent of inter-
action between man-in-society and environment has proceeded further here than in many countries
and has resulted in more intensive diversification in landscapes. What fisher noted for the.

1.5 THE REGIONAL SCHEME

Geology, structure, relief and physiographic together with the positional factor provide a
fairly clear-cut division of India into four units, viz. the Himalaya Mountain region, the great plains,
the peninsular uplands and the India coasts and Islands. These are simple but effective macro
divisions of the country and go well with the various patterns of the land in general. They are
mutually distinct from each other, each having distinctive regional personality, and providing
distinctive ‗living space‘ with different set of factors. Each of these contrasts with the other in
structure, landforms, climate, soils, natural vegetation, population and settlement distribution
patterns, cultural aspects, economic development and, above all in the range of possibilities and
challenges. What is pervasively more significant is that within each macro region there are one or
more ‗core‘ areas where the typically characteristic geographic-patterns of the region in general are
developed par excellence. Around these core areas, though the characteristics become more apparent
than real, they never lose the regional distinction
The Himalaya with its young geological for nations ,bold and massive and repeatedly
contrasting relief features , lofty snow - clad peaks , flowing streams , majestic forests ,tiny and
terraced agricultural farms , scattered settlements and population distribution, (Refer Figure-1) at
best sinuous in nature along the valleys and the few roads , and numerous sequestered and isolated
culture groups and extensive stands of non humanized natural landscape; regional feature throw as
bold a contrast as its lofty peaks to the seemingly featureless isotropic character of the Great Plains
below with large sluggishly meandering rivers , fertile soils , induced vegetation , endless
agricultural farms, density‘s settled population groups and all humanized landscapes .

13
 South of the Great Plains are the vast Peninsular Uplands standing in contrast to the
Himalayas or the Plains in all region making factors from geology structure relief physiographic and
other features to the wide range of economic and cultural patterns Structurally the oldest landmass in
the country and rimmed on the sides by the complex of mountains, high lands plateau pen plains

river–basins troughs etc rather sharply but boldly in the east by the Eastern Ghats the Uplands
contain within the interior features of senile topography as a whole mazed by a series of flat – topped
plateau alternating with basins of highly mature rivers graded almost to their hilt in the Sahyadri and
cutting through the Eastern Ghats and are dotted all along the left–over‘s of erosion into the form of
residual hills ridges mesas buy yes etc particularly in the Vindhyan landscape Culturally also it
shows more anciently settled people and more archaic culture pockets than in the Himalaya or the
Great plains . The highland and plateau complex between the great plains and the Deccan proper
14
and extended to the Meghalaya is a tangle of cultural wilderness , harboring as it does the Bhils in
the Aravallis the Gonds in Central India the Mundas –Hos-Uraons and others in chotanagpur tribals
in the outlier, the Meghalaya . Theist culture groups sustain themselves by slash and burn or other
primitive subsistence agriculture , and their culture traits are topped by a thin veneer of Hinduism .
Dandakaranya, the Nilgiris , Carda moms and other pockets also sustain such primitive groups with
pervasive cultural lag by centuries , if not tens centueies . On the other hand, interior plateaux have
extensive and advanced agricultural and irrigation systems , dense settlements , and modern
transformations , Also the Uplands are the only mineralized (actual and potential ) region of
significance in India.
The boundary between the Great plains and the peninsular Uplands is drawn along the rims
of the forelands cutting across the tongue like alluvial embayment‘s into the Uplands on the one hand
and spurs alternated by these embayment‘s and projecting from the Uplands toward the plains on the
other; Bundelkhand boundary hugs the river Yamuna very closely right on to the plains and so also
the Meghalaya runs close to the Assam Valley. The so-called structural affinity and shore facie
nature of the Indian coasts with the massive peninsular Block and perhaps their marginal location
around the latter dissuades some scholars from according them macro-status in India regional
scheme, which they seen to deserve from all other points of view. By looking at the Coasts ―in all
their aspects interlocked‖ using Mackinder‘s phrase, they appear different enough from the
Peninsular Uplands to enjoy a separate macro-level rank. Overlapping them and rather tying these
fast moving coasts with the huge, slow – moving Peninsular Uplands amounts to sacrificing true
accuracy, which depends so much on the unit and scale accorded to a region.
In fact, clinging to the ‗standard‘ three –unit division of India by tying the coasts to the peninsular
Uplands smacks of a geographical violence and going stereotype. its maritime location ,general low
relief with plain characteristics , high rainfall and general marine influences , man grove and other
swampy natural vegetation etc. Provide it a different ocology from that prevailing in the Peninsular
Uplands characterised by interior location, girdled by mountains, hills and plateau, higher relief,
lower rainfall, etc. Agricultural and industrial economy with dense population , port cities and towns,
historically Important maritime contracts all loom large to have permitted it io wear an individuality
than being tied as a ‗shore facie‘ to the huge peninsular landmass. The core areas of the coasts are the
deltas of the Mahanadi , the Godavari , the Krishna , the Kaveri ,and the flat plains of Tamil Nadu
and Kerala , Gujarat and Saurashtra and even narrow but historical-culturally and ecologically
different Kanara , Goa –Konkan coasts. The western boundaries are sharp, while on the east , even if
the Valleys broaden in to the interior cutting through and accentuating the discontinuities of the
Eastern Ghats , this fact makes the broader eastern plains develop their individuality instead of
15
sharing the Upland characteristics by exploiting the resources of the interior and to tilt the rate of the
regional economic and cultural backwardness of the interior Orissa Hills as compared to the Utkal
Coasts , that of Telangana and Rayalaseema to the Andhra Coastal plains and that of South Sahyadri
to Tamilnadu plains are caded in point .The west coast provides rather a more glaring example if
contrast.
As to the question of the boundary , we may note that no boundary can be thin knife edge
sharp; we have to reckon with thick, transitional boundaries after all they are actually on the ground,
on the figure, in human affairs, and in geographers mind too.
As land areas, the coasts may be marginal , but within the marine sphere of influence,
incorporating the Bay or Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean , taken as living space of the
country with the strategically located with in their dimensions have to be reckoned with in their
consideration as macro regions .
In dividing the macro- regions into macro regions our central idea is to strike a ―compromise
between excessive attention to detail and too bold generalization‖ possible and practicable under the
framework of our study.
The number of criteria and factors naturally increase as we focus more on smaller units. We
note that some of the units suggest themselves or are ―automatically suggested‖ by the clarity of
their boundaries , physically and culturally fixed ,as in the Bundelkhand; others are given into
regions with their cores and the land they hold on the margins as the Malwa Region or the
Chhattisgarh Region; other cases there are large expanses of transitional areas as in the Great plains
where not only the task of placing the boundaries is difficult, but any type of regional delineation is
subject to question and criticism Playing geographical factors in interaction with the historico –
cultural organization of spaee has proved very helpful in a bewildering complexity of physical
phenomena or even of political jumble. In view of the objectives and premises of regionalization
outlined above, the country has been divided into twenty –eight meso-level regions as noted in the
accompanying table (Refer Figure 2) Geologically youngest, economically the most significant and
culturally constituting the main axis of India the Great plains deserve the first ranki of treatment in
the seemingly featureless and isotropic Great plains sweeping east –west through the open valleys of
the Ganga and the Indus systems , transition in level and lie of the land climatic features , natural
vegetation , types , dress of the people and their language and other cultural features , is the general
kilometers two ends of over 2500 kilometer stretch , the arid Rajasthan plain in the west and the per-
humid lower Ganga plain in the east lie the semi –arid Punjab plain, the sub-humid Upper Ganga
plain and the humid Middle Ganga Plain, and beyond the Lower Ganga plain, the humid Assam

16
Valley, each merging or melting into the other imperceptibly rather unawares, Nowhere do they
offer even thick boundaries – all is transition in a continuum.

The rivers, particularly the master streams and their only topographic breaks but stand to no
scale regionally speaking , while the soil groups such as the Khadar and the Bhangar also are at best
phenomenon of minor local importance; However, patterns of relationship, arising from the
interlocking as they do of the climate and types of crops and cropping system, seem to provide as
composite factors significant key for dividing the plains into workable sub-units .The leading
regional crops along with others of secondary and tertiary importance balanced with them are the
17
true index of regional ecology and offer workable boundaries . Millets in arid Rajasthan, wheat and
gram in the semi arid but irrigated Punjab, wheat rice in sub humid but irrigated Upper Ganga plain,
rice and wheat- barley in the Middle Ganga plain, rice and tea in Assam Valley are the major
regional crops with different crops of secondary or tertiary importance. Thus we get six meso-level
regions n the Great Plains.
The boundary of the Rajasthan plan accord completely with the State boundary in the north,
West Pakistan in the west, Gujarat in the South and Aravallis in the east. The convenient State
boundary of Uttar Prades, Haryana and Delhi. The boundary between the Upper Ganga and the
Middle Ganga plains runs roughly north –south through ‗the indeterminate passage zone of Oudh ‘-
running from Allahabad through the districts in the north. Assam valley has positional significance,
sandwiched as it is, as in obvious unit, between Meghalaya Mikir region and Eastern Himalaya; the
landscape is subject to the oscillations of the Brahmaputra and is ecologically and humanly all
distinct from the two other units.
The Himalaya Mountain region, from the Himalayan Kashmir in the north –west to the
Purvanchal in the east, with its maze of mountain ranges and basins of diverse sizes and scales on the
one hand and their general sinuous character on the one hand and the or general sinuous character on
other, offers a difficult problems. The Himalaya comprise within its bounds some sub-regionally
important ‗cores‘ like the valley of kashmir, the kanga valley the Dehra dun, AmiPro valley etc, and
also some localized and isolated vales and basins live the Lahul , the Spiti or the several Duns , but
most of these stand to no scale for sub-regional division . Other ‗Core –like‘ developed and
transversely organised units such as the Jammu region, Himachal Himalaya), Darjeeling – Sikkim
Himalaya, Bhutan Himalaya and Assam Himalaya form comparatively larger units. Rainfall
decreases in general from east to west the latter being comparatively much drier (Leh: 8 cm) and
vegetation zones run in sympathy with the rainfall, although also with the altitudinal zones and
exposures. There is also distinctive demarcation in terms if flora and fauna when we consider the two
Himalaya the Eastern including the Darjeeling Himalaya east-west and the western covering Utter
Pradesh Himalaya westwards. ―The human adjustments to‖ (such) a complex and difficult
environment ‖nicely and minutely but delicately maintained over centuries has given rise to as
intricate and high scale of fragmentation as the physiographic itself ;and as a result there are
multitudinous social and culture worlds of bewildering variety , scale and diversity. The economy
runs through pastoral valley and high–altitude transhumance, lumbering, and from terraced
agriculture on some of the world‘s highest altitudes to fruit tree farms, market gardening, traditional
handicrafts and to more modern tourist industry. The ethnic and social groups range from the
Caucasoid through various mixed bloods too the mongoloids –Kashmiris through the Jats and Dogra
18
 Rajputs and Gujars and the Jammu, Himachal and Utter Pradesh. Himalaya to the Bhoti as of Sikkim
Darjeeling Himalaya, various tribal‘s of the Assam Himalaya, the Nagas, Manipuri‘s and the Mizos
and the indo-Burmese groups etc. of the purvanchal. Politically also the Himalayan jumble is
incomparable : it comprises Nepal , the sovereign state ,Sikkim , an Indian protectorate ,Bhutan
under special treaty with India, NEFA ,a Central Territory ruled through the Governor of Assam,
Centrally Administered Territories of Himachal Pradesh Manipur and Tripura full states of Jammu
and Kashmir and Nagaland , and parts of States of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam.
Based on over-all regional ensembles, then the Himalaya Mountain Region has been divided
into Kashmir region, Himachal region, Uttar Pradesh Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya and the Purvanchal.
The puravanchal has been so termed as it lies on the eastern border, historically enjoying
relatively greater isolation and also includes, apart from the eastern hills the Kachhar Plains.
The peninsular Uplands have been divided into 13 regions of meso-order based on an amalgam
of a wide range of factors – broad physical features such as the plateau, river basins or troughs ,
combined with cultural factors such as the types of economy as that of primitive subsistence
agriculture of the Vindhyachal –Baghel-khand or Orissa Hills or advanced mineral industrial
inducements overlain on the tribal economy as in Chotanagpur; extent of historical isolation as of the
Dandakaranya or regional sustenance through the fusion of waves of cultures and peoples as the
Malwa or Bundelkhand , or broad language and culture groups , now forming states (although
marginally) adjusted with neighboring regions and with their coastal counterparts ) such as the Marathi
–speaking Maharashtra Platcau (the Marathawada of the home of the Marathas ), Telugu region –
Andhra Plateau , Kanada region – Karnatak Plateau , and Tamilnadu Upland and south Sahyadri the
culture area of the Tamils . The actual boundaries accord to the general political mitts as tares is
possible within frame of geographic personality; for example, Dandakaranya, lying mostly in Madhya
Pradesh, Includes parts of Andhra Ghats and Orissa Hills and valleys. Similarly, part of Kerala Ghats
have been merged with the Karnatak Plateau, and so also the South Sahyadri, lying within Kerala
forms parts of the Tamil Nadu uplands and satire Sahyadri. A rather more intricate interdigitation of
areas lying within political boundaries of Madhya Pradesh forming the major part and of Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar can be seen in the Vindhyachal – Baghelkhand region. as a matter of fact the region is in the
making the integrating force being exercised by Rihand Project Singrauli coal basin a developing road
and railway networks with the provision of the road and railway bridge on the Son, leading to the road
and railway (Refer Figure-3 and 4) bridge on the pole around Pant Sagar likely to serve the
surrounding region as well.

19
The Indian coasts and islands have obviously been divided into the Gujarat Region the West Coast, the
Eastern Coastal Plains and the Indian Islands . The distinction between the Gujarat region and the West
Coast has been accentuated by the Gulf of Cambay and the Core-like situation of the Girnar hills with
trappean capping Gujarat region is further differentiated by the lower estuarine valleys of the Narmada,
the Tapti and the Sabarmati. Culturally also it is the Gujarati region which runs with the state boundary
have encroached , and as such , this part mergers with the Udaipur –Gwalior region out of India are
also exempt from tax subject to certain conditions.

20
21
Refer Table-1 Base of Regionalization-
MESO LEVEL REGIONS FIRST ORDER SECOND ORDER
A Great Plains: 1. Marusthali a. Jaisalmer Marusthali
I. Rajasthan Plain b. Barmer Marusthali
c. Bikaner-Churu Marusthali
2. Rajasthan Bagar d. Hoshiarpur-Chandigarh Plain
(Sub-Mountain belt)
e. Shekhawati Region
f. Nagaur Region
g. Luni Basin
II. Punjab Plain 3. Punjab Plain North a. Hoshiapur-Chandigarh Plain
b. Upper Bari Doab
c. Jullundur Plain
d. Punjab Malwa
4. Punjab Plain South e. Ambala Plain
(Sub-Mountain belt)
f. Estern Haryana
(Kurukshetra Plain)
g. Western Haryana
h. Southern Haryana
III. Upper Ganga Plain 5. Upper Ganga Plain North a. Rohilkhand Plain
b. Awadh Plain
6. Upper Ganga Plain South c. Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab
d. Trans-Yamuna Plain
e. Lower Ganga-Yamuna Doab
IV Middle Ganga Plain 7. Middle Ganga Plain North a. Ganga-Ghaghara Divide
b. Saryupar plain
c. Mithila Plain
d. Kosi Plain
8. Middle Ganga Plain South e. Son-Ganga Divide
f. Magadh-Anga Plain
V. Lower Gnaga Plain 9. North Bengal Plain a. Duars (Barind Tract)
b. Tista Flood Plain

22
 10. Delta Proper c. Moribund Delta
d. Mature Delta
e. Active Delta
11. Rarh Plain f. Mayurakshi Plain
g. Bankura Upland
h. Midnapur Upland
VI. Assam Valley 12. Upper Assam Valey a. Upper Assam Valley North
b. Upper Assam Valley South
13. Lower Assam Valley c. Lower Assam Valley North
d. Lower Assam Valley South
B. Himalayan Mountain:
VII. Kashmir Region 14. Kashmir Region South a. Kashmir Valley
b. Jammu-Mirpur Region
15. Kashmir Region North c. Zaskar-Ladakh Region
d. Deosai-Skardu Region
e. Gilgit-Baltistan Region
f. Aksaichin Region
VIII. Himachal Region 16. Himalayan Himachal a. Chandra Bhaga Basin
b. Ravi Basin
c. Beas Basin
d. Himalayan Sutlej Basin
e. UpperYamuna Tributary Basin
17. Trans Himalayan f. Spiti-kalpa-Sutlej Basin
Himachal g. Malung Basin
IX. U.P. Himalayan 18. Himadri a. Himadri Ranges
b.Himadri Valleys
19. Himanchal c. Trans-Yamuna Basin
d. Bhagirathi-Alaknanda Basin
e. Ramganga-Kosi Basin
f. Saryu-Kali Basin
20. Siwaliks g. Yamuna-Ganga Tract
h. Ganga-Ramganga Tract
i. Ramganga-Kali Tract

23
X. Eastern Himalaya 21. Darjeeling-Sikkim- a.Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya
Bhutan-Himalaya b. Bhutan Himalaya

22. Assam Himalaya c. Dafla Region

d. Mir Region
e. Abor Region
f. Mishmi Region
XI. Purvanchal Region 23. Purvanchal North a. Lohit Tirap Region
b. Nagaland
24. Purvanchal South c. Manipur Region
d. Mizo Region
e. Tripura-Cachhar Region
C. Peninsular Uplands
XII. Udaipur-Gwalior 25. Aravalli Uplands a. North Aravalli Region
b. Central Aravalli Region
c. Southern Aravalli Region
26. Chambal-Sindh Plains d. Middle Chambal Basin
e. Lower Chambal Basin
f. Sindh Basin
XIII. Malwa Region 27. Malwa Region North a. Estern Mahi Basin
b. Upper Chambal Basin
e. Upper Betwa Basin
28. Malwa Region South d. Western- Vindhyan
e. Middle Narmada Trough
f. Western Satpura
XIV. Bundelkhand Region 29. Bundelkhand Plain a. Ravine Belt
b. Jalaun Plains
c. Hamirpur Pains
d. Banda Plains
30. Bundelkhand Uplands e. Bundelkhand Genissic Region
f. Bundekhand Vindhyan Plateau
XV. Vindhyanchal-Baghel- 31. Vindhyanchal-Baghel-khand a.Rewa-Panna Plateau
khand Region Region North b. Mirzapur-Rohtasgarh Plateau
24
 32. Vindhyanchal-Baghel c. Baghelkhand
d. Chindwara-Maikal Plateau
e. Natmada-Son Trough
XVI. Chotanagpur Region 33. Chotanagpur Region a. Palamau Uplands
North b. Hazaribagh Plateau
c. Damodar Valley
d. Santhal Pargana Uplands
34. Chotanagpur Region-South e. Pat Lands
f. Ranchi Plateau
g. South-Eastern Chotanagpur
or Singhbhum Region

XVII. Meghalaya-Mikir Region 35. Meghalaya-Mikir a. Garo Region North

Region west b. Garo Region South
36. Meghalaya-Mikir c. Khasi Region North
Region Central
d. Khasi Region South
37. Meghalaya-Mikir e. Jaintia Region
Region East
f. Mikir Region West
XVIII. Maharashtra Region 38. Maharashtra sahydr a. Maharashtra Sahyadri North
b. Maharashtra Sahyadri South
39. Tapti-Purna Valley c. Tapti-Pura Valley west
d. Tapti-Purna Valley East
40. Maharashtra Plateau e. Ajanta Hills
f. Godavari Valley
g. Balaghat Bhima Valley
h. Upper Bhima Valley
i. Mahadeo Upland
41. Vidarbha Plains j. Wardha-Penganga Plain
k. Wainganga Plain
XIX. Chattisgarh Region 42. Rim Land a. Northern Rim Land
b. Western Rim Land
c. Southern Rim Land
25
 43. Chattigarh Plains d. Raipur-Durg Plain
e. Bilaspur Plain
f. Raigarh Plain
XX. Orissa Highland Region 44. North-Eastern Hill Region a. North-Western Upland or
Gangapur-Jharsuguda Basin
b. Garhjat Hills
c. North-Eastern Plateau
45. Middle Mahandi Valley d. Hirakund-Sonepur Valley
Region
e. Baudh Valley Region
46. South-Western Hill Region f. Hirakund-Bolangir Basin
g. Orissa Ghats Region
XXI. Dandakaranya 47. Dandakaranya Ghats a. Dandakaraya Ghats East
b. Dandakaraya Ghats Central
c. Dandakaraya Ghats West
48. Dandakaranya Uplands d.Tel-Jonk Valley Region
c. Baster Upland
f. Indravati-Sabari Plain
XXII. Karnataka Plateau 49. Malnad (Central sahyadri) a. North Maland
b. Central Maland
c. South Malnad
50. Maidan North d. bidar Plateau
e. Gulbarga Plain
f. Raichur Plain
g. Bellary Plain
h. Dharwar Plateau
i. Bijapur Region
51. Maidan North d. Bidar Plateau
e.Gulabarga Plain
f. Raichur Plain
g. Bellary Plain
h. Dharwar Plateau
i. Bijapur Region

26
XXIII. Andhra Plateau 52. Telangana a. Hyderabad Plateau
b. Telangana Peneplain
c. Godavari Valley
d. Krishna Valley
53. Rayalaseema e. Rayalasema Peneplain
f. Rayalaseema Plateau
54. Andhra Ghats g. Northern Andhra Ghats
h. Southern Andhra Ghats
XXIV. Tamilnadu Uplands 55. South Sahyadri a. Anaimalai-Palni Hills
& South Sahyadri b. Cardamom Hills
c. Agastyamali Hills
56. Tamilnadu Ghats d. Nilgiris
e. Mettur Vellore Region
f. Tamilnandu Hills
57. Coimbatire-Madurai Uplands g. Coimbatore
h. Madurai Uplands
D. The Indian Coasts And Island
XXV Gujarat Region 58. Gujarat Region West a. Bhuj Region
b. Kathiwar Region
59. Gujarat Region East c. Ahmedabad Region
d. Khumbat Region
(Cambay Region)
e. Eastern Hilly Region
XXVI. West Coast Region 60. Konkan Coast a. Konkan Coasty North
b. Konkan Coast South
61. Karnataka c. North Kanara
d. South Kanara
62. Malabar Coast e. Malabar Coast North
f. Malabar Coast South
XXVII. East coastal Plains 63. Tamilnadu Coastal Plain a. Southern Plain Vaigai
Tambraparni Region
b. Delta Region
c. Palar-Ponnaiyar Plain Region

27
 64. Andhra Coastal Plain d. Pennar (Nellore) Region
e. Krishna-Godacari Delta
f. Vishakhapatnam Region
65. Utkal Coastal Plain g. Chailka Region
h. Mahanadi Region
i. Balasore Plain
XXVIII. The Indian Island 66. Arabran sea Island a. Amindive Islands
b. Laccadive Island
c. Minicoy Island
67. Bay Island d. Andaman Island
e. Nicobar Island
Total : 192

From the above Tabular Scheme it is quite obvious that the country divisible in four Macro-
level regions and twenty-eight (I-XXVIII) Meso-level regions. The Meso-level regions are divided
into sixty seven first order region and one hundred ninety-two second order regions. The latter are
future divisible into lower order regions which will be discussed in the analysis of the Meso-level
regions concerned in the sequel. It may be remarked here that attempt has been made to achieve
consistency in placing a particular feature, both physical and cultural, at both same hierarchical level
if it continues in more than one Meso-level regions : for instance, the Sahyadris enjoy the same status
in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamilnandu Upland regions. Likewise, there is culture pervasiveness
between the upper Ganga-yamuna Doab and Eastern Haryana . As far as possible, local factors have
been given due weightage in recognizing the region at different levels. It may, however be
mentioned that the regions even at the same level vary widely in size and population. It is needless to
emphasize that any attempt to achieve uniformity of this type and scale would have been quite
impracticable.

1.6 SUMMARY
Regional approach in geographic studies has been long studies regarded as inherently geographic or
rather the focal concept of all geographic work. it focuses on a particular area of the earth and studies
it through the whole gamut of geographical factors.

28
1.7 ACTIVITY
Write few lines on natural/ primary physiographic regions of your own district.

1.8 QUESTIONS
- What do you understand by the term Regionalization and its main bases
- What is the basis considerations of Indian Regionalization
- What do you understand by Regional Scheme. Comment.

1.9 REFERENCES
Ahmad Kaazi in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-31.

Broek, Jan Om.1965 ― Geography: Its Scope and Spirit‖ (Columbus Charles E. Merrill Books Inc. pp
58.

Carteer, C.C. in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint)‖ India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-27.

Hartshorne in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. P-26

Herbertson in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-28.

Landsbaftsteil, Passarge. S and Penk, Troll Herbertson in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A
Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-29.

Makinder in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-35

Mathieson, R.S. 1968 ― Frontiers In Regional Geography‖ Geographical Education 63-70, 29-122,
138-140, 47-35.

29
Minshull, Roger,1967 ― Regional Geography: Theory and Practice‖ (London, Hutchinson
University) 13

Spate, O.H.K. 1957 ― India And Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography‖ London Methuen
and Company Ltd. 351-354.

Stamp, L.D. 1967 ― Asia: A General and Regional Geography‖ (London Methuen and Company Ltd)
274-278.

Vidal-de-la-Blache in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-28.

Whittley in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers Distributors
Ltd New Delhi. p-27.

Woolridge in Singh, R.L. 1988 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd New Delhi. p-27.

30
UNIT 2 GEO-POLITICAL CHANGE

STRUCTURE
2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Politics and Power
2.3.1 On Politics
2.4 The Theories of Distribution of power in Society
2.5 Political Authority
2.6 Approaches to the Study of Politics
2.7 Political as social Practice and Discourse
2.8 High Verse Low Politics
2.9 Summary
2.10 Activity
2.11 Questions
2.12 References

2.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand nature of geo-political change
To understand various approaches to the study of politics
To understand high verse low politics
To know various theories of power in society

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Geo –political change is a disciple that disciple that concerned both with Politics and Geography.
While politics is its adjective, geography constitutes its basic identity, so that it is pre-eminently a
branch of human geography. As a social science discipline human geography is fundamentally
focused and on spatial organization of society and distance –based societal relations on the one
hand , and the social organization of geographical space – the earth – territory – on the other To
understand the nature of political – Geography therefore, it is necessary to understand the nature of
politics (both as a process and as a field of study) as well as human geography.

31
2.2 ON POLITICS
Politics is defined as the process by which groups (communities and nations) make collective
decisions to resolve problems facing the group collectively. The size of the group may vary from a
single family at the one end to the international community at the other. The process of reaching
decision may vary. However, what makes the decisions political is their collective character. They
bind and commit every member belonging to the group. Although most collective decisions may be
called for to resolve group conflicts but, looked at closely, conflict is not central to politics since the
fundamental purpose of studying politics is to search out conditions under which groups can achieve
their goals peacefully and effectively.
Thus, politics is constructive and practical subject, It cannot be denied, how ever that the
search for agreement and peace presupposes the presence of disagreement and absence of complete
understanding among the member of the group.
(Crick,1982), the source of most societal disagreements lies (at least partly) in scarcity of goods and
resources, since: conflict being endemic to society, politics is partly a conflict resolving process.
Thus conflict cannot be defined out of politics, although in ideal terms politics may be viewed as:
―the activity by which differing interests within a given unit of role ate conciliated by giving them a
share in power in proportion to their importance to the welfare and survival of their community ‖ .
(Painter, 1995. p-8) today politics is often times used to imply the unscrupulous pursuit of
private advantage. In these sense there is a political aspect to our everyday life, so their we may hear
people say: ―politics is everywhere‖ Thus every walk of life may have its own politics . Thus is the
informal view of politics, concerned with the formation of informal alliances for protecting and
advancing particular (limited purpose) goals and interests, and interests, and for exercising power
over members of the group. The formal (commonsense) view of politics is a form of activity related
to problems of the nation and the state as a constitutional entity or problems of war , peace , and
foreign affairs (issues pertaining to the State ‘relations with the outside world. Thus formal politics
may sometimes be perceived to lie outside the day – to day business of living. As such, there is a
tendency to view formal politics as a separate sphere of life, focussed on the operation of the
constitutional system of government its institutions and procedures and the State‘s identity as a
subsystem of the global system of nation – states. In other words it may appear as ―something that
can sometimes affect everyday life, but is not really part of everyday life‖.
However , the notion about politics being a separate sphere is a legacy of the horse and buggy
days of laissez-faire economies of the Pre-Industrial Revolution period when the functions of the
State were limited to elite concerns pertaining to issues of high politics , during a period when locally
autonomous economies were the rule and the international system constituted of essentially
32
autonomous and independent states , rather than being a highly interdependent political system as of
today .Put simply, government indicates a condition of orderly life ;and may cover multiple layers of
orderly society . In the study of politics, however , we are fundamentally concerned with collective
decisions affecting the entire society ,particularly (and primarily) with political decisions of
government at the national level . The term government is intimately associated with the concept of
the State (indicating a whole range of offices that make and enforce collective decisions , and
representing the network subsumed in the umbrella term the State. Thus government may represent
the core of the State , but the two terms have quite distinct connotations.
(Dhal , 1984) the state refers to the authoritative decision – making institutions of the entire social
and political system to which every group, institution and person is subject Thus , the State is legally
supreme ; its authority is compulsory , and it is the ultimate regulator of the legitimate force within
its territory. This implies that if the State‘s monopoly over the legitimate use of force is threatened,
then the continued existence of the State as an autonomous entity becomes doubtful. Such a concept
of the State‘s monopoly in the use of legitimate force is intimately related to the concept of State
sovereignty. Sovereignty belongs to the body which has the inherent right to make laws for a
country both in regard to internal political organization as well as external relations of the State.
While the pre –modern society‘s sovereignty lay in the body of the King Emperor –who was
believed to possess the divine right to rule over his people – in the modern democratic society‘s
sovereignty lay in the body of the central Parliament of the concerned National –State. Traditionally ,
the authority of the Sovereign was believed to be ―supreme , irresistible , absolute and uncontrolled
‖However , the concept of sovereignty in the modern State is no longer uncontrolled since the
parliament itself is a creation of the people , so that its decisions are subject to considerations of
public support in order to be genuinely legitimate . Secondly, the highly pluralistic nature of many
national societies has led to dilution of central authority to make laws. Thirdly, supra –State or
organization like European Union , whose regulation may apply directly to the member – States even
though their respective assemblies may not have passed and approved such , are yet another source
of dilution of State sovereignty. The ever increasing interdependence among the State of the
international system leading to globalization of national economies has further clouded the issue of
State sovereignty.

2.3 POLITICS AND POWER

(Talcott. P.1967) Politics often times referred to as the study of power. Indeed, power is
fundamental to politics, and it is one of the major building blocks of politics science . Power implies
the capacity to produce the desired effect – the capacity to achieve the intended objectives and goals.
33
Thus the emphasis is on power to do things and achieve objectives, not on power over other people
and to excise control over other communities. In modern political studies the ―power to‖ approach
was pioneered by the American sociologist .By power Parsons meant the capacity of any government
to draw on the commitments of its citizens to achieve collective goals. So that more powerful a
government is the more effective would it be in achieving societal goals. Thus, power was
conceptualized essentially as the tool which enabled the political elites to achieve collective goals
and fulfill societal aspirations. Such a view of power tended to define conflict out of the concept of
power, and to that extent it was restricted in scope, and therefore, unrealistic.
(Dhal,1957) since politics is inevitably also an arena of conflict pertaining to goals and
objectives (and the means by which these should be pursued ), other thinkers have conceptualized
power in terms of what party or pressure group –that is , whose perspective or philosophy –wins the
contest between alternative choices Such a view of power , therefore , implies the ability to get one‘s
way in the face of opposition . Viewed thus , power is a matter of getting people do thing that they
would not otherwise have done.
(Hague , Harrop and Breslin , 1994,p.10) thus , here power is viewed essentially as power
over others since in political contests what matters is who is on the steering wheel –the BJP or the
Congress , the right or the left . This is the conflictual view of power as against Parson‘s consensuous
view . However , the two perspectives on power are essentially complementary rather than
contrasting since whereas the consensus view addresses the question ―how much power does a
government have ?‖ ;the conflictual view is focussed on the question ―who exercises the power ‖to
do things , to rule? Both the question are equally important. To sum up, ―Who exercises that power ‖
is the political scientist‘s equivalent of ―Who is rich and who is poor ‖
power can be exercised in a variety in a variety of ways .
(Boulding 1989) has classified the ways of exercising power into three categories
(1) When people choose to get their way through the use of force . In the case of the nation-State, it
is exercised through the institutions of the military and police .
(2) When attempt is made to get one‘s way through give and take that is by making deals or by
exchange
(3) Through creating obligation by means of creating integrative relationships between the citizens
and the State so that each individual becomes committed to the overall objectives of the State.
The second mode involves economic institutions and processes and the third is related to social
institutions and processes. Here again, there is no question of alternatives between the three
modes. Each is a necessary component of the power of the modern State.

34
The concept of political power and the ways of using it for the purposes of the State has changed
over time. On this basis (Foucault 1981) has distinguished between traditional societies and the
modern ones. In the former, power was exercised in a conspicuous and visible manner so that
execution of crimina‘s was displayed in public places in order to create the State power in the
citizenry and to warn the prospective criminal of the consequences of defying the State law. This
practice was gradually given up in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries as the traditional
society gave way to the modern ―disciplinary society‖ wherein social control is achieved through a
complex network of rules an regulation , that is , through the process of institutionalization of the
political system and the State authority . The distinguishing feature of the modern disciplinary
society is that the citizens learn to internalize codes of behavior so that individuals keep
unconsciously disciplining themselves . As such , political power of the modern State is essentially
invisible since it flows through the complex relations of everyday life . It filters down through the
institutional layer of everyday business of life and thereby the State power saturates the social fabric
. This view of power relationships of the State is sometimes referred to as the capillary view of
power . Viewed thus , formal and informal politics become intimately related so that concept of
―politics‖ as a separate sphere of life cannot be sustained .

2.4 THEORIES OF DISTRIBUTION OF POWER IN SOCIETY

(Dunleavy and O‘Leary , 1987 ) the mature of State power and its distribution among social groups
and classes is theorized in a variety of with reference to the liberal democratic State (Dunleavy and
O‘Leary , 1987 ). According to one (the elitist) view, whatever the from of government be the
presence of a ruling elite is inevitable .The composition of the elite may change over time ; there
may even be a circulation of elites , but an elite group represents an efficiently organized minority
obeying a single impulse , over an unorganized majority . Thus, the elitist view of power rises doubts
about the practicability of real democracy (in the sense of a government by the people). Secondly,
the proponents of the elitist view of power believed that the governing elite is always the preserve of
a single dominant group, so that they rejected the Marxist view that the most affluent economic
group is always the ruling elite. According to the elitist theorists the crucial point about the nature of
the nature of the governing elite is political influence, not economic power – the elite is politically
organized whereas the rest of the society is not (as in the case of the Yadavas among the OBC s
[other backward castes] and the Chamars among the scheduled castes in northern India).
According to the pluralist view of distribution of power in society, the liberal democratic State
represents an open and competitive arena in which many interest groups compete for influence.
35
According to these theorists there is no single dominant elite. But they also reject the pure theory of
democracy based on government by majority. According to these thinkers what we actually have in
the modern democratic systems is government by many rather than government by the majority, and
the many include different kinds of opinion leaders leaders who make or influence decisions in
different areas and walks of life.
(Mann, 1984) the Marxist view of distribution of power in society is critical of the pluralist view of
the State and its role in the struggle for power among competing groups in society since, according to
the Marxists, the State is itself an active participant in the struggle for power in favour of the
dominant class, although the State can act autonomously owing to its territorial jurisdiction.
According to the Marxist view the State in the capitalist societies exists to promote the capitalist
mode of production so that it works to advance the interests of the dominant groups in the given local
or regional community, and the interests of the other groups are perceived only as issues of general
interest of the society as a whole.

2.5 POLITICAL AUTHORITY

A fundamental problem for the rulers in any State is related to converting power into authority , that
is the right to rule , which comes into existence only when the citizens recognize the right of the
political masters to govern ; and to make laws ; and the citizens ‘ duty to obey those laws . The
source of authority may be traditional (as in the case of monarchies), charismatic (as in the case of
revolutionary leaders of all variety) or it may be legal – rational (in which obedience is owed not to
an individual but to a set of legal rational principles embodied in governmental institutions of the
state. It is important to distinguish between legality and legitimacy of authority. Legality refers to the
prescribed procedures of the system so that certain rules may be legal without being legitimate.
Legitimacy implies voluntary acceptance by the ruled of the ruler‘s authority to govern. In modern
societies such an authority is derived from popular support obtained through free and fair multi party
electoral contests. The authority of the modern liberal democratic state is infrastructural, in that it
infiltrates through the different forms of governmental infrastructure down to most aspects of life and
is exercised through the implicit consent of the government.

2.6 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICS

Approaches to the study of politics remained, for a long time confined to considerations of normative
issues pertaining to government and its institutions so that it was essentially a domain of the elite for
whom the actual working of the system its structure and functions in so far they related to the general

36
population was of little concern . Thus was understandable in the light of the fact that international
system of States at the time was dominated by the colonial model of the European State. However,
all this had to change in the post World War II period, so that by the 1950 s the systemic aspects of
the State as a purposeful social instrumentality began to receive attention of scholars. As was natural
in the immediate post war period of unsettled conditions in Europe, the intellectual leadership, in this
respect came predominantly from the United States, where the State was viewed as a systems – the
Political System–generally referring to political arrangements in the society, embracing all factors
influencing collective action, including processes of recruitment and socialization, political party
structures, voting behavior, and social movements, none of which is formally part of the
governmental apparatus.
The systems approach to the study of politics was pioneered by the American political scientist
David Easton (1957, 1965a, 1965b) whose concept of the Status as political systems was immensely
popular in political studies in the 1960 and 1970s. According to this view the political system
comprises all those institutions and processes that are inevitably involved in the ―authoritative
allocation of values‖ for society. The system so conceptualized was essentially an input –output
system, meaning that the system takes certain inputs from society. These inputsmay consist of (a)
demands for particular policies and programmes and, (b) expressions of support (which may be
negative or positive). Besides electoral support, to the system may also include orderly compliance
with State laws, including payment of taxes. The system converts the societal inputs into outputs in
the form of authoritative policies and decisions. These outputs and their impact on the social
structure provide a feedback into the system leading to a new cycle of inputs. The inputs are not
directly form the voter to the system. In the liberal democratic system the input is managed by
gatekeepers in the form of political parties and pressure groups. (The Eastonian model is summarized
in Major criticism of the Eastonian model is that it reduced State to nothing more than a black box
receiving inputs and producing output, so that the model was far too static. It drew attention away
from how political systems function and change.
G
A
Demands. T The Authoritative
Supports E Political Decisions
K System
E
E
P
E
R
S

FEEDBACK

Easton‘s model of the political system

37
 It was in this backdrop that the functional approach to the of politics had surfaced in the
1970s. Its most ardent proponents were American political scientists (Almond and Powell
1978,1988) the fundamental question addressed by the functionalist scholars was: granting that
political systems vary greatly in their political and social structures, are there still a set of functions
which every political system must perform if it is to survive and operate effectively. Almond and
Powell provided such a list of functions (Refer Table 2) which, the functionalists argued, is a kind of
checklist comprising an objective, standardized and culture – free approach to the study of politics.
Refer Table 2 Almond and Powell‘s list of Functions of Political Systems
S.No. Political System Duties and Work
1. Political recruitment. People must be recruited to fill political roles from voters to
government leaders.
2. Political socialisation Their attitudes to the political system must be formed and
sustained.
3. Political communication Political relevant information must be transmitted.
4. Interest articulation Demands for particular policies must be expressed.
5. Interest aggregation Demands must be selected and combined into a manageable
number of major alternatives.
6. Policy – making Demands must be converted into authoritative decisions and
policies.
7. Policy implementation These decisions must be put into effect.
Source : G. Almond and G. Powell , Comparative politics (Boston Little , Brown, 1978), pp. 13-16.

Though the model was quite impressive, before long functionalism as perspective began to be
criticised in that the functionalists had conceptualized the political system essentially as a mechanical
system in which each component performs a definite set of functions in smooth running operation, so
that the functionalist approach was criticised as a reflection of conservation –rightist ideology
supporting status quo in society. It was maintained by the critics that political science should be more
concerned with how political systems change rather than how they maintain themselves , so that (like
the earlier concept of systems) the functional approach appeared to the critics to have little to say
about real life political problems, of political and social change and meaning in the system in face of
competing claims in a situation of scarcity where the central question pertains to Who gets what ,
when , where and how . This inevitably draws attention to issues of production and accumulation on
the one hand, and distribution of the ―surplus‖ on the other.

38
This change in perspective called attention to the works of the nineteenth century political
economists such as David Ricardo and , most particularly , to the ideas of Marx who drew attention
to the fact that social conditions in ant place are product of a particular set of historical material
circumstances and social scientists should keep in view the historicity of the concepts they use and
they should be lever willing to change their current meaning with a view to promoting progressive
change . The political economy approach of the 1960s and 1970s was predominantly inspired by
Marxian/Neo-Marxian and Neo-Ricardian ideas and perspectives, although during the 1960s the
radical libertarian right from the University of Chicago appropriated the term ―political economy‖ to
advance an approach of study focused on the problem of choosing among alternatives (in all facets of
life) in terms of the principles of rational choice theory .This was the public choice, approach to
politics. The range of topics included the nature of the State, political choice, and decision – making.
This eventually led top what has been termed as the policy – centred approach to the study of politics
concerned with formulation, implementation and effectiveness of policy, and with issues pertaining
to distributive justice, and quality of life.

2.7 POLITICAL AS SOCIAL PRACTICE AND DISCOURSE

In the context of the modern democratic State, politics is focused on the people and relationships
between people in a given society. This theme of relationship is a complex one, because the basic
premise of democracy is the identity of the citizen as an individual with personal right to freedom of
choice and individual autonomy. This inherent concept of liberal individualism makes it imperative
that politics anywhere is essentially a process of continuous discourse in order that an acceptable
middle ground may be found between individual autonomy and public freedom. The discourse leads
to a set of social practices that get formalized into politics.

Every social practice is partly material and partly discursive – the former involves using
things (material objects) and creating organizations for efficient functioning of the system; whereas
the latter involves use of Ideas, symbol (iconographies) and meanings. However, although the
material and the discursive may be identified separately from each other, the two cannot stand
independently since while one represents the thing, the other represents the manner in which the
thing is to be used in a given social context. Besides discourse itself has a material basis in that the
product of discourse basis in that the product of discourse must take a form and the form is material-
it can used-so that the product of previous thought (tradition) self become material. The idea of
discourse was subsumed in Michel Foucault‘s concept o ―discursive formation‖. According to
Foucault, the same words, statement, symbols, and metaphors may mean different space and time
39
contexts, as well as in the context of the speaker‘s social, economic and political status. Foucault‘s
discursive formation became ―discourse‖ at the hand of later writers.
The way discourse may lead to new set of meaning and social practice in regard to a
previously existing problem or phenomenon was illustrated by Foucault with reference to the
concept of the ―teenager‖-the phase of the human child‘s growth between 13 to 19 years. Human
being have from the beginning been passing through this transitional phase from childhood to
adulthood. Sometimes even the tern teenager was used to describe individuals passing through this
phase of life. But only when (during the 1950s), through a focussed discourse in the United States,
the stage between childhood and adulthood began to receive widespread recognition as a separate
and critical stage in the human child‘s growth, a phase with a special set of problem requiring special
attention-did the discourse of the teenager lead to a new set of social/political practice. Since things
are made meaningful through discourse the concept of discourse provides a useful framework for
studying social practice, including politics (and the social science displines in general).

2.8 HIGH POLITICS VERSUS LOW POLITICS

Earlier in this title we had referred to formal and informal politics. High and low politics is
yet another pair of terms drawing attention to an altogether different set of division in political
process of the state. The term high politics refers to political issuses pertaining to inter-state relation
such as war and peace, and diplomatic mission. It also includes problem pertaining to state
sovereignty and constitutional change-problem that generally belong to the state as an autonomous
system-so that high politics commonly involves people occupying ‗high‘ places-the elite position –in
the state apparatus. The state security is an integral part of high politics. As contrasted to this, low
politics refers to the day to day issues of human survival relating to economic politics and publics
administration- including public health, education and welfare administration in general. The area of
low politics may involve the elite insofar as its policy formulation aspect is concerned. Otherwise
most of its activities fall under the domain of junior functionaries of the State, and officers of the
local and regional authorities who carry out the task of policy implementation on the ground.
The division between high and low polities is not, since the two levels of polities must
necessarily overlap in the context of a participatory system. Secondly, high and low politics may
sometimes appear similar to formal and informal politics, but in fact they are very different from the
letter set. For Example, high polities may involve both formal politics (diplomatic exchange,
intergovernment commissions, foreign policy institutions) and informal politics (since interpersonal
relation between heads of States may play a significant part in the conduct of international relations).
Likewise low politics combines both the formal and informal arenas of political process.
40
Inevitably the relative importance of high vis-à-vis low politics has changed over time. Generally
speaking, high polities were the dominant mode in the colonial system of States before the Second
World War, because the colonial model of the European State represented the model example of the
Ratzelian concept of the Organismic State with an inbuilt tendency territorially in the process of its
growth. so that problems of security-internal as well as external had loomed large in the political life
of the state . The emergence of the modern state as a secular civic authority based on the consent of
the ruled (measured in terms of electoral support), inevitably changed the balance in favour of low
politics. But low politics could play an effective role only after the 1920s, following the grant of the
right to vote for every citizen irrespective of status. Nevertheless, the struggle for the control of the
seat of power could not assume its present day dimension so long as everybody (by and large)
remained adequately provided from the revenue coming to the state treasury from the overseas
empires of the European states. The post-world war 11 process of decolonization and emergence of
the large number of post colonial nation-states contribution to usher a new era of low politics
domination.

2.9 SUMMARY
Geo-political change is the disciple that concerned both with politics and geography, while politics is
its adjective geography constitutes its basic identity. So that it is pre-eminently a branch of human
geography. To know the nature of Geo-Political change therefore it is necessary to understand the
innate of politics to as a field of meditation.

2.10 ACTIVITY
Write an essay on merits and demerits of Political Authority in India.

2.11 QUESTIONS
- Discuss the development of Political Geography.
- Explain the term ‗State‘ as used in Political Geography and trace its evolution.
- Describe Geo-Political Changes in politics and its main approaches of Political Geography
- Explain political Social Practices and Discourse.

41
2.11 REFERENCES
Almond,G.and Powell,G. 1978 ― Comparative Politics‖ Boston Little Brown and Company.
Boulding, K. 1989 ― Three Faces Of Power‖ Sage Publications, London.
Crick,B.,1982 ―In Defence Of Politics‖ Hammondsworth Penguin Books.
Dahl, R.1957 ― The Concept Of Power‖ Behaviourable Science.Vol. 2 pp 201, 215.
Dhal,R. 1984 ― Modern Political analysis‖ Eaglewood Cliff (NJ) New Delhi.
Dunleavy and O‘ Leavy.1987 in Dixit,R.D., 2000 ― Political Geography: The Spatiality Of Politics‖
Tata McGraw Hill, Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi.
Easton,D. 1957 ― An Approach To Analysis Of political systems‖ World Politics.Vol. 10.pp-303-
400.
Easton,D. 1965a ― A Framework For Political Analysis‖ Eaglewood Cliffs (NJ) PenticeHall.
Easton.D. 1965b ― A System analysis of political Life‖ New York Wiley.
Faucault, M. 1981 ― The Order Of Discourse‖ In Robert Young (ed) Unlying The Text: past
Structulalist Reader London, Routledge And Kegan Paul
Hague,R. Harrop,M. and Breslin,S. 1994 ― Comparative Government and Politics: an Introduction
(3rd edition) Mcmmlian Press, London.
Mann,M.1984 ― The Autonomous Power Of The State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results‖
European Journal Of Sociology. Vol.25, pp-185-213.
Painter, J.1995 ― Politics Geography and Political Geography A Critical Perspective‖ London
Arnold.
Parson, T.,1967 ― On The Concept of Political Power‖ in Parson (ed) Sociological Theory and
Modern Society, New Delhi

42
UNIT 3 AGRO-CLIMATE
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning and Concept of agro-Climate
3.3 Agro-Climatic Regions in India
3.3.1. Western Himalayan Hills and Mountains
3.3.2. Eastern Himalayan hills and Mountain
3.3.2.1 Lower Ganetic Plains
3.3.2.2. Middle Ganetic Plains
3.3.2.3. Upper Ganetic Plains
3.3.2.4. Trans Ganetic Plains
3.3.2.5. Eastern Plateau and the Hills
3.3.2.6. Central Plateau and the Hills
3.3.2.7. Western plateau and the Hills
3.3.3. Southern Plateau and the Hills
3.3.4. East Coastal Plains and the Hills
3.3.5. West Coastal Plains and the Hills
3.3.6. Gujarat plains and the Hills
3.4. Western Dry
3.5. Oceanic Islands
3.6. Agro-Climatic regionalization and Development.
3.7. Summary
3.8. Activity
3.9. Questions
3.10. References.

3.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand the meaning and basic concept of Agro-climate.
To Know about oceanic Islands and Gujarat Plains and the hills.
To understand the significance and importance of Himalayas and its type.
To know Agro-climatic development and its regionalization.

43
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture development of a region is required to be enacted upon a given landscape in a contingent
relationship between the man induced set of infrastructure on the one hand innate‘s endowments
specific to an area on the other agro-cline regionalization which aims to carry out the task of
agricultural development of an area thus involves the optimum use of natural endowments of the area
with the help of appropriate infra-structures.

3.2 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF AGRO-CLIMATE

Agriculture development of an area is required to be enacted upon a given landscape in a contingent
relationship between the man-induced set of infrastructures on the one hand nature‘s endowments
specific to an area on the other .agro climate regionalization, which aims to carry out the task of
agricultural development of an area, thus involves the optimum use of natural (resource)endowments
of the area with the help of appropriate infrastructures at sufficiently disaggregated level so that the
location –specific issues are given importance and the long –run view as sustainable development is
maintained by working out a proper balance between nature (resource) endowments(of land and
water ) and human needs. In this approach, the emphasis is on the concept of regionalization, which
is nomothetic rather than an ideographic field of study of regional geography so that in
disaggregating an area by regions, The greater rigour is placed on defining the regions with precision
in measuring the attributers and applicability of conclusions drawn out of analyses. Thus by its very
nature, the regionalization approach in disaggregating an area into regions does not behave like that
of regional geography which is short of theory and long on description of facts.
The agricultural development of an area generally takes place by bringing more areas under
agriculture. In India ,it has been found that the growth of areas under agriculture is not taking place
at all, that is, net sown area, NSA, remains stagnant at 143.0 million hectares for a long time and
hence in aggregate level the only alternative left for agriculture development is by increasing the area
under irrigation so that the percentage area irrigated goes on increasing from the present level of
around 37 % of the total area under while this is imperative for agriculture development and its
sustenance, the cost factor for brining the cropped area under irrigation become prohibitive land and
water are the major natural resources limiting the potential for agricultural activities. Climate and
ecological factors render the resources efficient or otherwise as they affect availability of resources
in efficient units and the patterns of their utilization. among these two natural resource variables of
land and water, land has two dimensions namely qualitative and quantitative .the former is
manifested in soil quality, Soil texture and other intrinsic quality parameters like soil nutrients,

44
whereas the latter can be seen in the land use pattern and intensity, similarly water resources have
two dimensions from the agro climate point of view with reference to sources and management.
Rainfall is a source but is exogenous and it influences the availability of soil-water storage, its
utilization, groundwater recharges, surface runoff, all of which combine together to from the annual
cycle of soil-water budgeting. This soil –water budgeting can be treated as an open –water flow
system in which rain water as the input in an ideal situation meets the water need (in terms of
potential evapotranspiration ) and the storage capacity of soil is maintained at all times. Where the
water use is more than the water demand, the difference between the demand and use in the soil-
water shortage is furnished by irrigation to achieve maximum crop growth within an agricultural
system.at any given location for determining the water need (that is, the potential evapo-
transpiration) on a monthly basis, there have been methods by ( C.W.Thornthwaite and Mather 1956
and H.L. Penman1963) so that the soil-water recharge and groundwater recharge are determined and
the crop irrigation requirement can be estimated on a precise and accurate basis. for the primary
regional division of India.

3.3 AGRO-CLIMATIC REGIONS IN INDIA

For the primary regional division of India there has been the consensus of using topography as a
basic criterion and in this respect five major natural regions have been distinguished .These regions
are –(1) the Himalayas and the associated Hills, (2) the Northern Plains consisting of the Indo-
Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains,(3) the Peninsular Plateaus and Hills, as well as the Coastal Plains, the
latter divided into (4) the West Coastal Plains and (5) the East Coastal Plains. Again, on the basis of
soil characteristics, climate, rainfall and water availability as the principal criteria used for
regionalization, there has been an unanimity in dividing (a) the Himalayan area in to two agro-
climatic regions:(i) the western and (ii) the eastern Himalayas. Similarly(b) the northern plains in to a
number of agro –climatic regions like (1) the Trans-Gangetic Plains,(2) the Gujarat Plains and Hill
region,(3) the Western dry Plains region, and (4) the Gangetic Plains latter is further sub-divided into
three sub-regions namely,the Upper Gangetic Plains, Middle Gangetic Plains and the Lower
Gangetic Plains.in dividing the Northern Plains, these agro-climatic regions are made primarily on
the basis of differences of rainfall, because rainfall is the single most important variable (rather than
any other factor)within the plains again the peninsular plateaus and hills and their continuation as the
central Indian highland are further subdivided in to (i) the southern plateaus,(ii) the central
plateaus,(iii) the western plateaus and (iv) the eastern plateaus and their associated hills. Based on
the above considerations,14 agro climate regions are distinguished on the mainland of India-two in
the Himalayan area, six in the northern plains, four in the peninsular plateaus and hills and two in the
45
 Coastal Plains.The fifteenth region consists of the island-the Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of
Bengal and Lakshadweep,Minicoy and Amindivi in the Arabian sea. Thus the fifteen agro-climatic
regions are distinguished for regionalization of the agricultural economy of India the criteria adopted
are the homogeneity in agro-characteristics and scientific management in terms of planning and
operationalization with reference to the geographic area covered so that the status of natural
resources and physical environment of the areas are not eroded while the growing requirement of
food, fibre, fodder and fuel wood are met. The salient features of the these fifteen agro-climatic
regions are delineated in(Refer Table 3) these fifteen agro-climatic regions which have been
delineated in relation to the physiograph, main climatic elements, soil types and groundwater
reserves, illustrate the main crops and their combination, thus the moist, warm parts of the country
are used for raising rice, jute, rapeseed and mustard, tea, coffee and coconuts.
Refer Table 3: Salient Characteristics of Agro- Climate Regions of India.
Regi Name of Region States Covered. No.Of No. of AREA Rainfal Major crops
-on Sub Districts in Range of the Region.
No. Region (Lakh (in mm)
ha.)
1. Western Himalayas Jammu and Kashmir and 4 13 70 1,302to1,607 R,J,P,R&M
Himachal Pradesh
2. Eastern Himalayas Assam, Arunachal 9 56 277 1,840 to 3,528 R,M,Ju,R&M,
Pradesh,Tripura,Nagalan
d,Manipur, Mizoram,
Sikkim, Meghalaya,and
West Bengal
3. Lower Ganetic Plain West Bengal 4 13 70 1,302 to 1,607 R,J,P,R&M
4. Middle Ganetic Plains Uttar Pradesh and Bihar 6 36 154 1,211 to 1,470 R,W,M
5. Upper Ganetic Plains Uttar Pradesh 3 32 143 721 to 979 W,R,M,S
6. Trans Ganetic Plains Punjab, Haryana, 3 28 121 360 to 890 W,M,R,S
Rajasthan and Delhi
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, 5 36 402 1,271 to 1,470 R,W,M,S
West Bengal and
Maharashtra
8. Central Plateaus and Hills Mahhya Pradesh, Uttar 9 46 372 602 to 1,570 J,B,C,W
Pradesh and Rajasthan
9. Western Plateau and Hills Maharashtra, Madhya 4 34 309 602 to 1,040 J,B,S,C,W
Pradesh and Rajasthan
10. Southern Plateaus and Hills Karanataka, Andhra 6 38 416 677 to 1,001 J,R,Ra,Cr
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
11. East Coastal Plains and Orissa,Andhra Pradesh, 5 23 173 1,287 to 2,226 R,W,M.Ra, To
Hills Tamil Nadu, and
Pondicherry
12. West Coastal Plains and Maharashtra,Kerala, 5 27 117 2,226 to 3,640 R,C,B,W,S
Hills Karanataka,Goa and
Tamil Nadu
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Gujarat 7 22 197 340 to 1,793 R,Gr,C,B,W
14. Western Dry Plains Rajasthan - 9 176 Less than 395 B,G,W,Ra
15. The Islands Andaman and Nicobar 2 3 8 1,500 to 3,086 Co
and Lakshadweep

Note: B=Bajra,C=Cotton,G=Gram,Gr=Groundnut,J=Jower,Ju=Jute,M=Maize,R=Rice,R&M=Rapeseed and

Mustard,S=Sugargane,To=Tobacco, W=Wheat,Co=Coconut and P=Potato.

46
The sub-humid regions are utilized for wheat, sugarcane, pulses and oilseeds. In the semi-arid
regions are grown jowar, bajra and cotton. Similarly, when we consider the edaphic factors, we find
that fertile alluvial soils are devoted to rice and wheat cultivation whereas comparatively poor soils
of mountainous terrains are utilized for hardy crops like maize, pulses and oilseeds. Suitable relief
combined with high rainfall has been responsible for hill crops like tea and coffee
plantations,whereas the moist coastal strip and the per humid island regions have favoured the
cultivation of coconut and on other hand, the black regur soil produces diversified cash crops
including sugarcane and grapes above (Refer Table 3) does not provide any index for soil for which
a soil capability measure can be arrived at considering the physical and chemical properties of soil,
their nutrient status weighed on the basis of their relative shares and aggregated for the regions and
their sub-regions

3.3.1 Western Himalayan Hills and Mountains

This region has wide variations and heterogeneity.within this region, the physical condition
of a hilly and mountainous terrain and soil characteristics and micro-climates results in different
farming systems ranging largely from the cold deserts of the Ladakh plateau and Spiti valley in the
north to the areas in the south of the Central Himalayas which are rich in forest and water resources.
However, land is a scarce resource in this region as far as agriculture is concerned. Agriculture in
this agro-climatic region is not being supported by new farming technology due to many factors and
the lack of irrigation is the most important of them. Keeping in view the natural (both land and
water) resources, all possible efforts such as soil and water conservation, land use policy and
regionalization for development of horticulture and forestry are required to be made in its three
different sub-regions in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the hills of Uttar Pradesh so that
agricultural development does take place to make this region self-sufficient.

3.3.2 Eastern Himalayan Hills and Mountains

This region, which includes the seven sister states of northeastern India, has inter –state
disparities, both spatial and temporal, in the growth rates of cropping area, production and
productivity of its crops.
. In terms of ranking of crops, it is found that rapeseed and mustard rank high with a share of around
8% of the total cropped area of the region in (Refer Table 3) the yield contribution of this agro-
climatic region is meager and in enhancing total production in this region the contribution of
expansion in the area under cultivation has a major role, this agro-climatic region is characterized by

47
as many as nine sub-regions and all the seven states, the union territory of Mizoram and the plains
and mountains of north Bengal from a sub region of each.

3.3.2.1 Lower Gangetic Plains

This region is a single deltaic landscape per square but it is also full of variegated facets of landforms
which influence in no less measure the agricultural landscape of the region. Rice, Potato and Jute
dominate the agricultural landscape but on the poorer soils in the marginal uplands, wheat is also
grown, fragmentation in land holding is the root cause of low productivity of this region but in recent
years there has been an upsurge in agricultural development through structural reforms and
institutional changes. Four sub-regions are recognized in this deltaic landscape which includes the
upland plains like the Barind and Rarh plains.

3.3.2.2 Middle Gangetic Plains

The region, consisting of the plains of Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh, is largely an alluvial
landscape characterized by indeterminate drainage forms, more towards the east. Rice and Wheat are
the main crops with a productivity growth rate higher in wheat than in rice. Statewise,Bihar is at the
lowest level in terms of per capita domestic product in the country. The low productivity and 90% of
cropped area under food grains (the highest in the country) in this region produce a dismal picture
and this act as a drag on the overall growth and development of this region.

3.3.2.3 Upper Gangetic Plains

Comprising of the plains of central and western Uttar Pradesh, this region has a sub-humid climate
and reliable irrigation facilities, tube well and canals, so that area irrigated is quite high, next only to
Punjab and Haryana of the Trans-Gangetic Plains. The cropping pattern is basically of wheat and rice
followed by coarse grains on the poorer soils. due to intensive cultivation, there has been an increase
in the area under rice which leads to more yield variability but wheat has been a more stable crop
than rice. More concerned effort is needed for better water management practices so that alkalization
of cropped area is controlled. The variegated landscape of this region gives way to as many as three
sub-regions.

3.3.2.4 Trans-Gangetic Plains

This region includes three transitional climatic regions of sub-humid through semi-arid to arid zones.
This is the foremost area of the country in spearheading the green revolution. Since resource
48
endowments remain the main source of yield differentials, in this respect the nature and volume of
irrigation availability are well developed (90.6% of the total cropped area in Punjab is irrigated) this
region specializes in rice wheat rotation followed by gram, cotton, maize and bajra with wheat as the
most stable crop. This region accounts for the lion‘s share in national level gains from agricultural
growth. This reflects the differential initiative in terms of the development of irrigation and
infrastructural facilities across this region which all increase the agricultural production and
productivity tremendously. Three sub-regions are recognized in this region based on rainfall-
differentials ranging from sub-humid through semi arid to arid.

3.3.2.5 Eastern Plateaus and the Hills

This has 36 districts of four states (including one of the most backward and poor regions of India) it
consists of the plateau and undulating hill areas of South Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh,
northeastern Orissa, three districts of Maharashtra and the easternmost (Purulia) district of West
Bengal. This region has a kind of agro-climatic regime with traditional agriculture largely of rice,
maize and wheat crops. With its agricultural input and productivity levels much lower than the
national average, this region illustrates poverty since the area receives rainfall of 121.1 to 147.0
centimetres (that is, 50 to 70 inches) and the requirement of a single crop is usually less that 63.5
centimetres, the integrated watershed development programme with an aim to conserve the rain-
water is introduced in the region as well as if a new crop boost the cropping intensity, crop
productivity and crop production.

3.3.2.6 Central Plateaus and the Hills

This region has 46 districts of 4 states, namely, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Maharashtra. Divided into 9 sub- regions, monocropping is the main feature of this region,
particularly in the undulating and crystalline plateaus of Bundelkhand, Bagerkhand and the Aravali
hills. An undulating topography, a large proportion of rain fed farming, small landholdings, practice
of kharif fallows, a large amount of cultivable wasteland, a low cropping intensity and low coverage
under high yielding varieties are the major problems impending the growth of agriculture in all the
sub-regions of this region except the Malwa plateau where thick black soil is found making it rich in
agriculture.

49
3.3.2.7 Western Plateaus and the Hills
A major part of Maharashtra belongs to this agro climatic region. This is basically a Deccan trap
region with deep to medium black soil in Maharashtra in adjoining district of southwest Madhya
Pradesh. Westwards, where rainfall is more and there is assured irrigation, rice and sugarcane are
important crops but eastward, where water scarcity increases, cultivable land is generally given to
dry crops especially Jowar, cotton and oilseeds, this region is characterized by highly developed
agriculture in terms of overall crop development in the Deccan trap areas but the dry farming areas
of Marathwada in the southeast are most underdeveloped with inconsistency in the yield of crops.
The expansion of dependable irrigation Facilities has a limited scope in this agro-climatic region
because of topography and climate, State wise, Maharashtra, which is largely covered under this
agro-climatic region, has only 13.7% of its cultivated area under irrigation which is the lowest in the
country.

3.3.3 Southern Plateaus and the Hills

With an area of 41.6 million hectares spanning largely over Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh and also
including the highlands and uplands of Tamil Nadu, this is the largest agro –climatic region in the
country .The predominance of rain fed cultivation dictates the prospects of agriculture in this agro –
climatic region in the country. The predominance of rain fed cultivation dictates the prospects of
agriculture in this agro climatic region where over 80 % of the land is rain fed. Like the agro –
climatic region of the western plateaus and the hills , this region has the dry farming areas in the
northern uplands of Karnataka and the Telangana – Ryalseema tract of Andhra Pradesh which are
characterized by jowar –wheat –bajra (fodder ) crop combinations ,but the other three sub-regions of
this agro – climatic regions, namely, the South Mysore plateau (or the Maidan ), the Sahyadris (or
the Malnad ) and the Coimbatore Basin of Tamil Nadu with well – laid out drainage systems
provides an ample contrast to the land use in terms of areas under tank and canal irrigation producing
rice and sugarcane with rows of coconuts on the field borders whereas the areas not having irrigation
have ragi as the main crop. With the high magnitude of risk in the dry and the irrigated area, crops in
this zone face alarming risk and proper, management strategies are needed to ameliorate them.

3.3.4 East Coastal Plains and the Hills

This agro –climatic region, stretching over the coastal strip across Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu, is largely a coastal plain with deltaic face but backed by the
dissected Eastern Ghat Hills. Rich alluvial soils and cyclones on the other vie with on e another in

50
the terms of nature‘s endowment and ravages respectively. The farm economy with its ponds,
coconut and banana, Clumps, rice fields and homesteads on raised sites is the common landscape in
this agro-climatic region.

3.3.5 West Coastal Plains and the Hills

This coastal strip along the Arabian sea from the south of Mumbai all along through Goa and Kerala
to south coastal Tamil Nadu plains is distinctly narrower, but rainier and backed by the Western
Ghats escarpment in comparison to its eastern counterpart, Mentioned above. This is predominantly
an area of rice accompanied with pulse and coconut. In the rainier Kerala, rice and coconut
plantations form the coastal landscape while along the scarp edges, in the southern Sahyadris (or
Nilgiri hills ), there is a diversified plantation economy ranging from cashew nuts and mango
orchards at the foothill junction with lowlands, the spice gardens at the lower, rubber on the
intermediate and intermediate and tea and coffee plantations on the higher slopes.

3.3.6 Gujarat Plains and the Hills

This agro-climatic region which covers Gujarat state totally has 7 sub-regions. The alluvial plains of
south and central Gujarat as well as Saurashtra have rich soil and yield cotton and millets with the
help of tube well irrigation. In this region, the dependence is greater on non-irrigated crops and on
cattle raising which has led to dairy farming. However, like many of the agro-climatic regions of the
country, this region also has a problematic arid tract of Kachchh in the northwest.

3.4 WESTERN DRY

This north-western dry region, which accounts for nearly 5% of the geographical area of India,
poses typical problems because of all the characteristics of hot deserts with scanty and erratic
rainfall, high evaporation, non-existence of perennial rivers, forests accounting for only 1.2% and
pastures 4.3% of the area. Kharif crops account for 90% of the gross cropped area. (Refer Figure-
5)Groundwater has been the main source of irrigation and the latter is also available for 6.3% of the
cultivated area.

51
The region has 19 million livestock of cattle, sheep and camels but the livestock productivity is low
due to lack of fodder. The area requires an intensive eco-intensification process through the regional
approach for water harvesting so that animal husbandry is developed and variability in agro-farming
is decreased.

52
3.5 THE OCEANIC ISLANDS
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian
Sea form this most tiny agro-climatic region with 8.281 Lakh hectares of geographical area. These
two island groups are believed to occupy the up thrusts.

53
on the continuation of the Aravali and the Himalayan strikes respectively and presently they coral
reefs and atolls which support coconut groves as well as human habitats. The Andaman‘s are also
known for their wet tropical forests and management of forestry is also the eco-diversity of this
forest.
Since these fifteen agro-climatic regions have wide variations in the geographic area. Rainfall, soil
types and cropping pattern, they are further sub-divided in to 72 agro-climate sub-regions on the
basis of more specific soil topography, climate and cropping pattern characteristics so that a greater
degree of homogeneity is achieved pertaining to the agro-climate parameters. For the sake of
simplicity again, a district has been taken as an a real unit for the agro-climate sub-region as was
done for the agro-climate regions earlier. The distribution of these 72 agro-climatic sub-regions is
provided in (Refer Table 4) and their delineations are shown in (Refer Figure 6) along with their
agro-climatic regions.
Refer Table-4 Agro –Climatic Regions and Their Sub Regions in India.
The following is the list of the 15 agro-climatic regions and 72 sub-regions in India for which
delineation has been done by the planning.
Region Agro-Climatic Agro-Climatic Sub region Districts.
No. Region
1. Western Himalayan a) Jammu and Kashmir Area Chilhas, Gilgit, wazarat, Kupwara, Kashmir
Region Area 3,32,533 2,22,236 Sq. Km. 14 North (Baramula) Kashmir South (Pulwana,
Sq. Km 33 districts districts Srinagar, Badgam and Anantnag),
Udhampur, Punch, Mirpur, Rajauri, Kargil
and Ladakh

b)Himachal Pradesh Area Lahul and spiti, Kinnaur, Chamba, Kangra,

55,673 Sq. Km. 11 Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Mandi, Kullu, Shimla,
districts solan and Una.

c) Hills of Uttar Pradesh Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pithoragarh, Dehra

54,624 Sq. Km. 8 districts Dun, Tehri Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal,
Almora and Naini Tal.
2. Eastern Himalayan a) Assam Goalpara, Kokrajhar, Dhubri, Kamrup,
region 2,77,235 Sq. Area 78,731 sq. km. Darrang, Sonitpur, Nowgong, Lakhimpur,
Km. 56 districts 14 districts, 8 districts Sibsagar, Dibrugarh, Karbi Ablong, North
Cachar Hills, Karimganj and Cachar

b) Arunachal Pradesh West Kameng, East Kameng, Lower

Area 83,743 sq. km. Subanshiri, Upper Subanshiri, West Siang,

8 districts East Siang, Dibang Valley, Lohit and Tirap

54
 c) Tripura North Tripura, South Tripura and West
Area 10,486 sq. km. Tripura
3 districts
d) Nagaland Kohima, Mokochung, Mon, Phek,
Area 16,579 sq. km. Tuensang, Wokha and Zunheboto
7 districts
e) Manipur Seanapali, Ukhrul, Imphal, Thoubal,
Area 22,327 sq. km. Bishnupur, Chandal, Churachandpur and
8 districts Tamenglong
f) Mizoram 21,081 sq. km. Aizwal, Chhimtuipui and Lunglei
3 districts
g) Sikkim Area 7,096 sq.km. East Sikkim, North Sikkim, South Sikkim
4 districts and West Sikkim
h) Meghalaya West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills, West
Area 24,429 sq. km. Khasi Hills, East Khasi Hills and Jaintia.
districts
i) North Bengal
Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Koochbehar
Area 12,763 sq. km.
3 districts

3. Lower Gangetic Plains a) Barind Plains Bardhaman and Medinipur

Area 69,730 sq. km. Area 21,10 sq. km.
13 districts 2 districts
b) Central Alluvial West Dinajpur, Maldah, Nadia and
Plains 18,342 sq. km. Murshidabad
4 districts
c) Coastal Alluvial Plains Hooghly, Howrah, Calcutta, North
Area 18,856 sq. km. Twenty-four Parganas and South
5 districts Twenty- Four Parganas
d) Rarh Plains Birbhum and Bankura
11,427 sq. km.
2 districts

4. Middle Gangetic a) Northeastern Plains Saharsha, Purnea, katihar, Madhepura.

Plains Area 25,323 sq.km. Madhubani, Sitamarhi and Darbhanga
Area 1,53,646 sq.km. 7 districts
36 districts b) Eastern Plains Area Muzaffarpur, Khagaria, Samastipur,
8,933 sq. km. 5 districts. Vaishali and Begusaria

55
 c) Vindhyan Districts Mirzapur and Rohtas
Area 18,523 sq. km.
2 districts
d) Northeast Alluvial Plains Champaran West, Champaran East,
Area 16,089 sq.km. Gopalganj, Siwan and Saran
5 districts
e)SouthBihar Alluvial Plains Bhagalpur, Patna, Nalanda, Munger,
Area 25.658 sq. km. Nawada and Bhojpur
6 districts
f) Northwest Alluvial Plains Ballia, Ghazipur, Varanasi, Gonda,
Area 59,120 sq.km. Bahraich, Basti, Faizabad, Azamgaeh,
11 districts Jaunpur, Deoria and Gorakpur
5. Upper Gangetic Plains a) Central Uttar Pradesh Plains of Allahabad,
Area 1,43,439 sq. km. Area 3,67 sq. km. Pratapgarh, Fatehpur, Rac Bareilly,
32 districts 12 districts Sultanpur, Lucknow, Unnao, Bara
Banki, Kanpur (Rural), Kanpur (Urban),
Sitapur and Hardoi

b) Northwestern Saharanpur, Bijnor, Muzaffarnagar,

Uttar Pradesh Plains Rampur, Pilbhit, Bareily, Kheri,

Area 2,269 sq.km. Shahjahanpur, Budaun, Moradabad

11 districts and Farukhabad

c) Southwestern Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bulandshahr,

Uttar Pradesh Plains Aligarh, Etah, Mathura, Agra

Area 37,603 sq. km. Mainpuri and Etawah

9 districts
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains a) Sub-humid Region Ambala, Chandigarh, Karnal, Rohtak,
Area 1,21,400 sq.km. Area 31,012 sq.km. Kurukshetra, Patiala, Rupnagar,
28 districts 10 districts Hoshiarpur, Kapurthala and Gurudaspur
b) Semi-Arid Region Amritsar, Ferozpur, Ludhiana,
Area 5,86 sq.km. faridkot, Sangrur, Ludhiana,
14 districts Patiala, Bhatinda, Sonipat, Bhiwani,
Gurgaon, Faridabad, Mahendragarh
and Delhi

c) Arid Region Jind, Hisar, Sirsa and Ganganagar

Area 34,531 sq.km.

4 districts

56
7. Eastern Plateau and a) Eastern Hills and Sambalpur, Bolangir, Dhenkanal,
Hills Plateaus Shahdol, Surguja and Raigarh
Area 4,01,646 sq.km. (Orissa Inland and
35 districts Madhya Pradesh)
Area 86,4 sq.km.
6 districts
b) Eastern Hills and Sundargarh, Kendujhar, Balaghat
Plateaus Mayurbhanj and Raj Nandgaon
(Northern Orissa and
Eastern Madhya Pradesh)
Area 48,789 sq.km.
districts
c) Chota Nagpur North and Gaya, Hazaribagh, Giridih, Sahibganj,
Eastern Hills and Plateaus Santhal Pargana, Deoghar, Godda
Area 41,804 sq. km. and Dhanbad
8 districts
d) Chota Nagpur South and Palamau, Lohardaga, Gumla, Ranchi
Purulia Hills Singhbhum and Purulia
Area 50,714 sq.km.
6 districts
e) Chhatisgarh Basin and Bilaspur, Bastar, Durg, Raipur,
South Western Orissa Bhandara, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli,
Hills Area 1,73,794 sq.km. Kalahandi, Koraput and Philbani
10 districts
8. Central Plateaus and a) Bundelkhand of Jalaun, Jhansi, Hamirpur, Banda and
Hills Uttar Pradesh Lalitpur
Area 3,71,979 sq.km. Area 29,417 sq.km.
46 districts 5 districts
b) Bundelkhand and the Bhind, Gwalior, Morena, Shivpuri,
Lower Chambal Valley Datia, Tikamgarh, Chattarpur
Area 47,318 sq.km.
7 districts
c) Beghelkhand Plateau Panna, Satna, Rewa and Sidhi
Area 31,477 sq.km.
4 districts
d) Malwa Plateau Area Rajgarh, Guna, Vidisha, Bhopal,
96,992 sq.km. 12 districts Sehore, Raisen, Damoh, Sagar,

57
 Narsimhapur, Betul, Chhindwara
and Hoshangabad

e) Central Narmada Valley Mandla, Jabalpur and Seon

Area 32,187 sq.km.

3 districts
f) Sub-humid Mewar Hills Tonk, Bundi, Kota, Chittorgarh,
and Plateau Bhilwara, Udaipur, Dungarpur,
Area 72,577 sq. km. Banswara and Sawai Madhopur
9 districts
g) North Aravali Region Alwar, Jaipur and Ajmer
Area 36,388 sq.km.
3 districts
h) Luni Basin Pali and Sirohi
Area 17,523 sq.km.
2 districts
i) Flood-prone Dundawali Bharatpur
Area 8,100 sq.km.
1 district
9. Western Plateaus and a) Western Hills Dhule, Jalgaon, Nasik, Ahmadnagar,
Hills Area 1,04,771 sq.km. Solapur, Pune, Satara, Sangli and
Area 3,09,050 sq.km. 9 districts Kolhapur
34 districts b) Dry Marathwada Aurangabad, Jalaun,
Area 64,663 sq.km. Parbahani, Nanded, Beed, Latur
7 districts and Osmanabad
c) Deccan Trap Jhabua, Ratlam, Mandsaur, Shajapur,
(Medium Black Soil) Rajgarh and Jhalawar
Area 40,003 sq.km.
6 districts
d) Deccan Trap Ujjain, Dewas, West Nimar, East Nimar,
(Deep Black Soil) Amravati, Buldana, Akola, Yavatmal,
Area 99,613 sq.km. Wardha, Dhar, Indore and Nagpur
12 Districts
10. Southern Plateau and a) North Karnataka Upland Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga,
Hills Area 89,796 sq.km. Bidar, Raichur, Dharwar and Bellary
Area 4,15,998 sq.km. 7 districts
38 districts

58
 b) Telangana Adilabad, Nazamabad, Karimnagar,
Area 1,14,863 sq.km. Medak, Warangal, Khammam,
10 districts Nalgonda, Hyderabad, Mehbubnagar
and Rangareddi
c) South Mysore Plateau Chitradurg, Tumkur, Bangalore, Kolar,
Area 54,593 sq.km. Mandya and Mysore
6 districts
d) Sahyadris Shimoga, Chickmagalur and Hassan
Area 24,568 sq.km.
3 districts
e) Rayalseema Kurnool, Anantapur, Cuddapah and
Area 67,299 sq.km. Chittoor
4 districts
f) Tamil Nadu Highlands Periyar, Nilgiri, Salem, Coimbatore,
and Uplands Dharmapuri, Madurai, Tiruchirappalli
Area 64,879 sq. km. and Pudakotai
8 districts
11. East Coastal Plains a) Orissa Coastal Plain Baleshwar, Cuttack, Puri and Ganjam
and Hills Area 40,166 sq. km.
Area 1,73,040sq.km. 4 districts
22 districts b) North Coastal Andhra Srikakulam, Vizianagram,
Plain East Godavari, Vishakapatnam,
Area 34,344 sq.km. and Yenam
5 districts
c) South Coastal Andhra West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur,
Plain Prakasam and Nellore
Area 58.562 sq.km.
5 district
d) North Coastal Tamil Chennai, Chengalpattu
Nadu Plain North Arcot and South Arcot
Area 31,196 sq.km.
4 districts
e) Thanjavur Region Pondicherry, Karaikal,
Area 8,772 sq.km. Thanjavur and Mahe
4 districts
12. West Coastal Plains a) Konkan Coastal Plains Thane, Greater Mumbai, Raigad,
and Hills Are 30,363 sq.km. North Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg
59
 Area 1,21,465 sq.km. 5 districts
28 districts
b) Coastal Midland Goa, Uttar Khand
Area 26,536 sq.km. Dakhin Kannad and Kodagu
4 districts
c) Kerala Coastal Plains Cannanore, Kollam, Kozhikode,
Area 27,190 sq.km. Kasaragad, Malappuram, Ernakulam,
11 districts Kottayam, Alleppey, Pathanthitta,
Thiruvantipura and Trichur
d) Kerala Highlands Wayanand, Palghat and Idukki
Area 11,673 sq.km.
3 districts
e) South Coastal Pasumpon Muthu-ramalingam,
Tamil Nadu Plains Ramanathapuram, Kamarajar,
Area 25,703 sq.km. Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari
5 districts
13. Gujarat Plains and a) Suth Gujarat Humid Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Valsad,
Hills Plains Surat. The Dangs, Bharuch and Daman
Area 1,96,627 sq.km. Area 24,266 sq.km.
22 districts 6 districts
b) South Gujarat Vadoodare and Kheda
Sub-humid Plains
Area 14,988 sq.km.
2 districts
Ahmedabad and
c) Central Gujarat
Gandhinagar
Area 9,356 sq.km.
2 districts
Banaskantha, Sabarkantha,
d) North Gujarat
Mahesana and Panchmahal
Area 37.886 sq.km.
4 districts
e) Northwest Arid Gujarat Kachhh

Area 4,62 sq.km.

1 districts
f) North Saurashtra Jamnagar, Rajkot and Surendranagar
Area 3,817 sq.km.
3 districts

60
 Amreli, Diu, Bhavangar and
g) South Saurashtra Junagadh
Area 28,562 sq.km.
4 districts
14. Westem Dry Region No Sub-region Bikaner, Churu, Nagaur, Sikar,
Area 1,7,730 sq.km. Jodhpur, Barmer, Jalor, Jaisalmer and
9 districts Jhunjhunu
15. The Islands a) Andaman and Nicobar Andaman and
Area 8,281 sq.km. Area 8,249 sq.km. Nicobar
3 districts 2 districts
b) Lakshadweep Lakshadweep
Area 32 sq.km.
1 districts

3.6 AGRO-CLIMATIC REGIONALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT

A region is a specific area defined for a particular purpose. An agro-climatic region is an area
delineated with broadly homogeneous, natural, topographical, pedological, climatic conditions and
cropping patterns. For the delineation of agro-climatic regions (or their smaller sub-regions), the agro
climatic parameters such as altitude, physical and chemical properties of soil, water resources,
amount and distribution of rainfall, evapo-transpiration rates and relative humidity which vary from
region to region having a great bearing on the production and productivity of agricultural enterprises
are used. The inter-regional disparities in agricultural development are also largely due to these agro-
climatic factors. The uneven distribution of benefits flowing from the new agricultural technologies
and other institutional changes also contribute substantially to inter-zonal as well as intra-zonal
disparities. It is assumed that agro-climatic regionalization aims to minimize these inter and inter-
zonal differences in the interest of society. The above description of the agro-climatic regions show.
wide variations and heterogeneity within these individual regions regarding physical conditions, soil
characteristics and micro-climates which result in different farming systems. Hence these regions are
further subdivided in to homogeneous agro-climatic sub-regions in (Refer Table 4) which can serve
the purpose of formulating agricultural development strategies through the optimization plans and
their implementation so that the criteria taken for delineating the agro-climatic regionalization
towards regionalization in agriculture can really serve the purpose for removal of regional
imbalances in agriculture Hence further study on the concept of agricultural regionalization will be

61
done here on the analysis done by D.N.Basu and V.Rajgopalan in 1990 based on the data systems
provided by them for the above 72 sub regions in respect of the two basic natural resources. First, on
the availability of water and second land available for extending cultivation which are then put
individually against the performance variables of yield of crops as the index of land productivity.
These three variables are put into three orders of intensity such as high, medium, and low. For this
analysis the data were collected by Basu and Rajgopalan in 1990 for each of the 72 sub-regions in
terms of units of land productivity, water resources per hectare unit of net sown area and land
available for extending cultivation on the per capita basis. each of these basic resources profiles of
nature ( towards agriculture activities) namely, water and land are separately put into a contigency
table against the land productivity criterion for examining the agro-climatic sub-regions so that the
resource profiles and the performance attributes can be examined for revealing the similarities and
grouping the similarities together for the typologies of conforming patterns. For doing so, Basu and
Rajagopolan (1990) used the following three grades limits.
(1) Water and Land Resources grade : L<75, M=7 to 12, and H>12
(2) Land productivity grade : L,7, M=75 to 12, and H.12
Where L=Low, M=Medium and H = High and these numbers are the percentage to the
national average so that for examples, L<75 stands for low in terms of 2 below the national average.
The grade intervals are chosen on the basis of spreads around national average.
Refer Table 5 : Water Resources and Land Productivity Grades
Water Resource Land Productivity Grade
Grade Low (less than 75) Medium (75 to 12) High (More than 125)
Low I/b, VII/b, VII/c, III/a, IX/a, IX/b, X/a, X/e, XII/s, XIII/s, XIII/b,
(more than 7) VIId, VII/e, VIII/a, X/d, XIII/f XIII/g
VIII/b, VIII/c, VIII/f,
VIII/h, IX/c, IX/d,
X/b, X/c, XIII/e, XIV/-
Medium II/d, IV/e, VIII/d, I/a, II/a, II/b, II/c, II/e, I/c, X/f, XII/b, XII/c
(75 to 125) VIII/g, VIII/i, XIII/d III/c, IV/d, VIII/e,
XI/b, XII/d, XIII/c
High II/f, II/g, IV/a, IV/b, II/h, II/i, VI/a, VI/c, III/b, III/d, V/b, V/c,
(>125) IV/c, IV/f, VII/a, XI/a, XII/e VI/a, VI/b, XI/c, XI/d,
XV/a, XV/b XI/e

62
Note : Roman number left of the slash is the agro-climatic regional number and small case alphabet
to the right is the sub-regional number, e.g. IX/c indicates the fourth sub-region of the ninth agro-
climatic region.

In the first model, the water resource grades of the sub-regions are classified with the corresponding
land productivity and the contingency table thus prepared identifies the agro-climatic sub-regions.
The distribution of these sub-regions among various combinations of levels of water resources and
land productivity is given in (Refer Table 5), Typologies with water resources and land productivity
in show that there is a dense distribution of the sub-regions in the diagonal cells and their sparse
coffering in the off diagonal cells and this situation shows a transitional situation. In (Refer Tabl-5)
also shows that the low productivity in agro-climatologically sub-regions is due to low water
resources and an escape for them to higher productivity sub-regions is difficult in view of their
limited water resources. Cases with medium water resources and low productivity and higher water
resources with medium productivity have modes of intermediate levels of developments.

3.7 SUMMARY
The above spatial typological analysis helps to bring out certain strands of commonality for
development among the sub-regions of different agro-climatic regions. The entire concept behind
this integrated, holistic resource region approach is that the two basic components of natural
attributes the land and water should be taken as the core for resource planning like agriculture and
forestry of any area so that land and water uses of the area are optimally utilized.

3.8 ACTIVITY
On an Outline refer figure of Agro-climatic regions and Sub-regions of India, show sub-agro-
climatic regions of India.

3.9 QUESTIONS
Define Agro-climate and its salient features of India.
Divide India into Agro-climatic regions and sub-regions of India.
Explain Agro-Silvo-Pastoral system.
Explain the basic development of Agro- climatic regionalization.

63
3.10 REFERENCES
Basu, D.N. and Rajgopalan,V. 1990 ―Agro-Climatic Regional Planning in India‖ Indian Journal of
Agriculture Economics, Vol.45 No.3 pp 269-283. New Delhi.
Penman, H.L. 1963 ― Vegetation and Hydrology‖ in Technical Communication Vol.53, Common
Wealth Bureau of Soils Hapenden.
Thornwaite, C.W. 1956 ― The Water Balance in Drexel Institute of Technology Laboratory of
Climatology, Publications in Climatology, Vol.8 No.1 New Jeresy.
Thornwaite,C.W. and Mather,J.R. 1955 ―The Water Balance in Drexel Institute of
Technology,Laboratory of Climatology‖ Publication in Climatology. Vol. 8 No. 1, New Jersy.

64
UNIT 4 PHYSIOGRAPHIC
STRUCTURE
4.0 Objective
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Northern Mountains
4.2.1. The Greater Himalayas
4.2.2 The Lesser Himalayas
4.2.3 The Outer Himalayas ( The Siwaliks)
4.2.4 the Trans-Himalayas
4.2.5 Regional classification of The Himalayas
4.2.6 The Himalayan Glaciers
4.2.7 The Drainage of the Himalayas
4.2.8 Peculiarities of the Himalayan Rivers
4.2.9 Origin of the Himalayas
4.2.10 Geological Structure of the Himalayas
4.2.11 Significance of Himalayas
4.3 The Great Northern Plains
4.3.1 Topography
4.3.2 The Ganga Brahmaputra Plain
4.3.3 Origin of the Northern plains
4.4 The Peninsular Plateau
4.4.1 The Physical Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau
4.4.1.1 The Central Uplands
4.4.1.2 The Decan Plateau
4.4.1.3 The Western Ghats (Sahyadris)
4.41.4 The Eastern Ghats
4.4.2 Origin of the Peninsular Plateau
4.4.3 Geological Structure of the Peninsular Plateau
4.4.4 Significance of the Peninsular Plateau
4.4.5 Coastal Plains and Islands
4.4.5.1West Coastal Plains
4.4.5.2 The East Coastal Plains
4.4.5.3 Significance of the Coastal Plains

65
 4.4.5.4 Islands
4.5 Summary
4.6 Activity
4.7 Questions
4.8 References

4.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand Physiographic division of India
To know the significance of Himalayas
To know Geological structure of peninsular plateau
To also understand geological structure of Himalayas

4.1 INTRODUCTION
On the basis of its physiographic, India is usually
divided in to four units viz.:
(1) The Northern Mountains, (2) The great
Northern Plains (3) The Peninsular Plateau and (4)
The Coastal Plains and Islands (Refer Figure 7)
each physiographic region stands in striking
contrast to the other. The Himalayas exhibit most
youthful and highly differential relief, with steep
slopes, U and I shaped valleys and deep gorges and
steep slopes, whereas the Peninsula is dominated by
a senile topography due to various cycles of
denudation. The Great Plains present a monotonous
relief of flat and fertile land made up of alluvial
deposits. The Islands in the Bay of Bengal have a
volcanic origin while those of the Arabian sea are
largely formed of corals.

4.2 THE NORTHERN MOUNTAINS

The mountain ranges and plateaus of Kashmir, the Himalayas and the hill ranges of
Purvanchal form a conspicuous mountain system bordering the country in the north. The Himalayas,
66
meaning ‗the abode of snow‘ are the young folded mountains of the earth, rising to over 8000 metres
from the sea level. They run in an east-west direction, along the northern boundary of India for 2400
Square Kilometres, their width varies from 240 to 500 Kilometre, they cover an estimated area of 5
lakh Square kilometres. The Himalayas form a series of parallel ranges intersected by numerous
valleys and ‗Duns‘. Extensive plateaus of Ladakh, Cherrapunji and Meghalaya too occur within the
Himalayas. Longitudinally, the Himalayas may be divided in to the following parallel ranges: (1)
Greater Himalayas or the Himadri, (2) Lesser Himalayas or the Himachal, (3) Outer Himalayas or
the Siwaliks.

4.2.1 The Greater Himalayas (The Himadri)

Also known as the inner or the central Himalayas, they comprise the northern most ranges rising to
an average height of 6000 metres and having 120 to 190 Kilometre width. The core of these ranges
is made up of the Archaean rocks including granites, schists, etc. some of the highest peaks, namely
the Mt. Everest (8848 m), Kanchanjunga (8598 m), Dhaulagiri (8172 m.), etc. are situated in this
range. High Mountain passes like Bara Lacha la, Shipkila, Thagala, Niti, Lipulckh, Nathula and
Zelepla, Burjil and Jojila exist in this range only.

4.2.2 The Lesser Himalayas (The Himachal)

With an average elevation of 3500 to 5000 metres and an average width of 60 to 80 Kilometre, these
ranges run parallel to the great Himalayas. The Dhauladhar, the Pir Panjal, the Nagtiba, Mahabharat
range and Mussoorie Range are included in this section of the Himalayas. Famous hill resorts like
Shimla, Chail, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling etc. are situated in these
range. Between the Pir Panjal and a westerly range of the Himadri lies the famous Kashmir valley,
occupying a structural basin filled up with sediments. The Jhelum flows through the valley. The
Kangra valley in Himachal Pradesh extends from the foot of the Dhauladhar range to the south of the
Beas. It is a strike valley. The Kulu valley is a transverse valley in the upper course of the Ravi.
The lesser Himalayas are composed of metamorphic rocks and unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks.
The southern slopes are bare and rugged, whereas the northern slopes have dense forests.

4.2.3 The Outer Himalayas (The Siwaliks)

It consist of the foot hills of the Himalayas with an altitude of 900-1500 meters and a width ranging
from 15 to 50 kilometre. these low hills are made up of coarse and unconsolidated material. The hills
exhibit a hog back with steeper slopes towards the south. These hills are know as Jammu Hills in
67
Jammu and Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishimi hills in Arunachal Pradesh. In between the Siwalik and
Himachal ranges there exists flat bottomed strike valleys termed as, duns‘ the Dehra Dun valley,75
kilometre long and 15-20 kilometre wide is a typical example. Kotli in Jammu and Patli, Kota and
Chaukhamba in Uttar Pradesh are other Duns. The Siwalik ranges are covered with thick tropical
deciduous forests which become thinner westward. The southern slopes are barren and dissected by
‗Chhos‘ in Himachal Pradesh.

4.2.4 The Trans-Himalayas

Near 800 E longitude, a range branches off from the Himadri (Great Himalayas). It runs
parallel to the north of the main range and is called the Zaskar range. Beyond the Zaskar range lies
the famous gorge of the Indus (Sindhu), 5200 metres deep near Burji where the river cuts through the
Ladakh range. The river then turns south-west and cuts through the Himalayas. Between the Indus
and the Shiyok runs the Ladakh range, parallel to the Zaskar range.
North of the Indus lies the great karakoram range. It is a region of lofty peaks and massive
glaciers. Mt. k2 (8611m), Gasherbrum ii (8035 m,) are the famous peaks, while Hispar, Batura,
Biafo, Baltora and Siachen (72 kilometre long) are vast glaciers. Towards west the Kkarakoram
merges into the Pamir knot, while they continue as the Kailash range in Tibet towards south-east.
The Ladakh Plateau, with an average elevation of 5300 m, occupying the north-eastern part
of Kashmir has been dissected in to a number of plains e.g. Lingzi Tang Plain, Aksa Chin and the
Soda plain.

4.2.5 Regional Classification of The Himalayas

The Himalayas have been classified into (1) Kashmir Himalayas, (2) Punjab Himalayas, (3)
Kumaon Himalayas, (Nepal Himalayas and (5) Assam Himalayas.

4.2.5.1 The Kashmir Himalayas

These extend from the Indus river to the Satluj having 700 kilometrem length and 500 kilometre
width and an average elevation of 3000 metres. The Pir Panjal and Banihal passes traverse the Pir
panjal range. Kishan ganga, Jhelum and Chenab flow through this section . Vale of Kashmir lies
here.

68
4.2.5.2 The Punjab Himalayas
These stretch from the Indus to the Satluj for about 570 kilometre. Jozila, Rohtang and Bara Lacha la
are the important passes of this region. Kangra, Lahul and Spiti valleys are located in this region.

4.2.5.3 The Kumaon Himalayas

These extend from the Satluj to the kali for about 320 kilometre. Nanda Devi, Kamet, Badrinath, etc.
are some of the famous peaks of this region. The region abounds in lakes like Nainital, Bhimtal,
Naukuchiatal, etc.the Bhagirathi, the Ganga and the Yamuna have their sources in this region. Hence
the religious sanctity of the region.

4.2.5.4 The Nepal Himalayas

These stretch from the kali to the Tista for about 800 kilometre. this section possesses the highest
peaks in the world. Mt. Everest, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Kanchanjunga, Makalu, etc are some of the
highest peaks of the region.

4.2.5.5 The Assam Himalayas

These stretch from the Tista to the Brahmputra to a distance of about 720kilometre. the mountain
ranges rise steeply above the plains. Kula Kangri, Chomolahri, Kabru, Pauhini etc. are the principal
peaks. Several hills named after the tribes inhabiting the region, e.g. Mizo, Garo, Naga, Khasi, Mikir,
etc too exist here.

4.2.6 The Himalayan Glaciers

The snow-line varies in altitude from about 4500 metre in the east to 6000 metres in the west and
about 5000 metres in Kumaon in Kumaon and Himachal Pradesh. Besides the amount of rainfall,
angle of slopes and insolation are important determinants of snow line. Broadly speaking, the
southern slopes receive more insolation and rainfall and as such are more prone to denudation. Here
the slopes do not favour the occurrence of glaciers on lower altitudes. On the contrary, the northern
bare slopes have snow line on lower altitudes. The giant glaciers of over 40 kilometre length include
Milam, Gangotri, Zmu, Hispar, Batura, Biafo, Baltoro and, above all, the Siachen. The majority of
the glaciers are of the valley glacier type. A notable feature of the Himalayan glaciers is the presence
of extensive moraine matter and rock waste covering the upper surface. The glaciers are slowly
retreating and have left enormous heaps of terminal moraines at their lower ends. The existing

69
glaciers are considered to the remnants of the Pleistocene glaciations which covered extensive areas.
This fact is substantiated by the presence of ancient moraines at altitudes of 1600 metres.

4.2.7 The Drainage of the Himalayas

The most important characteristic of the Himalayan drainage is that it is not a consequent drainage
i.e. its formation was not consequent upon the relief of the region. The principal rivers are older than
the than mountains they traverse. During the slow process of uplift folding and upheaval of the rock
beds the old rivers continued to flow through their channels, their eroding capacity, however, gained
momentum due to uplift of the region. In due course of time a mountain chain emerged along with a
well-developed valley system. The long, deep precipitation gorges of the Himalayas cutting through
the highest elevations, are a clear proof of the in-consequent drainage. Thus Himalayan drainage may
best be termed as antecedent drainage.

4.2.8 Peculiarities of the Himalayan Rivers

( i ) The Indus, the Satluj and the Brahamputra are older than the Himalayas.
( ii) Almost all the Himalayan rivers have three distinct section, viz. mountainous plains and delta,
through their courses.
( iii ) Many of the Himalayan rivers in their upper course exhibit the phenomenon of ‗river capture‘
or stream-pirracy‘ the Bhagirithi and other tributaries of the Ganga, the Arun in the everest
region, Tata in Sikkim and the Sindhu in Kashmir furnish such examples.
( iv) Most of the rivers have v-shaped valleys, however, some of the valleys of the Sikkim and
Kashmir Himalayas are examples of Hanging valleys.
(v) The Himalayan rivers have developed various patterns of drainage including the paralle, trellis,
rectangular, centripetal, etc. according to structural control.
(vi) These rivers, being snow-fed are perennial streams providing facilities of irrigation, etc. to the
plains.
(vii)These rivers deposit alluvium all along their course and have produced fertile and densely
populated plains.

4.2.9 Origin of the Himalayas

Geologically speaking , the Himalayas are a young folded mountain system. They contain highly
metamorphosed rocks belonging to the various geological periods. These rocks abound in fossils of
different periods. According to the most popular view point,120 million years ago all the continents

70
and oceans of the earth existed in a different system. There existed a large continent, called the
‗pangaea‘ surrounded by a vast ocean called the ‗panthalassa‘ a geo-syncline called the Tethys
existed at the centre of the Pangaea roughly dividing it in to a northern continent known as the
Angaraland and a southern continent called the Gondwanaland. About 70 million years ago,
towards the end of the Mesozoic period, great changes occurred. The sediments of the Tethys began
crumpling due (Refer Figure-8) to compression which contained which contained for a long period.
Transgression of seas on the sides of the Tethys ensued.
Gondwanaland was disrupted and its different parts began to drift apart. The Indian Ocean
was formed. Deposition and
subsidence continued for a long
time. Towards the end of the
cretaceous period there was uplift
in the bed of the Tethys and large
scale warping gave birth to the
Himalayas.
Scholars believe that
the Himalayas are still restless and
continue to rise. There are sample
proofs of this belief;
(i) The occurrence of frequent and
violent earthquakes in the
Himalayas region suggests that the region is in a state of instability
(ii) sediments found at a height of 900 metres above the present lakes in the Tibet region amply
suggest the ongoing uplift of the region.
(iii) the Himalayas rivers are still in their youthful stage of development and they continue to erode
their valleys. Terraces found at the valley sides suggest rejuvenation of the valley region due to
uplift.

4.2.10 Geological Structure of the Himalayas

Geologically speaking, the Himalayas represent a younger and recent formation caused
by wraping and crumpling in sediments deposited in a long narrow and shallow sea. These sediments
contains contain ancient crystalline rocks of the pre-cam brain period as well as those of recent
periods. The Himalayan geology has not been thoroughly studied till date. According to Wadia, Spiti
valley in Himachal Pradesh and the Kumaon and Garhwal region in Uttar Pradesh have been
71
investigated in detail. How ever, on the basis of accounts of the geologists, explorers and
adventurers, the geological structure of the Himalayas may be discussed as under.

4.2.10.1 The Kashmir Himalayas

These have three tectonic belts-(1) the foreland-which is made up of the tertiary sediments,(2) the
Auto chthonous belt-which contains rocks ranging from the carboniferous to the Eocene. This belt
abounds in recumbent.(3) the Nappe belt which abounds in Archaean pre Cambrain rocks,covered at
places by later deposists of the palaeozoic and the Triassic.

4.2.10.2 The Shimla Himalayas

These were studied in detail by pilgrim(1882) and west (1939) it is characterized by recumbents of
the Krol, Giri Chail and Jutog series formed by rocks ranging from the carboniferous to the Permian.

4.2.10.3 Garhwal Himalayas

These have been studied by Meddlecott(1894),Mid-dlemiss(1887), Greis back (1881), Auden (1935),
etc.four belts may be observed here:
(i) Autochthousnous belt extending northwards from the dun valley for about 50 km exhibits less
folding and faulting. It is composed of numullitic limestone and siwalik sediments.
(ii) Kroll nappe, according to ranga rao (1963), is an extension of the autochthonous belt.
(iii) Garhwal nappe, composed of crystalline rocks,overlies the kroll nappe.
(iv) The great Himalayas belt is the highest zone having ancient gneisses and schists. Limbs of folds
overlying each other uplift the mountain ranges.

4.2.10.4 Nepal Sikkim and Bhutan Himalayas

These have been studied in detail by various geologists they have metamorphosed rocks of the
Gondwana system , gneiss and schist‘s predominate . The Siwalik , Main Boundary Fault, Damuda
,Nappe belt and Darjeeling series are situated from south to north . The Thimphu and Buxa series are
highly metamorphosed.
4.2.10.5 The Assam Himalayas
These have not been studied in detail. Evans (1959, 1964) presented some accounts of this region .
The Siwlik belt of Sikkim and Bhutan extends here too. The eastern part is covered with Abor lava ,
overlying the gneiss and schists.

72
 The Himalayas are contemporary of the Alps , Caucasus and pyrenes of Europe, Atlas of
Africa , the Rockies of North America and the Andes of South America . Marine fossils found here
indicate a marine origin of the Himalayas. The Himalayas form a great arch whose geometrical
center lies in the Lopnor Lake of the Sinkiang state of China. Huge ―hairpin folds‖ are found to
exist on both the corners of the Himalayas.

4.2.11 Significance of Himalayas

The Himalayas are the most important geographical feature that dominates, India. These lofty
and majestic ranges have con-tribute so much to shape the life of our country. Our religion,
mythology, art and literature, all bear the imprint of the great mountain range . To sum up, the impact
of the Himalayas on India may be mentioned as under:
(i) The Himalayas act as a great climatic barrier between India and the Central Asia. They protect
India from the cold blizzards of the Central Asia In fact; India owes the prominent features of
her climate to the Himalayas in a great way. They intercept the moisture bearing monsoons
coming from the Bay of Bengal which causes precipitation.
(ii) The snow fields and glaciers of the Himalayas feed a number of perennial rivers of northern India
which form the lifelines of the Great Northern plains. Without the Himalayas Rivers constantly
erode the mountain ranges and deposit it over the Great Plains. The Plains. The fertile alluvial
soils formed thus, prove excellent for agriculture.
(iii) The Himalayan rivers constantly erode the mountain ranges and deposit it over the Great Plains.
The fertile alluvial soils formed thus, prove excellent for agriculture.
(iv)The Himalayan region is rich in animal and forest resources. It is the abode of a large number of
wild animals. Besides, the Himalayas are very rich in forest resources which provide us timber,
industrial woods and many minor forest produce of great economic significance.
(v) Mighty rivers originating in the Himalayas provide us water which is used for irrigation as well
as hydro-electricity. Various multi-purpose projects have been developed on these rivers.
(vi) The Himalayan are a great store house of mineral resources. Coal, Petroleum, Copper, Lead,
Zink, Bismuth, Antimony, Nickel, Cobalt, Tungsten, etc. occur at many places. However, the
huge potential of these resources awaits exploitation.
(vii) The lower slopes of the Himalayas abound in green pastures. Animal (sheep and goat) rearing
and sericulture holds great promises for future.
(viii) Tea plantations and fruit plantations on the Himalayan slopes contribute to the
Indian economy.
(ix) The Himalayas are the abode of various tribes who have preserved their culture
73
 till date.
(x) The natural science beauty of the Himalayas attracts many tourists and thus
contributes to the national economy.
(xi) The Himalayas form a natural barrier and have protected India from invasions from the north
and north –east.
(xii) The Himalayas form the natural boundary between India and her neighboring
Countries.
(xiii) The Himalayas have great religious and mythological significance too various
Places Rivers and mountains associated with the Himalayas are highly revered.

4.3 THE GREAT NORTHERN PLAINS

The Great Northern plains, lying between the Himalayas in the north and the
Peninsular Plateau in the south stretch from northern Rajasthan in the west to the Ganga delta in the
east. It is drained by three river systems (1) the Sutlej and other tributaries of the Indus systems, (2)
the Ganga and its tributaries and (3) the Brahmaputra.
The plain stretches from west to east to a distance of about 2400Kilometre with a width varying
between 200Kilometre in Bihar to 500Kilometre in Rajasthan and Punjab. It forms a great curve
from the Sutlej to the Bay of Bengal and covers an area of more than lakh Squarekilometre.It is an
extremely flat and level plain, with an average slope of 25 centimetre per square kilometre. It formed
by alluvial deposits of great thickness, the average depth being 1300-1400 m , reaching more than
3000 metres at places .

4.3.1 Topography
The Great plains exhibit a remarkably homogeneous surface with little relief.It is a featureless
alluvial fertile plain formed mostly by the Himalayas rivers deposit the alluvium on their sides
forming flood plains. The plain may be divided into the following belts.

4.3.1.1 Bhabar
It is made up of coarse sand and pebbles brought down from the hills by the swift flowing streams. In
fact, the ‗bhabar‘ is a narrow belt 10-15kilometre wide, which may be termed as a piedmont plain.
Numerous streams while crossing this plain get lost and emerge again in the marshy tract called the
Terai.

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4.3.1.2Terai
It is a swampy , ill-drained and densely forested belt . The mosquito infested region has now been
cleared of forests and converted into agricultural farms.
The Aravallis form a divide between the Indus and the Ganga systems. As such, the plain may be
divided into the following units.

4.3.1.3 The Western Plain

Situated to the west of the Aravallis , this plain has been formed by the rivers of the Indus system .
Most of this plain now forms a part of Pakistan. The part of the plain on Indian side is formed by the
aggradational work of the Sutlej ,the Beas and the Ravi rivers . The height of the plain varies from
300 metre in the north to 200 metre in the south east . The upper Bari Doab between the Ravi and the
Beas , the Bist Doab between Beas and the Sutlej and Malwa plain in the south east is relatively
higher upland plains. The plain slopes westwards to the Indus plain and southwards to the Rann of
Kutch. The Yamuna drains a narrow strip of land its right bank, while the Ghaggar , a seasonal
stream flows between the Sutlej and Yamuna.

4.3.2 The Ganga Brahmaputra Plain

This plain occupies an area of 3.57 lakh squarekilometre covering parts of Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar and West Bengal. The Yamuna forms its western boundary. The Yamuna and the Son are the
tributaries of the Ganga on its right bank and the Ghaghra, Gandak and Kosi on the left bank . The
Ganga takes a meandering course, flanked by low lying depression which are heavily flooded during
the rainy season, The uplands made by older alluvium are called the ‗Bangar ‘ and the lower lands
made by the newer alluvium are called the Khader . These denote the main physiographic variations
in the plains .As the gradient decreases in the middle part of the Ganga plain ,the rivers become
sluggish , Numerous include levees bluffs , sandy features , ‗Bils‘ , ‗Tals‘ , ‗Chuars ‘, etc .
Further east, the lower Ganga plain stretching over West Bengal is composed of recent
alluvium. Towards south, the Ganga delta is a net work of distributaries fanning out seaward. The
delta is strongly influenced by tidal estuaries and is characterized by sand banks, mud flats,
mangrove –swaps, island and ferelands. Tidal forests called the Sundarbans are found in the wide
seaward belt of the deltas.
The easternmost part of the Plain stretches into the narrow Assam valley which is surrounded
by high mountains on all sides except on the west. The plain formed by the Brahmaputra river slopes

75
south –westward which drains into the Bay of Bengal. Due to low gradients, the river is highly
braided with many riverine islands. The Brahmaputra is notorious for devastating floods.

4.3.3 Origin of The Northern Plains

The Northern plains were originally a deep depression or ‗furrow‘ lying between the
mountain region and the Peninsula .Eminent geologist Edward Suess called it a ―Fore –deep
‖fronting the Himalayan earth waves a ‗sagging ‘of the northern part of the Peninsula as it arrested
the southward advance of the mountain wayes .

4.3.4 Significance of The Northern Plains

The Northern Plains have been principal theatre of Indian history, humanly speaking. This
riverine region has been bountifully endowed with fertile soils, favourable –climate and perennial
slow moving rivers all of which have combined to make it a densely populated and prosperous
region. The significance of the Northern Plains may be mentioned as under:
(i) The deep fertile alluvial soils of the plain, perennial rivers and favorable climate have rendered
the plains agriculturally most prosperous various food crops as well as non-food crops are
here. The region is rightly termed as the ‗granary‘ of the country.
(ii) Most of the rivers, particularly the Himalayan ricers, are perennial streams; These Rivers are
useful for irrigation and other purposes.
(iii) The rivers have an extremely low gradient and, therefore, they are useful for navigation
purposes.
(iv) At many places the rivers have been harnessed for hydro –electricity.
(v) The flat and level surface has facilitated the construction of roads and railways.
(vi) Through generally deficient in mineral resources , the plains contain some petroleum resources .
(vii) The plains contain about 1/3 area of the country which supports 40%population of the country.
In fact, the plains support one of the densest populations in the world.
(viii) The plains have witnessed several political, religious and cultural movements since the dawn of
history. Particularly religions of India i.e. Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, etc. flourished in
these plains, several sacred places and centres of pilgrimage are situated in these plains.

4.4 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The plateau region situated south of the great plains and surrounded by seas on three sides is
known as Peninsular India .It is a triangular plateau with its base in the north and tapering to the

76
south. It extends over south –eastern Rajasthan, Madhya, Pradesh, Western Andhra Pradesh ,
Karnataka , Orissa, TamilNadu and Southern Bihar . It has an outliner in Meghalaya in the east .The
plateau has a general slope towards east and northwards it merges into the Ganga plains.
The Peninsular Plateau forms part of an ancient tabular block composed mainly of the Archaean
gneisses and schists, stretching over an area of 16 lakh kilometre, the plateau comprise the largest
physiographic division of the country. It is divided into several large and small plateaus, hill ranges,
basins and valleys. It is bounded on the North West by the Aravallis and on the north and north east
by the Bundelkhand plateau, Kaimur and Rajmahal hills. It is bordered by the Western Ghats in the
west and by the Eastern ghats in the east.
Stratigraphically, the Peninsular plateau has been a continental fragment of the earth‘s crust
which has since the dawn of geological history never been submerged beneath the sea, except locally
and temporarily. Tectonically, it represents an ancient complex of rock beds that stand upon a firm
and immovable foundation .It has never been subjected to mountain building forces. The Deccan is,
however, subject to fracturing of the crust in blocks and their vertical movement due to tension and
compression. Physiographically, the peninsular mountains are mostly of the relict type. Hugs ‗tors
‘found on its surface were carved out due to weathering of surrounding areas. Infact, the peninsular
plateau is an example of a ‗Horst‘ i.e. a soli crust block which has remained a stable land mass of
great rigidity. The Peninsula has, however, experienced block movement at various periods history,
notably during the Gondwana period .In some parts, viz. in the north –west Deccan, there have been
volcanic eruptions covering vast areas with a thick mantle of magma.

4.4.1 Physical Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau

The vindhyan Range and the fault valleys of the Narmada and the Tapti between 21 0 -240 N
latitudes divide the Peninsula plateau into two unequal parts i.e. (1) the central uplands and (2) The
Deccan plateau .In fact , the Vindhyan Ranges and the Satpura hills form a natural barrier between
the Northern India where the Aryan culture flourished and the Southern India with a pre –existing
Dravadian culture.

4.4.1.1 The Central Uplands

The central uplands comprise the Aravalli Ranges , east Rajasthan upland , the Malwa
plateau, the Bundelkhad plateau , the Baghelkhand plateau , the Vindhyan uplands and the
Chhotanagpur plateau.

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4.4.1.1.1 The Aravalli Ranges
These extend from Gujarat , through Rajasthan and upto Delhi for about 800 kilometre. It is
considered as a relict mountain which was formed in Pre-Cambrain period . It has been much eroded
by the denudation processes.
Towards northeast it merges into the Delhi Ridge having a very low elevation. Its average elevation
ranges between 300-800 metres , but near Mount Abu , the Guru Shikhar , the highest peak rises to
1722 metre. North west of Udaipur the Jarga hills rise to 1220 metre above the sea level , Harshanath
kills near Alwar have an elevation of 900 metre. Fermor believed the Aravallis to be a horst. Most
of the rivers crossing the Aravalli range including the Mahi , Luni, Jogri, Bandi, Sukri, etc. are
rainfed rivers which remain dry during summers. The aravallis act as a divide between the Ganga
and the Indus systems.

4.4.1.1.2 East Rajasthan Uplands

These lie east of the Aravalli ranges, with an elevation ranging between 250-500metre. These
uplands are drained by the Banas Kalisindh and Pravati rivers.

4.4.1.1.3 The Malwa Plateau

It extends in Mandhya Pradesh and iies to the north of the Vindhyas. It is composed of extensive lava
flow. The plateau is highly broken, having rolling plains separated by flat topped forested hill ranges.
The plateau is drained by the Chambal, Betwa, Kalisindh and parvati. The Chambl valley is known
for its ravines. The Banas and Yamuna too have ravines.

4.4.1.1.4 The Bundelkhand Uplands

Lying between the Yamuna and the Vindhyan plateau , these have an average elevation ranging from
100metre-300metre.It is characterized by mesas, buttes, long and narrow ridges and many artificial
lakes.

4.4.1.1.5 The Baghelkanad Plateau

It lies to the east of the Maikal range and south of the Son river. It is drained by the Son and the
Rihand.

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4.4.1.1.6 The Chhota Nagpur Plateau
Lying to the west of the Bengal basin, it is divided into several plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is
bordered by steep escarpments and is highly dissected. It is drained by south Koel, Subarnarekha and
the Damodar.
The Hazaribagh and Kodarma plateaus lie to the north of the Ranchi plateau. The chhota Nagpur
plateau terminates at Rajmahal hills which are covered by lava flows. This plateau is highly
dissected, composed of several ranges and precipitous hills which are traversed by deep valleys.

4.4.1.1.7 The Meghalaya Plateau

It is an outlier of the peninsular plateau. The gap separating the two is formed by down faulting, the
depression later on filed with sediments. The plateau is flanked by the Garo hills in the west and the
Khasi –Jaintia hills in the east. These hills are 900metre and 1500metre high respectively. In the
north these hills slope towards the Brahmaputra valley and 1500m high respectively. In the north
these hills slope towards the high respectively. In the north these hills slope towards the Brahmaputra
valley and in the south towards the Surma and Meghana valleys.

4.4.1.1.8 Vindhya Uplands

From the southern edge of the malwa plateau, the Vinhyan range stretches for a distance of about
1050 kilometre with an average elevation of 300metre. It forms a watershed and the northern
boundary of the Deccan plateau. It slopes gently towards the north , but towards the south it rises
abruptly from the bed of the Narmada. Eastwards the Vindhyas continue as the Kaimur range which
is a low and flat country. South of the Vindhyas lies the narrow valley of the Narmada which is
formed by down faulting. The river drains westward forming several waterfalls including the
Dhuandhar falls near Jabalpur.

4.4.1.1.9 The Satpura Ranges

It lies between the valley of the Narmada in the north and the Tapti in the south. The Satpura range
attains its maximum height near Panchmarhi (1350metre). The eastern part of the range is known as
the Maikal plateau.The Maikal range running north–south reaches its maximum height near
Amarkantak (1127metre).

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4.4.1.1.10 The Thar Desert
This large tract of low country lying to the west of the Aravallis has been a debatable area as it
possesses mixed features of the peninsula as it shows no post –Cambrian folding. But the marine
fossiliferous deposits of Mesozoic and Cainozoic ages found here link it with the extra Peninsula ,it
is really a party of the Deccan plateau that has been invaded by marine transgressions from the
southern sea during the Mesozoic and Cainozoic. Long and continued aridity in this region resulted
in the development of desert topography. Longitudinal dunes with a gentle slope towards the
Aravalli are found here. These sand dunes with an elevation upto 150 metre have a tendency to shift
eastwards into Utter Pradesh.

4.4.1.1.11 The Kathiawar and Kutch Peninsula

The Kathiawar Peninsula is mostly composed of the Deccan lava, while the Kutch Peninsula has
predominantly Tertiary rocks. The Kutch Peninsular is a region of small folds, dissected plateaus and
scrap lands. The Great Runn north of the Kutch is covered mud flats and salt marshes folded during
the rains.

4.4.1.2 The Deccan Plateau

This triangular plateau, covering an area of over 7 lakh square kilometre lies between the
Eastern and the Western Ghats and the Satpuras, Maikal and Rajmahal hills. Its elevation ranges
from 500 metre to 1000 metre. It stretches over Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
TamilNadu. It was formed by volcanic activity. The lava deposits are more than 200 m thick.
Ancient crystalline rocks form its basement. It abounds in unfossiliferous granites, basalt, sandstone,
quartz and limestone. Coal , manganese, iron ore, mica, magnetite, bauxite, diamonds are found here
in abundance. The fertile lava soils are very useful for growing cotton and sugarcane. The plateau
slopes towards the east. The part of the Deccan plateau in Maharashtra is formed of basalt.
Weathering of these rocks has produced rolling plains and shallow valleys. Flat topped, steep sided
hills flank the Godavari, Bhīma and Krishana valleys.
The Andhra plateau, better known as the Telangana plateau is characterized by rounded hills
, rolling plains, broad open valleys, etc.
The Karnataka plateau, with an average elevation of 600 metre is divided into ‗Malnad ‘and
‗Maidan‘ , the former being hilly, dissected and densely forested, while the latter has rolling plains
and low granitic hills. Southwestwards the plateau rises and merges into the Nilgiri hills.

80
4.4.1.3 The Western Ghats (The Sahyadris)
The Western Ghats , form eastern edge of the Deccan plateau. From khan-desh in
Maharashtra to Kanyakumari in the south , the Western Ghats run parallel to the west coast for
about 1600 kilometre. Their seaward slope is steep, whereas they slope gently eastwards. The steep
wall like slope facing the Arabian Sea indicates an extensive submergence. The Ghats are narrower
in the north, their width being 50 kilometre in the north and 80 kilometre in the south. Their average
elevation is 1000 metre. Doda Betta (2630 metre) , Anaimudi (2695 metre) Makurti (2550 metre)
Wambadi shoal (2470 metre) are some of the highest peaks in the Western Ghats. The Ghats present
a stair like topography due to denudation. The Godavari ,Bhima and Krishna flow eastern while the
Tapti flows westward. Satmala rages extend between the Tapti and the Godavari and the Mahadev
hills are situated between the Bhima and the Krishna. Mahabalesh war situates near the source of the
Krishna is a famous hill station. The Ghats are crossed by three gaps known as Thalghat (583 metre)
, Bhorghat (630 metre) and Palghat (305 metre).
Swift flowing small streams flow into the Arabian sea. Shivasamudram falls (100 metre) on
the Kaveri, Gersoppa or Jog falls (250 metre) on the Sharavati , Gokak falls (50 metre) and Dena
falls (183 metre) are highly useful for for generating hydro electricity .

4.4.1.4 The Eastern Ghats

Unlike the Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats form a discontinuous and low belt, lying parallel to the
east cost, stretching from the south of the Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiri hills, for a distance of about
800 kilometre. In the Orissa , these ghats are 200 kilometre wide and narrow down to 100 kilometre
southwards. Their average elevation is 760 metre In Orissa, however, the Nimaigiri hills of Koraput
and the Mahendragiri hills of Ganjam district attain a height of over 150 metre. These hills are
thickly forested. Southwards in Andra Pradesh , the Nallmallai hills asth 900-1100 metre. elevation
appear as the prominent hills. The southern part of these hills is known as the Palkonda Hills.
Farther south in TamilNadu , the system of hills become more confused. They are known as Javadi
hills in North Arcort district , Gingee hills in South Acort district, Kollaimalai and Pachaimalai in
Tiruchirapalli district, Shevaroys and Gondumalai in Salem district and Biligiri and Rangan hills in
Coimbatore district. The hills of the Ghats are flat topped and highly eroded. The Mahanadi ,
Godavari , Krishna and Kaveri rivers have fertile deltas .
The Nilgiri hills join western and the Eastern. Ghats. The Annaimalai hills stretch south of
the Nigiris and branch off into the Palni hills and the Cardamom hills.

81
4.4.2 Origin of The Peninsular Plateau
The age of the peninsular plateau has been estimated at 500 million years. Ac-cording to
Geologists this plateau forms a part of the ancient Gondwanaland which has never subsided beneath
the sea permanently . It has remained unaffected by the mountain building forces. However it has
experienced block faulting and displacement of rocks as
evidenced by the fault valleys of the Narmada and Tapti.
During the Carboniferous period, coal was formed in the
Damodar, son, Mahanadi and Godavari valleys. During the
Cretaceous period large scale volcanicity produced the
Deccan trap comprising thick lava sheets of several thousand
metres depth. According to pande and Negi of National
Geophysical Research Institute, the Deccan trap originated
65 million years ago when the magma flowed from a depth
of 40 kilometre below the crust.

The Peninsular plateau exhibits a complex system of

geological structure ranging from ancient (Pre-Cambrian)
crystalline Archaean gneisses (Refer Figure 9), schists and
granites to rocks belonging to the lower Pleistocene age. The following rock systems are found here.

4.4.3.1 The Arachaean Group

Ancient crystalline highly metamorphosed gneisses of the archaean system are found in Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh , Maharashtra and Aravalli region of Rajasthan, Bengal gnesis is found in West
Bengal, Orissa, Karanataka and southern Bihar, containing coal and iron ore. The Bundelkhand
gneiss is found in the Bundelkhand region. The Nilgiri gneiss, also known as the Charnokite series is
found in the Nilgiri , palni and shevaroy hills of Tamilnadu and Karnataka. It abounds in gold and
diamond.

4.4.3.2 Dharwar System

These are ancient metamorphosed sedimentary rocks found in narrow geosynclines flanking the
archaean gneiss. These rocks are found in four principal regions – (i) Karnataka – Dharwar –Bellary
(ii) Northern and Southern corners of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau (iii) Nagpur region, (iv) Aravalli
region.
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4.4.3.3 Cuddapah System
The mountain ranges formed at the end of the Dharwar were eroded. Sediments deposited in the
geosynclines were called the Cuddapah rocks. These rocks are found in the eastern part of the
peninsula between the Krishna and Pennar rivers and in the upper valley of the Mahanadi. These
rocks abound in slate quartizite and limestone.

4.4.3.4 The Vindhyan Systems

It has developed in three main regions – (i) In lower Krishna Pennar valley, overlying the Cuddapah
rocks, (ii) Northern part of the peninsular from the Chambal to the son, (iii) West of Aravallis, near
Jodhpur. These rocks abound in shales, limestone and sandstone.

4.4.3.5 The Gondwana System

It occupies deep basins of (i) The lower valleys of Penganga and Godavari, (ii) Talcher series
between the Mahanadi and Brahmani and upper courses of the Narmada and Son and , (iii) Damodar
valley. Rocks of this system contain 90% of the coal of India, besides sandstone, shale, clay, etc.

4.4.3.6 The Deccan Trap

It covers about 5 lakh square kilometre area of the north Peninsula extending in Kutch, Saurashtra,
Maharashtra, Malwa, Plateau, Northern Karnataka and outlines in eastern Andhra Pradesh. Towards
the close of the cretaceous great fissure (volcanic) eruptions caused an out flow of lama, producing
600-1500metre.thick sheets. The principal rocks of this system include basalt which is largely used
for constructing roads and building.

4.4.5 Significance of the Peninsular Plateau

(i) The plateau is rich in useful minerals like manganese, iron ore, bauxite,gold , copper, coal,
diamond, etc.
(ii) Black cotton soils of the Deccan plateau are conducive to growing cotton and sugarcane, while
laterite soils prove useful for tea, rubber, and coffee plantations in South India.
(iii) The Western Ghats and other hills are thickly forested providing valuable varieties of woods
including teak, ebony, mahogany, cane, bamboo, sadawood, Sal, etc.
(iv) The Western Ghats provide natural habitat to many wild animals and birds including Nilgiri
Thar, Nilgiri Langur and the lion tailed Macaques which are found exclusively in the Nilgiri
hills .
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(v) The rivers flowing eastward into the Buy of Bengal make several waterfalls in their courses
which have been harnessed for generating hydro-electricity.
(vi) Several hill resorts like Ooty, Panchmarhi, Mahabaleshwar, etc. attract tourists from all over
India and abroad.
(vii) South of the Vindhyas the Dravidian culture flourished which exists even today. There exist
many shrines, temples and several places of archaeological interest. In fact, the Vindhyas
formed a formidable barrier that protected South India from the waves of outside aggressions
which North India witnessed.

4.4.5 Coastal Plains and Islands

The peninsular plateau of India is flanked by narrow coastal lowlands which are different from each
other. These coastal plains were formed by the action of waves and river-borne sediments.

4.4.5.1 West Coastal Plains

These plains are confined to a narrow belt about 10-25kilometre wide and stretch from the Rann of
Kutch to Kanya kumari . These plains exhibit a variety of relief from north to south. As such, they
can be divided into the following units:

4.4.5.1.1 The Kutch Peninsular Plains

The Kutch peninsula was once an island surrounded by seas and lagoons. Later it got filled up.
During the rains it is separated from the mainland by a marshy tract. Arid and semi arid landscape
including sand dunes , sandy plains and bare hills characterize this peninsula.

4.4.5.1.2. The Gujarat Plains

It ties to the east of Kathiawar sloping westwards and stretches towards the interior highlands. Its
northern parts are drained by the Banas ,while the Sabarmati, the Mahi, the Narmada and the Tapti
drain the other parts. This plain has a semi desert type of landscape with saline marshes in the
western part.

4.4.5.1.3 The Konkan Plain

From Daman to Goa, this plain stretches for 500 kilometre in length and 50 to 80 kilometre in width.
It is a highly dissected plain. It is formed of fertile lava soils.

84
4.4.5.1.4 The Karnataka Plain
It stretches from Goa to Mangalore for about 525 kilometre. these plains are very narrow, having a
width of 8-24 kilometre. it is formed of other small streams flowing into the Arabian sea. The coast
is characterized by rocky cliffs and sandy dunes.

4.4.5.1.5 The Kerala Plain

It is better known as the Malabar plain. It is much wider and less hilly plain extending from north of
Cannanore to Kanya kumari for about 500 kilometre. It is 25 kilometre. wide and 10 and 30 metre
high. A number of lagoons and back water known as the ‗Kayals‘ lie a long the coasts. These
lagoons joined together provide navigational facilities. The Ashtamude and the Vembaanad lakes are
worth mentioning. There are several evidences of subsidence along the west coast. Broad continental
shelf exists along the west coast.

4.4.5.2 East Coastal Plains

These plains stretch from the Sobarna rekha river in the north to Kanya kumari in the south
for about 1100 kilometre., with an average width of of 120 kilometre. Due to the eastward slop of the
peninsular plateau all the prominent rivers, excluding the Narmada and the Tapti, flow eastward into
the Bay of Bengal. These rivers have formed extensive fertile deltas which are densely populated.
The northern part of the East Coast is known as the Northern Circars while the southern part is called
the Coromandel Coast.

The plain is sub divided into following units:

4.4.5.2.1 The Orissa Plain
Also termed as the Utkal plain , it stretches for 400 kilometre in length. It includes the fertile
Mahanadi delta, south of which lies the famous lagoon known as the Chilka lake. The seaward
margin is fringed with sand dunes. The coastline north of the Chilka lake is a straight one , while
southwards the Eastern Ghats have enered the sea. The plain is drained by the rivers Bhargavi, Daya,
Rishiulya, etc. besides the Mahanadi.

4.4.5.2.2 The Andhra Plain

It stretches from near Berharapur to Pullicut lake. It is formed by the extensive deltas of the Krishna
and Godavari. The Kolleru lake is situated between the two deltas. Anicuts have been built on the
Godavari and the Krishna which provide irrigation facilities to the region.
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4.4.5.2.3 The Tamilnadu Plain
It stretches from south of the Pullicut lake to Kanya kumari for about 675 kilometre. Its average
width is 100 kilometre (130 kilometre near the Kaveri delta). The Kaveri delta, is fertile and densely
populated region which is rightly called ‗the granary of the South India.‘
The east coast shows signs of recent emergence in the form of raised beaches at several
places.

4.4.5.3 Significance of The Coastal Plains

(i ) The coastline of India is uniform and regular, little indented by large inlets. The West Coast
has small inlets which contain a few natural harbors like Mumbai, Marmora, Cochin and
New Mangalore. The East Coast, with the exception of Vishakhapatnam does not have
natural harbors.
(ii ) The coastal plains are noted for growing spices, pepper, ginger, cardamom on the west Coast
and rice, palm, areca nut and coconut on the East Coast.
(iii) The back waters and lagoons are ideal for fishing. A large number of fishing villages have
developed on the coast.
(iv) The coastal plains have been centers of commerce since ancient times. During the Medieval
period too, factories and forts of the Dutch, Portuguese and the British were established on the
coast. The east coast abounds in ancient and medieval temples, monument and several centers
of culture.
(v) The Mudgaon beaches in Goa, the Juhu beach in Mumbai, the Gopalpur on sea and puri in Orssa
and Chennai beach have attracted tourists for a long time.
(vi) The Kerala coast has abundant deposits of monazite and the off shore areas of Mumbai has
petroleum deposits in abundance. Recently, the Krishna Godavari Basin and the Kaveri Basin
too have revealed bright prospects of petroleum.

4.4.5.4 Islands
India possesses 247 islands scattered in the Bay of Bengal (204 islands) and the Arabian sea
(43 island). Both groups of island differ from each other in their geological structure. The Bay of
Bengal Island are associated with the Tertiary orogeny while those of the Arabian sea have a coral
origin.

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4.4.5.4.1 Arabian sea Islands
The offshore islands situated within a distance of 5 kilometre from the coast include piram, Bhainsla
near Kathiawar (Gujarat),,Henery, Kainery, Butcher, Alephanta, Arnala , (in - Bassein region),
Bhatkal and pigeoncock etc. (north of Manhalore), Diu, Vaid, Nora, Pirtan, Khariabet, Aliabet, etc.
(in Gujarat).
The distante islands include the Lakshadwipa, Minicoy and Amindive. The Lakshadwipa island,
situated at a distance of 200-300 kilometre off the mainland between 80 and 110 N latitudes are tiny
islands with an area of Square Kilometre only. These islands formed of the corals, abound in coconut
palm trees. Due to their natural scenic beauty theyattract tourists in large numbers. The Minicoy
island (4.5 square kilometre) lies southwards.

4.4.5.4.2 Bay of Bengal Islands

The offshore islands facing the Ganga delta include the Ganga sagar, while the New Murray island
faces the Chaubis pargana. The Pam ban island between India and Srilanka is a rocky island. Atleast
10 narrow and low lying islands may be noticed in the gulf of Mannar. Among these Sriharikota
and Hare islands are worth mentioning.
The Andaman islands are situated between 40 and 100 20‘ north latitudes and 920 20‘ and
93020‘ east longitudes covering an area of about 8300 square kilometre. The North and the Middle
Andamans are formed of Tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale. These are highly dissected and
densely forested and rise to 730 metre in height. The South Andamans are largely flat lowlands.
The Nicobar group of island containing 19 islands are situated between 60 3‘and 90 3‘ north
latitudes. The Great Micobar with an area of 862 square kilometre is the largest island in he group.
The little Nicobar, Katchall, Camesta, Trinkat, Nankowry, Teressa and Tillanchag are other
important islands. The Barren and Narcondan islands situated north of port Blair are volcanic islands.

4.5 SUMMARY
Physiography,is that branch of geology which deals with the development of existing shape of the
land. The present surface feature of India owe their formation to the various geological periods. The
mountain region belonging to the great orogeny of the tertiary owes its surface features largely to
internal forces or hypogene agencies, were as the Peninsular India which has not been subject to
crustal deformation for long age owes its topography to sub-aerial denudation or external forces
(epigene). The great plains of India owe their formation to sedimentary deposition and aggradations

87
to work of the rivers of the Indo-Ganes system during the recent times. India relief is marked by a
great variety due to differences in geological structure and history.

4.6 ACTIVITY
On an outline map of India Show the following :
(i) The Zaskar and the Kailash Range
(ii) The heighest peak of Himalayas
(iii) the Indus, The Ganga and Brahmaputra
(iv) The Nilgiri Mountains
(v) The heigest peaks of Karakoram.

4.7 QUESTIONS
- Why are Himalayas called the Young fold mountains.
- Describe briefly the formation of the Northern Plains.
- Name the major physiographic divisions of India. Write brief account of the Coastal plains and
Islands group of India.
- Give an account of Deccan plateau.

4.8 REFERENCES
Dickison,R.E. 1965 ― The Makers of Modern Germany‖ London, (Routleedge and Kegan Paul)
180,122,138-140.

Evan 1959-1964 in Gautam ,A. and Rastogi, S. 2002 ― Geography of India‖ International Publishing
House, Meerut. p-23.

Fermor in Gautam ,A. and Rastogi, S. 2002 ― Geography of India‖ International Publishing House,
Meerut. p-37

Geddes,A., 1960 ― The Alluvial Morphology of Indo-Ganetic Plain‖ transaction and Papers 1.B.G.
28-262-263.

Hazen, T.G.O., Dyhrenfurth,C.V.F. Haimendorf and Schneider E. ― Mount Everest‖ London, Oxford
University Press. 38 Translated by E. Noel Bowman.

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Kayastha, S.L. 1964 ― The Himalayan Beas, Basin: A Study In Habitat, Economy and Society‖
BHU, University Press. p-209.

Mathieson, R.S. 1968 ― Frontiers in Regional Geography‖ Geographical education pp. 63-70.
Meddlecott. 1994, Middlemiss.1887, Greisbaik. 1881, and Auden. 1935, in Gautam,A. and Rastogi,
S. 2002 ― Geography of India‖ International Publishing House, Meerut. p-32.

Minshull Roger, 1967 ― Regional Geography Theory and Practice‖ London Hutchinson University
Library. p 9,13,18.

Poscoe, E.H. 1919 ― History Of the Indus Brahmaputra and Ganges‖ Qtly, Journal Geol.Soc. 75.
138-59.

Singh, R.P. 1967 ―Landscape Cycles of Peninsular India‖ Proc. Seminar on Geomorphological
Studies in India. ( Saugar 1967 ) 145.

Wadia in Gautam ,A. and Rastogi, S. 2002 ― Geography of India‖ International Publishing House,
Meerut. p-32.

Wilson,J. Tuzo, 1965 ― A New Class of Faults and Their Bearing On Continental Drift in Nature‖
Vol.207, pp-343-538.

Woolridge in Singh, R.L. 1989 (Reprint) ― India: A Regional Geography‖ UBS Publishers
Distributors Ltd, New Delhi. p-28.

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BLOCK-2
HUMAN RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION:
The study of human resources is the vital from the point of view of economic welfare. It is
particularly important because human beings are not only instruments of production but also ends in
themselves it is necessary to know in quantitative terms the number of people living in a country at a
particular times, the rate at which they are growing and the composition and distribution of
population.
There are four units in this block. Unit-5 introduces evolution of the Indian Sub-continent (historical
background).
Unit-6 discusses the meaning of demography and the demographic transition theory.
Unit-7 deals with socio-economic dimensions of population
Unit-8 deals with cases studies of slum areas.
We hope that the units will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the field.

Unit-5. Evolution of the Indian Sub-continent (Historical)

Unit-6. Demographic
Unit -7. Socio-Economic Dimensions
Unit -8. Cases Studies

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UNIT-5 EVOLUTION OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT (HISTORICAL)

STRUCTURE
5.0. Objective
5.1. Introduction
5.2 Historical background
5.3 The earth evolution
5.4 Major surface features of the earth (evolution)
5.5 Summary
5.6 Activity
5.7 Questions
5.8 References

5.0 OBJECTIVE
To know the evolution of the Indian sub-continent
To understand tectonic regime
To know Wilson‘s cycle of opening and closing of oceans and neo tectonic activity
To understand the surface features of the earth.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The evolution of the Indian sub-continent to be the present has been a very complex process while
atmospheric evolution and development of life forms were advancing globally comparable stages
were going on, in the Indian Peninsula. regarding the life forms the Indian sub-continent was unique
since life was not recorded here until 2 billion years ago a full billion year after started on the earth.

5.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The evolution of the Indian subcontinent to the present has been a very complex process. The general
view is that the peninsular region in terms of a crystalline shield is one of the oldest parts of the
earth‘s surface and it is believed that the age of the planet earth measured with the completion of the
lithosphere is 4.5 billion years. Initially the earth was a molten undifferentiated mass of boiling lava
and gases. Sima and sial separation began afterwards and the nuclei of sial floated on a sea of sima
thus there has been evidence that rocks have been forming on the earth for the last 3.6 billion years

91
except the first 900 million years since the formation of the earth as planet (Refer Table 6). The
Archaean era was very active during which considerable addition to the continental matter (due to
the high thermal regime) started getting accreted in concentric circles by surface addition of new
crustal material material from the mantle as well as by surface accretion of supra-crustal elements
through crustal reworking. The earliest nuclei are found relict forms. Some of these are reworked
fragments within younger high deformation zones and others are uplifted segments of basement
rocks beneath younger rock covers such as in the high Himalayas.
Table 6 Standard Geological Time Scale
ERA PERIOD (AGE in 106 EPOCH AGE (IN 106
YEARS) YEARS)
Cenozoic (65.0) Quaternary (2.0) Holocene (or Recent) 0.02
(Present form of life. Pleistocene 2.00
flora and fauna) Tertiary (Cainozoic) (63.0) Pliocene 5.00 (7.0)
Miocene 21.00 (25.0)
Oligocene 10.00 (35.0)
Eocene 15.00 (53.0)
Paleocene 12.00 (65.0)
Mesozoic (165.0) Cretaceous 70.00 (135.0)
(Secondary) Jurassic 45.00 (180.0)
(Middle form of life) Triassic 50.00 (230.0)
Paleozoic (370.0) Permian 50.00 (280.0)
(Primary) Carboniferous 60.00 (340.0)
(Early form of life) Devonian 60.00 (400.0)
Silurian 30.00 (430.0)
Ordovician 70.00 (500.0)
Cambrian 100.00 (600.0)
Beginning of the present geological chronology : Dawn of the Earth
Proterozoic (3000.0) Pre-cambrian 3000.00(3600.0)
(Largely lifeless) (oldest rock
Archaeozoic Archaean known)
900.00 (4500.0)
(Origin of the
earth)
Note : Figures within parenthesis show the lapse of time from the beginning of a particular era or period to
the present.

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 The Indian continental crust appears to have grown around at least three separate
proto- continental accretion nuclei. These are Bundelkhand in northwestern India Singhbhum in
eastern India and Karanataka in Southern India, in these nuclei, Archaean rocks are found with ages
varying from 3.6 to 2.5 billion years. In between the Singhbum and Karnataka nuclei, another
nucleus, the Bastar nucleus happened to have existed during Archean times. However, at present
adequate radiometric Rb/Sr age dating for Bastar is lacking. These nuclei, as continental accreting
blocks (called pro-continental blocks were independent of each other and combined to form a pro-
continent Gondwanaland. this was a stable (or Positive) continental mass during the major supra
crustal plutonic event so that by 2.4. billion years, large parts of the Indian Peninsula had been
formed, The Dharwars and the Eastern Ghats had been established as the tectonic or geological
trends.
Following the above permobile tectonic regime in the Archaean (which is characterized by
the thickening of the continental crust),there occurred a new stage towards the end of the Archaean.
The free molecular oxygen that we see today in the atmosphere –ocean system got released through
the dissociation of oxides which initially was inorganic (photo dissociation ), that is, by dissociating
the water vapour in the upper atmosphere by solar radiation and the hydrogen escaping from the
earth‘s gravity field leaving the atmosphere in free oxygen. This oxygen brings the primitive
organisms, particularly blue –green algae globally and again these organisms produced
carbohydrates by bacterial (organic) photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen
as a by –product:
CO2+H2O=CH2O+O2
Sediments of stromatolites provide the substantial oxidative conditions of the photosynthesis, and the
latter again triggered off the major biological innovations which with increase in the oxygen content
in the atmosphere enabled life to advance from an anaerobic state through aerobic metabolism to
evolve into a state with an organism having a nervous and circulation system to control the process
and distribute the oxygen within the metabolism. Towards the late Pre-Cambrian, when the oxygen
content in the atmosphere increased to 1% of the present atmospheric level, the ozone layer
developed in the upper atmosphere, which effectively screened ort the ultraviolet radiation. This
enabled the land plants to evolve and the ocean waters were opened up to pelagic life. The oxygen
content in the atmosphere reached the present level of 78.08 % by the Cretaceous, that is 135 million
years ago.
While the atmospheric evolution and development of life forms were advancing globally,
comparable stages were going on, in the Indian peninsula. Regarding the life forms, the Indian
subcontinent was unique since life was not recorded here until 2 billion years ago-a full billion years
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after life started on ear has a whole. Before 2.5 billion years ago, the three continental nuclei
(namely, the Bengal, Nilgiri and Bundelkhand gneisses) had been wooded together to form the
Indian peninsular region. There was some differentiation of relief although no mountains were
formed. These blocks were never submerged under water. Globally, a change of the atmosphere to an
oxidising one resulted in iron precipitation at this time and here India follows the global pattern.
Most of our good quality banded iron formations and ferrous mineral are found in these three blocks.
Around 2 billion years ago, the first sign of life started in India largely in the form of reef lime stones
of stromatolites which developed at the margins of the three blocks under the sea. Evidence of such
stromatolites along the Narmada-Son line indicates that the Vindhyan block was not yet separated
from the rest of the Indian peninsula.
Around 1.4 billion years ago the Aravali mountains were formed, the oldest rock occurring
east of Udaipur is 2,950 + 150 million years old. The Jodhpur block until then had not welded itself
to that in the east. By 1 billion years the Narmada –Son line had evolved into a marked tectonic line
and the Vindhyan block was coming closer to the peninsular blocks. Sedimentary strata of this age
near Bundelkhand are very different from those in the Jodhpur block thus indicating that they were
not yet adjacent. It is most likely that the Jodhpur block might have been in the African assembly
with Malagasy until the Permian (250 million years).
Nearly a billion years ago, bacterial photosynthesis was introduced which resulted in
the depletion of atmospheric carbon dioxide. This led to a series of ice ages. From the early
Carboniferous (340 million years) to the mid Permian (250 million years), there was the Gondwana
Ice Age when high altitude glaciers covered large parts of the Vindhyan block and reached even
south of Narmada-Son line to some extent. The retreat and dispersal of these glaciers were to the
north because of the tensional forces which were experienced during this period. These forces led to
the fragmentation of the Gondwanaland in their movement from the South pole to the northern high
latitudes. This fragmentation led to the separation of the peninsular region (which also caused the
oceanic and atmospheric circulation to be forced into meridional patterns around the world). These
forces were responsible for the creation of graben-type structures which are known today as the
Godavari Valley, Mahanadi valley, Narmada-Son lineament and Damodar Valley, Most of these
structures formed were of the rift of double –walled graben type, while some were of the single –
walled type. Intermittent faulting led to the retreat of these Permo-Carboniferous glaciers to the north
and consequent conformity. By now life had moved out of water on to the land and the cold climate
provided the stimuli to the growth of an unique land plant, glossopteris flora, in the lower Gondwana
formations which are preserved to this day, the distribution of this flora is found to be larger than that

94
of the glacial deposits and it leads to the famous coal formation in the faulted troughs of the
Gondwanaland.
The Gondwana deposition ceased roughly by the Cretaceous time (105 million years).it was
during this time that Antarctica began to drift away from India, as evidenced by the age of the
Rajmahal Traps (or lava flows). The Bundelkhand block was welded with the rest of the Indian
peninsular shield definitely by the end of the Cretaceous (65 million years) as the Deccan Traps of
this age occurred in large tracts of Western Indian and parts of Kachchh. This volcanic outpouring
was due to India‘s moving away from Antarctica and the subsequent break –up of Gondwanaland
and creation of the ocean floor.
Some 65 millions years ago, neotectonic inversion and activity resulted in the formation of
the Himalayas in which the Peninsular blocks collided with the Eurasian Plate. This gave rise to the
subduction of the Tethys leading to the Indus- Tsangpo Suture in the northwest and the use of the
Himalayas. The Himalayas as the world‘s youngest and highest orogenic belt gave a complete
formulation of the Plate Tectonic Theory embracing continental drift, sea floor spreading, continent
to continent collision leading to the closure of the sea floor (Tethys) by a network of ridges,
subduction zones and transform faults within an evolving plate mosaic, which is referred to as J.T.
wilson‘s cycle of Opening and Closing of Oceans in 1966 (Refer Figure 10) The above neotectonic
inversion also affected the peninsular region.

Tension caused by this neotectonic activity resulted in the formation of two basins-the Cambay
Basin in the west and the Bengal Basin in the east. In addition, the northward drift of India from the
southern latitudes, the northward drift of India from the southern latitudes due to the breakaway of
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the Gondwanaland resulting in the faulting of the Pre-canbrian basement and creation of the coastal
sedimentary basins of the Kaveri, Krishna- Godavari and Mahanadi along the east coast of India
between latitudes 90 N 210 N. The end of the Mesozoic era was also marked by rifts in Kachchh and
in the Narmada and Tapi Valleys. The Western Ghats were influenced by scrap-faulting and
subsidence occurred in the Arabian Sea giving a general regional tile of the peninsular region to the
east so that all the rivers with their sources in the Western Ghat flow west to east except the Narmada
and Tapi rivers which have not carved out their own valleys (because they occupy fault troughs and
flow westwards). D.N. wadia in 1967 was of the opinion that the general tilt in this peninsular region
millions of years ago could have been to the west. This is accounted for by the varying thickness of
the Creataceous Deccan lava flows. These lava flows, which covered a very large part of western
India some 65 million years ago, are much thicker at their western and than at the eastern end. The
number of flows is also greater in the western part which indicates a general slope to the west that
existed prior to the eastward slope. Secondly the broader, gentle and shallower continental shelf on
the west, compared to a narrower continental shelf with basement rocks more in evidence on the east
coast, indicates a former tilt to the west. It is argued that the east coast should have had a thicker pile
of sediments if the tilt had been to the east. The outline of the east coast of India has been shaped in
the Cretaceous. The coastal shelf broadens itself considerably and shallows to the south of the Ganga
Delta, because of heavy riverine deposits of the Ganga-Brahmaputra rivers and in the Coromandal
Coast where the island of Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland by a submerged platform of 10
metres deep. The third indicator of the earlier westward tilt contrary to the current one is the
predominance of submergent coastal features on the west coast and the emergent of one on the east.
If the tilt had always been to the east then the Himalayan upheaval should have resulted in the
submergence of the east coast.
The reversal in tilt from the earlier westward to the present eastward is considered to be
episodic, both gradual and in sudden phases. This change in tilt is said to have been initiated some 40
million years ago along with the movement of Indian plate and the upheaval of the Himalayas. The
episodic nature (Refer Table 7) and periodicity of the reversal in the tilt is indicated by the height of
different erosional surface across Madhya Pradesh which are:-
Refer Table 7. Across Erosional Surfaces of Madhya Pradesh
S.No. Erosional Western parts Eastern part
Surface (height ) (height )
1. First 1,200 metres 980 metres
2. Second 800 metres 610 metres
3. Third 550 metres 425 metres

96
Thus , all the erosional surfaces had been tilted to the east and the tilting had not been uniform over
time. Hence the tilting had not been a gradual continuous process either. The tilt had occurred in
phases periodically and at an uneven rate.
The evolution of the Indian subcontinent is thus complex. It is also considered unique as certain
Archean rocks such as Charnockites and Khondalites found in India are not found widely elsewhere.
Again, the orogeny of the Himalayas provides the evidence of the Wilson‘s cycle of Opening and
Closing of the Tethys Ocean from the Mesozoic to the Eocene which is unique for the formulation of
thePlate Tectonic Theory. Hence a simplistic view of the peninsula being a single entity since early
times or the Himalayas having a geosynclinals origin does not adequately explain the complexity of
features and formations. For example, the Quaternary sedimentation in the Indo-Genetic (Geodetic)
Brahmaputra basin paralleling the Himalayan Frontal Fault, HFF, is still an active foreland basin.
The evolution of the Indian subcontinent has been thus different and diverse. Globalization are not
plausible and the unique geological and structural history of the Indian subcontinent should be
appreciated and analysed in depth in future through expanded research effort.

5.3 THE EARTH EVOLUTION

The earth has several phases to its present form through several phases. From a ball of swirling dust
and clouds, it passed through a molten stage. Light substances floated up from deep inside to lie
upon its fiery surface. There, they cooled and hardened, so the earth slowly gained the skin of solid
rock that makes up most of the skin of solid rock that makes up most of the earth‘s crust.
As type earth‘s interior continued to cool it contracted and the outer crust wrinkled forming ridges
and basin. Meanwhile, still lighter substances floated up above the crust and formed an atmosphere
of gases.
With the cooling of the hot gaseous substances in the atmosphere, massive cloud formation took
place. It brought heavy downpour for thousands of years. As the result the great basins on the earth‘s
crust were filled with water thus oceans were formed. For perhaps one half of the span of earth‘s
history the planet earth remained barren and lifeless. Then life appeared Mira callously in the oceans.
All that can be said is that enough through some agency certain giants molecules acquired the ability
to duplicate themselves. It is difficult to say what exactly formed life. From such shadow beginning
emerged a wonderful world of living things- plants and animals. emergence of Homo-sapiens the
species that include all living races of human being about 500,000 years ago, it is comparatively a
recent phenomenon in the earth crust.

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5.4 Major Surface Features of The Earth (Evolution)
The major surface features on the earth are continents and the ocean basins, of the whole surface of
the earth less than 1/3 is landmasses, the rest is covered with water, the maximum difference in
elevation on the earth‘s surface is about 20 kilometres (between Mount Everest, 8,848 Metres )
above the sea level and Challenger deep in Mariana Trench in the Pacific ocean 1,022 Metres (below
the sea level). Considering the size of the earth the difference in the surface relief is small indeed.
The continents and ocean basins are irregularly arranged on the earth. the northern hemisphere has
more land than the southern hemisphere. But continents and oceans here not always remained the
same as they are to-day. For several years large parts of continents were covered with thick masses
of ice as Greenland and Antarctica still are. this period on the earth is known as the Ice age. The Ice
sheets melted only few thousand years ago raising the sea level to the present position. When the sea
level was lower North-America and Asia were connected by dry land where today exists the Bering
Strait.
It is believed that continents have been drifting apart. This idea was first propagated by Alfred
Wegener in 1924 and is known as the theory of continental drift. According nearly 150 million years
ago there was a single continent on the earth known as Pangaea.
This super continent broke into several pieces, which began to drift apart; North and South America
pulled away from Africa and Eurasia and drifted to the West. As the resulted the western edge was
wrinkled and the Rockies and the Andes were formed. In between the two continental blocks of the
America on the other the Atlantic Ocean basin appeared. Antarctica, Australia, Peninsular India and
Madagascar were nested together close to the southern tip of the present position, giving way to the
Indian Ocean basin in between. However in recent years the studies of the past magnetism of the
earth as well as the new discoveries of the ocean floors have brought evolution in geology. It has
been established by the theory of plate-tectonics that continents are moving as plates on a semi-liquid
surface. Thus it now lends support to the theory of continental drift. Now we have seen how the
various realms of the earth-lithosphere ( the landmasses), the atmosphere (air envelope) the
hydrosphere (the water bodies ) and the biosphere (Life forms ) were created. These global realms
together constitute our natural enviornment.

5.5 SUMMARY
All above component of the enviornment are closely linked with each other through flow of energy
and matter; hence it is difficult to understand any physical phenomenon is isolation. For example,
water moves continuously between the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the

98
biosphere. Considering the complex nature of the earth as a total system, we can proceed in a logical
manner, piece by piece but we should never lose sight of the wholeness of the physical world.

5.6 ACTIVITY
Collect information regarding continental drift, especially evidences in support of the theory.

5.7 QUESTIONS
- When was the earth formed. Discuss in brief.
- Discuss origin of the evolution of Sub-Continent.
- Briefly discuss the continental drift.
- write notes on the Plate-tectonic and Ice-age.

5.8 REFERENCES
James, P.E. 1966 ―A Geography of Man‖ London: Blasdell Publishing Company.

Lees, G. M. 1953 ―The Evolution Of a Shrinking Earth‖ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,
Vol. 109. p-217-257

Stamp,L.D. 1956 ― The Earth Crust‖ London: George G. Harrap and Company Ltd.

Strahler, A.N., 1963 ― The Earth Science‖ New York: Harper and Row publishers.

Strahler, A.H. Strahler, A.N. 1997 ― Geography and Man‘s Enviornment‖ New York: JohnWiley and
Sons.

Wegener, A. 1924 ―The Origin Of Continents and Oceans (Translated by Skeri ) London.

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UNIT-6 DEMOGRAPHIC

STRUCTURE
6.0 Objective
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Demography and the Theory of Demographic Transition
6.2.1. First Stage
6.2.2. Second Stage
6.2.3. Third Stage
6.3. Size and Growth Rate of Population in India.
6.3.1. Birth Rate
6.3.2. Death Rate
6.3.3. Rural-Urban Differentials in Birth and Death Rate.
6.4. Sex Composition of Population
6.5. Poverty the Main Factor Determining Sex Ratio.
6.6. Age Composition.
6.7. Density of Population.
6.8. Summary.
6.9. Activity.
6.10. Questions.
6.11. References.

6.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand various stages of demographic transition
To know about the sex composition and main factors determining sex ratio
To understand Age composition
To know urbanization and economic development.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The scientific study of population characteristics is a process of change in a society‘s population
from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of
low crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase.

100
6.2 DEMOGRAPHY AND THE THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
The study of human resources is vital from the point of view of economic welfare. It is
particularly important because human beings are not only instruments of production but also ends in
themselves. It is necessary to know in quantitative terms the numbers of people living are growing
and the composition and distribution of population.
The theory of ―demographic transition‖ postulates a three stage sequence of birth and death rate as
typically associated with economic development.

6.2.1 First Stage of Demographic Transition

According to this theory, death rates are high in the first stage of an agrarian economy on account of
poor diets, primitive sanitation and absence of effective medical aid. Birth rates are also high in this
stage as a consequence of widespread prevalence of illiteracy, absence of knowledge about family
planning techniques , early age of marriage and, last but not the least , as a consequence of deep
rooted social beliefs and customs about the size of the family, attitude towards children etc.
moreover, in a primitive society there are economic advantages of a large family size ―children
contribute at an early age‖ and are the traditional source of security in the old age of parents. The
prevalent high death rates, especially in infancy, imply that such security can be attained only when
many children are born.‖ In such a society the actual rate of growth of population is not high since
high birth rate is balanced by high death rate. It is a stage of high growth potential but of low actual
growth.

6.2.2 Second Stage of Demographic Transition

Rise in income levels enables the people to improve their diet. Thus the second stage, birth rate
remains high but death rate begins to decline rapidly. This accelerates the growth of population. High
growth potential of the first stage is realized in the high actual growth in the second stage as a
consequence of decline in death rate. High birth rate and falling death rate contribute to the growth of
the average size of the family in the second stage.

6.2.3 The Third Stage of Demographic Transition

Economic development further changes the character of the economy from an agrarian to a partially
industrialized one. With the growth of industrialization, population tends to shift away from rural
areas towards industrial and commercial centres. Growth of urban population with the development
for women outside the home tends to increase the possibility of economic ability that can better be
101
achieved with small families, and tends to decrease the economic advantage of large family. One of
the features of economic development is typically increasing urbanization, and children are usually
more of a burden and less of an asset in an urban setting than in a rural.‖ The consciousness to
maintain reasonable standard of living tends to reduce the size of family in an industrialized
economy; since the death rate is already low, this is possible only if birth rate falls. Thus, the
characteristics of the third stage are low birth rate, low death rate, small family size and low growth
rate of population. This is the stage of incipient decline of population.
Historically it has been observed that death rate can be controlled more easily because the
measures to reduce death rate are exogenous in nature and hence readily acceptable to the people.
But the reduction of birth rate can be brought about by operating on endogenous factors, like
changing social attitudes and customs, beliefs and dogmas about the size of the family, about
marriage, etc. This requires a much longer time than the fall of death rate. The second stage of
demographic evolution has, therefore, been termed as the stage of population explosion. This stage is
the most hazardous period for a developing economy. The decline in death rate in the second stage,
therefore, creates an imbalance which requires a period of transition for adjustment. Thus the theory
is termed as the theory of demographic transition. During the period of transition the demographic
factors get out of harmony. A new constellation of demographic forces is brought about which
changes the character of society; birth and death rates become balanced at a lower level as a result of
which growth rate of population also declines.

6.3 SIZE AND GROWTHRATE OF POPULATION IN INDIA

India today possesses about 2.4 % of the total land area of the would but she has to support about
17 % of the world population. At the beginning of this century India‘s population was 236 million
and according to 2001 census, the population of India is 1,027 million. A study of the growth rate of
India‘s population can be made from the ( Refer Table 8) A study of growth rate of India‘s
population falls into four phases:

1891-1921: Stagnant population

1921-151: Steady growth
1951-1981: Rapid high growth
1981-2001: High growth with definite signs of Slowing down

During the first phase of 30 years (1891 to 1921),the population of India grew from 236 million in
1891 to 251 million in 1921 i.e. just by 15 million. . The compound annual growth rate was
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negligible i.e. 0.19 % per annum for the period. Birth and death rates were more or less equal during
this period. India was in first stage of demographic transition in this period marked by stagnant
population.
Refer Table 8. Growth of Population In India (1891-2008)
Census population increase percentage
Year in millions or decrease increase or
(In million) decrease
1891 236
1901 236 0.0 0.0
1911 252 +16 +57
1921 251 --1 --03
(1891 --1921) +15 +0.19
1931 279 +28 +11.0
1941 319 +40 +14.2
1951 361 +42 +13.3
(1921 --1951) +110 +1.22
1961 439 +78 +21.5
1971 548 +109 +24.8
1981 683 +135 +24.7
(1951 --1981) +322 +2.14
1991 844 +161 +23.5
2001 1,027 +183 +21.3
2008 1,154 +127 +12.4
Compound annual growth rate of population
1891-- 1921 0.19
1921-- 1951 1.22
1951 -- 1981 2.15
1981 --1991 2.11
1991 -- 2001 1.93
2001-- 2008 1.67
Source : census of India2001, Series 1, Paper 1 of 2001 Provisional Population Totals

Foot Note: Exogenous factors refer to the factors controlling diseases. Improving nutrition levels, sanitation which can
be operated from without. Endogenous factors refer to social attitudes, habits , family relations, attitude towards women,
children, contraceptives etc which are intimately related to social behavior of men and women and cannot be easily
operated from without.

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 During the second phase of 30 years (1921 to 1951), the population of Indian grew from 251
million in 1921 to 361 million 1951 i.e. by 110 million. The compound growth rate of population
was 1.22 per annum which can be considered as moderate. The main reason for the increase in
population growth rate was a decline in death from about 49 per thousand to 27 per thousand. The
fall in death rate was largely due to the control of widespread epidemics like plague, small pox,
cholera etc. which took a heavy tool of human lives.
During the third phase of 30 years (1951 to 1981) the population of India grew from 361
million in 1951 to. With the advent of planning, the extension of hospital medical facilities was
under-taken on a big scale and these measures of death control resulted in a further and sharp decline
of death rate to a level of 15 per thousand, but the birth rate fell very tardily from 40 to 37 per
thousand during this period. As a consequence, there was a population explosion during this period.
During 1981 to 2001, India entered the fourth phase of high population growth with definite
signs of slowing down. Total population increased from 683 million in 1981 to 1.027 million in 2001
indicating an increase of 50.4 % during the 20 year period. The annual average rate of growth of
population during 1981-2001 was of the order 2.05 %.
Rate of growth of population is a function of birth rate and death rate. Consequently,
variations in birth and death rates can provide an experienced of the acceleration of the population
growth experienced in India. The birth and death –rates for India are given in ReferTables 9.

(Refer Table 9 ) clearly reveals that the growth of population was held in check by the high
birth and high death rates prevalent in India before 1921.birth rate during 1901—1921 fluctuated
between 46 and 49 per thousand and the death rate between 42 and 48. correspondingly , the growth
of population was little or negligible. But after1921, a clear fall in death rate is noticeable. Death rate
which stood at 48.6 per thousand in 1911-20 came down to 18.9 during 1961-70 as against it, the
birth rate showed a slight decline. As a consequence of the family planning drive birth rate also
registered a decline to 23.8 per thousand in 2005.

104
Refer Table 9. Average Annual Birth and Death Rates in India

Decade Births per Deaths per

1,000 1,000
1891-1900 45.8 44.4
1901-1910 48.1 42.6
1911-20 49.2 48.6
1921-30 46.4 36.3
1931-40 45.2 31.2
1941-50 39.9 27.4
1951-60 40.0 18.0
1961-70 41.2 19.2
1971-80 37.7 15.0
1985-86 32.6 11.1
2008-09 22.8 7.4

Source: census of India 1971, Age and Life Tables and census of India 1981, Series I , India , paper 1 of 1984.and
officer of Registrar General, and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Annual Report (2000-01) and Economic
Survey (2009-10)

Thus, the high growth rate of population can be explained in terms of a persistently high birth
rte but a relatively fast declining death rate.

State wise analysis of data pertaining to birth and death rates reveals that Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh , West Bengal, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Punjab(Refer Table 10) have achieved a
birth rate below 20 per thousand. In this sense, they have entered the third stage of demographic
transition. Ironically, Haryana and Gujarat which occupies a high place in India in terms of per capita
income, are also far behind in reducing birth rate. As against it, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Bihar,
and Madhya Pradesh have a very high birth rate in the range of 25-31 per thousand. All these states
are still in the second stage of demographic transition, but taken together they account for 44 % of
the total Indian population. Unless an impact is made by the family planning programmes in these
states, India as a whole will not be able to enter the third stage of demographic transition.

105
Refer Table 10. State wise Analysis of Birth and Death Rate.

States Birth Rate Death IMR Mean age* at

rate marriage
(female)
1 Kerala 14.6 6.6 13 22.3
2 Tamilnadu 16.0 7.4 35 20.2
3 Andhra Pradesh 18.4 7.5 54 17.8
4 Maharashtra 17.9 6.6 34 19.1
5 Karnataka 19.8 7.4 47 19.4
6 West Bengal 17.5 6.2 37 19.5
7 Punjab 17.3 7.2 43 20.3
8 Orissa 21.4 9.0 71 19.5
9 Gujarat 22.6 6.9 52 20.4
10 Haryana 23.0 6.9 55 19.2
11 Assam 23.9 8.6 66 -
12 Bihar 28.9 7.3 58 18.6
13 Madhya Pradesh 28.0 8.6 72 18.8
14 Rajasthan 27.5 6.8 65 18.4
15 Uttar Pradesh 29.1 8.4 69 19.3
All India 22.8 7.4 55 19.4

SOURCE : Office of the Registrar General, India and Economic Survey(2007-08)

6.3.1 Birth Rate

Fertility depends on (i) age at which females marry, (ii) duration of the period of fertile
union, and (iii) the rapidity with which they build their families.
In Indian, mean age at marriage has been low as compared to other countries of the world.
(Refer Table 11). However, it has been slowly rising between 1891 and 1981. the passing of the
Child Marriage Restraint Act (popularly known as Sharda Act) in 1929 did have some effect and
child marriages declined. This is evidenced by the fact that whereas 27 per cent of girls below the
age of 14 were married during 1891-1901 decade , only 6.6 % in the age group 10-14 were marriage
for females was 13.7 years in, it improved to 15.8 in 1961. during the last years, there has been slight

106
Refer Table 11. Mean Age At Marriage In Selected Countries
Males Females
Norway 28.0 24.4
East Germany 27.4 24.7
France 26.0 22.6
Japan (1921) 20.7 13.7
India (1961) 21.6 15.8
(2001) 22.6 18.

improvement and mean age at marriage of females improved to 18.3 years in 2001. As against it,
mean age at marriage of males has improved to 22.6 years in 2001. Social awareness and spread of
education can help to raise the mean age at marriage in future. Raising the age of marriage is ,
however, likely to be more difficult because in many rural areas, there is a feeling of insecurity about
an unmarried girl of marriageable age. Mean age at marriage is highest among Christians, followed
by Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus. Among the mean age at marriage. Next in order are Brahmins,
Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. It is common knowledge that higher age at marriage tends to reduce
fertility and this lowers birth rate. With an increase in the mean age at marriage and the impact of
family planning programmes, there is an over all decline in general fertility rate from171 per
thousand married women in 1988 to about 154in 1933. It may also be noted that the decline is in all
age groups, (Refer Table 12) though the decline was sharper in the age groups 30-34 and above, as
compared with age group 15-19. There was a strong need to reduce fertility rates in the lower age
groups, more especially 15-29,20-24. and 25-29 so that general fertility rate registers a sharp decline.
We witness a sharp declined in fertility rates across all age groups. Sarpest decline is registered in
age group 15-19 ,40-44 ,35-39 and 30-34.
Refer Table 12: Age –Specifies Fertility Rates in India
Age Group Percentage
(years) 1988 1993 2007 1993-2007
15-19 259.0 236.1 41.1 82.6
20-24 319.8 307.9 213.9 30.5
25-29 227.9 2.7.6 158.3 23.7
30-34 138.5 121.3 75.2 38.0
35-39 81.2 65.7 31.7 51.8
40.44 38.9 31.8 12.3 61.3
TFR 5.4 4.9 2.68 45.3
GFR 170.7 153.7
Notes : TFR=Total Fertility Rate GFR=General Fertility Rate

Fertility seems of have a strong correlation with the educational level of the mother. Census
of India (2001) reveals that the total fertility of illiterate women for India is 4.2. It declines to 3.7 for
women with Educational level literate but less than middle school, (Refer Table 13) it further
declines to 3.3 for middle but not matric and is the lowest (2.1) for women with educational level
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graduate and above and above .fertility in every category was higher in rural areas than in urban
areas .data published by government claims further decline in overall fertility. Decline is sharp
among educated women .this under –lines the need to educate girls to achieve our objective of
population control.
Refer Table 13: Total Fertility by Women‘s Educational Level in India (1988-99)
Educational Level Total No. of Children Born (15-49
2005-06 2001 1991
Illiterate 3.55 4.2 4.4
literate - 3.3 3.8
literate below middle 2.51 3.7 4.3
middle but below metric 2.23 3.3 3.8
matriculate but below graduate 2.80 2.7 3.0
graduate and above - 2.1 2.3
All educational levels 2.68 3.8 4.3
Source: census of India (2001), fertility tables ;government of India, selected socio-economic statistics,
India, 2008
According to census commissioner (2001),there is a positive correlation between population growth
rate and the child population in the age group 0-6 in India (Refer Table 14) ,the proportion of
children in the age group 0-6 declined from 17.94% in 1991 to 15.42 % 2001 .A fall in the
proportion of children in the age group 0-6is indicative of a fall in fertility .in Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat ,the percentage of population in the age group 0-6 is below
the national average while in states like Haryana ,Meghalaya, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh ,it is mush higher than the national average.
Refer Table 14: Percentage of the Child Population in the Age Group 0-6 Total Population in
Selected States
States 1991 2001
Kerala 13.19 11.48
Tamil Nadu 13.33 10.98
Andhra Pradesh 16.49 12.77
Karnataka 16.63 12.94
Gujarat 16.48 14.19
Maharashtra 17.11 13.63
India 17.94 15.42
Haryana 18.98 15.46
Madhya Pradesh 19.94 17.58
Rajasthan 20.13 18.51
Bihar 20.70 19.59
Jharkhand 20.17 17.83
Uttar Pradesh 20.38 14.35
Meghalaya 22.18 19.84

Source: Census of India 2000, Series 1, India , Provisional Population Totals.

108
6.3.2 Death Rate
In the advanced countries of the world in the beginning of the 19 the century, death rate ranged
between 35-50 per thousand. It has now come down to 7-8 per thousand. This steep fall in death rate
is the result of provision of better diet. Pure drinking water, improved hospital facilities, better
sanitation and last but not least, the control by wonder medicines of several epidemic and other
diseases which took a heavy toll of human life during the 1891-1901 and 1911-21 decades, the
growth of population was insignificant. This can be attributed to widespread famines and the
influenza epidemic of 1918 which killed about a million persons. The death rate during this
particular year rose to an astonishing figure of 63 per thousand though in the preceding and
succeeding year, it was 33 and 36 respectively.

Another important factor contributing to low death rate is the decline in infant mortality. The
infant mortality rate which stood at 218 per thousand in 1916-20 had come down in 1989 and further
to 57 per thousand for males and 64 for females. For the country as a whole, it was 60 for 2003. The
principal causes of infant mortality are: malnutrition, pneumonia, and diarrhea, infectious and
parasitic and parasitic diseases. Infant morality shows a tendency to increase when maternity takes
place repeatedly and in quick succession all these cause are being remedied.

Besides this, mortality among females of reproductive ages is also high. It rages between 300
-400 per 1,000 women of ages 15-45.inadequate pre-natal and post –natal care which is the result of
poverty and absence of hospital facilities is largely responsible for this. With improvements in diet,
hospital and midwifery facilities, it is reasonable to expect that infant and maternal mortalities will
register a further decline.

6.3.3 Rural–Urban Differentials In Birth And Death Rates

Data provided in (Refer Table 15) reveal that death rate in urban India declined from 9.7 per
thousand in 1971 to barely 6.3 in 2000, but as against it, death rate in rural India declined from form
16.4 per thousand in 1971 to 9.3 in 2000. there is no doubt that the urban areas are the forerunners in
the development in the development of medical facilities and control of epidemics and diseases, but
these facilities have also been extended to rural areas.

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Refer Table 15: Birth and Death Rates :Rural and Urban Trend
Year Rural Urban Combined
Birth Rate
1971 38.9 30.1 36.9

1981 35.6 27.0 33.9

1991 30.9 24.3 29.5
2000 27.6 20.7 25.8

Death Rate
1971 16.4 9.7 14.9

1981 13.7 7.8 12.5

1991 10.6 7.1 9.8

2000 9.3 6.3 8.5

Infant Mortality Rate

1971 138 82 129

1981 119 62 110

1991 87 53 80

2000 74 44 68

Source : Registrar General of India on the basis of Sample Registration Data. Tata Services Ltd. ,Statistical
Outline of India (2003-04).

Consequently urban rural differentials have got reduced from 6.7 in 1971 to just 3.0 in 2000.
This is very healthy development. However, the situation in infant mortality rate (IMR) is not so
optimistic. There has been a sharp decline in urban IMR from 82 per 1,000 live births in 1971 to 44
in 2000. But as against it, the rural IMR declined from 138 to 74. The IMR gap between rural and
urban areas was 56 in 1971 and it came down to 32 in 2000. It is still quite large. This is due to the
prevalence of high poverty ratios in rural areas as against those in than in urban areas.

So far as birthrates are concerned, they have shown a decline from 30.1 per thousand in 1971
to 20.7 in urban areas, but in rural areas, they have declined from 38.9 to 27.6. The rural and urban
birth rate gap has got reduced from 8.8 in 1971 to just 6.9 in 2000. Obviously, family planning
progarmmes have to target the rural areas in much effective manner so that birth rate in rural areas
can be brought down at an accelerated pace.

110
6.4 THE SEX COMPOSITION OF POPUALTION
A disturbing revelation of the 1991 census is the decline in the ratio of females per
1,000 males. The sex ratio declined from 934 in 1981 to 929 in 1991. However, the
over all trend of sex ratio in (Refer Table 16) the country since 1901 also shows a
continuous trend towards a decline in sex ratio, barring a marginal improvement in
1981. in 2001, there is a slight improvement in the proportion of females to 933 .

Refer Table 16 . Sex Ratio in India

S.No. Year Females
per 1000 males
1 1901 972
2 1911 964

3 1921 955
4 1931 950
5 1941 945

6 1951 946
7 1961 941
8 1971 930
9 1981 934
10 1991 927
11 2001 933

Among the various states of India, Kerala along shows a higher proportion of females 1,058 per
1,000 males in 2001. In Himachal Pradesh, there is a distinct improvement over 1981 level and the
sex ratio has improved from 973 in1981 to 996 in 1991 but there is a decline in 2001 to 970. The
situation in Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Karnataka has slightly deteriorated, but still the number of
females per 1,000 males is sufficiently. High judged by all India level of933 females per 1,000
males. The states which are lower than the ( Refer Table 17) national average are Assam, West
Bengal , Rajasthan ,Bihar, Uttar Pradesh , Punjab and Haryana. These are a sharp deterioration of
sex ratio in Bihar from 946 in 1981 to 921 in 2001. in Punjab , UP and Haryana females account for
between 874 to 898 per 1,000 males.

111
 These is no doubt that the female fetus has been proved to be biologically stronger than the
male fetus. There is every likely-hood of the women to live longer than men. This is evidenced by
the fact that in the advanced western countries, the proportion of women in total population is higher
than that of males. In India, 108 females are born per 100 males, but the loss of more females due to
insufficient attention and care to them after birth. A relatively higher proportion of deaths among
females at the time of puberty due to functional derangement and a high death rate among women in
the reproductive age bracket 11-19 on account of early marriage explains to a sufficient degree the
fact the biologically superior female is not in a position to maintain the trend of excess of females is
not in a position to maintain the trend of excess of females at birth on account of the prevalence of
social. As a consequence females per 1,000 males were only 933 at the time of 2001 census in India,
while in Russia; it was 1,140, in Japan 1,041, and USA 1,029

Refer Table 17: Sex Ratio (Females Per 1,000 males) in Major States of India Arranged in
Descending Order on the Basis of 1991 and 2001 Census

State Sex Ratio

2001 1991 1981 1961 1931

Kerala 1058 1040 1032 1022 1022

Himachal Pradesh 970 996 973 938 897
Andhra Pradesh 978 972 975 981 987
Tamil Nadu 986 972 977 992 1027
Orissa 972 972 981 1001 1067
Karnataka 964 960 963 959 965
Maharashtra 922 936 937 936 947
Gujarat 921 936 942 940 945
Madhya Pradesh 920 932 941 953 973
India 933 927 934 941 950
Assam 932 925 910 869 874
West Bengal 934 917 911 878 890
Rajasthan 922 913 919 908 907
Bihar 921 912 946 994 994
Punjab 874 888 879 854 815
Uttar Pradesh 898 882 885 909 904
Haryana 861 874 870 868 844

Source : Census of India 2001, Series 1, Paper 1 of 2001 Provisional Population Totals.

Many explanations have been given about the masculine character of our population. The
British Census Commissioners had been repeating ad nauseam the geographical and sociological
factors like climate, race, season of gestation, food habits and consanguineous marriages and
112
polyandry as affecting sex ratio, but the statistical evidence could not support their a priori reasoning.
Sociological factors like female infanticide factors only helped the British rules to screen off the
economic factor.

6.5 POVERTY- THE MAIN FACTOR DETERMINING SEX RATIO

In fact, the explanation for a declining sex ratio lies in the poverty to the Indian people. In a country
where even in 2004-05 nearly 28 % of the population lives below the poverty line, high infant
mortality, poor medical facilities, extremely unhygienic conditions of living and absence of pre natal
and post – natal care, high death rate among women are all manifestations of the abjectly low level
of living of the people. The preference for providing good food to the bread winner is again the
manifestation of the much sought after modicum of economic security that the breadwinner provides.
In the absence of old age social security schemes. The son is considered to be the insurance against
old age. This also reinforces preference in allotment of good diet and medical care in favour of
males. Consequently, differential mortality rates among the females provide the most important
explanation for higher proportion of males to females. Infant mortality rates, more especially among
the poor, of infants below I year of age were 65 in the case of females as against 55 per thousand in
the case of males, even in a state like Punjab which has the highest per capita income. Regarding
malnutrition, a study conducted by CARE (Co-operative for American Relief )Everywhere for pre-
school children in Punjab showed that 29 % of male children suffered from severe malnutrition, but
the proportion was as high as 71 % in the case of females.
(Amartya Sen, 2005), highlighted the Indian divide resulting from the combined effect of sex-
selective abortion and female disadvantage in the mortality of children, resulting in a decline in
female –male ratios. Amartya Sen writes: ―this dividing line produces a remarkable geographical
split of the country. There are states in the north and west, led by Punjab, Haryana ,Delhi and
Gujarat, where the female –male ratio of children is substantially below the bench mark figure (with
ratios between 79.3 and 87.8). Other states in these regions also have ratios significantly below the
dividing line ( that is 94.8 girls for 100 boys , taken as our cut –off standard) ; with Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh , West Bengal and Assam (each between 96.3 and 96.6 girls),and also Orissa, Karnataka
and the north –eastern states to the east of Bangladesh (Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland,
Arunachal Pradesh.
The vast majority of the Indian states fall in to two contiguous halves, classified broadly in to
north and west on one side and south and east on the other.‘‘ States in the north and west have

113
strictly lower female-male ratios and states in the south and east of India have higher female-male
ratios.
The removal of poverty in the western countries has helped the females to overcome the
biological disadvantages associated with the life of women, both at the time of puberty and at the
time of reproduction .a better health standard of the females, that is a consequence of the prevalence
of higher income levels, also provides them internal resilience against disease. Low levels of living
are accompanied by low levels of education, poor health, unhygienic having condition, etc. in a
country which is still not able to eradicate misery, not to speak of removing poverty, it would be
futile to expect an improvement in the condition of women.

6.6 AGE COMPOSITION

The study of age composition is helpful in determining the proportion of the labour force in the total
population. An estimate of the labour force in India is made in the 2001 census report. The working
age of the population is considered as 15-60. on this basis, percentage distribution of India‘s
population is shown in ( Refer Table 18 )

Refer Table 18. Percentage Distribution of India‘s Population by Age Groups

(1911-2001)
S. No. Year Age Group
0-14 15- 60 60 and Above
1 1911 38.8 60.2 1.0
2 1921 39.2 59.6 1.2
3 1931 38.3 60.2 1.5
4 1961 41.0 53.3 5.7
5 1971 41.4 53.4 5.2
6 1981 39.7 54.1 6.2
7 1991 36.5 57.1 6.4
8 2001 35.6 58.2 6.3

Source: IAMR fact book on manpower, p. 12, and census of India, 1981 , series-1,India,paper 2 of 1983

These figures indicate that the proportion of child population in the 0-14 age group was 35.6 % in
2001. This figure is lower than the figures of earlier four decades. The principal reason for a higher

114
child population in India is the high birth rate. The recent decline in infant mortality has also added
to our child population. A high proportion of children only reflect a large proportion of unproductive
consumers. To reduce the percentage of non-productive consumers, it is essential to bring down the
birth rate. The decline in child population in 2001 is a reflection of the decline in over all birth rate in
India.

6.7 THE DENSITY OF POPULATION

The term density of population implies the average number of persons living per sq. km. from a
small figure of 77 persons living per sq. km. in 1901, the density of the population of India rose to 90
per square kilometre in 1931 signifying an increase of only 17 % , but during the next 30 years,
density went up to 142 persons per square kilometre indicating a sharp increase of about 58 %. But
during 1961-81, density jumped to 216 per square kilometre in 1981 indicating an unprecedented
increase of 52 % during the last 20 years in 1991, the density of population rose to 267 per square
kilometre and further shot up to 324 per square kilometre in 2001.
Refer Table 19. Density of Population in India According to 2001 Census

S. State/Union Population In Density Per Sq- Density

No. Territory Millions Km(1991) Per Sq.
Km(2001)
1 Delhi 13.8 6.352 9.294
2 Chandigarh 0.9 5.632 7.903
3 West Bengal 80.2 767 904
4 Kerala 31.8 749 819
5 Bihar 82.9 497 880
6 Jharkhand 26.9 274 338
7 Uttar Pradesh 166.0 548 689
8 Tamil Nadu 62.1 429 478
9 Punjab 24.3 403 482
10 Haryana 21.1 372 477
11 Assam 26.6 286 340
12 India 1,027.0 267 324
13 Maharashtra 96.7 257 314
14 Andhra Pradesh 75.7 242 275
15 Karnataka 52.7 235 275
16 Gujarat 50.6 211 258
17 Orissa 36.7 203 236
18 Madhya Pradesh 60.4 149 196
19 Chhattisgarh 20.8 133 154
20 Rajasthan 56.5 129 165
21 Himachal Pradesh 61 93 109
22 Jammu And Kashmir 101 77 99
Source: census of India 2001,series-1 (India).paper 1 of 2001, provisional population totals.

115
However density of population is very unevenly distributed (Refer Table 19) density of population
figures indicate the man land ratio. Clearly, India does not either rank among countries with a very
high man-land ratio or among those with a very low man-land ratio Density of population that can be
supported in any country depends upon the availability of natural resources and the extent of the use
of technology to exploit the resources. In short density of population cannot be treated as an in short
density of the poverty or of the prosperity of a country.

6.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we shall examine the different aspects of population composition and transition theory of
demography. A population is composed of male and females who belong to different age groups and
belong to different age groups and reside in different habitat units, such as villages, and cities. They
differ among themselves in terms of engagement in activities which are necessary for their economic
survival. These characteristics of population composition are often described as demographic
attributes.

6.9 ACTIVITY
On the basis of the data on age, sex composition of population in India and some of the states draw
six graphs-one each for India and the five states to show the proportion of working, non working
population. Compare the graphs and write down the findings with possible reasons for the variations
from the national average.

6.10 QUESTIONS
- Which are the major demographic attributes of human population.
- Discuss the trends of urbanization in India with Special reference to the post independent period.
- Discuss briefly the salient features of the age composition of the Indian population.
- What do you understand by the term sex-ratio.

6.11 REFERENCES
Agarwal, S.N. 1967 ―Population‖ New Delhi. p-137.

Aitareya Brahmana Panjika VIII.

116
Census Of India 2001 Report Of Technical Group On Population Constituted By the National
Commission On Population (May 2006)

Committee On Transport Policy and Coordination Final Report, New Delhi. 1966.

Dickinson, R.E. 1969 ― The Makers Of Modern Germany‖ London Routledge and Kegan Paul. p-
122, 138, 140, 180.

Kayastha, S.L. 1965 ― Some Aspects Of soil Erosion and Conservation In India‖ NGJ. XI-22.

Lambert, R.D. 1960 ― The Encyclopaedia. Americana XV. 1.

Minshull Roger, 1967 ― Regional Geography Theory and Practice‖ London: Hutchinson University
Library. p- 9, 13, 18.

Mitra Ashok, 1961 ― Census Of India‖ New Delhi. Vol. 1, Pt.1 (A-1).

NDP 2007 ― Human Development Report‖ 2007-2008.

Roonwal, M.L. and Ali, S. 1965 ―The Gazetteer Of India‖ P-248.

Sen Amartya, 2005 ― The Argumentative Indian‖

Sen Gupta, P. and Galina Sdasyuk 1968 ―Economic Regionalization Of India Problems and
Approaches‖ New Delhi. p 88-99.

117
UNIT-7 SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS

STRUCTURE
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Socio-Economic Dimensions
7.3 Degree of Urbanization in India-a Comparison with Some Selected Countries
7.4 Population of Large Cities with Million-Plus Population
7.5 Urbanization and Character Of Industrialization in India
7.6 Urbanization and Economic Development
7.7 Quality of Population
7.7.1 Constitutional Directive of providing Compulsory Elementary Education
7.7.2 Life Expectancy
7.8. Population Growth As a Factor Of Economic Development
7.8.1 Population and Growth Of National and per Capita Income
7.8.2 Population and Food Supply
7.8.3 Population and Unemployment
7.8.4 Population and Burden Of Education Medical care and Housing
7.8.5 Increase in population and Capital Formation
7.9 Population Policy
7.9.1 Family planning and Five Year plans
7.9.2 Impact of India‘s population Growth
7.9.3 Non Family Planning Measures
7.9.4 Steps Towards a rational population policy
7.9.5 Family planning and Maternity and Child Health (MCH) Stretegies
7.10 National Population policy 2000
7.11 Population Projection 2001-26.
7.12 Demographic Indicators
7.12.1 Demographic Dividend
7.13 Summary
7.14 Activity
7.15 Questions
7.16 References

118
7.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand the basic principles of economic growth
To know the definition of urban area
To understand the character of Indian Industrialization
To know the impact of family planning programme

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Economic development is usually associated with the growth of urbanization. Some geographers go
so far as to assert that the acid test of development lies in the shift of population from rural to urban
areas. A comparison of the level of urbanization in india with the developed countries of the world
shows that India is far behind the higher income countries.

7.2 ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS

Economic development is generally associated with the growth of urbanization. Some writers
go so far as to assert that the acid test of development lies in the shift of population from the rural to
the urban areas. During the first of the 20th century, India passed through a period of economic
stagnation. Consequently. The extent of urbanization was very limited. Urban population which
accounted for 11% of total population in 1901 lazily crept to the figure of 14 in 1941. With a very
liberal definition of the urban area adopted in 1951, urban population became 17.6 % of total much
of the increase, there fore was statistical. This explains why the adaptation of a little more strit
definition of the urban area in 1961 census resulted in recording a very small increase in the urban
population and it was estimated at 18.3 of total population. The 1981 census has also contained with
the definition adopted in 1971. An urban area has thus been defined as follows: all places with a
municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, (b) all other places
which satisfy the following criteria (i) a minimum population of 5,000; (ii) at least 75 % of male
working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and (3) a density of population of at least
400 persons per square kilometre.
The definition of the ―urban area‘‘ though very strict as compared to definitions adopted in
earlier censuses is still not comparable with the definition of urban area provided in other countries.
For instance, in Japan, a place having 30,000 or more inhabitants is classified as urban. Despite this,
the percentage of urban population to total population in India which was 20% in 1971 improved
marginally to 27.8 % in 2001 (Refer Table 20) from the data provided in table 14, it is evident that
the process of industrialization, though initiated during the second plan could make little impact on

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 the economy of population-shift to urban areas till 1961. Although the second and the third plans
decided to have a big programme of industrialization, the plans emphasized the development of
heavy and basic industries. The employment potential of these industries being limited, their growth
did not lead to absorption of labour from the rural to urban areas to such an extent as to have a
marked impact on the economy. One can, therefore, observe that the process of industrialization,
Thought started during the sixties could not gather momentum. Urbanization could hardly absorb a
little more than the natural increase in urban population. As result a serious dent in terms of the shift
of population from rural to urban areas could not be made. Urban population increased from about
26 million in 1901 to 62 million in 1951—an increase of only 36 million in 50 years. But, thereafter,
the absolute increase during the next three decades was of the order of 94 million (1951-81). This
indicates that programs of industrialization did make an impact in terms of population absorption in
urban areas, thought this impact is not very discernible. During the decade (1981-1991) alone, urban
population increased by 59.4 million which indicates a growing trend toward urbanization. Urban
population, in absolute terms reached the figure of 285 million accounting for 27.8 % of total
population in 2001.
Refer Table-20 Relative Growth of Urban And Rural Population
Year Population in Percentage Of Percentage Urban
millions total population increase in urban Rural
population during Ratio
the decade
Total Rural Urban Rural Urban Decade
1901 232.9 207.3 25.6 89.0 11.0 1:8.1
1911 246.0 220.4 25.6 89.6 10.4 0.0 1:8.6
1921 244.3 216.6 27.7 88.7 11.3 48.25 1:7.8
1931 270.8 237.8 33.0 87.8 12.2 +19.1 1:7.2
1941 309.0 265.5 43.5 85.9 14.1 +32.1 1:6.1
1951 361.1 298.7 62.4 82.7 17.3 +43.2 1:4.7
1961 439.2 360.3 78.9 82.0 18.0 +25.3 1:4.5
1971 548.2 439.1 109.1 80.1 19.9 +38.0 1:3.7
1981* 685.2 525.7 159.5 76.7 23.3 +46.8 1:3.3
1991** 844.3 627.1 217.2 74.3 25.7 +35.6 1:2.9
2001 1,027.0 742.0 285.0 72.2 27.8 +31.2 1:2.6
* Includes projected population of Assam.
** Includes population projection for Jammu and Kashmir.
Source: Register General India.

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7.3 DEGREE OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA—A COMPARISON WITH
SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES
A comparison of the level of urbanization in India with the developed countries of the words
reveals that India is far behind the high income countries. The proportion of urban population to total
population in 2001 was 73 % in Russia, 77 % in USA, 79 % in Japan, 91 % in Australia and 89 % in
U.K. compared to them, the India percentage of 27.8 in 2001 was too low. Obviously, employment
strategies should be planned so that they attract population to urban areas. It is only the pull
exercised by economic development that can bring about the much desired change towards
urbanization. A careful study of ( Refer Table 21 ) reveals that the proportion of urban population in
class I towns (with a population of over 1 lakh) has increased from 44.4 % in 1951 to 62.3 % in
2001. Obviously, there is a trend toward concentration of population in the bigger towns. The
relative proportion of urban population in class II and class III towns taken together has remained
practically constant i.e., around 25-27 % during 1951-2001. But in contras, the relative proportion of
population In class IV, class V and class VI towns has come down sharply from 29.5 % in 1951 to
barely 10.9 % in 2001. class I town have been the seats of administration and general economic
activity. Industry, transport, trade and commerce, administrative and liberal services have been
concentrated in them. This explains the increasing concentration of urban population in this size-
class. An analysis of the towns at the margin in class II have been jumping that towns at the margin I.
this is evidenced by the fact that whereas there were only 76 towns in class I in 1951, their number
grew to296(nearly four times) in 1991. As a consequence, the total population of class I towns
increased from 278 lakhs in 1951 to 1,401 lakhs in 1991- an increase of 504 % Class II and class III
towns are those in a transitory stage. Their number as also their total population has increased in
absolute terms. The total human resources and economic development are number of class II towns
increased from 91 in 1951 to 341 in 1991, and their total population from about 61 lakhs to 233 lakhs
–a four fold increase. The number of class III towns increased from 327 in 1951 to 927 in 1991, and
their total population increased from 97 lakhs in 1951 to 281 lakhs in 1991 an increase of 190 %.
Proportion of urban population in class IV, class v and class VI towns has shown a downward trend.
although in absolute terms, there is an increase in their total population. The number of class IV
towns increased from 608 in 1951 to 1,35 in 1991 and their total population increased from 84 lakhs
to 165 lakhs an increase of only 96 % . As against it, the number of class V towns declined from
1,124 in 1951 to 725 in 1991 and their total population declined from 80 lakhs to 57 lakhs during
1951-91-a decline of about 30 %. Ironically, the number of towns in class VI declined from 569 in
1951 to merely 185 in 1991. The total population of class VI towns also duffered a sharp decline
from 19 lakhs to 6 lakhs during 1951-91.
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Refer Table-21.Trend of Urbanization in India
Towns with Different Population Size-classes
Class-1 Class-II Class-III Class-IV Class-V Class-VI All
1,00,000 50,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 Less than classes
and above to 99,999 to 49,999 to 19,999 to 9,999 5,000
Number of Urban Agglomerations/Towns

1951 76 91 327 608 1,124 569 2,795

1961 102 129 437 719 711 172 2,270
1971 148 173 558 827 623 147 2,476
1981 216 270 738 1,053 739 229 3,245
1991 296 341 927 1,135 725 185 3,609
Urban Population (Lakhs)
19951 278 61 97 84 80 19 620
1961 405 87 132 99 54 06 783
1971 619 121 171 119 48 05 1,082
1981 959 182 216 145 54 08 1,564
1991 1,401 236 287 171 57 06 2,158
2001 1,767 344 420 223 77 08 2,836
Percentage Distribution of Urban Population
1951 44.04 9.8 15.6 13.5 12.9 3.1 100.0
1961 51.07 11.1 16.9 12.6 6.9 0.8 100.0
1971 77.02 11.2 15.8 11.0 4.4 0.5 100.0
1981 61.3 11.6 13.8 10.9 3.5 0.5 100.0
1991 64.9 10.9 13.3 7.8 2.6 0.3 100.0
2001 62.3 12.0 14.8 7.9 2.7 0.3 100.0
Note :- Excludes Assam and Jammu and Kashmir
Source:- Registrar General of India

7.4 POPULATION OF LARGE CITIES WITH MILLION - PLUS

POPULATION
As against 23 large cities with a population of more than 1 milion in 1991 accounting for a total
population of 70.7 million it has been revealed by the 2001 census that there are now 35 large cities
(or mega cities) accounting for 107.9 million persons. The population of these 35 cities was about 38
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% of the to all urban population. Greater Mumbai ranked first with, a population of 16.4 million ,
followed by kolkata with a population of 13.3 million. The population of Delhi which was only 8.4
million in 1991 has jumped to 12.8 million by 2001 showing an increasing of 52.4 % during the
decade. The overall decennial increase in population in 35 mega-cities was about 68 % during 1991-
2001 decade. The highest growth rate of population was shown by jaipur (53.3%), followed by Delhi
(52.4%) Pune (48.0%), Bangalore (39%) and Llucknow (37.5%).

7.5 URBANIZATION AND CHARACTER OF INDUSTRIALIZATION IN INDIA

Obviously, India ranks quite low among the countries of the world in the degree of urbanization.
Two reasons can be attributed to (Refer Table 22)the increases of population in urban areas (a)
natural increase of urban population, and (b) net migration from the rural areas. As India is passing
through a period of high population growth, the natural increase of population in the urban areas is
also Quite high Since the process of urbanization started in India about a decade or so ago, it has not
gathered enough momentum so as to enable it to absorb a significant chunk of the rural population .
In fact the impact of industrialization in fostering urbanization is only marginal. With a slowing
down of the population growth rate in the coming decades and with an acceleration in the tempo of
industrialization. It is expected that the extent of urbanization in India may show a significant
change.
Refer Table 22. Population of Large Cities with a Population of 1 Million and Above
Cities Population Population 10-yearly increase (%)
in 1991 (in millions) in 2001 (in millions)
Greater Mumbai 12.6 16.4 30.2
Kolkata 10.9 13.2 21.1
Delhi 8.4 12.8 52.4
Chennai 5.4 6.4 18.5
Bangalore 4.1 5.7 39.0
Hyderabad 4.3 5.5 27.9
Ahmedabad 3.3 4.5 36.4
Pune 2.5 3.7 48.0
Surat 1.5 2.8 86.6
Kanpur 2.1 2.7 28.5
Lucknow 1.6 2.2 37.5
Jaipur 1.5 2.3 53.3
Nagpur 1.7 2.1 23.5

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7.6 URBANIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Economic development is expected to achieve three things: a rise in per capita income so that
level of living of the people improves ;(ii) a reduction in the rate and magnitude of unemployment;
and (iii) reduction of population below the poverty line. To understand the impact of urbanization on
economic development, it would be appropriate to take a comprehensive view of development and
not restrict its impact on only one variable i.e., per capita income. In (Refer Table 23), state wise data
of the proportion of urban to total population in 2001, estimates of per capital income for 1996-97,
rate of daily status unemployment (1999-00) and percentage of population below the poverty line
have been juxtaposed. The analysis is based on cross-sectional data for 16 states of India. It is
assumed that rates of unemployment and percentage of population below the poverty line are safely
used to understand the impact of urbanization on them. The hypotheses tested are:
(I) Is urbanization associated with per capital income in a positive manner
(II) Does a higher degree of urbanization result in the lower degree of unemployment
(III) Does a higher degree of urbanization result in a reduction of the proportion of
population below the poverty line
The co-efficient of correlation between the proportion of urban to total population and per capita
income was +0.75 which is significant. This indicates that the degree of urbanization is positively
associated with per capital income and is significant.
1. Ministry of finance, Indian public finance statics(2004-05)
2. Planning commission
3. Planning commission (2002) tenth five year plan (2002-2007)
Correlation r between a and 1= 0.75 significant at 5 % level.
A and 2= -0.11 very weak correlation
A and 3= -o.39 mild correlation.

However, correlation between the proportion of urban population and the rate of daily status
unemployment was-0.11 which was negative though very mild.

The expected negative correlation between urbanization and unemployment (through absorption of
rural surplus labour) did not get support from an analysis of the empirical data.

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Refer Table 23 : Degree of Urbanization, Per Capita Income, Rates of Unemployment and
Population Below the Poverty Line
S. Cities Urban to Per capita Rate of % age of
total income Unemployment population
No. population 1993-94 Prices (daily status, below the
(2001) (2001-02) (1999-2000)) poverty line
percent (1991-00)
α 1 2 3
1 Tamil Nadu 43.9 12,717 11.78 21.1
2 Mahrashtra 42.4 14,653 7.16 25.0
3 Gujarat 37.4 13,232 4.55 14.1
4 Karnataka 34.0 11,516 4.57 20.0
5 Punjab 33.9 15,195 4.03 6.2
6 Haryana 29.0 14,181 4.77 8.7
7 West Bengal 28.0 10,375 14.99 27.0
8 Andhra Pradesh 27.1 10,609 8.03 15.8
9 Kerala 26.0 10,709 2.97 12.7
10 Madhya Pradesh 25.0 7,699 4.45 37.4
11 Rajasthan 23.4 8.571 3.13 15.3
12 Uttar Pradesh 20.8 5,687 4.08 31.2
13 Orissa 15.0 5,927 7.34 47.1
14 Bihar 13.4 3.554 7.32 42.6
15 Assam 12.7 6,066 22.21 36.1
16 Himachal Pradesh 9.8 11,402 2.96 7.6
All India 27.8 10,754 7.32 26.1
Note : a urbanization percentage for Bihar has been recalculated to include Jharkhand and that for Madhya
Pradesh to include Chattisgarh.
b. states have been arranged in the descending order on the basis of degree of urbanization.
Source:1. census of India (2001)

Correlation between the proportion of urban population and percentage of population below the
poverty line is -0.39. It indicates a negative but mild, correlation. Obviously, the pattern of
urbanization that has developed in India did not make a deep impact on reduction of poverty.

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7.7 THE QUALITY OF POPULATION
The quality of population can be judged from life expectancy, the level of literacy and the
level of technical training attained by the literacy and level of technical training attained by the
people of a country. Up to 1981, (Refer Table 24) it was customary to exclude children in the age
group 0-4 and then calculated the rate of literacy. However, the census of 1991 has redefined the
concept of literacy. It uses the term literacy rate related to population aged seven years and above.
Refer Table 24. Literacy Rate in India:-
S.No. Year Persons Males Females
1 1951* 18.3 27.2 8.9
2 1961* 28.3 40.4 15.3

3 1971* 34.5 46.0 22.0

4 1981* 41.4 53.4 28.5
5 (43.7) (56.5) (29.5)

6 1991* 52.2 64.1 39.3

7 2001 65.4 75.8 52.1
Source: census of India 2001, Series 1 India paper 1 of 2001. (Provisional Population Total P. 117).
Note: * Literacy rates for 1951, 1961 and 1971 related to population aged 5 years and above. The literacy
rates for the year 1981 and 1991 related to the population aged 7 years and above. Literacy rate for the
population aged 7 years and above in 1981 have been shown in brackets.

As such, the figures based on the earlier definition are not comparable with those based on
the definition adopted in 1991. not withstanding the revised definition, the literacy rate improved
from 43.7% in 1981 to 52.2% in 1991, male literacy from 29.5% to 39.3% during the same period.
There is no doubt that in 1991, 352 million persons were literate, but simultaneously, there was a
huge mass of 324 million illiterate persons. The growth of literacy rate by 8.5% during 1981-91
decade, marks a slight improvement over the 1971-81 decade, during which literacy improved by
about 7 percentage points. The literacy rates has improved from 52.2 % in 1991 to 65.4 % in 2001,
male literacy has improved by 11.7 5 and female literacy has improved by 14.9 % thus the increase
in literacy rates observed during 1991-2002 in respect of persons, males as well as females have been
the highest record in comparison to earlier decades since 1951 except on the case of males during
1951-61 this improvement augurs well for the country and needs only to be sustained but required a
fillip in the case of fairer sex‘6 according to the census commissioner Mr.JK Banthia, it is heartening
to note that the gap between male and female literacy has narrowed down during 1991-2001.

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7.7.1 Constitutional Directive of Providing Compulsory Elementary Education
The directive principles of the constitution enjoined upon the government to provide free and
compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14 by 1960. it is a sad commentary on the
progress of elementary education that even after the lapse of over five decades, there is no hope the
fulfillment of this constitutional directive.
The situation in primary education as it obtains today is that country has reached a gross
enrolment level of 93.4 % at the primary level, but despite this, the rate of literacy achieved is only
65.4 %. In the case of rural females, the literacy rate is as low as 54.2 %. It is really shocking that in
some states. Female literacy is below even 50 % (Rajasthan 44.3%), Uttar Pradesh 43.0%), (Bihar
33.6%)
The paradox of rapid growth of population in the face of rising trend of enrolment can be
explained in terms of high drop-out rates- out of very 100 students enrolled in Class I, only 40 reach
class V and 23 reach class VIII. All these drop-outs add to the population of illiterates. Moreover,
retention rates among the females are poorer and only 16 to 18 per cent of those enrolled in class I
reach class VIII.
The principle reasons for high drop-out rates are
(i) 35% of the primary school have a single teacher to teach 3 to 4 different
classes.
(ii) 40 per cent of the school have no pueea buildings. 39.7% have no black boards
and 59.5% have no drinking water.
(iii) More than 90 5 of the expenditure (in some states even more than 98%) is spent
on teacher salaries and administration. Practically nothing is available to buy a
black-board and chalks, let alone chart, other inexpensive teaching aids. Or even
pictures for drinking water.
(iv) There is hardly any effort on the part of the village or community leadership or
at the block or district level to improve school environment .
(v) Provision for mid-day meals either does not exist or badly mismanaged and this
drives out a large number of school children, specially belonging to the
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and those belonging to other weaker
section viz. landless laboures, marginal and artisans.

The analysis of the data suggest the following:

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 (i) Overall literacy level in India is 65 % which is far below the cent per cent level of
literacy achieved in Australia, Canada, United Kingdom and the United States.
(ii) Whereas the different between male and female literacy has narrowed down in
the urban area. The gap is too wide in the rural areas.
(iii) In India, in 2001 the level of literacy was 76 % for males and 52 % for females as
against nearly cent per cent in developed countries.
(iv) Number of persons enrolled in higher education as percentage of population in the
age group 17-24 was barely 6 % in 2000. This figure is quite high among low
income countries. It is only one-third to one fourth.

7.7.2 Life Expectancy

In India life expectancy at birth was 46.4 years for the decade 1961-71-47.1 years for the
males, and 45.6 years for females. Compared to figures (Refer Table 25) of earlier decade, the
average expectation of life improves considerably. It was 54 years in 1981 and stands at 65.3 years in
2001.
Refer Table 25. Life Expectancy at Birth in India (in years)
Period Males Females Over all
1911-21 19.4 20.9
1921-31 26.9 26.9
1931-41 32.1 31.4
1941-51 32.4 31.7
1951-61 41.9 40.6 41.2
1961-71 47.1 45.6 46.4
1971-81 54.1 54.7 54.0
2001 63.9 66.9 65.3
2002-06 62.6 64.2 63.5
Source: Census of India, 1971, Age and Life Tables and Census of India 1981, Series-1 of 1984 and Census
of India (2001). Economic survey (2009-10)

One important factor depressing life expectancy was the high level of infant mortality during
the last two decade, infant mortality has shown a significant decline from 219 per thousand in 1916
to 58 in 2005 this is largely the result of an improvement of maternity service and better care of the
children.
Greater care of women due to change on our attitude towards women has also contributed to
higher life expectancy of the female population in India. While poverty of the Indian people is at the
root of this phenomenon of short life span, the discovery of wonder medicines to control epidemics
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like plague, cholera, influenza or small pox, the general improvement in medical assistance, increase
I the number of hospitals, doctors, nurses midwives and better control of diseases have all helped to
save life. In recent years, the publish health measures taken under the various plans have further
reduced death rate, the present level of life expectancy in India does not compare favorably the levels
obtaining in other countries of the world.

7.8 POPULATION GROWTH AS A FACTOR OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The process of economic development involves the utilization of physical resources of a
nation by the labour force of a country so that productive potential in a country is realized . in this
effort of development there is no doubt that the labour force of the country makes a positive
contribution. But it is equally true that rapidly growing population retards the process of
development. The impact of rising population acting as a drag on economic resources is felt in a
variety of ways. It would be of interest to examine the problem in this setting.

7.8.1 Population and Growth of National and Per Capita Income

During 1980-81 and 2000-01, the annual average growth of net national product was 5.4 % and of
per capital product (income) was 3.4 % decades to 1.5 % per annum, consequently the net increase
in per capita income will rise. A high growth rate of population has been a retarding factor to raising
the levels of per capita income earlier.

7.8. 2 Population and Food Supply

Ever since Malthus wrote his celebrated essay on population attention was focused on the
problem of population (Refer Table 26) versus food supply. There is no doubt that per capita
cultivated area is gradually on the decline in India. Between 1921 and 2001 the cultivated area per
capita dropped from 1.11 acres to 0.32 acres, indicating a fall of 71%. To compensate for this fall in
cultivated land-man ratio, it is imperative that efforts be made to raise productivity.
From above refer table 21, it is clear that between 1961 and 1997, net availability of food
grains (cereals plus pluses) increased from 76 million tones to 176 million tones. Signifying an
increase of 132 %. But during the same period, population increased from 442 million to 960
million. i.e. 117 %. Consequently, per capita domestic availability of food grains increased from 469
grams to 503 grams signifying a very small increase of in the per capita availability of food grains is
to a great extent attributable to the rapid rise of population. There was a decline in per capita
availability of food grains to 486 grams in 2008. since a major part of the increase in population

129
takes place in the rural areas. It also signifies that the share of family consumption in total food
production will increase and much less will be left over as marketable surplus. These are gloomy
forebodings which stress the necessity of family limitation.
Refer Table 26. Net Availability of Food grains
S.No. Year Population Net availability of Per capita availability
in million cereals and pulses of cereals and pulses
(million) (in grams)
1 2 3 4 5
1 1961 442 76 469
2 1990 833 159 476
3 1997 960 176 533
4 2000 1014 168.3 454
5 2002 1051 189 494
6 2008 154 205 486
Note : Net availability includes net domestic production plus net imports plus change in government stocks.
Net production has been taken as 87.5% of the gross production.12.5% being provided for feed. Seed
requirements and wastage.
Source : computed from government of India. Economic survey, 2008-2009.

7.8.3 Population And Unemployment

Rising population is accompanied by a rise in the labour force of the community. Hence, it makes the
solution of the problem of unemployment more difficult. On the basis of NSS data (55th Round), it
has been revealed that the number of unemployed has increased from 20.13 million in 1993-94 to
26.58 million in 1999-2000. As a proportion of the labour force, the unemployment rate has
increased from 6.0 % in 1993-94 to 7.32 % in 1999-2000. According to approach paper of the 11th
plan, the rate of unemployment further increased to 8.3 5 in 2004-05. the increase in the unemployed
both in absolute and relative terms, indicates that during the last 55 years of planning, the five-year
plans were not even able to absorb the net additions to the labour force, not to speak of clearing the
back log of unemployed. The problem of unemployment will become far more difficult in the future.
Obviously, a significance proportion of the national resource will have to be used to expand
employment opportunities to absorb the increasing labour force and the backlog of unemployed left
over due to the continuous pressure of a rapidly growing population.

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7.8.4 Population And The Burden of Education, Medical Care And Housing
Medical care and housing rising population increases the number of children and hence demands
higher expenditure on education. There is no doubt that expenditure on education can be viewed as
social investment in human being that ultimately enhances the productivity of the labour force, but
force, but it may be emphasized that the time-lag respect is quite long and hence the direct effect in
raising output per unit of investment is very low.
India‘s public expenditure on education was 3.7% GDP in 2005. This is considered to be low,
because the education Commission (1964-65) stipulated to increase it to 6% of GDP in1984-85.
Obviously, it impacts on creating educational institutions at the primary secondary tertiary level to
meet the needs of the growing knowledge economy. The onset of the computer revolution also
necessitates higher expenditures on skill and training so as take advantage of new and emerging
technologies.
Moreover. India spent only 0.9% of its GDP on public health expenditure. This is much
below the level required for achieving the goals of removing malnutrition and control of diseases.
The poor are specially affected because they cannot incur higher out-of pocket private expenditure an
health. The burden of raising public health expenditure to 2-3% of GDP indicates the need to
improve medical facilities not only that, the burden of providing housing housing to additional
population also requires additional resources.

7.8.5 Increase In Population And Capital Formation

It is quite necessary that national income should grow at the same rate at which population is
growing so that the existing level of real per capita income is maintained. The present rate of growth
of population in India is 1.5 % per annum. To maintain a constant per capita real income national
must rise at the rate of 1.5% annum. To achieve this, capital investment is necessary. The capital-
output ratio for the Indian economy at present has been estimated at 4.1 which implies that about 4.1
units of capital are needed to bring about an increase of one unit of out put thus, in order to bring
about an increase of national income at the rate of 1.5 % capital accumulation of the order of 6.2% is
necessary. (George C. Zaidan, 1969) of the London school of economics gas estimated the
proportion of G.N.P that has to be invested in order to keep per capita income at a constant level.
Whereas in the developed countries the proportion of GNP that is wasted for this purpose is less than
5 %, in underdeveloped countries like India, Columbia, morocco,brazil,Ghana and Tunisia, it is over
10 %.
While several other factors such as an in egalitarian system of land ownership and other forms of
property, less emphasis on measures directed to help the weaker section of the community and slow
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pace of economic growth in India during the period 1950-51 to 1993-94 are mainly responsible for it,
population growth is also an important factor in the situation.

7.9 POPULATION POLICY

The significance of the growth in population can be judged from the fact that during the decade
1991-2001, there has been an increase of about 183 million reaching a level of 1,027 million in 2001.
the alarming rate at which population is growing calls forth the need for a positive population policy
to restrict this rapid growth of population.

7.9.1 Family Planning And Five-Year Plans

Although India has been recognized as the first country in the world to officially adopt family
planning programme in 1952, serious thinking about population growth was reflected in the third
plan in terms of the objective of stabilizing the growth of population over a reasonable period‘‘
subsequently, targets were set in Various policy documents. ( Refer Table 27) briefly summaries the
targets specified and the actual achievement. The third plan for the first time set the population goal
of achieving by the year 1973, but achievement fell far short of expectation. Similarly, in 1968,a new
demo graphic goal to reduce birth rate to 23 by 1978-79 was set, but again the achievement was
dismal. In 1983, on the recommendation a working group on population policy set up by the
planning policy set up by the planning commission, the national health policy (1983) set the goal of
reducing the net reproduction rate (NRR) to 1 by 2000A.D. by reducing crude birth rate to 21, crude
death rate to 9, infant mortality rate to less than 60 per thousand and by increasing the proportion of
couples practicing family planning to 60 %. This was adopted as the demographic goal in the sixth
plan for the year 1995 . how ever, a review indicated that this goal would be reached only by the
period 2006-2011. thus every time, a demo graphic goal was fixed, due to lack of achievement it was
used to a later period it was only in the eighth plat that the achievement of crude birth rate of 26 per
thousand by 1997 was be close to the target set for the plan.
To achieve the family planning goals, the following measures were adopted by the government;
(1) Motivation programme to spread the knowledge of family planning. All mas-media
newspapers. Radio. T.V films etc-were widely used to spread consciousness abour family
limitation.
(2) Supply of contraceptives to all section of rural and urban population.
(3) Financial incentives for family planning in the form of cash awards for undergoing
sterilization.

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 (4) Extensive use of sterillisation of both males and females.
Refer Table 27: Demographic Goals Set and Actual Achievement
Year Specified Target year Actual achievement
Demography for achieving
objective (CBR) the goal
1962 25 1973 34.6
1968 23 1978-79 33.3
1974 30 1979 33.7
April 1976 30 1978-79 33.3
25 1983-84 33.7
April 1977 30 1978-79 33.3
25 1983-84 33.7
National 31 1985 32.9
Health policy 27 1990 29.9
1983
Seventh plan 29.1 1990 29.9
Eight plan 26.0 1997 27.4
Note: CBR= crude Birth Rate.
Source: planning commission, eight five year plan (1992-97)
In India, the family planning programme did not concentrate on a single method but adopted
what is generally described as ‗the cafeteria approach‘‘ i.e; making use of all the scientifically
approved contraceptives. Apart from family planning, the government relied upon-to some extent
education and economic progress to restrict the growth of our population . raising the level of
education of the people has a general salutary effect on fertility. This is particularly so if the female
population is educated. Studies in India have confirmed the relationship between fertility rates and
education and economic status- the motivation for the small family and successful adoption of
contraceptive methods being the stronger among those classes who are both educated and
economically better off‘‘

7.9.2 Impact of Family Planning Programmes on India‘s Population Growth

Family planning programmes, broadly speaking, use three methods: (i) sterilization clearly gives full
protection,(ii) I.U.D insertion is supposed to give 95 % protection (iii) Regular use of oral pills is
also considered to give full protection, but regular use of conventional contraceptives provides 50 %
protection .
Under the blanket umbrella of emergency a ruthless sterilization drive was launched, which pushed
sterilization drives was launched, which used sterilization to a level of 8.26 million during 1976-77,
but as a result of the defeat of the congress government in 1977 General Election in which
sterilization excesses were a major issue, the department of family planning developed cold feet and

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the sterilization slumped to an abnormally low, a level of 0.95 million in 1977-78. the gradually
increasing trend of sterilizations after 1978-79 from a level of 1.48 million in 1978-79 to million in
1981-82 and further to 4.90 million in 1985-86 is an index of stability of the programme with
increasing impact over time.
Besides this, percentage of couples effectively protective by various method have also increased over
time.

7.9.3 Non-family planning measures

The census of 2001 highlighted the fact that the mean age at marriage of females which was
estimated at 17.16 years during 1971 has increased to 18.3 in 2001. it may be noted that states like
Kerala, Gujarat and Punjab have been able to effectively raise the mean age at marriage. This is
largely the consequence of high level of literacy achieved in these states. In case, the programmes of
adult literacy and general literacy are strengthened, general fertility rate (GFR) will register a faster
decline. There is no doubt that even in states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh the proportion of married females in the age group 15-19 which was above 70 % in 1971
declined to about a level below 65 % in 1981. in Andhra Pradesh and Haryana this trend is even
stronger. Social change affecting mean age at marriage are taking place in all the states. This is also
evidenced by the fact that the proportion of married (Refer Table 28) females in age group 15-44
has declined from 85.75 % in 1961 to 80.48 % in 1981. the census of 1981 assuming this trend to
continue estimates that proportion of married females in the age group 15-44 will come down to 77.1
% in 1991 and further to 73.6 % in 2001. from this the Registar General concludes;‘‘it appears that
roughly 12 % decline in fertility as measured by GFR may be anticipated in the next 20 years due to
increase in age at marriage which is a non-family planning measure. If, however, the pattern of
growth in literacy accelerates, this may decline faster. This therefore, has to be considered as lower
limit.‘‘
Refer Table 28. Proportion of Married Females To Total Females In The Age Group 15-44,
India
Year Proportion married (%) Change in proposition (%)
1951 82.94 -
1961 85.75 +2.81
1971 83.90 (-)1.85
1981 80.48 (-) 3.42
1991* 77.06 (-) 3.42
2001* 73.64 (-) 3.42
* projections SOURCE: census of India 1981- paper I of 1984.
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7.9.4 Steps Towards A Rational Population Policy
History of population growth in the world shows that high infant mortality go together and
motivation for low fertility gets strengthened to the extent to which infant mortality and morbidity
are reduced I n advanced countries like USA, UK, Ger-many. France, Japan etc. infant mortality has
been reduced to low a figure as 10 to 15 per thousand births. In contrast, infant mortality in India is
as high as 57 in 2006. secondly, advanced societies have a well – developed social security system
against the risks of unemployment, old age, sickness, accident etc. the well-to-do section in Indian
society living in urban areas are largely free from the worry of life risks due to schemes of social
security like provident fund, gratuity, old age pension, life insurance etc. the rich and elite classes
have a large command over property, and income from this property provides adequate security
against life risks. So the motivation for small family exists among the well-to do section. As against
it, the poorer classes consider ‗son‘ the most important social security. Consequently, the motivation
to have one or two sons result in having a large family. it is vitally important that in order to induce
the poor to have small family, employment guarantee schemes and old age security measures are
strengthened. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme introduced in 2006 is a step in
the right direction. A beginning has been made to introduce social security of senior citizens 65 years
of age. The Government has planned to introduce Rashtriya Seasthya Bima Yojana (National Health
Insurance Scheme) in 2008-09 to provide health cover of Rs. 30,000 for every worker in the
unorganized sector falling below the poverty line category and his/her family.
Lastly, a school of thought among the demographers believes that our socio-economic
policies must integrate population and development goals for instance, V.P. Pethe 1981 argues: ―The
masses cannot be expected, rationally and morally, to undergo hardships that may result from a small
family under the current environment, unless the educated and well off classes also effectively
demonstrate that are willing to make sacrifices (in terms of reducing conspicuous consumption,
sharing income and property benefits, etc.) in the common commitment to economic development,
Social transformation and creating an egalitarian social order. ―while development the best
contraceptive, but the question is : Given the present social and economic order. Would it be
desirable to wait B.K.Benerji 1983 in a sharp comment against Peth‘s line of thinking states :
Egalitarian distribution of income is a good toy for the politicians and some of the economists to play
with But there is nothing visible even in the distant horizon that portends its actualization in the
foreseeable future. He raises the question : So how long could we wait for the egalitarian society to
come
This is not to deny the need for pressing forth programmes of development and egalitarian
distribution, but to underline the fact that family planning programmes must go ahead independently
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of the programmes of development and egalitarian distribution. There is, howere, no doubt that the
two together reinforce the creation of a better social and economic order.
China which has a similar population problem like ours has successfully brought down the
growth rate of population from 2.2% per annum during 1965-80 to 0.7% per annum during 2000-04.
For achieving this target, the Chinese Government offered incentives such as increase in salary by
12.5 per cent, priority in housing, preference in school admissions and in jobs, adult ration for the
child etc. Those who refuse to accept the one-child norm are taxed heavily .
The experience of Kerala indicates that without the use of compulsion, birth rate has been
brought down to a level of 15 per thousand by 2006. Mainly the high literacy rate in Kerala coupled
with an organizationally better programme of family planning and health care explain the social
transformation. It would be therefore, desirable that programmes of poverty alleviation should run
along with those of family planning so that the poor develop greater credibility in the sincerity of the
state. Only then will they accept the small family norm more willingly.

7.9.5 Family Planning And Maternity And Child Health (MCH) Sstrategies
The government has increasingly realized over time that family planning can succeed only if
child survival rate in our country is enhanced. The seventh plan clearly mentioned : ―recognizing the
close relationship that exists between high birth rate and high infant mortality, high priority will be
given to the MCH (Maternity and child Health) programme.‖ It further states: ―For the achievement
of the ―two child‖ norm, it is essential that the child survival rate in our country is enhaneed.‖
The second major thrust of the seventh plan in the family welfare programme was to reduce
maternal mortality.
The focus of the family planning programmes which has been enlarged to be renamed as
family welfare programme to take care of the problems of maternity and child health was in the right
direction.

7.10 NATIONNAL POPOLATION POLICY (2000)

The NDA Government finally decided on 15th February 2000 to adopt the national population
policy (2000) with a view to encourage two-child norm and aim at stabilizing the population by 2046
A. D. the main features of the national population policy are as under:
Firstly the Government decided that the Freeze on Lok sabha seats imposed as per the 42nd
Constitutional Amendment with 1971 census as the basis for deciding the number of seats which is
valid upto 2001, is being extended till 2026. this is being done so that states like TamilNadu and

136
Kerela, which have followed the small family norm effectively should not be penalized and states
like Utter Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan should not be rewarded by granting more
seats in Lok Sabha.
Besides this national population policy listed the following measures to achieve a stable
population by 2046.
(i) Reduction of infant mortality rate below 30 per 1000 live births.
(ii) Reduction of maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 1,00,000 live birth.
(iii) Universal Immunization
(iv) To achieve 80% deliveries in regular dispensaries, hospitals and medical
Institutions with trained staff.
(v) Access to information. Containing AIDS, prevention and control of
communicable diseases.
(vi) Incentive to adopt two-child small family norm
(vii) Facilities for safe abortions to be increased
(viii) Strict enforcement of child Marriage Restraint Act and Pre-Natal Diagnostic
techniques Act,
(ix) Raising the age of marriage girls not earlier than 18, and preferably it to 20
years or more.

(x) A Special reward for women who marry after 21 and opt for a terminal
method of contraception after the second child.

(xi) Health insurance cover for those below the poverty who undergo sterlisation after having
two children.
The Action Plan drawn for the next 10 crucial years included the following:
(a) Self-help groups at village panchayat levels comprising mostly of housewives Will
interact with healthcare workers and gram panchayats.
(b) Elementary education to be made free and compulsory .
(c) Registration of marriage, Pregnancy to be made compulsory along with birth
and deaths.
The Government hopes to achieve the objective of population stabilization by 2046 A. D.
Immediately to improve the infrastructure, an additional allocation of Rs. 3,,000 crores is required so
that the ummet needs of contraception can taken care of .

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 Critics, however, feel that the new population policy puts the entire burden of family
limitation on ―women‖. Dr. Nina Puri. President. Family Planning Association of India criticizing
the Government Stated :‖
―The policy was ―soft‖ on the male participation. The message the new policy sends across is that the
women will bear the burden of population control with men being off easily. ―The policy provides
incentives only to women to accept terminal method of contraception after the second child. It would
have been far better, had the policy also provided similar incentives for ―men‖ for sterilization after
the second child. There is much force in the argument and the government should suitably modify
the incentives to place burden of population control equally on both the partners-male as well as
female.
It is really a pity that vasectomy accounts for only 6 % of current contraceptive use. In fact,
vasectomy is a much simple. Safe and easier method compared with tubectomy performed on
females which is a relatively more complex procedure than vasectomy . The working Group and
population Stabilisation for the Eleventh plan (2007-12) constituted by the planning commission
acknowledge that vasectomy has gone out of favour after the excesses committed during the
emergency (1975-77). However, there is a need to undertake a big programme to reeducate males
regarding the adoption voluntary vasectomy. Some incentives may also be provided to promote
voluntary vasectomy.

7.11 POPULATION PROJECTION (2001-26)

Report of the Technical Group on population projections constituted by the National
Commission on population (Refer Table 29) pertaining to period 2001-2026 was submitted in May
2006. The Census of India has revised the projection in December 2006. The findings of this Report
bring out the trend of population and its variables for 25- year period which has serious implications
for policy-making in various spheres of national and regional planning .

The report made the following assumptions:

1. Total fertility Rate decline observed during 1981-2000 will continue in the future years also.
2. Sex ratio at birth of all the states are assumed to remain constant future years.
3. The increase in life expectancy become slower as it reaches higher levels.
4. Inter-state net migration during 1991-2001 has been assumed to remain constant throughout the
projection period for all states .
5. Urban-rural growth differentials for the period 1991-2001 has been assumed to be same in future
as well up to 2026.
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Refer Table 29: Projected Population Characteristics On 31ts March 2001-2026
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026

Population (Million) 1,029 1,112 1,192 1,269 1,340 1,400

Male (Million) 532 575 617 657 694 725

Female (Million) 496 537 575 612 646 675

Sex Ratio 933 932 932 931 930 930
Urban population 286 321 358 395 433 468

Population Density(sq.km.) 313 338 363 386 408 426

Population by age group

0-14 35.5 32.1 29.1 26.8 25.1 23.3

15-64 60.1 62.9 65.4 67.1 67.8 68.4

Above 4.4 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.1 8.3

Source: Report of tecnical group on population projection for India and states 2001-202 Revised December 2006

The Report is conscious of the fact that ―predicting of the future course of fertility and mortality is
not an easy task, especially when looking beyond in time is bound to be influenced by medical and
its equitable availability, climatic variability, socio-cultural setting, politico-economic conditions and
a host of other factors affecting the population dynamics.‖ The findings should be viewed in the light
of these limitation The main findings are summarized
The population of India is expected to increase from 1,029 million to 1,401 million during the
period 2001-2026 an increase of 36% in 25 years i.e. at the rate of 1.2% per year. Consequently, the
density of population will increase from 323 to 426 persons per sq. km.
 The sex ratio (females per 1000 males) is likely to slightly decline from 933 to during
2001-2026.
 Child population (Age group 0-14) is likely to decline from 35.3% to of the total
population during 2001-2026.
 Working age group population (15-64) years is likely show an increase from 60.1% to
68.4% during the 25-years period.
 Urban population is likely to increase from 286 million to 468 million during 2001-2026.
As a population of total population, it is expected to increase from 28% in 2001 to 33% in
2026.

139
  Youth population in the age group 15-24 years is expected to increase from 195 million in
2001 to 240 million in 2011 and then continue to decrease to 224 million in 2026. As
percentage of total population, it is expected to fall from 19% in 2001 to 16 % in 2026.

7.12 DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

 Population growth will continue to register a ( Refer Table 30) decline in growth rate from
1.6% during 2001-05 to 1.3% in 2111-15 and further to 0.9% during 2021-25.
 Crude birth rate will decline from 23.2% during 2001-05 to 16% during 2021-25 because of
falling total fertility. In contrast, crude death rate is expected to fall marginally from 7.5%
during 2002-05 to 7.2% during 2021-25.
 Infant mortality rate is estimated to decline from 61% in 2001-05 to 40% by the period 2021-
25.
 Total fertility rate (TFR) is expected to decline from 2.9 during 2001-05 to 2.0 during 2021-
25 with this the weighted TFR is projected to reach replacement level of 2.1 by 2015.
Refer Table 30: Demographic Indicators in India (2001-2025)
Indicator 2001-05 2006-10 2011-15 2016-20 2021-25
Population growth rate 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 0.9
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) 23.2 21.3 19.6 18.0 16.0

Crude Death Rate(CDR) 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.2

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 61.3 54.3 49.2 44.0 40.2
Under 5 Mortality Rate 82.0 72.8 65.9 59.0 54.0

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.0

Life Fertility of Males 63.8 65.8 67.3 68.8 69.8

Life Expectancy of Females 66.1 68.1 69.6 71.1 72.3

At the state level, as evident from (Refer Table 31) , Four states, viz, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Delhi have already achieved the TFR replacement level. The laggards in this regard are Jharkhand,
Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Of the projected increase in population of 371 million in India, nearly 187 in India, nearly
187 million is likely to take place in seven States of Bihar, Chhattisgarh . Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal (termed as BIMARU states) This

140
implies that 57% of India‘s population increase during the 25 years period will occur in these states.
About 22% of the total population increase is to occur in Uttar Pradesh alone.
Refer Table 31: Year By Which Total Fertility Rate(TFR) Of 2.1 Will Be Achieved
India and major states TFR in 2010 Year by which project TFR will be 2.1

India 2.5 2015

Kerala 1.8 Achieved in 1988
Tamil Nadu 1.8 Achieved in 2000
Delhi n.a Achieved
Himachal Pradesh 1.8 Achieved in 2002
Andhra Pradesh 1.8 2002
West Bengal 1.8 2003
Karnataka 1.8 2005
Punjab 1.8 2006
Maharashtra 1.9 2009
Orissa 2.0 2010
Gujarat 2.6 2012
Haryana 2.4 2012
Jharkhand n.a. 2018
Assam 2.6 2019
Bihar 3.2 2021
Rajasthan 3.7 2021
Uttaranchal n.a. 2022
Chhattisgarh n.a. 2022
Madhya Pradesh 3.0 2025
Uttar Pradesh 3.9 2027

A study state level population projection presented in table 27 divided the entire period of
2001-26 into two parts- 10 year period of 2000-11 and 15-year period of 2011-26. The study has also
divided states into forward states and backward states on the basis of per capita GDP.
9 Forward states accounted for 48.2% of India‘s total population, but as the population, but as
the population growth rates slow down to 1.2% during 2001-11 and further to 0.8% during 2011-
2026, the share states in total population is expected to decline to 45.4% in 2026. But for Haryana
and Maharashtra in which population growth continued to be high at 1.4% and 1.3% respectively
during 2011-2026, all other states indicate decline in growth rates to less than 1% and in Kerala and
Tamil Nadu, (Refer Teble- 32) population growth rate would be as low as 0.5% per annum during
2011-26.

141
 Refer Table 32: Population Projection for 2001-2026 for India and Major States:
India In million Percent increase Annual Average
Rate of Growth
2001 2111 2026 2001-2111 2111-2026 2001-2111 2111-2026

1,029 1,193 1,400 15.9 17.3 1.5 1.1

Forward states

Punjab 24.4 27.8 31.3 13.9 12.6 1.3 0.8

Maharashtra 96.9 112.7 133.3 16.3 22.7 1.5 1.3

Haryana 21.1 25.4 31.4 20.3 23.6 1.8 1.4

Gujarat 50.3 59.0 69.3 16.4 17.4 1.5 1.0

West Bengal 80.2 89.5 100.5 11.6 12.3 1.1 0.8

Karnataka 52.9 59.4 66.9 13.3 12.6 1.2 0.8

Kerala 31.8 34.6 37.3 8.8 7.8 0.9 0.5

Tamil Nadu 62.4 67.4 71.9 8.0 6.7 0.8 0.5

Andhra Pradesh 76.2 84.7 94.1 11.2 11.1 1.0 0.7

Sub-total 496.6 560.0 636.0 12.9 13.5 1.2 0.8

(48.2) (47.0) (45.4)
Backward States

Chhattisgarh 20.8 24.3 28.6 16.8 17.6 1.6 1.1

Madhya Pradesh 60.3 72.2 87.7 19.7 21.5 1.8 1.3

Assam 26.7 30.6 35.6 14.6 16.3 1.4 1.0

Uttar Pradesh 166.2 200.8 248.0 20.8 23.9 1.9

Rajasthan 56.5 67.8 81.5 12.0 20.2 1.1 1.2

Orissa 36.8 40.7 45.3 10.6 11.3 1.0 0.7

Bihar 83.0 97.7 113.8 17.7 16.4 1.7 1.0

Jharkhand 26.9 31.5 37.4 17.1 18.7 1.6 1.2

Sub-total 477.2 565.6 678.7 18.5 19.39 1.7 1.2

(46.4) (47.4) (48.4)
Note : figure in brackets indicates the total in the group to All-India population
Source: Compiled and computed from census of India, Population projection Of India and states (2001-2026)
December 2006 (Revised).

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 On the order hand, population of the 8 backward states which accounted for 46.4% of the
total population in India in 2001 is expected to increase to 48^ in 2026. In absolute terms, the
population of 8 backward states will increase from 477 million in 2001 to 679 million in 2026- a rise
by 202 million in 25 years. In Contrast, the population of 8 forward states will increase from 497
million in 2001 to 636 million in 2026-a rise by 139 million. Although there is a slow down in
population growth rates form 1.7% during 2001-11 to 1.2% during 2011-26 even in the backward
states, yet the family planning programmes have to make strong impact on them to bring it to the
replacement levels. The major culprits in this regard are Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh which
will have relatively much higher growth rates of population even during 2011-26. The population of
these two states is expected to be about 337 million in 2026, i.e. 24% of the total population of India.

7.12.1 Demographic Dividevend

Traditionally the population of the country has been considered as a liability on the natural
resources. But looked at from another point of view. Population become an asset. For this purpose.
It would be desirable to consider the changes in the structure of population.
While studying the population, it is customary to classify the population into there age groups
. population in the age-group below 15 years is considered as child population. The working age
pertains to 15-64 years. Productive age group. Age group 65 and above comprises of old persons.
Both the child population and population is dependent on the productive age group for their
maintenance and sustenance .
When birth rates are high, the share of children in total population is also quite high. As a
result of family welfare measures, the educational level of the society and control of infant mortality,
birth rates begin to fall. In the early stage of demographic transition death rates fall at a faster rate
than birth rates. But since death rates cannot fall beyond the level of 6-7 per thousand, the fall in
birth rate has a decisive influence on the structure of population. The proportion of child population
begins to decline. But as a consequence of development, extension of medical facilities, control of
epidemics and better nourishment, the share of old population (65 and above age group) starts
increasing. Consequently, there is a decline in the dependency load of the population and increase in
the share of the productive age group. This structural change is likely to occur in India during the
next 25 year (2001-2006).
According to the Technical group on population projections constituted by the National
population Commission, annual growth rate of population is expected to gradually decline from 1.6
% in 2001 to 0.9 % in 2026 (Refer Table-33). Consequently, India‘s population which was 1,029
million in 2001 as per the 2001 census is expected to increase to 1,400 million by 2026. But there is
143
a structural change expected in the population. About 60 % of the population was in the working age
group in 2001, this is expected to increase gradually and will be 68.4 % in 2026. Demographic
dividend likely to manifest gradual increase in the working age group of 15-64 years. Consequently,
the capacity of the economy to harness the growing working age population in productive activities
will determine the actual realization of the demographic dividend. Since the population structure of
the India economy is also undergoing a transformation from agriculture to industry and service, there
would be a strong need to develop new skills so that economy can absorb the growing working age
group population in newly emerging areas of development.
The actual size of the working population however, may be different from the project population
this may be affected by child labour below 15 years of age who are changed in some economic
activity . Similarly, quite a good number of students in the age group 15-24 may be studying in
schools, colleges, universities, management training, ITIs. The extent of population in the group 15-
24 group engaged in education and training will have to be deducted from the total youth population
in 15-24 ages. With the gradual reduction of child labour, the actual number of dependents among
children will increase. Taking account of these
Refer Table 33 : Population Projections In Millions

2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026

Total 1,029 1,112 1,193 1,269 1,340 1,400

(100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
Below 15 years 365 357 347 340 337 327
(35.5) (32.1) (29.1) (26.8) (25.1) (23.3)
15-64 years 619 699 780 851 908 957
(60.1) (62.9) (65.4) (67.1) (67.8) (68.4)
Above 65 years 45 56 66 78 95 116
(4.4) (5.0) (5.5) (6.1) (7.1) (8.3)
Source: Census of India (2001), Report of the Technical Group on population May 2006

factors it can be stated that the working age group population broadly indicates the number of
persons who need to be employed in productive economic activates.
In India ,35.5 % of the child population and 4.4 5 of old persons. Accounting for about 40 % of the
total population in 2001 constitute non-working population. By 2026, child population is expected to
decline to 23.3 %, but old persons are likely to increase to 8.3 % . This implies that the non-working
population will decline to 31.6 %.
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 Economists calculate the dependency load of the population of the country with reference to the
contribution to production of population compared with its consumption. If we calculate the
consumption needs of an adult in the productive age i.e. 15-64 years as one, that of a child in the age
group (0-15) as one third and of an aged person (65 and above) as one-half, in the case of India in
2001, the population is composed of 35.5 % children, 60.1 % adults and percent aged persons, then
for every 100 adults of productive age group, there is a ratio of 124 consumer units. By 2026.this
ratio for 100 adults will decline to 117.6 consumption units. In other words, the dependency load of
the population will register a decline and move nearer to the dependency load of the developed
economies. The actual realization of the demographic dividend will depend on improving health care
levels as well as increasing human resource development, especially education.
To attain the goal of population stabilization, health care is important not only to reaping the benefits
of demographic dividend in terms of a healthy workforce, but also reducing birth rate and promoting
general welfare. Population stabilization can be achieved by taking care of infant mortality, safe
motherhood and increasing contraception. The reduction of malnutrition, in the over-all population,
especially among children and women can also contribute to the growth of a healthy and stable
population in this regard, wide disparities between rich and poor states. Between urban rural
populations male-female population will require remedial action.
India‘s record on health parameters is not only way behind china. It does not compare favorably,
even with respect to Sri Lanka. Not only that even Nepal and Bangladesh have a better record in
some health parameters (Refer Table 34) there is a need to strengthen health care services in India so
as rapidly move to the goal of a healthy and stable population. This will also help in the realization of
demographic dividend.
Refer Table 34 : Selected Health Parameters : India and its neighbors
Countray Life expectancy Under five Infant Maternal
at birth (year) Mortality rate mortality rate Mortality
(per 1000 live birth) (per1000 live birth) Rate
(2000-05) (1990) (2005) (1990) (2005) (2005)
China 72 49 27 38 23 45
India 63 123 74 80 56 450
Nepal 61 145 74 100 56 830
Pakistan 64 128 99 96 79 320
Sri Lanka 71 23 14 19 12 58
Bangladesh 62 144 73 96 54 570

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7.13 SUMMARY
It may be mentioned that whereas urbanization and per capita income are positively correlated, there
is near absence of a correlation between urbanization and unemployment and urbanisation and
reduction of population below the poverty line. Many factors are responsible for the situation.
Firstly, the neglect of slums in urban areas in our planning strategies may be perpetuating poverty.
For instance, the slum survey revealed that in Kolkata, 33 % of the population was living in slums.
Secondly, whereas the organized sectors are able to improve their income levels by collective
bargaining, the unorganized sectors are ruthlessly exploited by the capitalists, the landlords, the
contractors and other owners of the instruments of production. Thirdly, the increasing of capital-
intensive technologies in urban areas results in increase in unemployment consequently. The
absorptive capacity of the economy continues to the low and this explains to some extent the fact that
urbanization did not make a definite dent on the problem of unemployment. Last but not the least.
The benefits of growth may be unequally shared by various section of the society and the resulting
concentration of income and wealth may lead to an increase in per capita income without either
improving the economic condition of the poor or enlarging employment at higher wage levels. In
other words, the country may be experiencing an enclave type development whose spread effects are
very limited.

7.14 ACTIVITY
Locate and level the following on outline political map of India
(1) state having the highest literacy rate
(2) State having the lowest literacy rate
(3) state having the highest and lowest literacy rate
(4) state at the top in human development Index –( i) Kerala (ii) Bihar (iii) Orissa. etc.

7.15 QUESTIONS
-Define term human development. State three Indicators which form the basis of calculating the
human development Index (HDI)
-Why the human development is necessary. Explain with reasons
-Examine progress of the Economic Indicators Of Human Development in the country
-Which factors have caused Spatial variations in the levels of human development among the 15
major states in India.

146
7.16 REFERENCES
Agarawala, S.N 1967 ― Population‖ New Delhi, p- 137.
Aitereya Brahmana, Panjila V111.
Banerji, B.K. 1983 ― Population Develoipment Critique of Pethe‘s Thesis‖Economic Times January,
3, 1983.
Census of India (2001) Report of the Technical Group on Population Constituted by the National
Commission on Population May 2006
Census of India (2001) Series-1 (India) Paper 1 of 2001 Population Totals.
Census Of India 2001. Series 1. India Provisional Population Totals. p.117.
Census of India, 1961 Paper No. 1,1962 and Census of India 1971.
Coale, A.J. Hoover, E.N 1959 ― Population Growth and Economic Development in Low-Income
Countries‘‘ Oxford University Press p-10.
Committee on Transport Policy and Coordination, Final Report New Delhi,1966.
Dickison, R.E.1965 ― The makers of Modern Germany‖ (London, Routleedge and Kegan Paul ) 180,
122, 138,-140.
George, G. Zaidan 1969 ― Population and Economic Finance and Development, March.
Hartshorne in Singh R.L.1972 ―India: A Regional Geography‖ UPS Publisher, New Delhi p. 26
Hora, S.L 1936-37 ― Geographical Distribution of India Freshwater Fishes and its Bearing on the
Probable Land Connections between India and Adjacent Countries‘‘. Current science, V.
Kayastha, S.L.1964 ― The Himalayan Beas Basin- A study in Habitat Economy and Society B.H.U,
Univ. Press, p-209.
Kayastha, S.L1965 ― Some Aspects of Soil Erosion and Conservation in India N.G.J.I., X1 2.2
Krishnaji, N. 2000 ―Trends in Sex Ratio Economic and Political Weekly April. 1-7.
Lambert, R.D., 1960 ― The Encyclopaedia Americana XV.1.
Mathieson in Dickinson, R.E. 1969 ―The Makers of Modern Germany‖ London. Routledge and
Kegan Paul. p 180.
Mathieson, R.S 1968‖ Frontiers in Regional Geography‘‘Geographical Education, 63-70, 29-
122,138-140,47-35
Minshull, Roger 1967 ― Regional Geography: Theory and Practice‖ (London,Hutchinson Univ.
Library, p-9, 13, 18.
Mitra Ashok, 1961 ― Census of India‖ New delhi, Vol- I, Pt. I (A-1)
Pethe V.P. 1981 ― Population Policy and Compulsion in Family Planning,
Planning Commission, Seventh Five Year plan, Vol. 11. P.117.
Planning Commission: Seventh Five Year Plan.
147
Puri, G.S.1960 ― Indian Forest ecology‖ Oxford Book Stationary Company. 83-102.
Rig Veda .33
Roonwal, M.L. 1959 ― Fauna of India Presidential Address Proc. First All India zoology Congress‖
Roonwal, M.L. and Alis 1965 ― The Gazetteer of India, p-248.
Sen Gupta, P. and Galina Sdasyuk 1968 ― Economic Regionlisation of India Problem and
Approaches‖ New Delhi 89-99.
Sen Gupta, P. and Galina Sdasyuk 1968 ― Economic Regionlisation of India Problem and
Approaches‖ New Delhi p-102-116.S.
Sen.Amartya (2005). The Argumentative Indian.
Srinivason,V. 1960. ― South West Monsoon Rain fall in Association With The upper Air Flow
Pattern‖ India Journal Of metrology and Geophysics 11. 5-18.
UNDP (2007) Human Development Report (2007/08)
Vasant, P. Pathe 1982 ― Population and Development‖ Economic Times, November,12. 1982.
Wadia D.N. 1967 ―The Role of Himalayan Mountains in the Physiography of Asia‖ in Bose
Research Institute Vol 30 Kolkata.
Wilson J. Tuzo, 1965 ― A New Class of Faults and Their Bearing on Continental Drift‖ in Nature
Vol. 207 pp 343-538 New York.
World Bank, World Development Report (1997) and (1999-2000 and (2006)

148
UNIT -8 CASE STUDIES

STRUCTURE
8.0 Objective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Daurala ( Near Meerut)
8.3 Dharvi (Central Mumbai)
8.4 Jhabua ( Madhya Pradesh)
8.5 Summary
8.6 Activity
8.7 Questions
8.8 References

8.0 OBJECTIVE
To know about Daurala‘s inhabitants
To understand about the Industrial activities
To know about Asia‘s largest slum e.g ( Central Mumbai)
To know about Jhabua district in MadhyaPradesh

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In case studies NGO, supported by government officials developed a model for ecological
restoration. A door to door survey conducted by NGO showed many persons had died in few last
years due to consumption of contaminated water. Steps were keen to check the deteriorating ecology
of the villages.

8.2 DAURALA
X Role model to restore the ecology and safe guard human health in Daurala. Daurala is a village of
about 12,000 in habitants near Meerut. It was badly polluted by industries located here. Ground
water was contaminated with heavy metals because untreated water was leaching to the ground water
table. In the years 2003, the pitiable conditions those village was brought to be notice of civil society
Meerut based NGO supported by government officials development a model for ecological
restoration. A door to door survey conducted by the NGO revealed that 192 persons had died during

149
the last five years due to consumption of contaminated water. Steps taken at that time started
bearing fruits after three years. The NGO, the government. officials and industrialists were keen to
check the deterioraterating ecology of the village. The capacity of the overhead tank was increased.
An extra 800 metres pipeline was laid to provide potable water to the community. The silted pond
of the village was desisted so that trash water could percolate deep down the aquifers. Thus the tank
was recharged and sufficient potable water was made available. Rain water harvesting stretchers
were also constructed so that the contaminants of ground water are diluted as many as 1000 trees
have been planted which have helped a lot in improving the quality of environment.

8.3 DHARAVI
Asia‘s largest slum: buses merely skirt the periphery. Auto rickshaws cannot go there anomalously
Dharavi is part of Central Mumbai where three wheelers are banned. Only one main road traverses
the slum. The miscalled 90 feet.road‘ which has been reduced to less than half that for most of its
length. Some of the side alleys and Lanes are so narrow that not even a bicycle can pass whole
neighbour hood consist of tenement buildings, two or three storeys high with rusty iron stairways to
the upper part, where a single room is rented by a whole family, some times twelve or more people;it
is a kind of tropical version of the industrial dwelling of Victorian Londons east end.
But Daravj is a Keeper of more somber secrets than the revulsion it inspires in the rich a revulsion,
more over that is in direct proportion to the role it serve in the creation of the wealth Mumbai in this
place of shadow less, treeless sunlight, uncontrolled garbage, stagnant pools of faul water, where,
the only non human creatures are the shining black crows and long grey rats, some of the most
because full valuable and useful articles in India are made.
From Dharavi come delicate ceremics and pottery exquisite embroidery and zari work sophisticated
leather goods, high fashion , garments,findy wrought metal work, delicate jewellery setting, ward
carving and fracture that will find its way into the richest houses,both in India and abroad.
Dharavi was an arm of the sea, that was filled by waste, largely-produced by the people who have
come to give there; untouchables or scheduled castes as they are now known, and poor muslims. It
comprises. Rambling buildings of corrupted metal 20 metre high in places used for the treatment of
hides and tanning. There are pleasant parts, but rotting garbage is every where. (seabrook, 1996.pp
50,51,52)

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8.4 A CASE STUDY OF JHABUA (MADHYA PRADESH)
Jhabua is one of the five most back ward districts of Madhya Pradesh having a high concentration of
tribal population (mostly Bills). These are largely poor people due to high rate of forest and land
resource degradation. The watershed management programme founded by two ministries i.e ‗Rural‘
development and ‗agriculture‘‘ succeeded to a great extent in prevailing land degradation and
improving soil quality. Programmes funded by the ministry of rural development (implanted by
Rajiv GandhiMission for Water shed Management ) has treated about 20% of total area of Jhabua
district;
The Petlawad block located in the northern most part of the district represents a success story of
Government NGO partnership and community participation in managing watershed programmes.
Each household planted and mainteained one tree on the common property. They also have planted
foddertoader grass on the pasture land and adopted social fencing of these lands for at least two
years. There would be no open grazing on those lands, but stall feeding of cattle, and they are thus
confident that the pastures they have developed wood sustain their cattle in future. Before the
commencement of this programme, a villager from adjoining village had encroached this land.The
villagers resolved the dispute on common property resource (CPR) with the help of Tehsildar by
offering the encroacher the sharing of benefits of greening the common lands pastures.

8.5 SUMMARY
Rural and Urban population results in Unplanned and haphazard growth of towns. The rapid pace of
urbalizabon and industrialization results in the growth of slums. The Most of the rural urban
population belong to the lower income group and cannot afford permanent houses. Consequently
they occupy any vacant land available in theory and build huts slums increase in number and size
with the passage of time. This lead to environmental pollution, slums are dirty areas with
dilapidated houses, poor, hygienic conditions, poor ventlation, lack of basic amenities alike drinking
water, light and toilets facilities etc. The poverty makes them vulnerable to drug abuse alcoholism
crime, Vandalism, escapism apathy and ultimately social exclusion.

8.6 ACTIVITY
Take up any village of your district for the study of their working environment.

8.7 QUESTION
Give an account of socio-econonic conditions of Dharvi in Central Mumbai.
151
Suggest measures for reduction of slums in our country.
What are the effects of slums on human health.
Explain pull and push teeter.

8.8 REFERENCES
Seabrook, 1966, pp -50, 51-52 in Dr. Khullar 2008 ―Geography‖ Educational Publishers new
Delhi p. 316, 317-318.

152
BLOCK -3 MACRO REGIONS AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Introduction: Ater discussing the various components of Macro-regions and Indian federalism. we
move to natural resources of India. The attempts in this block enhance your knowledge of such services
like modes of genesis profile, Macro-Divisions and detail study on Indian federalism and about concepts
and importance of natural resources. There are three units in this block. Unit-9 introduces Macro-
Regions available in India.
Unit-10-. Deals with different power and principles of Indian federalism.
Unit-11.- introduces you to various types of natural resources and its utilization.
We hope that the block will help in enhancing your knowledge about the topics discussed and provide
knowledge.

Unit-9 Macro Region: Genesis and Changing Profile.

Unit-10 Indian Federalism.
Unit-11 The Natural Resources.

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UNIT-9 MACRO REGION: GENESIS AND CHANGING PROFILE

STRUCTURE
9.0 Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Macro region
9.3 Planning Regiond of India
9.4 Genesis and Changing Profile
9.5 Summary
9.6 Activity
9.7 Questions
9.8 References

9.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand Macro region and its genesis
To undersaand overall common needs and problems
To understand resources and their impact in this region

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Macro region are heighest in ranks many a time inter-state in character where different state are
involved in finding out an inter-related solution to a problem. At this level resouces development is
considered in a big way as in case of river basin irrigation ssystem the integrated development and
hydro power and transport increase the productiveness of the region.

9.2 MACRO REGION

Macro- Region : are the heighest in rank , many a time inter- state in character where different states
are involved in finding out an inter - related solution to a problem. At this level, resources
development is considered in a big way as in the case of river basin irrigation system or development
of power and transport. Such as interstate planning region must show production – potentially be
reactively self sufficient in food and capable of supplying the required perishable and bulky goods to
reduce much of the long railway language. Despite overall common needs and problems, local
diversity of natural conditions and resources may be observed in such a region.
154
 As Coordination of planning at lower levels is done in this region, each macro-division has a special
task in solving an important national economic problem. By having within its limits a complete
material of essential resources and power supply such a region has the potentiality of deciding the
major lines of integrated economic development. There should be one or more existiong or potential
industrial structures resting on a strong power base in each such region. Their sites act as key points
for the whole region by developing their link with urban growth centres at intermediate regional
levels. The boundaries of macro region are divided by grouping together the meso regions (medium
level II order regions).
About which we speak text. Clearly this region will be a large one developing more than one
production complexes in course of time. It includes a number of districts of more than one state.
Some prominent industrial or urban areas an essential resource base and certain unifying element
helping to integrate the economic activities.
In an agricultural country like India. The integrated development of irrigation and hydro power and
transport increases the productiveness of the region. For this very reason grouping of meso region
having a common river basis frequently proved a most logical approach.

9.3 PLANNING REGIONS OF INDIA

Macro region and component Prominent industrial Resources for integrated Unifying Elements
states, districts and urban areas development
1. south peninsular (incorporating) Coimbatore, Coastal fisherie agricultural, mineral Marked by physical, economic,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu District Cochin Madras resources of Coimbatore Plateau, Forest cultural ties integrating through
plantation. Water resources for irrigation transport
and power generation. Themal and
atomic power .
Central peninsular (Karnataka, Goa and Hyderabad, Bangalore Coastal fisheries agriculture of Andhra Multipurpose projects on
almost whole of Andhra Pradesh ) plains iron, manganese, bauxite of Tungabhadra. Historical cultural
Karnataka and Goa, Singarai coal. ties enforced by potential
Plantations in Malnad and Coorg, water industrial development
resources.
3. Western peninsular (western Bombay, Pune, solapur, Coastal fisheries, cotton, reserves of Hinterland of Bombay Port and
Maharashtra, its coastal and interior Nasik ferrous and non-ferrous mine power. metropolitan centre, close
districts ) economic and cultural ties.
4. Central Deccan (Eastern Maharashtra Nagpur Horticulture, cotton, iron ore (Chanda) Homogeneity of physical features
Madhya Pradesh) agro industrial development. Narmada and soils and lesser exposition to
water power and Satpura thermal external stimulus for development
potential

155
5. Eastern peninsular (Orissa, south Rourkela, Jamshedpur, Coastal fisheries, coal, iron ore, Complementarily of resources
Bihar, North –Eastern Andhra Pradesh Asansol, Biklai, Durgapur, manganese, bauxite, mica, forests, served by rapidly developing
and parts of adjoining districts of Uttar Sambalpur, Cuttack, agriculture of Mahanadi basin. Hydel and coastal belt.
Pradesh and West Bengal ) Vishakhapatnam thermal power development. Steel plants
and other basic industries
6. Gujarat(Gujarat state) Ahmadabad, Surat Perto-chemicals, salt, limestone, bauxite, Cultural unity and linkages
Vadodara, Porbandar promise of irrigated agriculture through transport routes.
(Narmada) and fisheries.
7. Western Rajasthan Jodhpur , Bikaner, Lignite, coal, gypsum, limestone, High degree of physical and
Ganganagar precious stones. Prospects of petroleum climatic conditions‘ homogeneity
and atomic power development Development of Rajasthan Canal.
Livestock farming and irrigated Social cultural ties.
agriculture (Rajasthan Canal).
8. Aravalli region (Eastern Rajasthan Kota, Jaipur, Ajmer Non-ferrous metals lead, zinc, copper, Historical, cultural ties brought by
and Western Madhya Pradesh ) mica limestone, marble and salt. Rajput dynasties.
Livestock farming and irrigated
agriculture, hydel and atomic power
(Chambal) project).
9. Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh Srinagar Forest resources, horti-culture, tourism, Physical, social cultural
hydel power development. similarities. Border psychology.

10.Trans-Indo-Ganga plains and hills Delhi, Meerut, Ludhiana, High development of irrigated farming in Fertile soil, vigorous people, socio
(Punjab-Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh Punjab plains (wheat, cotton, sugarcane, cultural, historical ties. Area in
Western U.P. and hill districts of Uttar fodder, crops,). Agro industrial transitional zone.
Pradesh) horticultural forestry development in
Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
hills. Tourism
11.Ganga-Yamuna plains.(Uttar Pradesh Kanpur, Agra, Varanasi, Agricultural resources ofGanga plains Comparative social stability,
districts and parts of Madhya Pradesh) Allahabad, Lucknow (sugarcane, rice and wheat). Forests in cultural influence of Ganga–
Eastern ,central and south western Uttar Madhya Pradesh area. Agro industrial Yamuna rivers
Pradesh and northern districts of and power possibilities.
Madhya Pradesh
12.Lower Ganga plains (Almost whole Calcutta, Patna, Barauni. Agriculture in plains (tea, jute of national Economic interdependence and
of West Bengal and north Bihar) importance). Possibilities around influence of port on hinterland.
Barauni. Thermal and hydel power Social , cultural similarity in larger
part.
13. North eastern Region Assam other Digboi, Gauhati, Shillong, Tea, jute, petroleum, sillinminite mining Economic interdependence,
north-eastern states, Union territories Tin Sukhia and forest products. Hydel power cultural diversity leading to social
and northern Bengal hill districts) potential, thermal power. interdependence among tribal
people .

9.4 GENESIS AND CHANGING PROFILE

India that is Bharat (8º 4'N E-37º 6'N and 68º7'E-97º 25' E), (The southern most tip of the Nicobars
touches the parallel of 6º 45' N), The land of the venerable Ganga and revered as Bharat Mata,
embraces major part of the south, Asian realm. Girdled by the young folded Mountain chain on its
NW,N and NE, and washed by the thundered basin of he Indian ocean and its two main arms, the
Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal on the SW.S and SE, it has since historic times the privilege of
156
being , a well defined geographical and geopolitical unit. The so called invincible Himalaya wall is
no longer an impenetrateable rampart in view of modern development of war strategy including how
clear weapons ; its geographic significance, however, remain intact. As a geographical unit it can
hardly offer to exclude Pakistan, emerging as it does out of the political thundering of the so called
subcontinent. The use of the term sub-continent for India is a misnomer and a legacy of the British
rule; this term has never been used for vaster and more diverse geographical unit live China and the
Soviet Union. (Lambert 1960), The Word ‗India‘ traces its origin in the Greek literature meaning the
land of ‗Indoi‘ ; the people living near the Indus (Latin Indus). Its Persian and Avestan equivalent
refers to Hindu, congrate with ‗Sindhu‘; the river of ancient Sanskrit texts applied to the province of
acheamenid Empire adjacent to the Indus and meaning ―the land of great river‖. In broader sense it
is included the area lying to the east of the Sulaiman Kirthar ranges and South of the Himalaya, a fact
which held true till the independence of the country ( August 15,1947) when it was separated into
two nations, i.e. India and Pakistan. This has led some to replace the term Indian sub-continent by
South including, apart pom the Indo through realm, Nepal, Bhutan, Ceylon and and sometimes even
Afghanitan. Pakistan is a political reality, East Pakistan appears to be an evclave while west Pakistan
an appendage within the physiographic frame of South Asia. The name ‗Bharat‘ bears the testimony
of geographical and historical significance

Rig-Veda first mentions him as a leader of powerful Aryans Tribes; while the Aitareya Brahmana
refers to his coronation ceremony, subsequent conquests and Aswamedha sacrifices. The Bhagavata
purana calls as adhirat and Samrat i.e. King of Kings. Who accelerated the pace and process of
Aryanisation of the then people (the Kirates, the Paundras and other) alien to the Aryan culture.
Bharat is therefore another name for Aryanised India where Aryan culture developed and attained its
fruition. The same ctymology connotes that Bharati Santatih (descendants of Bharat) reside in
Bharat.
The Republic of India, with a land frontier of 15,200 kilometer and a coastline of 5,700 kilometre, is
still a geographical reality through exhibiting contrasting features. With its N.S and E-W extend of
3.200 kilometre and 3,000 kilometre respectively and with area coverage of about 3,267,500 Squre
Kilometre, it ranks 7th August.

157
The comprise of the world and hotels second and third position respectively, regarding population
(439 million,1991) and cultivated land 1.362, 440 square kilometre being surpassed by China in the
former case and the U.SSR the USA, in the latter, During (2001-2008) population grew form 1,027
million to 1,154 million. 2008: an increase 127 million India is the largest democracy in the world
(Refer Figure 11) with a
parliamentary form of
government. It constitutes thirty
states, varying in size and
population and Nine Union
territories and Biwtan under
special treaty with India.

Bharat includes simultaneously

the historic territorial concepts
in terms of Dravidian and
Aryan cultures which through
diverse in origin, could fuse
together with the Hindu culture
in its geographical realm since
50 odd centuries. The cultural
and national integration is
reflected in the location of the
Four Dhams (Holy places)
Rameshwaram in the South,
Bablri –Kedarnath in the North, Puri in the East and Dwarka in the west, these being the cultural
centres in the tour Cardinal directions within the dimensions of the country. The well established and
crystallised Indian culture and thoughts expanded their horizon beyond its precincts, primarily
through buddhism which live Jainism was a distinct was a ditivet stream of reformatory thoughts
within the main stream of the Hindu way of life. The high Himalaya impact climatic distinctive ness
to the country typified by the monsoonal character, an attribute not possed by any single landmass of
its size India is thus a country unity in diversity exhibiting manifold physical, cultural and economic
contrast which are woof and war of the national panorama. It enfolds within its bounds the loftiest of
the mountains representing the youngest mountain building epoch in the geological history the earth
and most subdued relief in the Peninsula, showing one of the earliest geological structures. Hemmed
158
in between the two, lies one of the greatest alluvial plains of the world , Although climatically a
typical monsoonal realm, with all its rhythmic characteristics the country exhibits a wide range of
climate variation from the dry continental conditions to the humid littorals, Purely tribal, agricultural
and industrial commercial economies lie in Juxtaposition to one another. The development of steel
belt covering parts of Bihar, West Bengal Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh too instance is a recent
superimposition over tribal economy of the area. Likewise in the Karnataka, uplands the central
industrial estates of HAL JTS, HMT etc. are isolates in the agrarian landscape. So Micro scale. The
Renekut Complex is an industrial oasis in the tribal economy of Son-par tract (Uttar Pradesh). From
theVast, rather, uninhabited tracts in the Laddakh and Thar to some of the world highest densities of
river valleys deltas and the littorals are visible within the country‘s landscape. Even with all these
natural contrasts and changing socio economic and political patterns India projects itself as a single
unit territorial unit on a national scale. Hore one can hardly ignore the unifying role of the Great
Plains which constitute a link between two diverse structural units which together have contributed
to its making. So Signifying is the role of the Ganga that righty it is regarded as the ‗mother Ganga‘.
The pivot of our cultural providing perennial vitality to the society and acting as the strongest bond.
Although the complex multilingual frame of India has been played upon by the regionalists for
political ends, the language has seldom proved to be a barrier in our social and cultural intercourse.
Centuries of muslim and British rule failed to disrupt our cultural ties. The British rule, as a world
power no doubt. Curbed our industrial developments and smashed our rural polity but was shaken by
a small movement the Mahatama‘s Dandi march symbolic of our national sentiment. The edifice of
political unity will ever derive strength prom the cultural base.

9.5 SUMMARY
In an case agricultural countru like India the integrated development of irrigation and hydel power
and transport increases the productiveness of the region. For this very reason grouping of meso
regions having a common river basin has frequently proved a most logical approach.

9.6 ACTIVITY
On outline map of India mark the boundaries of the first order regions.

9.7 QUESTIONS
Define Macro-Region and its area.
Explain Macro-Region Genesis and its changing profile.
159
How far production cycle is help to develop natural and economic resources of a region. Explain
with illustrations.
What considerations are kept in mind in drawing up the scheme of economic region.

9.8 REFERENCES
Ahmed, Enyat, 1965 : Bihar‖ Ranchi University, Ranchi.

Broek, Jan,O.M., 1965 ― Geography: Its scope and spirit‖ ( Columbus Charles E. Merrill Book Inc.
pp-58.

Kamarackt,M. Andrew, 1997 ― The Tropics and Economic Development‖, Development Digest.
Washington.D.C. Vol.XV July.

Lambert, R.D. 1960 ― The Encyclopaedia‖ Americana XV. 1.

Mishra, R.P., Sundaram, K.V., and Prakasa Rao, V.L.S. 1976 ― Regional Development Planning in
India‖ Vikas Publishing House. Pvt Ltd Delhi.

Nekrasov, 1974 ― Territorial Organisation of Soviet Economy‖ Progress Publishers Moscow.

Spate, O.H.K. and Learmouth, A.T.A. 1967. ― India and Pakisthan‖ Metheen and Company Pvt. Ltd.
London.

160
UNIT- 10 INDIAN FEDEALISM; A SYNOPTIC VIEW

STRUCTURE
10.0 Objective
10.1 Introduction
10.2 A Synoptic View
10.3 Historical Foundations: Constitutional Development under the British Rule
10.4 Politico Geographic Factors in Rise of Indian Federalism
10.5 Indian Federalism Structure
10.5.1 Special Features of Indian Federalism
10.6 Failure of Constioutional Machinery and Use of Article 356.
10.7 Federal Partnership: A Review.
10.8 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments: Changes Over to a Three Layered Federation.
10.9 Summary
10.10 Activity
10.11 Questions
10.12 References

10.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand about Indian federalism and its realview
To understand Politico Geographic factors in rise of Indianfederation
To understand structure of Indian federalism
To understand a federal Partnership review

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Although therte has been a usual consciousness, among the elites, about India as a Single
geigraphical and cultural entity from the very early times all country nationalism in its modern sense
is of quite recent growth inthis conntry, and it arose largely in opposition to the pervading British
rule. But though the British rule became the immediate cause of all India nationalism by providing a
single target against which tha aspirations of the leaders of very region in the country struck, the
geniuine foumdations of this sediment lay much deeper.

161
10.2 A SYNOPTIC VIEW
Although there has been a general consciousness, among the elites, about India as a single
geographical and cultural from the very early times, all country nationalism, in its modern sense, is
of quite recent growth in this country, and it arose largely in opposition to the all pervading British
rule. But though the British rule became the immediate cause of all India nationalism by providing a
single target against which the aspirations of the leaders of every region in the country struck, the
genuine foundation of this sentiment lay much deeper. The people realised that, just as they had a
common ―enemy‖ to fight against, they also had a common heritage to safeguard. It was, indeed,
India‘s traditional concept of paramountcy that had helped the Mughals, and after them the British,
to attain suzerainty over the whole country. However, save for this underlying sense of an all-
inclusive unity side by side with numerous regional diversities, the roots of present- day all India
republican federalism date almost from the rise of British power.

10.3 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS: CONSTITUTIONAL DEELOPMENT

UNDER THE BRITISH RULE
The foundation of British power in India may be traced to the establishment of the India company in
December 1600, but Britain did not become a ruling power until the second half of the eighteenth
century. The British began, like their European competitors, with little extra- territorial enclaves
conceded by the Mughals or the local rulers. But the rapid decline of the Mughals and the virtual
elimination of the French in the eighteeth century left them opposed only by the weak and often
disunited ―country power‖ Supremacy over the region of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa had been
achieved as the result of victories of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764). After the defeat of Tipu
Sultan (1800) and the destruction of the Marathas (1818), most of the country came under British
paramountcy, and when the Sikhs were defeated in 1849 the British dominion in India was
established from the Indus to the Brahmaputra, form the Himalayas to Cape Comorin – over the
whole of the traditional territory of Bharatvarsha.
But underneath the placid surface other forces were taking shape which culminated in that
tremendous thunderstorm for the British power - the so called Mutiny or the war of independence of
1857. In 1858, the British Crown took over the government of India and some fundamental changes
in the policy of government were formulated.
The ninety years of British rule following the uprising of 1857 was, indeed, a period of great recover.
The all India services initiated by Cornwallis were strengthened and the gradual indianization of
these services was begum, till only a very small top fraction remained European. Railways and

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telegraph lines knit the country together. A uniform law under a modernized jurisprudence (yet with
allowance for customary education through a common medium of instruction i.e. English) provided
the government with a large corps of clerk to work in her offices. It also gave the Indian elite, after a
long interval, a common language of intellectual communication. This uniform education through a
common medium helped, had the same intellectual training, and thought broadly in terms of the
whole nation.
In the mid nineteenth century the cotton boom of the American Civil War had greatly
encouraged commercial speculation, and the Suez Canal, by bringing India nearer to Europe, helped
to tie Indian agriculture to the world market unit. In time, indigenous capital started factory
industries which soon found themselves in competition with manufactured goods imported from
Britain, and began to clamour for protection. Thus, the middle –class nationalist elite soon found a
following in the urban classes, and sympathy and silent support from capital. With Mahatma
Gandhi‘s appeal to the masses the high and low in British India were brought together, and the stage
for national regeneration was set. To this growing nationalist feeling Curzon‘s unpopular partition of
Bengal in 1905 had provided a further impetus.
Japan‘s victory over Russia in 1905 had ended the myth of European invincibility and added
profoundly to the nationalist self confidence towards which Tilak was already striving through his
revival of the cult of Sivaji. By the first decade of the present century, the spirit of all India
nationalism became increasingly militant and pitted its expectations higher. The fortunate arrival of
Mahatma Gandhi and the great national shock at the Jalianwala Bagh massacre watered the seeds of
nationalism broadcast by Tilak, Gokhale, Lajpat Rai, Motilal Nehru, Aurobindo Ghosh and others.
Abrogation of the Bengal partition in December 1911 showed that the British government could not
altogether resist all India national sentiments.
It is necessary to review India‘s constitutional evolution during the British period in order to
appreciate fully the rise of republican federalism in the country, for in fact, the present federal
Constitution embodies the changed sense of Indian unity that was brought about by a century of
evolution under British rule. In a sense, however, the roots lie deeper still, for the British look
advantage of the Mughal legacies in revenue and judicial administration, in the division of the
country into subas and Sarkars, as well as the concepts of paramountcy and paternalism. The first
step in the constitutional advance of British India began with the Regulating Act of1773, by which
the British parliament setup a Governor -General and a council for the presidency of Forthwilliam in
Bengal, and Governor and council for each of the Presidencies of Chennai, Mumbai the latter two
were subordinated to Governor-General in Council on questions of war and peace as well as in their
relations with the native powers.
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 The next significant step was taken with the Charter act of 1833 which named the Governor –
General and Council of Fort William as the Governor General and Council of India; in his hands
became concentrated the supreme executive and legislative authority for the entire subcontinent. By
the Government of India Act of 1858 the Governor –General, who had so long been responsible to
the Court of Directors and the Board of Control of the Company, was made responsible to the
Secretary of State for India acting on behalf of the British crown.
The Secretary of State was assisted by the Council of India, a fifteen member body of
Englishmen (residing in England) some of whom were nominees of the Crown, some others
representatives of Directors of the East India company. The Secretary of State ruled over India in the
name of the British Crown through the Governor General assisted by an Executive Council
consisting of high officials of the Government. The administrative set up was not only unitary but
also rigidly centralized, not withstanding the fact that the country was divided into provinces, each
headed by a governor and his Executive Council. But the effects of this extreme centralization in
government soon became clear, and indeed if one word could sum up the post 1858 administration
of British India it was ―decentralization‖. Conceding the advantages of legislation being enacted by
those who reside ―in or nearer the spot‖, the Secretary of State for India proposed to restore to the
Presidencies of the passing laws and enactments on local subjects. This was achieved by theindia
Councils Acts of 1861 and 1892. As new provinces were created, they also received their own
Councils with similar powers.
The 1861Act also provided for appointment of some additional non-official member on the
Executive Council (which had so far consisted of official members only). The Indian Councils Act of
1892 introduced a further improvement in that (a) though the majority of official members was
retained, the nonofficial members of the Indian Legislative Council were from now on to be
nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce (a body of British traders), while the non-official
member of the Provincial Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities,
district boards, and municipalities; (b) the Councils were given power to discuss the annual Budget
and address question to the Executive. The 1892 Act was notable inthat it was introduced with the
specific objective of widening ― the basis and expand the functions of the Government of India, and
to give further opportunities to the non-official and native elements in Indian society to take part in
the work of government‖(as the Under Secretary of India has put it) (cited in Basu, 1994, p.5).
The Councils Act of 1909 (the Morley- Minto Reforms) considerably enlarged the size of the Central
and the provincial Councils, and made further additions to their powers. The Reforms represented a
focused attempt at introducing a representative and popular element in the provincial Councils in
which with the inclusion of elected non – official member the official majority was gone. An element
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of election was also introduced in the Legislative Council at the provinces was considerably
increased, since they were now on to be allowed to move resolutions on the Budget and on any other
matter of public interest except certain specified subjects such as Armed Forces, Affairs, and the
Indian States. However, the 1909 Act also introduced a major disintegrative provision in the Indian
political system by providing for separate representation for the Muslim community. Thereby the act
contributed to sow the seeds of separatism in India‘s polity that eventually led to the partition of the
country into India and Pakistan. That the Muslim League was founded in 1906, and soon thereafter
the British rulers had come with this divisive constitutional instrumentality, tells its own tale.
( Ilbert.1915), However, the constitutional concessions had failed to satisfy local hopes and
aspirations. Faced with this dilemma the government of India sent a Despatch (August 25,1911) to
the secretary of State for India clearly stating that ―the only possible solution for the difficulty would
appear to be gradually to give the provinces a large measure of self government until at last India
would consist of a number of administration autonomous in all provincial affairs, with the
Government of India above them ‖.
(Whyte, 1926, P-297), the idea of provincial autonomy was given a fuller expression in the Report
on the Indian constitutional Reforms (the Montagu –Chelmsford Report) of 1918 which envisaged
the future of India as ―a sisterhood of States, self governing in all matters of purl local or provincial
interest‖ (Para 349). This Report was the basis of the Government of India Act of 1919 which has
been aptly described as ―the finger post to federalism‖, for it fact, introduced in the country a
―federalism in embryo‖
(Coatman 1941,P-52) despite Statutory restrictions hedged around the taxing and borrowing powers
of the province, the provincial governments acquired almost complete freedom to frame their
budgets and considerable latitude in the expenditure of their funds. Thus, the Act, in effect, ―gave
rise to something like the beginning of a federal system for India …. The provinces were now, for all
practical purposes, master in their own house‖ The main features of the modifications brought by
the 1919 Act were:(1) introduction of a system of dual government (Dyachy ) in the Provinces
wherein the subjects of administration were divided into two categories – Central and Provinces
wherein the subjects of administration were divided to two categories central and Provincial. The
former were kept exclusively under the control of the Central government, while the latter set was
divided into ―transferred‖ and ―reserved‖ subjects. The transferred ones were to administered by the
Governor with the aid of the Ministers responsible to the Legislative Council (wherein the
component of elected members was now raised to 70% so that the Act laid the first clear foundation
of responsible government in the Provinces. The ―reserved‖ subjects to the Legislative Council) in
the name of Governor General .(2) there was also a substantial measure of relaxation of Central
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control over the Provinces through a set of Devolution Rules through which subjects of
administration were separated between Central, i.e. those of all India importance, and Provincial, i.e.
those relating to local and regional administration. The devolution of authority related to every
branch of administration, and it included legislative as well as financial powers. The provincial
budgets were separated from the Central, and the Provincial sources of revenue that had been clearly
specified. But the provincial powers were all given by way of delegation and not by way of
constitutional right, so that the Act did not laythe foundation of a genuine federation. (3) Although
the Act did not actually provide for a responsible government at the Centre, the Central Legislature
was made more representative and, for the first time, bicameral. In all 34 of the 60 member in the
Upper House and 104 of the 144 members of the Lower House were to be elected members the
long-term effects of the Reforms were tremendous:
(Bom ball , 1967 Pp 122-123) the small dose of provincial autonomy injected into the Indian
political system by the Montford Reforms created a strong appetite in the country for a substantial
popular participation and placing effective though not unrestricted power in the hands of the people‘s
representatives, generated and galvanized those social and political factors the impact and interaction
whereof … made federalism theonly practicable solution of the political factthose social and political
factors the impact and interaction whereof … made federalism theonly practicable solution of the
political and constitutional problem of India. The Montford Reforms contributed towards this
development ….by setting in motion pressures for linguistic redistribution of provincial boundaries,
by accentuating the fears of the Indian Muslims of being swamped by the numerically stronger
Hindus in a majoritarian democracy and, consequently, giving keener edge to their demand for
further safeguards to ensure their own future as a distinct political entity. The march of democracy
in the provinces of British India could not but arouse apprehensions in the minds of the rulers of
Indian states who … became increasingly aware of the impossibility of indefinitely preserving their
feudal fiefs by purchasing for themselves a position of protected isolation from the main currents of
political development in British India …. [The princes] began to bestir themselves and their
manoeuvres to enter into some form of federal association with the British Indian provinces without
surrendering their despotic authority in their own dominions became another factor in the
federalization of Indian policy and in shaping the federal pattern of 1935 .
(Keith, 1937 P- 296) there were two other factors working in the same direction. First
Muslims,though an overall minority, were, in fact, substantial majorities in certain geographically
compact areas. This accentuated the Muslim demand for a federal political organization at the
national level wherein they could achieve regional autonomy in their majority areas. Secondly, ―it is
difficult to deny … that federation was largely evolved by the desire to evade the issue of extending
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responsible government to the Central Government of India‖. Federalism with its promise of regional
autonomy, seemed to offer the solution for the problems of the Muslims, the Princes, the linguistic
patriots, as well as the imperial interests of Britain. Only the Congress, which alone could
contemplate to capture power at the Centre, was not satisfied.
The Act of 1935 envisaged an all India federation including the states as well as the provinces. The
scheme could, however, not be fully implemented because the Princes, though enthusiastic in the
beginning, became indifferent to the proposal. Whatever its defects, the Act provided a kind of
―plaster cast‖ for the pattern of Union- state relations which was laid down in the down in the
Constitution of 1950.
The main features of the constitutional system introduced by the 1935 Act were for (a) Federation
and provincial autonomy ;(b) Dyarchy at the Centre (in that while the Governor-General) wielded
executive authority directly in respect of defence, external affairs, religious issue, and tribal
administration; in all other matters he was required to act on the advice of the Legislature); (c) The
Central Legislature was bicameral
consisting of a Federal Assembly and a
Council of State. However, the 1935
Act was not a republican instrument
but an imperial constitution so that
autonomy of the Legislatures was a
qualified autonomy subject to the
control of the Governor General acting
on behalf of the British Crown. It must
also be noted here that ―The Act of
1935… provided (Refer Figure 12)
separate representation not only for the
Muslims butr also for sikhs, the
Europeans, Indian Christians and
Anglo-Indians and thus created serious
hurdle in the way of the building up of
national unity , which the marks of the
future Constitution found almost
insurmountable to overcome even
after the Muslims had partitioned for a
separate State‖ (Basu 1994 P-9)
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With the ―Partition‖ and independence of India, all the geographically compact Muslim majority
areas in the provinces went to the share of Pakistan. This had made the problem of union much more
simplified. But given the several hundred autonomous princely states, the near autonomous
provinces, and the self conscious and geographically compact linguistic groups, it was inevitable that
some kind of federalism alone could resolve the problem of the overall political organization of the
country. (Spate, 1958, P. 131) at the height of British rule, over twofifths of the subcontinent had
continued to be ruled by the subordinate Princes. The political fragmentation of the country was
―indescrivable verbally and well nigh unmappable‖. Direct British rule was largely confined to the
Punjab, the Ganga valley, and to the provinces bordering on the coasts. Vast tracts of the interior
remained under princely rule. The states of Hyderabad and Mysore between them ruled over 100,000
square miles of the southern tableland. The whole of Kashmir in thenorth, Travancore in the south,
and vast Rajasthan were ruled by the princes it is a great tribute to Sardar Patel and his associates
that within the course of year and a half the princes had voluntarily withdrawn from the government
of the states, accepting a financial settlement for themselves and retiring into private life. With the
reorganization of the state boundaries on a linguistic basis in 1956, nearly all the vestiges of old,
feudal , and imperial India had formally disappeared.

10.4 POLITICO – GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS IN RISE OF INDIAN

FEDERALISM (FACTORS FOR REGIONAL IDENTITIES)
Though a ―geographically intelligible isolate‖ India is pracelled by nature into a number of
somewhat self -contained units which, before the coming of modern communication, had centuries
developed in relative isolation and thus had come to possess their own distinctive cultural and
linguistic complexes.
This isolation was seldom complete, since the diverse regional units were daughters of the same
mother culture. But these were daughters that had set their houses at places far removed from one
another long before the era of mechanized transport. With the opportunities for inter regional
intercourse being greatly mited; despite an overall sense of belonging together, each of the units
developed its own identity (Refer Figure13). The vindhyas stand as a formidable barrier between the
northern plain and the southern plateau. Before the railways were laid, the Vindhyas with their
tangled growth of forests presented a barrier of magnitude. The dividing effects of the system may be
seen in the presence of a so called Aryan north and a Dravidian south. However, the change from
north to south is not sudden. Between the cores of the two regions stands middle zone which shares
the characteristics of both,

168
 while the forest covered
tracts of central India along
the Vindhyan zone have been
the traditional homeland of
the dispossessed tribal groups
whose cultures differ from
either two. The north and the
south are themselves divided
into several smaller linguistic
Cultural subdivisions by
certain topographical
lineaments of the landscape.
The Indus valley region is
separated from the Ganga –
Yamuna plain by the wide
expanse of the Rajputana
desert, and is connected with
the latter only by a narrow
corridor to the north of Delhi.
But from here to the east
there is no geographical
divided in the plain. This has
resulted in the development
of a homogeneous cultural
complex from west to east till
the northward projecting horn
of the plateau in the chhota
Nagpur region is reached.
Bengal, beyond the bottleneck between Chhota Nagpur and the Himalyas , though culturally one
with the rest of the plains, had developed is own language (though clearly derived from the Sanskrit
root as the other north Indian languages are) and its own script. Separated from the Bengali speaking
areas by the Shillong plateau is the Bragmaputra valley of Assam with its own linguistic cultural
complex. South of the Indus –Ganga plain are, from west to east, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya

169
Pradesh and Orissa –each of them (except Madhya Pradesh) , through still Indo- Aryan in their
linguistic – cultural complex, have developed their own langrage and script.
South of the Deccan lava country in Maharashtra is the Kannada-speaking Karnataka. Kannada,
unlike Marathi, belongs to the Dravidian group. Further south of it is the Malayalam –speaking
Kerala separated from the Kannada and Tamil speaking areas to the east by the ridge of the Western
Ghats. The Tamil speaking area is roughly separated by the Mysore Ghats from Karnataka and the
Western Ghats from Kerala. North of Tamil Nadu and east of the Kannada and Marathi speaking
areas is the Telugu-speaking Andhra
Pradesh dominated by the riverine
tracts of the Krishn and Godavari.*
Throughout history each of these
nuclear areas had maintained some
kind of separate historical identity,
though some of them were divided into
a number of rival principalities (Refer
Figure 14). There were continued
attempts to weld the diverse regions
together into a single body politic, and
some measure of success was achieved
in the different periods of history; but
through the ages, under India‘s
traditional concept of Samrajya ( or
paramountcy ), the regional units,
while recognizing the paramountcy of
the central power, had retained their
regional autonomy. Thus , a kind of
incipient federalism was present all the
time in India‘s historical past. (Grifiths,
1962, P,17) Unlike most other areas
ofsimilar extent in the old world, India
has all through been a vast cultural
realm made up of a number of regional units always conscious of their unity in separation. ―Under
Favorable … geographical circumstances, Hinduism was able to build up throughout India a
common culture and astructure of true unity might be created‖. As Percival Spear says, the livision in
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the political life of India was not so much a chronic malady as suggested by many British historians ,
as a periodic malaise caused by the nature of Indian polity and the tensions produced by overlapping
―races‖ and rival ―cultures‖ in a subcontinent which provides few conbenient physical compartment
for the growth of integrated nationalities:
The railways and improved roads made inter-regional communication easy and isolation of the
provincial units difficult; and centrally governed postal, telegraph, and telephone services, and the
broadcasting stem now effectively bound the entire country together.
The whole of the subcontinent had, under the British, developed as a single economic unit. The
provinces had no raison d‘etre as independent economic organization and industrial development
took face at the most conveniently located centres disregarding political boundaries. The republican
federation of India was therefore, not an artificial creation. It represented the genuine emergence of a
single nation weided together by social, economic and political forces. Having for so long developed
as organic parts a single organized economic whole, it would have been suicidal for either the
provinces or the states have parted company as independent units. Thus, after the two Muslim
majority states and the provinces join together into a single organic political unit.

10.5 STRUCTURE OF INDIAN FEDERALAISM

The federal legislature consists of two houses: a popularly elected House of people (Lok Sabha) and
a council of States (Rajya Sabha). Unlike the United States and Australia, the Upper House in India
does not have equal representation for all the states. As given in the Fourth Schedule of the
Constitution, the number of representatives from the different states varies from 1 to 34. thus the
federal safeguard against the interests of the lesser states being overridden by the interests of the
larger or more populated states, as enshrined in the American Constitution, is absent in the case of
the Indian Constitution. Besides, the Rajya Sabha (apart from the 238 members representing the
States and Union Territories) also has a component of 12 nominated member so that the Upper
House in India is, technically speaking, not a federal Chamber.
The India Constitution provides for a threefold distribution of legislative powers between theUnion
and the states – as contrasted to U.S.A. and Australia (which have a single enumeration of powers
pertaining to the Union) and Canada (which has double enumeration of central and state powers).
The Union List includes subjects of all country interest – including defence, foreign affairs, banking,
currency and coinage, and duties and taxes to be levied by the central government. The State List
comprises subjects on which the state legislatures have exclusive power of legislation. More
important among these powers are public order and police, local government, public health and
sanitation, agriculture, forests, fisheries, and state taxes and duties. The third list, called Concurrent,
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includes 52 items including criminal law and procedure, civil procedure, marriage, contracts, torts,
trusts, welfare of labour, insurance, economic and social planning, and education. In the case of
overlapping of any matter between the three lists, the central government has been given the
paramount power. Likewise all residuary powers are given to the centre.
The Governors of the states are appointed by the president on the advice of the Prime Minister. The
Governors are empowered to reserve bills of their respective states for the President‘s assent. The
states are required to give effects to the laws Centres, and not to impede central administration in
their respective territories. If the President is satisfied that the government of any particular state
cannot be carried on in accordance with the Constitution, he may, with the assent of the particular
state cannot be carried on in accordance with the Constitution, he may , with the assent of the two
houses of the Central legislature, assume the functions of the state government for a period of six
months. This period mat b further extended with the approval of the two Houses.
(Sawer, 1969, p.48) however, despite this overall paramountcy of the Centre, in matter of
finance ―the Constitution goes a surprising distance towards dividing tax fields so as to give the
regions some degree of financial autonomy‖ . The constitution makes a distinction between the
legislative power to levy a tax and the power to appropriate the proceeds of the tax so levied. The
powers of the legislatures in these two respects are not identical. Thus:
Source of revenue which have been allocated to the Union are not meant entirely for the purpose of
the Union but have to be distributed according to the principal laid down by the Parliamentary
legislation … Realising the limitations of the financial resources of the stetes and the grouping needs
of the community in the welfare state the constitution has made specific provisions empowering the
parliament to set aside a portion of its revenues for te benefit to the states, not in stated proportions
but according to their needs. ( Thus) the resources of the Union Government are not meant
exclusively for the benefit of the Union activities ….. In other words, the Union and the States
together form one organic whole for the purposes of utilisation of resources of the territories of India
as a whole (Supreme Court, A. 1971, S.C. 870; cited in Basu, 1994, p.307).
The legislative power to make law for imposing a tax is divided between the Union and the States by
means of specific entries in the Union and State legislative lists in Schedule VII. The residuary
power in respect of taxation (as in the case of general legislation) belongs to the Parliament.

Foot Note: The dynamics of Indian history in relation to its geographical personality are best treated
in B. subbarao, Personality (India , Baroda, M.S. University, 1956; and Y. A. Raiker, Indian History:
a Study in Dynamics, Baroda, M.S. University , 1960.)

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This also includes income, the power to levy income tax on all other income (other than agricultural)
lies with the Parliament. In view of the limited sources of revenue distribution from the Union to the
states. Thus, (a) there are many duties that are levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by
the states, such as duties on bills of exchange, and excise duties on medicinal and toilet preparations;
(b) there are certain taxes that are levied s well as collected by the Union but assigned to the states
within which they are leviable , such as duties n succession to non agricultural property, terminal
taxes on goods or passengers (carried by railway, air sea), taxes on railway fares and freights, and
taxes on stock exchange, and some others; (c) besides there are taxes that are levied and collected by
the Union and distributed between the Union and the states. These include income tax (other than
agricultural income); duties on excise (other than those on medicinal and toilet reparations).
Realising that even after the assignment to the states of a share of the Central taxes, the resources of
relatively less well off states may not be adequate to meet their requirements, the Constitution has
provided that grants in aid shall be made each year by the centre to the states according to their
needs. For this purpose there is provision for the appointment of Finance commission (with a fixed
term of five years) to recommend to the President measures relating to the distribution of financial
resources between are Union and the states – for example, matters such as: what percentage of the
net proceeds of income tax should be assigned by the Centre to the states, and the manner in which
this share small be distributed among the states.

10.5.1 Special Features of Indian Federalism

The republican constitution of the Union of India as adopted in 1950 is basically federal but
incorporates certain remarkable unitary features arising from the special conditions under which it
was born. The constitution satisfies all the essential condition of a federal form of polity such as (i)
dual government providing for a central sovereign authority incorcorporating regionally autonomous
entities; (ii) clearly defined distribution of powers between the centre and the states ;(iii) supremacy
of the constitution in at the powers of the centre as well as the states are subordinate to and
controlled by the constitution; and (iv) authority of the courts as the final interpreter of the
constitution. It is on this basis that the supreme Court has described the Constitution as federal,
although admitting that in many respects the Indian federation is different from all other federation
that had preceded it. The special features of Indian federalism include the following: in the first
place, whereas the federal union of the classic American type was formed by voluntary agreement
between a number of sovereign (or largely independent) units, in the case of India the federation as
created by granting guaranteed constitutional autonomy to the previously subordinate regional
government in Provinces. Even in the 1935 Government of Indian Act the Provinces had continued
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as subordinate agents of the Centre, so that in India the father of the Constitution were ―faced with
the necessity of creating autonomous units and combining them into a federation by one and the
same Act‖ besides, the constitution was ― framed by the people of India assembled in the constituent
assembly so that the union of India cannot be said to be the result of anmy compact or agreement
between Autonomous states‖ ( Basu,1994. Pp52-53.)
Secondly, owing to its unique mode of formation the Indian federation is not the outcome of any
bargain between the Centre and the (supposedly sovereign and independent) states ,as was the case in
the Union States of American, so that whereas the residuary powers were assigned to the states in
United states of America, in the case of India these are assigned to the Union. For this reason, India
does not represent the case of ―an indestructible Union composed of indestructible States‖ (as the US
Supreme Court described the United States of America to be).
Thirdly, the nature of the federal polity in India is very different from the American model in that our
constitution does not provide for double citizenship between the states and the Union, and (unlike
USA) there is no division of public services or the judiciary between the two levels. Indeed, the
Constitution empowers the Union to entrust its functions to a state by the latter‘s consent, and
likewise any state is empowered to entrust its executive function to the Union, facilitating smooth
operation of cooperative federalism.
However, while the Constitution has prescribed cooperative federalism for normal times it has
empowered the central government to acquire the strength of a unitary government in emergencies
when a proclamation of emergency is made, the legiuslative power of Union extended to state
subjects as well as ( In terms of Article 353 and 357). Even in normal times the federal government
is given sufficient authority to assume legislative power over any subject included in the state list in
―Nation interest‖ with the approval of the RajSabha by a two third votes (Article 249): vide articles
256-257, the constitution has empowered the central government to ensure compliance by te states
with legislative powers of the state if, it at any time, satisfied that the adminitration of the state
cannot be carried on in normal manner in accordance with the proviusions of the constitution. Thus
the 1950, constitution had confirmed the Supermacy of the Union Vis-A-Vis the states (Provinces)
since the same had automatically centre once the British rule ended.
(Wheare, 1951. P.28.) owing to the overwhelming position of the Union vis-à-vis the states as
enshrined in the country‘s Constitution, many scholars have reservations regarding the nature of the
Indian political system as a federal polity. Thus, wheare described it as ―a system of government
which is quasi federal a Unitary State with subsidiary federal futures rather than a federal state with
subsidiary unitary features‖ (Basu.1994.P.59.) who commenting on the Indian case had described it
as ―‖but for one circumstance, ….. a federal reaction to a federal situation …..‖ This ―one
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circumstance ‖ is the Emergency Power of the President: which ―while it operates, makes the
Constitution a unitary one…. From the viewpoint of the constitutional lawyer.‖ In practice ,
however, Sawer noted, ―the government of the country has continued to be carried on during the
emergency in a substantially, federal, fashion‖. Indeed, ―the Constitution of India is neither purely
federal nor purely unitary but a combination of both …… It enshrines the principle that inspite of
federalism the national interest ought to be paramount‖

10.6 FAILURE OF CONSTITUTIONAL MACHINERY AND USE OF ARTICLE 356

According to Article 355, it is the duty of the Union to ensure that the government of every state is
carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. Thus, Article 356 empowers the
President to proclaim failure of constitutional government of a state and impose President‘s rule
there. Such a proclamation can also be made where a state government has failed to comply with any
direction given bythe Union (Article 365). Article 356 confers a coercive power to the Union vis-à-
vis the states which (it may sometimes appear) almost takes the substance away from the normal
functioning of federal polity, so that the framers of the Constitution wanted it to treated as a matter of
last resort. Thus, while introducing the Article Dr Ambedkar had added that ―the proper thing we
ought to expect is that such articles will never be called into operation and that they would remain a
dead letter‖ (Constituent assembly Debates, vol IX, p.177 ). Sadly, however, the Article has been
invoked over one hundred times to date. More often than not its use has been made to dismiss state
government headed by opposition parties. However , since the submission of the Sarkaria
Commission Report on Centre state relations there has been marked slow down on its misuse.
Following the Supreme Court judgment on the dismissal of the Janata Dal government headed by
S.R Bommai in Karnataka, the Sarkaria Commission‘s recommendations in regard to article 356
have (for all practical purpose) acquired the weight of law.
The Sarkaria Commission has specified at least ten situations which do not amount to failure‘ of the
constitutions machinery. These include: (1) maladministration by a ministry which enjoys a majority;
(2) flux resulting from a Governor‘s failure to explor possibilities of formation of an alternative
government after the resignation of a ministry; (3) defeat of a state‘s ruling party in Lok Sabha
election; (4) internal disturbance which has not been contained through all possible measures by the
Union under Article 355;(5) failure of the Union to issue directives under Articles 226 and 257 so as
to provide the state prior warning or opportunity to correct itself; (6) serious financial exigencies of
the state; (7) serious allegations of corruption against the state ministry; and (8) for purpose of
settling intra party problems. As Vidya Subramanam (Times of India, September 29, 1998) wrote,
the recommendations of the commission, would seem to have been drafted foreseeing the Bihar –
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Uttar Pradesh. type situation. The Rabri Devi government could be guilty of maladministration,
corruption, financial bankruptcy, even of fostering internal disturbance. But it couldn‘t have been
dispatched for any of these reasons, unless the Centre followed the laborious process laid down for
purpose. It is quite obvious that the complication has been deliberately devised tominimise partisan
political adjudication and to give primacy to the people‘s mandate. A bad government should be
thrown out y the people, not by a Centre placed in opposition to it.

10.7 FEDERAL PARTNERSHIP: A REVIEW

Any retrospective review of Indian federalism must focus on two sides of the side‘s picture. One, the
state of affairs obtaining in regard to constitutional and functional autonomy of the states vis-à-vis
the Centre over time; and two, the progress made towards preservation and further strengthening of
the sense of all India nationalism, overriding all other conflicting regional and local loyalties, that
had fired the zeal of the citizenry in the initial years of independence leading to the creation of the
federal partnership.
1996 and After The replacement of national parties by a coalition of state –level parties as the ruling
formation at the centre, since 1996, marks a great divide in the history of India‘s federalism. It has
inaugurated a new chapter in the country‘s political history, the consequences of which are bound to
be far reaching for the country‘s survival as a nation – State. The centralized federalism that the
framers of the Constitution had created half a century ago, and which had got further consolidated
through the operation (until 1967) of the so-called Congress system (Kothari 1964; Morris Jones,
1964 and 1966) representing an all encompassing political formation that had occupied the entire
political space in the country, has in the 1990s taken a reverse trend toward virtual peripherlisation of
the system. A decentralizing trend had, no doubt, been inaugurated in 1977, but by and large the
spirit of constitutional paramountcy of the centre had remained unimpaired until mid – 1990s
It needs to be underlined that both the 1977 and 1989 experiment at government formation at the
centre were in the form of multiparty coalitions, but the coalition arrangement arrived at in 1996 was
very different from the earlier two. Whereas both in 1977 and 1989 the parties collaborating to from
government at the centre were all of them – national parties, each with a focused all India
perspective; the 1996 government was pronouncedly a coalition of disparate regional and/or caste
and community based or one person controlled parties bereft of any well defined all India
perspective of their own. Unfortunately, that trend has continued after the 1998 general election with
the significant different that whereas in 1996 the two largest all- India political parties (BJP and the
congress)- together accounting for nearly two-third of the seats in the parliament-had stayed outside
the coalition was led by the largest party in the parliament. But government‘ dependence for survival
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on the support of regional (each insisting on conflicting regional and personalized agenda of its
respective leader) costed it defeat on the floor of the parliament during no-confidence motion thus
paving way for the general election in September-october 1999.overall the political system has, in
some ways, been put in the reverse gear. National level politics has lost focus so that the country‘
political gravity is shifting from the centre to the peripheries, leading to an impending danger that the
centre may fail to hold the nation together. By this one does not imply acutual political fragmentation
or secession. Indian society is far too complex a mixture of unity in in diversity to permit any vertical
split in its political structure. But the spirit of all India nationalism has certainly suffered a serious
blow owing to the declining effectivness of the central government as the final arbiter in political and
economic development ensuring unrestricted flow of talent across state borders as had, by and large,
been the case before 1970. By around 1970, reliance on regional languages as the sole medium of
instruction to the highest education levels in their respective states, had succeeded in transforming
the linguistically reorganized state units in to mutually rival homelands putting almost a complete
brake on inter-regional mobility.this trend is bound to get further accentuated if effective measures
are not urgentaly evolved to cunter this sinister development. Promotion of-regional mobility is the
foremost task of nation-building today. Inter-state mobility is the surest insurance against regional
and cultural parochialism. Horizontal mobility sets the nation on the march allowing little scope for
antiquated parochial attitudes to take root. This was the secret of the united states survival as a
federal union, and the absence of opportunities for such an all- Canada mobility (vis-a-quebec)
continues to be the band of the Canadian federation.
(Srivastava, 1997), the status of the central government in India as the primary coordinator activities
has been most seriously affected by the transfer of economic powers from the central government to
the states under the new policy of industrial deregularization as part of the IMF and world bank
sponsored economic reforms. As a result, the number of industries under central government control
has come down to a total of eight, so that the patronage earlier enjoyed by the functionaries of the
central government has now got transferred to the state level functionaries who have become the new
gate keepers of private investment by national as well as international business houses. Since states
have now also given the power to regulate development of infrastructural facilities like power
generation, the regional governments have begun directly negotiating loans other assistance form
international organization such as the World bank. As a result, the centre‘s capability to promote a
balanced economic development across the national territory has greatly declined.
Industries have a natural tendency to gravity around regions possessing development infrastructure,
so that deregulation of industries has contributed further to accentuate the wide enough gap already
existing between the few relatively developed and the many underdeveloped regions of the country,
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since the current unrestrained flow of capital is being increasingly directed to the developed regions
in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Goa. Such an accelerating
regional imbalance in industrial growth and economic development has led to sharp disparities in
average income and quality of life between the development and underdevelopment states. This has,
contributed to create an imperceptible(but indelible) impression on the people in the poorer regions
that the federal government in New Delhi is becoming progressively irrelevant to their day to day
struggle of life since the centre has failed in its basic duty of ensuring a fair deal to all citizens,
irrespective of their place of residence. Thus the federal structure has been progressively losing on
the basic justification for the merger of individual regional identities in to the over all national
identity by way of adherence to a commonstate-idea encompassing the whole national territory-
stretching from the Himalayas to the seas as a single soverign entity. The currently unregulated
development expansions in the states is unwittingly keeping the door open for eventual conflict of ‗
sovereignties‘‘ at the inter-state level such an unfortunate development will progressively rule out
the role of all India parties, unless te concerned parties urgently make focused attempt at remodeling
their organization structures to the emerging political scenario by suitable federalizing their
institutional set up.
(Varney, 1997) it may well be argued that the state-based nature of political parties is by means an
unhealthy development for a federal type of polity, for the party system in the united statesis
essentially a state-based arrangement. The critical between India and the USA lies in that in the
uniter states there are, and have for a long time been, only two major parties, the republicans and the
democrats. As contrasted to this, there are no less than 30 parties officially recognized as regional in
India.

10.8 73rd AND 74th CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS: CHANGE-OVER

TO A THREE LAYERED FEDERALISM
A major turn in india federalism has been occasioned by the passage and implementation of the 73rd
and 74th Amendments to the country‘s constitution with a view to empowering the relatively
deprived sections of society at the grassroot level (both rural and urban) through statuary provision
for electoral representation for women and the scheduled castes and tribes with a view to bringing
about a more genuinely rooted democratic ethos in the national electorate, and to invoke a more
robust and transparent mechanism of transfer of resources from the state government to their local
self-government authorities-so that the kind of undeclared inner colonialism practiced within the
state borders for so long, and leading to uneven development between districts and talukas through a

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policy of unfair allocation of resources between them-may be put to an end such a distributional
unfairness extends both to the quality of various government services provided to the citizens as well
as to investment of resources and location of projects. In terms of the two constitutional amendments
it has now become mandatory for the state governments to hold regular elections to the panchayats
and municipal councils.the amendments also provide for the creation of a state level finance
commission in each state which has been entrusted with the task of designing the principals
governing fiscal transfers at the state level-the second tier of the country‘s federal structure. Once the
principles governing transfer of revenue by the state governments to their respective local bodies are
unambiguously laid down and properly enforced,the shape of Indian federalism shall experience a
sea change. With the grant of a measure of financial autonomy to the grassroot level democratic
institutions, the country‘s two-tier fiscal federalism of past the half-century shall get transformed in
to an effective three-tier functioning fiscal arrangement.With their guaranted financial autonomy the
local self-goverments institutions-panchayats and municipal councils-are bound to become, in due
course of time, lively centres of participatory democracy, provided the electoral process is allowed a
fair change by ensuring against the potential of money and muscle power- which rends to become the
final arbiter in any kind of contest at the village level.

10.9 SUMMARY
In the dying years of the 20th century the pictures of the federal partnership in India is more too
reassuring. There has been in recent years an all round deterioration in all federal union stands for
although any talk about India‘s fragmentation as a sovereign national .entity is completely
misplaced. first because tghe states of the union have far too many important interests in common for
any one of them to desire and to work for session. Secondly, history and tradition have ingrained in
the Indian mind an indelinle sense of belonging.sacred land of their fore fathers, stretching from the
Himalayas to the seas beyond Rameshwarem and KanyaKumari. The wide expanse of territory
has,for ages been and continues to be their common mother-Land.Thirdly the entire process of
development in the country beginning from the establishment of British rule over India basis as such
all the states of the union putr togetherr constitute a single and individual economic and political
organization. For this reason none of the constitute states is viable as an independent political
economic entity.

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10.10 ACTIVITY
Organise a class debate on the topic the structure of Indian Federalism for better system in our
country.

10.11 QUESTIONS
- What is Indian Federalism. Explains its salient features.
- Describe structure and special features of Federalism.
- Explain regional identities and factors in rise of Indian federalism.
- Describe 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.

10.12 REFERENCES
Aitareya Brahmana Panjika; VIII.

Rigveda III. 33.

Basu.,D.D. 1994 ― Introduction To The Constitution of India‖ 17th (edn), New Delhi, Pentice Hall of
India.

Coatman, J. 1941 ― India: The Road To Self-Government‖ 1908-1941. George Allen and Unwin.

Whyte, Sir Frederick 1926 ― India: A Federation Shimla. Government of India Press.

Bomwall, K.R.1967. ― The Foundations Of Indian Federation‖ Asia Publishing House Mumbai.

Keith,A.B. 1937 ― Constitutional History Of India‖ 1600-1935. 2nd (edn) Methuen and
Company.London.

Basu,D.D. 1994 ― Introduction To The Constitution of India‖ 17th ( edn) New Delhi. Pentce Hall Of
India.p-9.

Griffiths,P., 1962 ― Modern India ― Ernest Benn Ltd. London.

Spear, Percival 1968. ― A History Of India‖ Seminar No. 459.pp31-35.

180
Sawer,G.1949. ― Modern Federation Of India‖ A Watts and Company.London.

Basu, D.D., 1994 ― Introduction To the Constitution Of India‖ 17th (edn) New Delhi. Pentice Hall Of
India. p-307.
Basu, D.D., 1994 ― Introduction To the Constitution Of India‖ 17th (edn) New Delhi. Pentice Hall Of
India. pp. 52-53.

Basu, D.D., 1994 ― Introduction To the Constitution Of India‖ 17th (edn) New Delhi. Pentice Hall Of
India. p-59.

Wheare, K.C., 1963. ― Federation Government ― Oxford University Press. London.

Times Of India, September 29,1998.

Commion On Centre –State Relations The Sarkari Commission 1998, Report Part-1, Nasik
Government Of India Press.

Kothari Rajni, 1964., ― The Congress System In India‖ Asian Survey, Vol. 4.pp-1161-1173.

Morris Jones., W.H. 1964,. ―Parliamentary Affairs‖ Vol.17. pp-296-307.

Morris,Jones, W.H. 1996., ― Domonance And Dissent: Their System‖ Government and Opposition.
Vol. pp-451-466.

SriVastava,D.K., 1997 ― Emerging Fiscal And Economic Issues‖ Seminar No. 459, November, 1997,
pp 48-56.

Varney, D.V. 1997 ― A More Federal India‖ Seminar, No-459, pp-31-35.

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UNIT-11 NATURAL RESOURCES OF INDIA

STRUCTURE
11.0 Objective
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Natural Resources
11.2.1 Land Resouces
11.2.2 Agricultural Land use in India
11.2.3 Strategy development
11.2.4 Achievement of Green Revolution
11.2.5 Problems of Indian Agriculture
11.3 Forest Resources
11.3.1 Area Under Forest
11.3.2 Forest Policy 1952
11.3.3 Promotion of Methods For Increased Production
11.3.4 Forest Development Corporation
11.3.5 National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB)
11.3.6 National Forest Policy, 1988
11.3.7 Achievement Under The Five Year Plans
11.3.8 The Elevanth Plan Attempts To Strengthen The JFM Regime
11.4 Water Resources
11.4.1 Water Resources of India
11.4.2 Water Demand and Utilization
11.4.2.1 Demand of Water For Irrigation
11.4.2.2 Well and Tube well Irrigation
11.4.3 Emerging Water Problems
11.4.3.1 Dewteriorating of water Quality
11.4.4 Conservation of Water Resources
11.4.5 Prevention of Water Pollution
11.4.6 Recycle and Reuse of water
11.4.7 Water Shed Management
11.4.8 National Water Policy Of India 2002 ( Highlight)
11.5 Development Of Marine Fisheries

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 11.5.1 Marine Fishing Policy,2004.
11.5.2 Inland Fisheries
11.6 Mineral and Energy Resources
11.6.1 Distribution of Mineral
11.6.2 Metallic Minerals ( Ferrous)
11.6.2.1 Iron Ore
11.6.2.2 Manganese
11.6.3 Metallic Minerals ( Non-Ferrous)
11.6.3.1 Bauxite
11.6.3.2 Copper
11.6.3.3 Non-Metallic Minerals
11.6.3.3.1 Mica
11.6.4 Mineral Policy in The Elevanth plan (2007-12)
11.7 Energy Resources
11.7.1 Conventional sources Of Energy
11.7.2 Coal
11.7.3 Petroleum
11.7.4 Nucleal Energy
11.7.5 Non conventional Sources Of energy
11.7.5.1 Solar Energy
11.7.5.2 Wind Energy
11.7.5.3 Tidal and waves Energy
11.7.5.4 Geo-thermal Energy
11.7.5.5 Bio-Thermal Energy
11.8 Conservation of mineral resources
11.9 Summary
11.10 Activity
11.11 Questions
11.12 References

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11.0 OBJECTIVES
To unerstand natural resources of India
To know land use changes
To know Nuclear energy resources
To know mineral resources and its utilization

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural resources are the materials we get from nature for meeting many pf our economic needs.
Now a days their concept has became much wider and even natural phenomena as well as the wole
surface of te earth which man utilises for same economic activity are included in the term natural
resources. That is why the total land scape of our mother land, its climate, running and falling waters
bays and esturies having harbours, the natural soils on which we grow crops also make our natural
resources base.

11.2 NATURAL AND HUMAN RESOURCE UTILIZATION

The existence or the absence of favovrable natural resources can facilitate or retard the process of
economic developments.Natural resources include land,water resources,fisheries, mineral resources,
forests, marine resources,climate rainfall and topography. Some of these resources are known to
man. For example, the topography of a region, the size of land surface, the climate, the area under
forests, and the discovered mines form a part of the natural wealth about which the people of a
country possess knowledge. But nature possesses more in its bosom and in order to discover what it
hides, man is required to develop techniques of knowing the undiscovered resources.

11.2.1 Land Resources

Land available to us is used for a variety of purposes such as agriculture pastures, forests,
constructing buildings, dams,roads and making parks, play grounds etc.Land use records are
maintained by land revenue. It may be noted that reporting area is different from geographical area
.Reporting area is calculated by adding up land use categories, geographical area on other hand is
measured by survey of India.the difference between the two concepts is that while the former
changes some what depending on the estimates of the land revenue records, the latter does not
change and stays fixed as per survey of India measurements.

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Lands-Use Categories
Following land-use categories are maintained in the land revenue records.
1. Forests. There is difference between forest cover and area classified as forest. Area classified
as forest is that area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest
growth.The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition thus, there may be
an increase in this category without any increase in the actual forest cover. It is important to
note that 23 % of forest land to the total reporting area is not sufficient for a tropical country
like India where about 33 % of the total land should be under forests. This will require
massive tree plantations and vigorous restriction on the reckless felling of the trees. Most of
the forest areas are confined to the hilly mountainous and dissected areas.
2. Land put to non-agricultural uses. Land put to non-agricultural uses incudes land occupied
by villages, towns, roads, railways,canals,industries etc. This area is likely to increase as
secondary and tertiary activities expand and the relative importance of primary activities
( agriculture ) is reduced.
3. Barren and wastelands. The barren land covers all barren and uncultivated lands in
mountains and hill slopes, ravines, deserts and rocky area. These cannot be brought under
plough except at high input cost with possible low returns.
4. Permanent pastures and other grazing lands. A total area of 11 million hectares is devoted
to permanent pastures and other grazing land. This amounts to about 4% of the total
reporting area of the country. Grazing takes place mostly in forests and other uncultivated
land wherever pasturage is available. The area presently under pastures and other grazing
lands is not sufficient keeping in view the large population of livestock in the country.
5. Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves. Land under miscellaneous tree crops and
groves includes all cultivable land which is not included under net area sown, but is put to
some agricultural use. Land under orhards and fruit trees, thatching grass,bamboo, bushes,
other groves for fuel etc. is classed under this category.
6. Culturable waste. The ―wasteland survey and reclamation committee‘‘ defines culturable
waste‘ as that land available for cultivation but not used for cultivation for one reason or the
other. This land was used in the past but has been abandoned for some reason. Normally
speaking any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in
this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving through reclamation
practices.
7. Current fallow. This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one
agricultural year.fallowing is practiced to give rest to land. The fertility of land is reduced
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 when crops are grown constantly year after year. When given rest, the land recoups the lost
fertility through natural processes.
8. Fallow other than current fallow. When land is left fallow for more than a year but less
than five years, it is called fallow other than current fallow. If the land is left uncultivated
for more than five years, it would be categorized as culturable wasteland.
9. Net sown area. Cropped area in the year under consideration is called net sown area. Net
sown area has a special significance in an agricultural country like India because agricultural
production largely depends upon this type of land. There is an urgent need to increase the net
area sown for rapidly increasing population in India; although there is not much scope for
increasing area under this category due to natural limitations such as
topography,soils,climate,etc.

Land-Use Changes In India

Changes in the land use occur due to changes in the economic activities carried out in a particular
region. The economy undergoes following three types of changes causing changes in land use.
1. Size of Economy. Size of economy is measured in terms of value of goods and services and
grows over time. This is caused by increase in population, improvements in income levels
advancement of technology and other associated factors. This results in increasing pressure
on land and even the marginal lands come under use.
2. Composition of economy. Economy is composed of primary, secondary and tertiary
activities and these segments of economy keeps on changings. Normally, secondary and
tertiary activities grow much faster than the primary activities (especially agriculture). This
type of change is more prominent in a developing country like India. This process leads to
shift of land from agricultural uses to non-agricultural uses. Such changes are very fast
around urban areas where agricultural land is encroached upon by extension of cities.
3. Pressure of agriculture on land. Pressure of agriculture on land remains the same although
the contribution of agriculture reduces with time. Following two reasons are responsible for
such a situation:
(A) The share of population dependent on agriculture particularly in the developing countries
usually declines much more slowly compared to the decline in the sector‘s share in the
sector‘s share in GDP.
(B) The number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed is increasing day by day.
(Refer figure 15), shows that there have been major changes in share of land-use
categories in India between 1960-61 and 2002-2003. there categories of land –use have
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 undergone increases while four categories have suffered decline. Following three points
are worth nothing about the increase in certain categories of land –use.

(i) Non-agriculture uses of land have experienced heigest rate of increase due to changing structure
of Indian economy. The contribution from industrial and service sectors has increased
considerabl. Urban and rural settlements are expanding at an accelerated rate and are
encroaching upon the agricultrure land. Thus the area under non-agricultural uses is increasing
at the expense of agricultural land and to some extent wasteland.
(ii) The increase in the share in area under forest may be accounted for by increase in the demarcated
area under forest rather than an actual increase in the forest cover in the country.
(iii) Current fallow does not increase or decrease on regular basis and cannot be explained from
information pertaining to two given points of time. There are large fluctuations in current fallow
because it depends on variability of rainfall and cropping cycles.
The decline in area uder four categories viz. barren and wasteland, cultivable wasteland, area under
pastures and tree crops and net area sown can be explained as under :
(i) As the pressure on land increased, both from the agricultural and non-agriculture sectors,
wastelands and culturable wastes are reclaimed and there is a gradual decline in these categories
of land over the time.
(ii) Net shown area had been increasing slowly til late 1990s after which there has been slight decline
in net area sown due to increase in area under non-agricultural uses such as expansion of cities
villages, industrial areas etc.

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(iii) The decline in land under pastures and grazing lands is primarily due to pressure from
agriculture land. illegal encroachment due to expansion of cultivation on common pasture
lands is largely responsible for this decline.

Diference between Actual Increase and Rate Increase

There is basic diference (Refer Table-35) between actual increase and rate of in in any land use
category. Actual increase is the difference in the extend of land use categories over the two periods It
is calculated with the help of the following formula.

Rate of increase (or decrease) = Value of terminal year-Value of base year

--------------------------------------------------- X 100
Value of base year

For example the rate of uncrease in forest area between 1960-61 and 2006-07

Forest area in 2002-03- Forest area in 1960-61

= --------------------------------------------------------- X 100
Forest area in 1960-61

Refer Table 35 : Land utilization pattern, 2006-07

Particulars Area Percent
(Million hectores)
1. Total geographical area 329 -
2. Total reporting area 306 100
3. Barren land not available forcultivation 42 14
4. Area under forests 69 23
5. Permanent pastures and grazing land 11 4
6. Cultivable waste lands etc. 18 6
7. Fallow lands 25 8
8. Net area sown 140.3 46
9. Area sown more than once 53.4 19
10. Total cropped area (viii+ix) 193.7 66
Source: Statistical Abstract, India 2002 (Central statistical Organization)

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Common Property Resources
Depeding on the ownership, land is generally classified under two heads viz (i) private land and (ii)
common property resources (CPRs). Private land is owned by an individual or a group of
individuals. Common property resources, on the other hand, is owned by the state and is used by the
community. CPRs are very useful as such areas provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the
households along with other minor forest product like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal plants etc. Such
lands are of great significance to landless and marginal farmers as well as to other weaker sections of
society. Women are great beneficiaries from such lands because most of the fodder and fuel
collecrtion is done by them in rural areas. They have to devote long hours in collecting fuel and
fodder from a degraded area of CPR.
CPRs are community‘s natural resources where every member has the right of access.
Example of CPRs are community forests, pasture land, Village water bodies and other public spaces
where a group larger than a household or family unit exerices rights of use and carries responsibility
of management.

11.2.2 Agrcultural Land Use In India

Agricultural land is the important asset for the Indian farmers due to following three reasons.
I. Agriculture is based on land and the contribution of land in agriculture is much more as
compared to its contribution in other sectors of economy such as secondary and tertiary
activities. Thus, lack of access to land is directly correlated with incidence of poverty in
rural areas.
II. Agriculture productivity directly depends on the quality of land which is not true for other
activities.
III. In addition to being an important productive factor in rural areas, land ownership has a
social value and serves as a security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies, and
also adds to the social status.

Intensity of Cropping
Agricultural production and productivity, can be increased in two; by expending the
crooped area and by increasing the intensity of cropping. Since much of the physically suitable land
for cultivation is already under plough, there is little scope for expansion of net sown area. The only
alternative left is the intensification of cropping. The intensity of cropping refers to the number of
crops raised on a field during an agricultural year. The total cropped area as percentage of the net
sown area gives a measure of cropping intensity.
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 Thus, cropping intensity = Total cropped area
X 100
Net sown area
The index of the intensity of cropping depends upon the extent of area sown more than once. Higher
the extent of area sown more than once, higher will be the intensity of cropping. In other words,
intensity of cropping is the indicator of the efficiency of land use. Higer the index of intensity of
cropping, higher is the efficiency of land use. The main factors influencing intensity of cropping are.
Irrigation, fertilizer, early-maturing high-yielding varieties of seed, mechanization of agriculture and
plant protection measures through the use of insecticides, pesticides and weedicides. The availability
of water for irrigation ensures the use of higher doses of fertilizers which, in turn, reduces the extent
of fallow land. The quick-ripening varieties of seeds help in taking more than one crop from the
same field in one agricultural year.

Cropping Seasons In India

India has following three crop seasons:
1.Kharif. This season starts with the onset of monsson and continues till the beginning of winter.
Major crops of this season are rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, sesamum, groundnut and some pulses
such as moong, urad, etc.
2.Rabi. This season starts in the beginning of winter season and continues till the end of winter or
beginning of summer. Major crops of this season are wheat, barley, jowar, gram and oilseeds such as
linseed, rape and mustard.
3.Zaid This is summer cropping season and major zaid crops are rice, maize,ground-nut vegetables
and fruits like watermelon, musk-melon, cucumbers, etc. now some seeds of pulses have been
evolved which can be successfully grown in summer.

Types Of Farming
Farming is classified as irrigated and rainfed (barani) depending on the main source of moisture.
Irrigation may be protective or productive.
Protective irrigation helps in protecting the crops from adverse effects of moisture deficiency and
acts as supplementary source of water in addition to the rainfall. The strategy of this type of
irrigation is to provide soil moisture to maximum possible area. Productive irrigation is different
from protective irrigation in the sense that it is meant to provided sufficient soil moisture in cropping
season to achieve high productivity. Water input in this type of irrigation is higher than that in
protective irrigation.
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Rainfed farming is further classified into dryland farming and wetland farming depend upon the
adequacy of soil moisture during the cropping season. Farming in areas with less than 75 centimetre
annual rainfall is known as dry land farming while farming in areas receiving more than 75
centimetre is called wetland or rain fed agriculture. In dry land farming, it is necessary to conserve
rain water and find ways and means to moderate the adverse effects of drought-like condition. About
one-third of agricultural area in India receives less than 75 cm annual rainfall and belongs to dry land
category. Hardy and drought resistant crops like ragi, bajra, moong , gram and guar (fodder crops)
are grown in these areas. In wetland farming or rain fed areas, more water is abailable in the rainy
season than is required by crops. The excess water is stored for irrigation and for ground water
sectorage. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane and
practise aquaculture in the fresh water bodies.

Cropping Pattern
There are two main types of crops namely food crops and non- food crops. Food crops are divided in
to three groups viz. (i) cereals and millets,(ii) pulses and (iii) fruits and vegetables (horticultural
crops). Cereals,millets and pulses are collectively grown as food grains. Oilsedds, fibre crops (cotton
and jute).plantation crops and forage crops are some of the important non-food crops.

Agricultural Development In India

Agriculture is a very important sector of Indian economy. Agriculture and allied sectors contribute
nearly 22 % of gross domestic product (GDP) of India and 65-70 % of the population is dependent
on agriculture for its livelihood. The importantance of agricultural sector in India can be gauged form
the fact that about 57 % of its land is devoted to crop cultivation, whereas, in the world, the
cooresponding share is only about 12 % however, there is a tremendous pressure on agricultural
land due to rapid increase in population. This is clear from the fact that the land human ratio in the
country is only 0.31 ha which is almost half of that of the world as a whole (0.59 ha). Despite various
constraints, Indian agriculture has marched a long way since independence.

11.2.3 Strategy of development

Before independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence in nature in which the largely
subsistence in nature in which the farmers could grow crops only for their use and there was hardly
any surplus for sale in the market. This period, frequently witnessed severe droughts and famines and
food shortage was a common phenomenon. About one third of the irrigated area went to Pakistan as
a result of partition of the country. Immediately after independence the government took several
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steps to increase the production of foodgrains. Following three strategies were adopted to achieve
this goal.
(i) Switching over from cash crops to food crops.
(ii) Intensification of cropping over already cultivated.
(iii) Increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough.
Initially, this strategy helped in increasing foodgrains production.
However, Indian agriculture could not progress much and experienced stagnation during late 1950s.
Indian agriculture experienced the beginning of technological changes in 1960s with the introduction
of modern input. High yielding variety (HYV) of seeds, fertilizers,mechan-isation improved
irrigation and credit marketing facilities were some of the salient features of modern technological
changes. The government of India introduced intensive area development programme (IADP) in
1960.intensive agricultural area programme (IAAP) was also launched. It aims at diffusing technical
know-how, credit and agricultural technology to step up agricultural production. New high yielding
varieties (HYV) of wheat and rice were brought to India.these HYV seeds were developed in Mexico
and Philippines respectively. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides were introduced and irrigation
facilities were expanded. All these inputs were the main components of what is known as Green
Revolution

11.2.4 Achievements of Green Revolution

The main achievements of the green revolution was the spectacular in the production of food grains
which increased from 72 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 213 million tones In 2003-04 thus recording
194 % increase during the said period. Cereals and millets recorded the highest growth from 62.4
million tones in 1965-66 to 198.5 million tones in 2003-04, thereby recording a growth rate of 218.6
% . However, pulses could not keep pace with the increasing trend. Thus it is often said that from
1967 onwards the green revolution aims at bringing about grain revolution. Even among cereals,
wheat registered more than six fold ncrease (594%) in production fron 10.39 million tones in 1965-
66 to 72.1 million tones in 2003-04 rice, on the other hand, recorded about three fold increase
(194%) from 30.6 million tones to 88 million tones. It is clear that wheat has been the main
beneficiary of the green revolution. As a result of inceased home production important of food-
grains declined from 10.3 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 2.4 million tonnes in 1983-84. there was no
import of food grains during the last few years. On the contary, India is in a position to export some
of the food grains in the event of a bumper crop.

Cost of green revolution

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Although the green revolution has helped us in increasing the farm production and solving the acute
food problem in the country, we have achieved this goal at a heavy cost of intensive use of
irrigation,fertilizers, HYV seed etc.the use of the inputs has created a large number of problems such
as soil salinisation, ground water pollution, nutrient imbalances,emergence of new pests and
diseases, and environmental degradation.
In the beginning of 1980s the planning commission of India prepared plans to solve the problems of
agriculture in rainfed areas in 1988 agro-climatic planning was initiated to reduced regional
imbalances. The commission also emphasized the need for diversification of agriculture and
harnessing of resources for development of dairy farming,poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and
aquaculture.
Policy of liberalization initiated in 1990s as well as free market economy are likely to influence
the Indian agriculture to a great extent.
Lack of development of rural infrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies and price support, and
impendiments in availing of the rural credits may lead to inter-regional and inter-personal disparities
in rural areas.

11.2.5 Problems Of Indian Agriculture

In spite of the phenomenal progress particularly since the 1960s, Indian agriculture still suffers from
several serious problems.
Although most of the problems are region specific yet some problems are common to all regions of
the country and are briefly discussed below:
1. Dependence on Erratic Monsoon.
Rainfall and temperature are the main environment factors with reference to Indian
agriculture.rainfall by south-west monsoon is very erratic, both in time and space. Most parts of India
have sufficiently high temperature throughout the year. Under such circumstances, crops can be
grown all the year round if sufficient water is made available to crops on a regular basis.
Unfortunately, most parts of India receive rainfall in 3-4 months of the rainy season and the rest of
the year is practically dry. Moreover there are wide seasonal and regional variations in the amount of
rainfall. Large parts of the country do not receive sufficient amount of rainfall and have sub-humid
sub-arid and arid climate. These areas suffer from frequent droughts. Such areas can give high
agricultural productivity if sufficient arrangments for irrigation and water harvesting are made. Only
33% of the cultivated area is covered by irrigation. Several areas are flooded in rainy season . even
drylands of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan have experienced flash foods in the recent past.
Droughts and floods continue to be twin menace in Indian agriculture.
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2. Low Productivity. Yields of almost all the crops in Indian is very low as compared to world
yields. Yields per hectare of major crops like rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India is much lower
than that of U.S.A Russia and Japan.High pressure of population results in low labour productivity.
Rainfed areas in drylands mainly grow coarse crops and give very low yields.
3. Constraints of financial resources and indebtedness. Modern agriculture has become highly
capital intensive and small and marginal farmers find it difficult to manage financial resources to
invest in agriculture.many farmers take loan from various institutions and money lenders. Crop
failures and low returns from agriculture have forced them to fall in the trap of indebtedness. Severe
indebtedness and frequent crop failures have forced many farmers to commit suicide in several states
like Andhra Pradesh,Maharashtra and even agriculturally advanced states like Punjab. A big pachage
of rupees sixty thousand crore loan waier for small and marginal farmers announced by the central
government in 2008 may improve the situation to some extent.
4. Lack of land reforms
Indian peasantry had been exploited for a long time as there had been unequal distribution of land
among the three revenue systems operational during British period i.e. Mahalwari, Ryotwari and
Zamindari, the last one was most exploitative for the peasants. Various reforms have been initiated
by the government but the lack of political will implementation of reforms.

4. Small farm size and fragmentation of landholdings

As the pressure of population on land increases, the land holdings are furhur subdivided and
fragmented.small land holdings become uneconomical which is a major obstacle in the way of
modernization of agricultural. In 1961-62 about 52% of the total holdings were marginal and small
(below 2ha in size). In 1990-90 the percentage reached to 78 of the total holdings. More than 60 % of
the owmership holdings have a size smaller than one(ha). Furthermore,about 40 % of the farmers
have operational holdings size smaller than 0.5 hectare (ha) much serious offorts have not been made
to consolidate land holdings. There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been
carried out even once. Even the states where it has been carried out once, second consolidation is
required as land holdings have fragmented again in the process of division of land among the owners
of next generation.

6. Lack of commercialization
A large part of Indian agriculture is still of subsistence type in which the farmers do not have have
enough land and are unable to produce more than their own requirement foodgrains produced by

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small and marginal farmers are just sufficient to meet the requirements of the family members of the
farmers and there is no surplus for sale. However, agriculture is commercialised in irrigated areas.

7. Vast unde-employment
Agriculture is a seasonal process which provides employment only for a brief period and
seasonal unemployment prevails for 4 to 8 months in a year. People get employment mainly at the
time of sowing and harvesting.under- employment is a more serious problemparticularly in un-
irrigated areas.

8. Degradation of cultivable land.

Faulty agriculturual practices and irrigation, particularly in canal irrigated areas, have given
rise to a number of serious problems such as degradation of land and depletion of soil fertility. Over
irrigation in canal irrigated areas has result in alkalization and salinisation of soil and also
waterlogging. Alkalinity and salinity have already affected about 8 million ha land. Another 7
million ha land in the country has lost its fertility due to waterlogging.
Another serious problem is that of excessive use of insecticides and pesticides which are used
to save the crops from insects and pests. When beyond a particular limit these chemicals lead to
higher concentration of toxic elements in the soil profile.leguminous crops are very useful to restore
the fertility of soil when grown as part of crop rotation. These crops are being replaced, particularly
in irrigated areas. This has obliterated the process of natural fertilization such as nitrogen fixation in
the soil. Soil erosion by wind and water has occurred in rainfed areas primarily due to unwanted
activities of man.

11.3 FOREST RESOURCES

Forest are an important natural resource of India. They help control foods and thus they
protect the soil against erosion. They supply timber, fuel wood, fodder and a wide range of non-
wood products. They are the natural habitat for bio-diversity and repository of genetic
wealth.forests,thus, play an important role in environmental and economic sustainability.

11.3.1 Area under forests

Under land utilization pattern, the government of India estimated the total area under forests
as 69 million hecteres or 23 % of the total geographical area (Refer Table 36). Using remote sensing

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 technology, the forest survey of India has been periodically assessing the forest cover of the country
biennially since 1987.the results of these surveys are summarized in (Refer Table Table 20):
Refer Table 36: Forest cover Estimates from 1987.
Assessment year Forestcover (million hectares) Percentage of land area
1987 64.1 19.5
1991 63.9 19.4
1995 63.9 19.4
2003 67.8 20.64
Source: tenth five year plan (2002-07), vol.ii,p.1056

Eleventh five year plan (2007-12), vol.iii, p. 67

The assessments since 1987 show clearly that the forest cover in India has stabilized around
19% of the total geographical area (i.e. around 64 million hectares). The state of forest report 2003 of
forest survey of India indicates the tree cover over 67.8 million hectares i.e. 20.6 % of the land area.
Actually, however,only about 38 million hectares are dense forests (i.e. 12 %) and the rest are open
forests of degraded forests (about 7%) and man groves. Despite their potentiality to reduce poverty and
contribute to economic growth of India and their significant contribution to local and global
environment, forest resources are not given the important due to them .
Actually, forests have generally been underval-used in economic and social terms in our country. The
contribution of the forest sector to GDP was put at 1 % in 1996-97 (measured at 1980-81 prices.) A
recent estimate puts the gross value of forest products at 2.4 % of GDP. These estimates, however, do
not take in to account the huge economic value of the eco-system services of the forests (which
obviously cannot be quan-tified). These values are indeed important and should be given proper weight
in all policy decisions affecting forestry.
There is concentration of forests in a few states like Assam,Maghya Pradesh,Orissa and a few union
territories. Northern India is particularly deficient in forests. There is a need to increase forest cover in
the entire country as also to develop them in deficient states.

11.3.2 Forest Policy, 1952

Appreciating the necessity of developing forests,the government of India formulated its forest policy in
1952 to be implemented. According to this policy, it was decided to raise to steadily the area under
forests to 100 milion hectares or 33 % for the country as a whole. The target was to provide green
cover over two-third of the land area in the hills and mountains. To achieve this goal, it was necessary

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to secure the long range development of forest resources on the one hand, and to meet the increasing
demand for timber and firewood on the other. The main objectives of forest policy under the five-year
plans were:
(i) To increase the productivity of forests,
(ii) To link up forest-development with various forest-based industries; and
(iii) To develop forest as a support to rural; economy. Keeping these broad guidelines , efforts
were directed in the following specific area.
Afforestation measure:- To meet the deficiency of supply of wood in view of the growing demand,
three important scheme were undertaken-
(1) Plantation of growing species;
(2) plantation of economic species (teak ,sisso and seamal, etc.);
(3) plantation to be raised under the scheme of rehabilitation of degraded forest.
There were various afforestation scheme understate plans and a total area of about 4.5 million
hectareswere brought under man –made plantations between1951 and 1991.
Social forestry – The government of India accepted the recommendation of the national commission
on agriculture (1976) and agreed to set up social forestry projects on non-forest lands. Public lands
and on village commons, in order,
(i) To increase green coverage,
(ii) To produce and supply firewood, fodder, small timber and minor forest produce To the rural
population, specially to the landless and other weaker sections.
(iii) To produce raw materials for paper, rayon and match industries,
(iv) To meet the fuelwood requirements of the urban poor, and
(v) To create more employment in rural areas through afforestation.
There were three components in social forestry programmes, viz:
(a) farm forestry:farmers were encouraged to plant trees on their own with free or subsidized
seedlings supplied by the forest department;
(b) public woodlots:the forest department undertook the planting of fast growing trees along
roadside canal banks and other such public lands for the needs of the community; and
(c) community woodlots: trees were planted by the communities themselves on community
lands to be shared equally by all the villagers. This was the selffinancing component of the
social forestry programme.social forestry was launched by several states and ambitious
programmes were formulated.districts chronically deficient in fuelwood were selected for
raising quick growing fuelwood and fodder species.during the sixth plan, for instance,over
9,000 million seedlings were distributed which could cover over 4.5 million hectares.many
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 of the social forestry programmes were financed by the world bank and other foreign aid
agencies.

11.3.3 Promotion of Methods for Increased Production

In order to improve utilization of forest resources, modern tools and equipments tested in advanced
countries were used increasingly. Such a step was bound to more useful in the hilly areas. Forests at
high altitudes generally remained unexploited, due to inaccessibility.
One of the problems of india‘s forestry was low productivity. On an average,the growing
stock per hectare was only 28 cu. Metres against the world average of 110 cu. Metres, and the
average annual increment was only 0.5 cu.metre per hectare against the world average of 2.0 cu.
Metres. A recent estimate pointed out the possibility of increasing Indian forest produce at the rate of
5 cu. Metres per hectare, provided the forest are properly stocked with fast growing valuable species
and are protected and tended in a scientific manner.

11.3.4 Forest Development Corporation

To attract institutional finance for forestry development,17 autonomous forest development
corporations have been set up in various state and union territotries. Their main functions are :
raising new plantations, developing infrastructure to exploit forest resources through large-scale
investment in economically viable projects, logging and marketing timber and minor forest produce
and so on.

11.3.5 National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB)

The central government set up NWDB in 1985 to bring 5 million hectares of wasteland per
year under fuelwood and fodder plantations. The setting up of this board was the government‘s
response to the continuous deforestation in the context of the exploding population, on the one side
and the the tremendous suffering of the weaker section in the rural in their search for fuelwood and
fodder, on the other. NWDB works under lands development council headed by the prime minister
and attempts to reverse the trend of rapid deforestation, and to conserve the already depleted forests
by bringing wastelands under tree cover. This program of afforestation at the rate of 5 milion
hectares per year was, of course, ambitious,for it was more than 10 times the rate achieved in the
sixth plan period. A programme of this dimension can be achieved only if it became a people‘s
movement. While setting up of NWDB in 1985, the then Late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi
announced: ‗we shall develop a people‘s movement for afforestation‘‘.

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11.3.6 National Forest Policy, 1988
The 1952 forest policy had failed to stop the serious depletion of forest wealth over the
years,accordingly, it became imperative to evolve a new strategy of forest conservation. The ministry
of environment and forests of the government of India announced its new forest policy in December
1988. the 1988 forest policy acknowledged the importance and primacy of tribals and local
communities and provided for a sustainable management approach with maintenance of
environmental stability as the prime objective. The important features of this policy are:-
1. Role of tribals in forests recognized. The new 1988 forest policy removes many anti-
people statements of earlier documents and recognizes the symbiotic relationship between
tribal people and forests. It seeks to ensure that communities living within and around
forest areas, specially the tribals should be able to get their domestic requirement of
fuelwood,fodder, minor forest produce and construction timber from forests. The new
policy enunciates that all agencies responsible for forest management, including forest
development corporations should associate tribal people closely in the protection,
regeneration and development of forests.
2. Depletion of forest area and the target for green cover.the new forest policy assumes
that forests have been depleted owing to fuel, fodder and timber needs and transfer of
land for non-forest uses and for raising revenue. It clearlye or cottage level.
3. Discouragement to forest-based industries. According to the new forest policy, forest-
based industries must get their raw materials from wood raised through farm forestry.
Besides no forest based enter-prises-excep at the village or cottage level-should be set up
in the future,unless it is first cleared, after a careful study of the availability of raw
materials. The new forest policy asserts that forest based industries will, no longer, be
allowed to plunder the country‘s forest. The practice of supplying forest produce to
industry at concessional rates would cease forthwith. The new policy, states categorically
that forest land will not be made available for lease to industry. The wood based industry
is now advised to motivate farmers to grow tree by supplying them with seeddings, credit,
technical advice and other measures.
4. End the system of private forest contractors. The new forest policy advocates an end
to the system of contractors working the forests. The contractors will be replaced by
institutions such as tribal cooperatives, government corporations, etc. it is a well known
fact that private contractors ave exploited ruthlessly the simple and ignorant forest-
dwellers. But the tribal development co-opratives and other official agencies had also

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 failed miserably and become sorces of exploitation.even then, the new forest policy
advocates the distribution of minor forest produce through state-run depots.
5. Forest land not to be diverted to non-forest uses. The forest department used to assign
forest land to individuals or non-government agencies for the purpose of reforestation.
But it is a cognizable offence to put forest land in to‘‘ non-forest uses‘‘ which have been
defined as cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber, plams, oil-bearing plants, horticultural
crops or medicinal plants.‘‘ The government has generally suggested alternatives to
industrial timber, railway sleepers and fuelwood. The new policy also suggests that India
should import timber from other countries.the period of 36 years between 1952 and 1988
had witnessed such ruthless destruction of forest in the country that, intested of the forest
cover being raised to the period of 36 years between 1952 and 1988 had witnessed such
ruthless destruction of forest in the country that, instead of the forest cover being raised to
33 % of the total geographical area,it had been reduced to 12 by 1988.
The reasons behind the destruction of forests in India are well-known.reports after
reports have appeared highlighting the damage that has been done in particular areas and experts
have even predicated the time when forest would disappear completely. How ever no significant
steps have been taken to restore green cover in India.
At the same time, industrial and commercial requirements for timber and raw
materials were called national needs and were subsidized by the state.industry was supplied with
cheap timber and raw materials; and the state could raise revenue from the sale of timber and other
forest produce. The forest department officials were happy with the regular bribes they received for
permitting illegal felling of trees. It was because of this industrial orientation that the felling of trees
for industrial and commercial purpose became extensive and the pace of deforestation got intensified
after independence.
It is a pity that the new forest policy of 1988 has done nothing to resolve this
contradiction and reverse this trend, even though it talks about the symbiotic relationship between
the forest dwellers and forests.the forest department is expected to supply denuded forest land to
forest dwellers for the purpose of regeneration and to build community resources depleted by
indiscriminate felling.
However the tribals and other forest dwellers are not allowed to grow fruit trees,
medicinal plants or even fodder and fuel wood all of which they need for survival-because these
come under the definition of ‗non-forest uses‘‘.
On the other hand, industries could acquire forest land for growing exclusively
industrial species,as they were considered forest plantations. This has been the situation till recently
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but the amendment to the forest conservation act,1980 aims at checking agencies working to protect
forest, how-ever believe that, despite the new forest policy the government would not be able to chek
industrial and commercial pressures.
Accordingly, the 1988 forest policy is also bound to fai in the face of uncontrolled
expansion of population and regular encroachments on forest land-the ruling party invariably
regularizes such encroachments at the time general elections-mindless construction of multi-purpose
irrigation dams destroying prime forests, extension of mining and construction of townships and
above all illegal felling of trees; all these directly result in rapid deforestation and all these processes
are likely to continue unchecked.

11.3.7 Achievements Under The Five Year Plans

We have explained,rather elaborately, the failure of the 1952 forest policy and the inherent
weaknesses of the 1988 forest policy. We should, however, mention some of the major programmes
undertaken by the government under the five year plans and their major achievements.
(1) Forest cover which should have been 33% of the total geographical area is now stabilized
around 19.4 %. This is unsatisfactory but it is not that bad too, considering the persistent
pressure of ever-growing population on forest resources of the country.
(2) There is growing realization that active and willing participation of the rural and communities
is necessary for the success of any forest regeneration programme. Accordingly, the
government has adopted a new strategy known as participatory forest management system.
This new strategy involves rural people,particularly women and tribal community who have
intimate knowledge of plant species, their growth characteristics,utility and medicinal value,
etc. they also know the specific requirements of fuel, fodder, timber and other non-food
product. The adaptation of the new strategy has led to several positive outcomes, such as:
(a) Change in the attitude and relationships of local communities and forest officials toward
each other and the forest;
(b) Improvement in the condition of forests;
(c) Reduction in encroachments;
(d) Increase in the income of local people; and
(e) Involvement of non-government organization (NGOs) in forest research, tree planting,
promotion of productivity, etc.

(3) The private sector, comprising farmers, cooperatives and industry has started playing an
increasing role in the management of forests. Though the responsibility for conservation and
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 expansion of forest area lies mainly with the government,rural people have been practicing
tree planting and tree maintenance and conservation in their farms. Households. Village
woodlots, etc. to meet household requirements of fuel,fodder, poles,timber and medicinal
plants. Currently, the area of private tree plantation under various program of social forestry,
agro-forestry, farm forestry, etc.covers over 6 milion hectares. There are also a large number
of small private nurseries meeting the local demand for seedings.
(4) Forest research and education are being promoted by the indian council of forestry research
and education (ICFRE). The ICFRE undertakes,aids,promotes and coordinates research and
application through a network of 10 intitutes and centres.besides,an increasing number of
private companies and NGOs are funding their research In such as tree breeding medicinal
plants and non-wood forest products.
(5) Finally, the government has promoted external assistance as a major source of funding for
forestry projects. The main donors of forestry projects in India are the world bank, Japan
bank for international co-operation, and others. Donor assistance in the total plan outplay was
as much as 30 in the fifth and sixth plans. It had gone up to Rs.830 crores in 1998-99. under
the tenth plan, 16 projects with a total outlay of RS.13,160 crores have been proposed to
various donor agensies. The tenth plan storve to set joint forest management (JFM)
committee to enhance green cover and integrate livelihood opportunities. By the beginning of
the eleventh plan, participatory forest management- or joint forest management–had evolved
sufficiently. Over 1,06,000 joint forest managemental committees (with over 22 million
participants) are functioning in 28 states, covering 22 million hectares of forest area.

11.3.8 The Eleventh Plan Attempts To Strengthen The JFM Regime

Incorporating the concepts of harvesting, value addition and improved marketing of forest produce
(a) Improve the productivity of forests and make them provided timber and non-timber products
with out unnatural change in the composition of the forests; and
(b) To manage forest to meet the livelihood needs of the neighbouring population .

The eleventh plan targets an increase of forests cover by 5 % of the total geographical area, or an
additional cover of 16 million hectares. National afforestation programmes, joint forest management
(JFM) district level forest development agencies, Panchayati Raj Institution, National
Afforestation,Eco-restoration and Eco-development board, etc. all these are to work together to
achieve the basic targets of the eleventh plan. The actual management of government forests is
handled by the state governments, while capacity building and research are with the central
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government. The eleventh plan has proposed to strengthen integrated forest protection scheme‘‘ to
provide assistance to states for building capacity and basic infrastructure for modern forest
management. The setting up of Indian institute of forest management (IIFM),wild life institute of
India, indiancouncil of research and education, Indian plywood industries research and technology
institute etc. are some of the initatives to promote and strengthen the management of forests.
We may conclude this section by referring to four important programes being implemented in
recent years:
1. The scheduled tribes and other forest dwellers (Recognition of forest rights) act-under this
act, land records for the recognized rights, mapping of common forest for community
management and organization of federation of non- timber forest produce (NTFP) marketing
societies are included.
2. As women are the principal stakeholders in the use and management of national resources,
the government attempts to ensure equal representation of women in the decision making and
implementation processes in all participatory planning and development programmes in JFM,
aforestation plans of panchayats, tribal rights act, etc.
3. National rural employment gurantee (NREG) programmes will include afforestation as one of
the activities of the panchayats.
4. The setting up of sanctuaries and national parks under the 1952 national forest policy, the
enactment of the wild life (protection) act, 1972 the launch of the project tiger in 1973, the
Project Elephant in 1992, the biological diversity act, 2002-these are major initiatives in the
protection of wild life and preservation of bio-diversity.

11.4 WATER RESOURCES

Water is an invaluable natural resource for us. It sustains life on the earth. There could be no
life had there been no water on the earth in fact earth is the only planet in the entire solar system
which supports life because it contains water. However, it is the fresh water which is more useful.
About 71% of the earth‘s surface is covered with oceanic water but fresh water constitutes only 3 %
of the total water. It is the basic natural resource for human well being. We make use of water for
agriculture and industries. Water stored in reservoirs behind dams is supplied to villages and cities. It
is also used for irrigation and for production of hydroelectricity. Navigation is important use of
water. Demand for water is increasing rapidly with the increase of population. As against this, the
supply of usable water is limited. Even this limited supply can be depleted or made unsable by
excessive utilization, population or careless management. Moreover, all parts of the country do not
possess the same quantity of water. Some areas have surplus water while other areas suffer from
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chronic shortage of water. The increasing shortage of water is tension and causing disputes among
nations, states, communities and regions. Further, there are seasonal variations in the availability of
water. We receive plenty of water in the short rainy season and the remaining part of the year
practically remains dry. Under such conditions, coordination between demand and supply as well as
between different sources of water resources is imperative.

11.4.1 Water Resources of India

India occupies only 2.45 % of the world‘s surface area andis the home of over 16% of the
world‘s population. As against this, India has only 4 % of the world‘s water resources.the total water
available from precipitation in the country in ayear is about 4,000 cubic kilmetre .the availability
from surface water and replenishable ground is 1,869 cubic kilometre . out of this, only 60 % can be
put to beneficial uses. Thus the total utilization water resurce in the country is only 1,122 cubic
kilometre.
1. Surface Water
Surface water is available to us in term of rivers, lakes, tanks, ponds and other water bodies.
Rivers obtain water from rainfall or from snow melt. Rivers constitute the most important sources of
surface water in India. Carry nearly 60 % of the total surface water of India. It is worth mentioning
that(Refer Table 37) the Brahmputra and the Ganga are world‘s eight and tenth largest rivers
respectively.The total flow of all rivers of India is about 6percenr of the discharge of all rivers in the
world. The flow of water in to major rivers of India the effective storage capacity built or under
construction in India increased from an insignificant 18 billion cubic metres (bem) at the time of
independence to the current level of 147 bcm. It is 8.47 5 of the total flow in the river basins.
Refer Table 37: India-River Basin-wise Distribtution of Usable Surface Water
River Annual run-off Usable water (bcm) Storage capicity
1 Indus 73 46 14.52
2 Ganga 501 250 37.40
3 Brahmaputra 537 24 1.09
4 Godavari 119 76 17.27
5 Krishna 68 58 32.23
6. Kaveri 21 19 7.25
7. penar 6.8 6.8 2.37
8. Mahanadi 67 50 8.93
9. Brahmani 36 18.1 4.29
10. Sabarmati 3.8 1.9 1.30
11. Mahi 11.8 3.1 4.16
12. Narmada 41 34.5 3.02
13. Tapi 18 14.5 8.68
14. Subarnaekha 10.8 - -
Total 1869 690 -

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Bcm= billion cubic metre

2. Groundwater
As mentioned earlier, a part of rain water percolates in the ground through joints and cracks
in the rocks and is known as groundwater. About 60 % of the groungd water is confined to the
upper layers of the soil and is very useful for agricultural crops.the remaining water goes deeper into
the ground. This water is taken out by digging wells. The replenishable ground water potential in
India is estimated at 433.9 billion cubic metres. The distribution of groundwater is very uneven in
India. It is affected by the structure of rock, surface configuration and the amount of rainfall. The soft
and permeable rocks of the northern plain of India allow large quantities of water to percolate into
the ground. Therefore, this area is bestowed with vast groundwater resources. The entire land
stretching from Punjab in the west to the Brahmaputra valley in the east has large quantities of
groundwater. The whole plain so formed by depositional work of rivers originating in the Himalayan
region and has soft sediment and porous rocks. More than 42 % of the potential is confined to states
of the great plains of north India. Utar Pradesh alone accounts for 19 of the estimated ground water
potential. As against this, most of the peninsular plateau area of India is made of old, hard and
impervious rocks which do not allow water to go down in the ground. As such, this region is almost
entirely deprived of the groundwater resources. However, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu have large potential of groundwater due to large size of these states. The main use of ground
water is for irrigation which consumes about three- fourth of the total groundwater.the remaining
one-fourth is used for domestic, industrial and related purposes. There is large scope for developing
groundwater because only 37.23 % of the total available groundwater resources have been
developed so far. State wise percentageof developed groundwater resources to total available
potential ranges from 1.07 % in Jammu and Kashmir to 98.34 % in Punjab. There are large
variations in development of groundwater at the state level mainly due to climatic condition. States
and unionterritories with less amount of rainfall and high rainfall variability experiencing scarcity of
surface water have developed their groundwater resources on a larges scale.pujnab, Haryana,
Western Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are such states. Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Maharashtra also need to develop their groundwater resources
because these states receive low and highly variable rainfall (Refer Table 38) gives basin wise
ground water potential and utilization in India.
3. Lagoons and Backwaters
India has a very long coastline stretching over more than six thousand kilometers. This coast is very
incanted in some states like Kerala, Orissa and west Bengal where a large numberof lagoons and
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lakes ave been formed. Thse lagoons and laes provide vast surface water resources. Although, Water
is generally in these water-bdies it used for fihing and irrigating certain vareties of paddy crops,
coconut etc.

11.4.2 Water Demand And Utilisation

India is basically an agricultural country where nearly two-third of the total population depends on
agriculture.
Refer Table 38 Basinwise Ground Water Utilization
S.No. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of
Groundwater Rsources Utilistion (%) Groundwater
1 Brahmani Baitharni 4.05 8.45
2 Brahmaputra 26.55 3.37
3 Chambal Composite 7.19 40.09
4 Kaveri 12.3 55.33
5 Ganga 170.99 33.52
6 Godavari 40.65 19.53
7 Indus 26.49 77.71
8 Krishna 26.41 30.39
9 Kuchchhh and Saurashtra 11.23 51.14
including river Luni
10 Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.68
11 Mahanadi 16.46 6.95
12 Megha (Barak & Others) 8.52 3.94
13 Narmada 10.83 21.74
14 Northeast Composite 18.84 17.2
15 Pennar 4.93 36.6
16 Subarnarekha 1.82 9.57
17 Tapi 8.27 33.05
18 Western Ghat 17.69 22.88
Total 431.42 31.97
Source : Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, New Delhi
Agriculture production,we have to improve our irrigation system. Therefore, high priority has been
given to rrigation in Five year Plans, and multipurpose river valley projects like the BhakraiNangal,
Hirakund, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been taken up

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(Refer Figure 16) show that agriculture is the largest consumer of water. It accounts for 89% of the
surface water and 92% of the groundwater utilization. Domestic sector with 9% utilization is the
second largest consumer of surface water while industrial sector with 5% utilization is second largest
consumer of groundwater. However, share of agriculture in total water consumption is likely to
reduce and that of domestic and industrial sector may increase in future as the development to take
place.

11.4.2.1 Demand of Water for Irrigation

In agriculture, water is mainly used for irrigation. Irrigation is the key to success of the Indian
agriculture as is clear from the following points:

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1. Uneven Spatial Distribution of Rainfall. The spatial distribution of rainfall is very uneven.
There are water surplus as well as water deficit areas. North –western part of India and Deccan
plateau are termed as rainfall deficit areas and badly need irrigation facilities.
2. Uneven Temporal Distribution of Rainfall. The temporal distribution of rainfall is also
uneven. Rainfall is confined to a short duration of 3-4 months in the rainy season. The rest of
the year is more or less dry during which agriculture is not possible without irrigation.
3. High Rainfall Variability. Large parts of India suffer from high rainfall variability. Incidentally,
high rainfall variability is experienced in areas of low but areas of higher rainfall are also not
free from rainfall variability. As such irrigation is ( Refer Figure 17 -18) essential even in areas
with sufficient rainfall. Without irrigation, agriculture in India is reduced to a gamble in the
hands of monsoon. Droughts are a common phenomenon in the country.

4. Uncertainty of Rainfall. Rainfall by south – west monsoon winds in India is very uncertain. Not
only arrival and withdrawal of rainfall are uncertain but also its continuity, provide security to
agriculture from such fluctuations.
5. Nature of Crops. The nature of certain crops is such that they require large quantities of water
for their successful growth. Rice, sugarcane, jute, etc. are such crops. Water requirement of
these crops can be met only through irrigation.
6. High Yielding Crops. The main element of Green Revolution is the high yielding crops which
require regular moisture to increases farm production. Therefore, irrigation is necessary even if
the rainfall is sufficient.
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7. Long Growing Period. India has long growing period which extends throughout the year.
Provision of irrigation can make multiple cropping possible.
8. Increase in Productivity. Productivity of agricultural is definitely higher on irrigated land than
on unirrigated land. Therefore, extending irrigation facilities can increase production and
productivity of crops. It also reduces instability in yields.
There are large regional variations in the irrigated area. On one hand, over 85% of the net sown area
is under irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh where bumper crops of wheat and
rice are taken with the help of irrigation. On the other hand , very little irrigation is required in the
north –eastern states and the west coast areas where sufficient rainfall is received to sustain crops.

11.4.2.2 Well and Tube –Well Irrigation

Well and tube well irrigation is done by using ground water. Wells and tube wells account for more
than half of the net irrigated area. Of the total net irrigated area. Of the total net irrigated area 76.1%
in Punjab and 51.3 % in Haryana are irrigated through wells and tube wells. This shows that (Refer
Table 39) these states utilise large proportion of their groundwater potential. The share of area
irrigated through wells and tube wells is also very high in the states given.
Refer Table 39: Percentage of Net Irrigated Area Total by wells and Tube wells
State Percentage
Gujarat 86.6
Rajasthan 77.2
Madhya Pradesh 66.5
Maharashtra 65
Uttar Pradesh 58.21
West Bengal 57.6
Tamil Nadu 54.7
Over exploitation of groundwater leads to serious consequences as is clear from the following points:
1. There is depletion of groundwater resources and decline in groundwater table.
2. Some states like Rajasthan and Maharastra have increased fluoride concentration in
groundwater, and this practice has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in parts of West
Bengal and Bihar.
3. Intensive irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh is increasing salinity in the
soil. This adversely affects the production of several crops as crops cannot tolerate high salinity
in the soil.

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11.4.3 Emerging Water Problems
There are several problems regarding the water resources. The main problems of water
resources are its availability, use quality and management if the poresent trend of water requirement
and its wastage continues; the day is not very far off when India will face crucial shortage of water.

11.4.3.1 Deterioration of Water Quality

Water quality refers to purity of water or water without unwanted foreign substances. Water
gets polluted by foreign matters such as micro organisms, chemicals, industrial and other wastes.
Such matters deteriorate the quality of water and render it unfit for human use. Quality of water
suffers from its large scale pollution almost throughout the country. It has been estimated that about
three- fourths of the surface water in India is polluted. Most of the rivers are carrying polluted. We
have been dumping all sorts of waste matter into our rivers – industrial waste, municipal sewage,
residues of chemical fertilizers and what not. These wastes are both, solids as well as in soluble form.
Cities and towns generate a lot of sewage. Most of this sewage is dumped into water courses without
any treatment rendering the natural water course downstream unfit for drinking and even for bathing.
About 14 river basins have (Refer Figure 19) been affected by untreated city swage. Large scale
pollution of rivers is turning them into septic drains posing serious threat to the health of millions of
people.

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 Industries are also responsible for water pollution. These are about 150 leather factories in
Kanpur which discharge more than 5.8million litres of waste in the Ganga river everyday.
Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides etc. to increase the farm
production has further aggravated the problem of surface and groundwater pollution. The residuals of
fertilisers and other chemicals reach the water bodies and contaminate them.

11.4.4 Conservation of Water Resources

Conservation of water resources has become very essential due to its short supply, increasing
demand, large scale pollution and its uneven distribution in time and space. Following three steps are
necessary for conservation of water resources.
(i) Developing water- saving technologies and methods.
(ii) Preventing pollution of water.
(iii) Encouraging watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse and
conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.

11.4.5 Prevention of Water Pollution

As mentioned earlier, both surface and ground water are polluted in most parts of the country.
The Central pollution control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has
been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations. According to their
investigations, organic and bacterial contaminations are the major causes of pollution of river waters.
The Yamuna river is the most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah. Other
severally polluted rivers are the Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali the
Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and Music of Hyderabad and the Ganga
Refer fight Kanpur and Varanasi.
Similarly, groundwater is also polluted primarily due to high concentration of heavy/ toxic metals,
fluoride and nitrate at different parts of the country.
The government made several legislative provisions for preventing water pollution. Some such
provision are water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974, and environment Protection Act,
1986. Unfortunately, these provisions have not been implemented effectively. Consequently, 251
polluting industries were located on the banks of rivers and lakes in 1997. The Water Cess Act, 1977
was passed with the primary aim to reduce pollution. This has also made little impact. In view of all
these failure it has become necessary to generate public awareness about important of water and the
impact of its pollution.

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11.4.6 Recycle and Reuse of Water
Availability of fresh water can be improved by recycling and reusing water. Water of inferior quality
such as claimed waste water of can be used in industries for cooling and fire fighting. In urban areas
water after bathing and washing utensils and vehicles can be used for gardening. This helps in
conserning water of better quality for drinking. The practice of recycling and reusing water is at its
initital stage but there are vast possibilities of replenishing water through recycling.

11.4.7 Water Shed Management

Watershed is geographic area that drains to a common point, which makes it an ideal planning unit
for conservation of soil and water. It may comprise one or several villages; contain both arable and
non –arable lands, various categories of land holding and farmers. The watershed approach enables a
holistic development of agriculture and allied activities, such as horticulture, agro – forestry and,
silviculture (forests.)
Watershed development is a very important device to conserve water resource, increase agricultural
production and stop ecological degradation. In this way it improves the living conditions of the
people.
The Central and State Government as well as some non- government organisations are working on
watershed development programmes. One such programme is Haryali which is sponsored by the
Central Government. It‘s sponsored by the Central Government. Its primary aim is to help the rural
people in conserving water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.
Neeru –Merru (water and you) in Andhra Pradesh and Aruary Pani Sansad (in Alwar district of
Rajasthan) are two important programmes of water harvesting. Under these programmes various
steps have been taken to harvest water for the benefit of like percolation tanks, dug out ponds
(Johad), check dams etc. have been constructed for water harvesting.
Tamil Nadu is one state which has made it mandatory to have water harvesting structures in
the houses. No building is allowed to be constructed without making provision for water – harvesting
structures.
Water harvesting movement is still in its nascent stage and there is urgent need to generate public
awareness regarding it.

1. Rainwater Harvesting
Large scale depletion of groundwater is a very serious problems which must be trackled urgently.
Shortage of water is felt in rural areas for irrigation and for domestic as well as industrial use in

212
urban areas. One of the methods of solving the problem is rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of
increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and storing rainwater locally in sub-surface
water reservoirs to meet the household needs.
Objectives of the rainwater harvesting are to:
1. Meet the ever increasing demand for water,
2. Reduce the ruh-off which chokes drains,
3. Avoid the flooding of roads,
4. Augment the groundwater storage and raise the water table,
5. Reduce groundwater pollution,
6. Improve the quality of groundwater,
7. Reduce the soil erosion, and
8. Supplement domestic water requirement during summer and drought.
There are so many low cost techniques which can be used to recharge the groundwater
aquifers. Some of the important recharging of hand pumps, recharge through abandoned dug well,
recharge through trench and bunds and stop dams on small rivulets. These techniques are illustrated
in (Refer Figure 20) the other techniques are construction of percolation pits and trenches around
fields.

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 Techniques for rainwater harvesting are not new to India. Rainwater has been harvested in
India since antiquity as is amply proved by the following evidences:
1. There are evidences of advanced water harvesting systems like canals, tanks, embankments and
wells.
2. In hills and mountains, rainwater harvesting from rooftops and springs were carried over long
distances with the help of bamboo pipe.
3. In arid and semiarid regions, structures like wells and step wells were built to tap groundwater
aquifers. Rainwater harvesting from rooftops used artificially created catchments, which drained
water into artificial ‗kunds‘ or tanks in Rajasthan.
4. Construction of tanks throughout the country has been popular measure of conserving rainwater.

11.4.8 National Water Policy of India-2002 (Highlights)

This policy has stipulated water allocation priorities in a definite order which is drinking water,
irrigation, hydro-electric generation, industrial and other miscellaneous uses. It also emphasised on
new approaches to water management. Its key features are as under.
 Irrigation and multi –purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component,
wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water.
 Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the priority.
 Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater.
 Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased programme
should be undertaken for improving water quality.
 The efficiency of utilization in all the diverse uses of water should be improved.
 Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered.
 Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and
disincentives.
Source: Government of India (2002), ‗India‘s Reform Initiatives in water Sector,‘ Ministry for Rural
Development, New Delhi.

India has a vast and diverse potential of fishing resources comprising 2 million square
kilometre of exclusive economic zone for deep sea fishing, 7,520 kilometres of coastline, 29,000
kilometres of rivers, 1.7 million hectares of reservoirs, nearly I million hectares of brackish water
area and 0.8 million hectares of tanks and ponds for inland and marine fish production. All resources
are waiting to be exploited fully.

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 India is the third largest producer of fish in the world and, second largest in inland fish
production. Fisheries sector plays an important role in the socioeconomic development of India
generating employment for a large coastal population- about 14 million fishermen draw their
livelihood from fisheries, but they generally live on the verge of extreme poverty, being victims of
middlemen and money lenders. The fisheries sector is not only an important source of direct
employment but generates employment in downstream industries the sector provides employment to
over 11 million people engaged fully, partially or in subsidiary activities. Fisheries help in raising
nutritional levels, augmenting food supply and being a major foreign exchange earning.

The contribution of the fisheries sector to gross domestic product (at current prices) has
increased from Rs. 1,230 crores to Rs. 32.,060 crores between 1981 and 2002. fisheries contribute
about 1.2 % of India‘s GDP.

Broadly, fishery resources of India are either inland or marine. The principal rivers and their
tributaries, canals, ponds, lakes, reservoirs comprise the inland fisheries. The rivers extend over
about 17,000 miles, and other subsidiary water channels comprise 70,000 miles. The marine
resources comprise the two wide arms of the Indian Ocean and large number of gulf and bays along
the coast.

In 1951 total fish production was about 0.7 million tonnes. This had increased to 6.8 million
tonnes in 2005-06. Less than 10 % of fish production ( Refer Table-40) is exported bringing in
foreign exchange earnings of Rs. 6,300 crores in 2000-01 and nearly Rs. 7,300 crores in 2006-07. In
dollar terms, export earnings from products exceeded over 1.8 billion dollars.

Refer Table 40 : Production And Export of Fish And Marine Products

Year Production (m. tonnes) Export of marine products
Quantity Value
Marine inland Total (‗000 tonnes) (Rs. crores)
Marine Inland Total
1950-51 0.5 0.2 0.7 20 2
1990-91 2.3 1.5 3.8 140 873
2000-01 2.8 2.8 5.6 503 6,300
2006-07 3.0 3.8 6.8 612 8,313
2007-08 2.9 4.2 7.3 541 7,620
2008-09 2.9 4.7 7.6 603 8608
*provisional
Source : Economic Survey, 2009-10,p.195
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 The Five year plans assign high priority to the development of fisheries because of the
necessity to raise the nutritional levels of protein different Indian diet and to earn much needed
foreign exchange. The fisheries programmes have emphasized family based labour intensive inland
and brackish water fisheries and improving the harvesting from seas by stimulating the growth of
country boats, mechanized boats and deep sea trawlers.

11.5 DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE FISHERIES

Despite the vast fishery resources, the production of fish in India is far from adequate. India
produces only 9% of total supply of fish in Asia, whereas Japan contributed to the extent of 43% and
china coming next, to about 18%. The importance of developing fishery resources lies in the fact that
they can act as substitute to our land resources. However, we have not exploited our marine
resources fully. The Indian Ocean Expedition has estimated that only 1 to 8% of the fish available
along the Eastern and Western coasts is being caught at present. If deep sea methods of catching fish
are employed, it is possible to increase the fish catch by 10 times i.e., from the sea to 40 million
tonnes per year. This indeed would make a tremendous impact on nutritional standards of the people
and on raising the standard of living of your poverty-stricken fishermen as also on our foreign
exchange earning.
The government of India has set up the national fisheries Development Board (NFDB) to
reduce the untapped potential of the fishery sector with the application of modern tools of research
and development in cluding biotechnology.

11.5.1 Marine Fishing Policy, 2004

High priority is now being given to the development of deep sea fishing, as increasing production
can come only from deep sea and oceans. The programme of mechanisation of fishing crafts is being
followed vigourously. The Government of India is providing subsidy up to 33 % of the cost of
vessels and joint ventures, and excise duty relief on diesel utilised by mechanised craft for marine
fisheries. To exploit marine fish resources, landing and berthing facilities for fishing craft for marine
fisheries to exploit marine fish resources, landing and berthing facilities for fishing crafts are being
provided at various major and minor ports. Fishing harbours capable of handling small and medium
size fishing vessels are being developed at the minor ports. For the operation of medium and large
size deep sea fishing vessels, special fishing harbours have been developed at the major ports.
Even though the subject of fisheries is in the State list in the Indian constitution, government of India
has launched a comprehensive marine policy in November 2004, with the objective of boosting fish

216
production so as (a) to increase exports of fish and increase per capita consumption of fish within the
country, and (b) promote economic security of Coastal fish ermen. The important features of the
2004 marine policy are as follows:
(i) Reduce fishing pressure in the traditional fishing area but promote exploitation of deep sea
and oceanic waters;
(ii) Protect subsistence level fishermen by earmarking exclusive areas in terms of depth and
distance for non-mechanized (non-mechanized) traditional craft; areas beyond this are
demarcated for mechanical and motorized craft;
(iii) Union territories of Lakshadweep island and Andaman and Nicobar islands are rich in fish
resources, but they are at present, grossly under- exploited; special policy measures are being
be taken to promote harvesting, marking and processing of fish these groups of island;
(iv) Give attention to post harvest operations, viz-maximum utilization of harvested fish for
internal consumption and for export , conforming to international standards, and to minimize
wastes;
(v) To promote the welfare of fishermen and their households in the coastal belt and ensure their
social security and economic well being; and
(vi) Give increased attention to environmental factors as well as the effect of pollution on marine
fisheries.

11.5.2 Inland Fisheries

While considerable interest is being shown to the development of marine fisheries, inland
fisheries have not been neglected altogether. During the fifth plan, for instance, the Central
Government sponsored (a) Fish Farmers Development Agencies(FFDA‘s) to popularise fish farming
in tanks and ponds and (b) Brackish Water Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFADs) for
development of brackish water acqua-culture.
These are nearly 150 FFDAs functioning in 17 States. These agencies have nearly 386,000
hectares of water area under intensive fish culture and over 5 lakh farmers have been trained in
improved practice. The fish yield has been raised from 50 kgs per hectare in the 1970‘s to about 150
kgs per hectare now. The Government of India is also implementing a ―shrimp and Fish culture
Project‖ with world bank assistance for development of shrimp culture in the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.
The Government is also increasingly aware of the immense potential for fishery development
in East and North –Eastern States. Fish is an important constituent of the diet of the people of these

217
states. Ac- cordingly, development of fisheries in these states can go a long way to trackle the
problem of food as well as unemployment.
While there has been remarkable improvement in inland fisheries are some disturbing tends
as well. In the first place, there is danger to riverine fisheries because o growing river pollution.
Discharge of untreated effluents form the industrial units located near the rivers and of urban sullage
destroy fish in thousands and millions.
Secondly, the construction of dams, weirs, and barrages prevents the free migration of fish to
their usual breeding and feeding grounds and thus adversely affects the stock of fish in river.
Accordingly, fishfolk who have depended on rivers and lakes for their liveliood for centuries,
have been forced to give up their hereditary in rural occupation and become landless labourers in
rural areas or magrate to cities and towns in search of employment.

11.6 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical
properties.
Normally two types of minerals are recognized:
1. Metallic Minerals
2. Non-metallic
1. Metallic Minerals. These minerals contain metal. Iron ore, copper, manganese, nickel, etc.
are important examples of metallic minerals. Metallic minerals are further sub-divided into
ferrous and non ferrous minerals.
(a) Ferrous minerals. These minerals have iron content. Iron ore, manganese, tungsten,
nickel, cobalt, etc, are important example of ferrous minerals.
(b) Non- Ferrous Minerals. These minerals do not have iron content. Gold, silver,
copper, lead, bauxite, tin, magnesium, etc. are important example of ferrous minerals.
2. Non-metallic Minerals. These minerals do not contain metal. These minerals can either be
organic or inorganic.
(a) Organic minerals. These minerals ( Refer Figure 21 ) contain organic matter. Fossil
fuels also known as mineral fuels are derived from the buried animal and plant life
such as coal and petroleum.
(b) Inorganic minerals. They do not contain organic matter. Mica, limestone, graphite,
gypsum etc. are example of inorganic minerals

218
Distinction between Metallic and Non-metallic Minerals
Metallic Minerals Non-Metallic Minerals
(i) The metallic minerals are those (i) Non- metallic minerals are minerals
whichprovide metals on melting, which do not contain metals.
e.g., iron, bauxite, tin, manganese, (ii) They have luster of their own.
copper etc. (iii) They are mostly found in sedimentary
(ii) They are usually hard and have rocks.
shine. (iv) When hit, they get broken into pieces.
(iii) They are generally found in igneous (v) They are not ductile and malleable.
rocks.
(iv) When hit, they do not break.
(v) They are ductile and malleable.

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Distinction between Ferrous and Non-ferrous Minerals
Ferrous Minerals Non-Ferrous Minerals
(i) Minerals having iron contents and used (i) Minerals having no iron content like
in iron and steel industry are called gold, copper, nickel, lead, etc., are
ferrous minerals. called non- ferrous minerals.
(ii) They are greyish in colour and form (ii) They have different colours and are
basis of machinery. important for economic growth.
(iii) They are found in crystalline rocks. (iii) They can be found in all the types of
rocks.

Minerals have following three distinct characteristics:

(i) Minerals are unevenly distributed over space.
(ii) There is inverse relationship in quality and quantity of minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less
in quantity as compared to low quality minerals.
(iii)Minerals are exhaustible resources i.e. once used, they are lost for ever. These take long time to
develop geologically and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need. Thus
they have to be conserved and not misused as they do not have the second crop.
India is richly endowed with a variety of minerals. Large size and diverse geological
formations have favoured India is providing wider variety of minerals. It is, thus, evident that our
rich mineralized zone with relatively sizeable quantity is confined to the old, crystalline rock
structures of plateaus and low hills of Peninsular India. Indian is rich in iron ore, manganese, mica
and bauxite. It is self- sufficient in materials for making cement such as dolomite and limestone,
chromite, marble and other building stones, sodium salts and precious stones. Indian is deficient in
copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel and tungsten. Indian is also poor in minerals required for chemical
fertilizer industry including sulphur, potash and rock phosphate. Large reserves of bituminous coal
are found but there is scarcity of coking coal and petroleum in the country. However, it holds a
strong position in the atomic mineral like uranium and thorium.

11.6.1 Distribution of Minerals

Minerals are very unevenly distributed due to varied geological formations in different parts
of India. Most of the minerals are contained in older rock formations. Iron ore and manganese are
found in the Dharwar System of the Pre-Cambrian rocks. Copper, lead, zinc, is found in the Aravalli
series of the Dharwars. Limestone, Dolomite, Gypsum, Calcium Sulphate are found in the Cuddapah

220
and Upper Vindhyan systems. Major coal deposits are confined to the Gondwana system.
Occurrences of petroleum are found in the Tertiary rocks.
Most of the minerals-bearings rock formations are distributed in peninsular India as a result
of which this part of the country is very rich in mineral resources. The northern plains of India have
thick layers of alluvium which has completely concealed the bedrocks. This region of the country is
poor in mineral resources. The Himalayas as have a variety of rocks but its geological structure is too
complex. Therefore, most of the minerals are confined to the following three mineral belts.

1. North-Eastern Plateau- this is the richest belt and consists of the Chota nagpur plateau, orissa
plateau and eastern Andhra plateau. It has rich deposits of ironore, manganse, mica, bauxite,
lomestone, copper, thorium, uranium, chromium, sillimanite and phosphate. The Damodar valley an
Chattisgarh have coal deposits which support iron and steel plants of India located in this belt.
Besides, there are alumunium plants also located in thius belt.

2. South –Western Plateaus- Extending over Karnataka plateau and the adjoining parts of Tamil
Nadu, this belt has large iron ore, manganese, bauxite and some non metallic minerals. All the three
gold fields of the country are located in this belt. But this belt lacks in coal deposits and does not
have enough power resources.

3. North – Western Region- This belt encompasses the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat and the
Aravalli range in Rajasthan. Petroleum and natural gas are the main minerals gas are the main
minerals of this belt. Some of the non-ferrous metals such as copper, silver, lead and zinc are also
found here. Gujarat and Rajasthan have rich sources of salt belts.

The Himalayan belt is another mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten are
known to occur. They occur on both the eastern and western parts. Assam valley has mineral oil
deposits. Besides, oil resources are also found in off shore –areas near Mumbai Coast(Mumbai
High).

11.6.2 Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)

Iron ore, manganese, chromite etc. are good examples of metallic (ferrous) minerals. These mineral
provide ( Refer Figure 22 ) solid base for the development of metallurgical industries.

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11.6.2.1 Iron Ore
Iron ore is the backbone of modern civilsation. It is the foundation of our basic industry. Today, iron
ore is used all over the world. The standard of living of the people of a ocountry is judged by the
consumption of iron. Iron is taken out from the mines in the form of iron ore which contains varying
percentage of iron. Two main types of ore found in our country are hematite and magnetite:
Production and Distribution . The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are about 10,052
million tonnes of haematite and 3,408 million tonnes of magnetite. Haematite ore mainly occurs in
Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. Large reserves of magnetite
or occur along west coast, primarily in Karnataka with minor occurrences in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh.
India produced only 42 lakh tonnes of iron ore in 1950-51 which increased to 1427.1 lakh
tonnes in 2004-05. Thus the production of ironore has shown tremendous increase in the recent past.
222
Karnataka. Over one fourth of India‘s iron ore – forth of India‘s iron ore is produced in
Karnataka. Haspet of Bellary district is the most important producer in Karnataka. Important
producers of Chikmaglur district are Babaudan Hills, kalahadi and Kemangudi. The other producers
are Chitradurga, Shimoga, Dharwar and tumkur districts.
Chhattisgarh. Chhattisgarh occoupies the second place and this state produces about one –fifth of
india‘s iron ore. Baliadila in Bastar district and Dalli Rajhara in Durg district are important
producers. Raigarh, Bilaspur and Sarguja are other iron ore producing districts. Most of the iron is
exported, especially to Japan through Vishakhapatnam.
Orissa. Orissa produces over 19% of india‘s ironore and occupies third position among the iron ore
producing states of India, keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, Cuttack and Sundergarh are important
iron ore producing district.
Goa. Production of iron ore in Goa is a recent development. Starting from a non- identity, Goa has
occupied the fourth position among the iron ore producing states of India and now produces over
16% iron ore of India.
There are nearly 315 mines in North Goa, Central Goa and south Goa and South Goa. However, the
iron ore of Goa is of inferior quality and contains only 40 % to 60% pure iron. Iron ore from Goa is
exported through Marmagao port.

Jharkhand. Jharkhand is the fifth largest producer and produces about 15% of India‘s total
iron ore. Singhbhum and Palamau (Dalterngani) are important iron ore producing districts. Other
producers are Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Santhal Pargana and Ranchi.
As a matter of fact, important iron ore producing belt in this area is common to both
Jharkhand and Orissa comprising Guruma-hasani , Badampahar and Barajamda group of mines.
Other Producers. This class of producers includes the following:
(i) Madhya Pradesh. Balaghat, Jabalpur districts are the main producers.
(ii) Tamil Nadu. Salem, North Arcot, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai, Tirunuveli.
(iii) Andhra Pradesh- Kurnool, Guntur, Cuddapah, Anantpur, Khamman, Nellore.
(iv) Rajasthan – Jaipur, Udaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Bundi, Bhilwara.
(v) Uttarakhand – Garhwal, Almora, Ninital. Himachal Pradesh- Kangra
(vi) Bengal – Burdwan, Birbhum, Darjeeling. Jammu and Kashmir – Udhampur and
Jammu. Gujarat – Bhavnagar, Junagad, Vadodara.
(vii) Kerala- Kozhikode.

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11.6.2.2 Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of non-abrasive and non-corrosive steel and Ferro-
manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kilograms of manganese is required for manufacturing one tonne of
steel. It is also used for the manufacture of bleaching powder, insecticides, paints, batteries and
China clay.
Production and Distribution. According to Geological Survey of India, our total manganese
reserves are estimated at 16.7 crore tonnes. India has the second largest manganese ore reserves in
the world after Zimbabwe. About one fifth of the world‘s manganese ores are found in India. The
major reserves are distributed in Orissa, followed by Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Goa and
Maharashtra.
India is the fifth largest producer of manganese ore after Brazil, Gabon, South Africa and
Australia. Production of manganese ore in Indian remains more or less static. It was 13.98 lakh tones
in 1950-51 and 23.79 lakh tonnes in 2004-05. More than three- fourths of manganese is produced by
Orissa, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Orissa. Orissa produces about 34% manganese ore of India. It is obtained from Gondite
deposits in Sundargarh and Keonjhar districts and Kodurite and Khondolite deposits in Kalahandi
and Kouaput districts.
Maharashtra. It produces about 25% of India‘s manganese ore. The main belt is in Nagpur
and Bhandara districts. High grade ore is found in Ratnagiri district.
Madhya Pradesh. About 20% of India‘s manganese ore is obtained from Madhya Pradesh.
The main belt extends in Balaghat and Chindwara districts. It is just an extension of the Nagpur-
Bhandara belt of Maharashtra.
Karnataka. About 14% of India‘s manganese ore is produced by Karnataka. The state
accounts for 6.41% of India‘s reserves. The main deposits occur in North Kanara, Shimoga, Bellary,
Chitradurg, Dharwar, Chikmaglur and Bijapur districts.
Other Producers. Goa produces about 7 thousand tonnes of manganese annually.
Panchmahal and Vadodara in Gujarat, Banswara in Rajasthan and Singhbhum and Dhanbad districts
in Jharkhand are other producers of manganese.

11.6.3 Metallic Minerals (Non-Ferrous)

India is poor with respect to non-ferrous minerals except bauxite.

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11.6.3.1 Bauxite
Bauxite is the raw material for making aluminum. It is not a specific mineral but a rock consisting
mainly of hydrated aluminum (Refer Figure 23) oxides. It is clay-like substance which is pinkish,
whitish or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content. Bauxite deposits are mostly
associated with laterite, and occur as blankets of as capping on the high plateaus in peninsular India.
Total recoverable reserves of bauxite in the country are placed at 3290 million tonnes as on 1 st April,
2005. About 88 % of the recoverable reserves are of metallurgical grade. More than half of the
reserves are confined in Orissa and nearly one- fifth in Andhra Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Jharkhand also have large deposits of bauxite.

225
Production and Distribution. The production of bauxite has increased from 68,120 tonnes in 1951
to 11,697 thousand tonnes in 2004-05. The major bauxite-producing states in India are Orissa,
Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.
Orissa. Orissa is the largest producer of bauxite in the country and contributes nearly 42 % of the
total production. Kalanhandi, Bolangir, Koraput, Sundargarh and Sambalpur are the main bauxite
producing districts.
Gujarat. Gujarat produces about 17% of india‘s bauxite and occupies second position Jamnagar,
Kaira, Sabarkantha, kachchh and Surat are the main bauxite- producing districts.
Jharkhand. Jharkhand is the third largest producer of bauxite and produces about 14% of India‘s
total. Ranchi and palamau are the main bauxite-producing districts.
Maharashtra. Maharashtra produces about 12% of India‘s bauxite. Exploitation of bauxite started
much later in Maharashtra. It started first in Thane district but now it is mined in Kolaba, Ratnagiri
and Kolhapur districts.
Chhattisgarh. Chhattisgarh produces over 6 % of the total bauxite of India. Bastar, Bilaspur and
Sarguja are main producers.
Other Producers. The principal deposits of bauxite in Karnataka occur in Belgaum district.
Bauxite deposits also occur in Nilgiri, Salem, Madurai and Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. Some
deposits are found in the Banda district of Uttar Pradesh. High grade bauxite ore is found in punch
and Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir and Amarkantak plateau of Madhya Pradesh.

11.6.3.2 Copper
Copper is malleable and ductile metal. This non-ferrous metal is used for electrical goods, utensils
and coins. The estimated reserves of copper ore in India are nearly 125 crore tonnes with a metal
content of about on crore tonnes. The copper ore production has shown a steadily increasing trend.
From a mere 3.74 lakh tonnes in 1951, it increased to 50.61 lakh tonnes in 1990-91. After this
production came down and it was only 1.46 lakh tonnes in 2004-05. Sighbhum district of Jharkhand
is a leading copperore producing area. Besides, Santhal Parganas, Hazaribagh and Palamau also have
some copper ore deposits. Gaya district. In Rajasthan, copper occurs in an extensive zone in Khetri
running from Sighana belt in Jhunjhunu, Kho-Dariba area in Alwar, Delwara – Kerovli area in
Udaipur, and Aguncha – Rampura in Bhilwara district. Balaghat is an important copper ore
producing district of Madhya Pradesh. Khamman, Guntur and Kurnool districts in Andhra Pradesh,
Chitradurg and Hassan districts in Karnataka and Chadrapur district in Maharashtra also have copper
deposits.

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11.6.3.3 Non-Metallic Minerals
In addition to metallic minerals, large deposits of several non metallic minerals also occur in India.
The production and use has increased rapidly due to fast pace of industrialization in India. More than
47 non- metallic minerals were produced on commercial scale in 2001-02 in the country. Limestone,
dolomite, phosphorite, gypsum, magnesite, mica feldspar etc. are economically important non
metallic minerals.

11.6.3.3.1 Mica
Mica has been used in India since ancient times as a medicinal item in Ayurveda. With the
development of electrical industry, mica has become a very important mineral. The insulating
properties have made it valuable mineral in electrical and electronics industry. It can withstand high
voltage and has low power loss factor. The total reserves of mica are placed as 52,065 tonnes. About
1217 tonnes of mica was produced in 2002-03. Andhra Pradesh produces about 72 % of India‘s
mica. The main mica belt lies in Nellore district. Vishakhapatnam, West Godavari, Krishna and
Khammam are other mica producing districts of this state. Rajasthan is the second largest producer
of mica in India. The main mica belt of Rajasthan extends from Jaipur to Udaipur. This belt in 322
kilometre long and its average width is 96 km. Jharkhand, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh ,
Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh are the other mica producing states of India.

11.6.4 Mineral Policy in The Eleventh Plan (2007-12)

The Eleventh plan proposes various measures to attract private investment for exploration of
mineral deposits and operation of mines. Accordingly, the plan proposes further revision and
modification of the Mines and minerals Act and the Mineral Concession Rules. The plan s taking
concrete steps to remove procedural hassles and numerous discretionary provisions in the laws and
thus encourage prospective investors. The Elewath plan has proposed a through review of the policy
and of the laws and procedures concerning mining, to identify and eliminate urgently the constraints
in the way of investments in mining activities. The planning Commission has also proposed to
formulate transparent and equitable conditions of resettlement of those lands have been acquired.

11.7 ENERGY RESOURCES

Mineral fuels are essential for generalation of power, required by agriculture, industry transport and
other setors of the economy energy resources are two types (i) conventional and (ii) Non
conventional.
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11.7.1 Conventional Sources of Energy
Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals,
are important(Refer Figure 24) mineral which are used as energy resources. These are conventional
and exhaustible, energy resoutces.

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11.7.2 Coal
Coal is the most important source of energy in India being scare, coal will contionue to remain a
major source of energy. It is also used as a raw material in a large number of industies.
As in 1 January, 2006 Coal reseves of India (down to depth of 1200 meters) have been
estaimted by the Geological survey of India at 2,53,300 million tonnes. The total production of coal
in 2006-07 was 430.85 million tonnes.
The coal bearing strata of India are geologically classified into main categories viz. The
Gondwana coal field and the Tertiary coal.
(a) Godwana Coal. The lower Gondwana coal contribution overwhelmingly large
proportion of both reserves and production of coal, accounting for 96 % of the reserves
and 99 % of the total coal production of India . these coal deposits are said to be about
200 milions years old Out of 113 known coal fields, 80 belong to the lower Gondwana
system. The Gondwana coalfields are found in four river valleys: (i) Damodar valley
(Jharkhand and West Bengal); (ii) Sone valley (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar
Pradesh); (iii) Mahanadi valley (Chhatisgarh and Orissa); and (iv) Wardha-Godavari
valley (Madhya Pradesh, Maha-rasthra and Andhra Pradesh).
(b) Tertiary Coal. The tertiary roack system bears coals of younger age, about 55 years and
are primarily confined to the extra peninsula. Most of the tertiary coal deposite occur in
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalya and Nagaland State-wise distribution and
production of coal are given below.
Jharkhand. Jharkhand exceeds all other states both with respect to reserves and production of coal
in India. This state has over 30 reserves of India‘s coal and contributes over 23 % of the total
production. Important coalfield of this state are Jharia,Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura,
Ramgarh,Daltonganj,Aurangbad and Hutar. Part of the Raniganj coalfield of West Bengal falls in
this states. Coalfields of the damodar valley are the chief source of metallurgical coal in the country
and most of the iron and steel plants get coking coal from these fields. Relative significance has
declined drastically from 47 % of total coal production of the country in 1970 to 23% in 2001-02.
Chhattisgarh. Chhattisgarh holds the third position with respect to coal reserves but is the second
largest producer of coal in India.this states has over 15 % reserves but produces over 16 % coal of
India.majority of the coal fields are located in the northern part of this state. Here Chirimiri-Kurasia,
Bisrampur, Jhilmil, Sonhat,Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, Lakhanpur-Ramkola are the main coalfields.
South Chhattisgarh has hasdo-arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh as the main coalfields.
Orissa. Although Orissa has about one-fourth of the coal reserves, it produces only 14.59 % coal of
India. Talcher and Rampur are the two important coalfields of this state. Talcher has huge reserves of
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coal but of low grade, and hence suitable for steam and gas production. It is used in fertilizer and
power plants at Tachler. This state has rSaised its share in total coal production of the country from
5% in 1970 to 14.59% 2001-02
Madhya Pradesh. Important of Madhya Pradesh has been much reduced as result of formation of
new state of Chhattisgarh. Its share of reserves has has come down from about 23 % to a little over
7 % because major coalfields have gone to Chhattisgarh. The major coalfields of this state in its
eastern part are adjacent to those of north Chhattisgarh.
Here Singrauli, Suhagpur, Johilla and Umaria are the main producers. The second group of coalfields
is that of the satpura coalfieds where Pench-Kanhan, Pathkhera and Mohpani are the main producers.
Maharastra. Maharastra has only 3 % of India‘s coal. Chanda-wardha, Kamptee and Bander
produce the bulk of Maharastra‘s coal.
Andhra Pradesh. Andhra prades has over 6 % of the reserves but its production is almost the same
as that of Maharastra. Most of the coalfields are found in the Godavari valley. Kantapalli and
Singareni are important coalfields.
West Bengal West Bengal ranks fourth in reserves and seventh in production of coal. Raniganj is
the most important coalfield. This is shared by both west Bengal and Jharkhand, Darjeeling in the
north also produces small quantity of coal.
Tertiary coal is extracted from Daranggiri, Cherrapunji,Laitryngew, Mawlong and Langrin in
Meghalaya; Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in Upper Assam; Namchik-Namphuk area in Arunachal
Pradesh and Kalakot in Jammu and Kashmir.
Lignite is a low grade coal containing high moisture and lower carbon. The reserves of lignite have
been estimated at 38,576 million tonnes as on Ist april,2007. of this 33,000 million tonnes is
contributed by the lignite bains of Tamil Nadu. Neyveli lignite corporation limited exploits lignite
reserves at neyveli. Reserves of lignite are also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and jammu and
Kashmir.since lignite fields are located away from the main coal producing regions of the country,
they can be of economic significance.

11.7.3 Petroleum
Petroleum has assumed great significance in the present day world. It is primarily used as motive
power. Its other uses are for lubrication, and as raw material for large number of industries. Total
reserves of the hydrocarbons are estimated by GSI at 17 million tonnes, of which 75 % have been
establisehed so far. For exploration of petroleum, wells were drilled in upper assam valley in 1866,
just seven years after the discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania in USA. Oil was discovered in
1890 in Digboi area. Assam continued to be the only producer in India 1959 when Khambhat oilfield
230
was discovered in 1958 and the first well (Vasudhara) was drilled in Ankaleshwar in 1960. first
offshore drilling was started in 1970, at Aliabet in Gujarat. Later,the Bombay (Mumbai) high was
discovered in 1975 and production from this area started in 1976. as a result of these efforts,
production of petroleum in the country increased rapidly.

Distribution of Oilfields. Following four regions are the main producers of oil in India:
1. North- Eastern Region. This is the oldest oil producing region of India (started in 1866)
and remained the sole producer for about hundred years until 1959. it extends over vast area
in the Upper Assam valley, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. The important fields of this
region are Digboi (oldest in India), Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki and Hugrijan.
In Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh, there is Nigru oilfield. In the nearby Nagaland,
oilfields are at Borholla, close to Nagaland Assam border.

2. Gujarat Region. This region encompasses the khambhat basin and Gujarat plain. Oil was
struck in this region in 1958. the major oilfields of this region are Ankleshwar, Kalol,
Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol, Mehsana, Sanand and Lunej.oil has also been found
on the aliabet Island situated 45kilopmetre West of Bhavngar in Saurastra.

3. Mumbai high. Mumbai high is an oil bearing region about 160kilometre north-west of the
Mumbai coast. A drilling platform known as ‗Sagar Samrat‘ was set up here in 1975. it is a
sort of ship which is capable of off-shore drilling for oil. The oil reserves here are estimated
to be 80 crore tonnes. A submarine pipeline carries oil and natural gas from Mumbai high
to Uran on the mainland.another offshore oilfield has been discovered at baseein in the
south of Mumbai high. This area is estimated to be richer than the Mumbai high.

4. East coastal Region. This region extends over the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri
basin.extensive exploration work was carried on by oil and natural gas commission
(ONGC) and oil India limited (OIL) in 1980s.Narimanam and Kovilappal are important
oilfields in the offshore area. This basin produced 441 thousand tonnes of crude petroleum
in 2001-02. Recent explorations have indicated the presence of vast oil reserves in the
Krishna-godavari basin of Andhra Pradesh. This state produced 283 thousand tonnes of oil
in 2001-o2. Oil reserves have also been discovered in Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.

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Petroleum Refining
Oil extracted from the oil wells is in its crude form and contains many impurities. It is refined in oil
refineries before use. After refining, various products such as (Refer Figure 25)
kerosene,diesel,petrol, lubricants,bitumen,etc. are obtained. Although India‘s first oil refinery started
working way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam, its remained the only refinery in the whole of India
for more than half a century. It was only in 1954 that another refinery at Tarapur (Mumbai) joined
the lone refinery of Digboi. Since then oil refining in India has progressed at a rapid pace. Today
there are 18 refineries in the country, 17 in the public sector, one in jointed sector and one in private
sector.location of refineries.

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Natural Gas
Natural gas has emerged as an important source of commercial energy in view of large reserves that
have been established in the country particularly in south bassein off west coast of India. India has
700 billion cubic metres recoverable gas as on April,1, 2002 there has been a substantial increase in
supply of natural gas. Against a supply of just 7.2 billion cubic metres in 1984-85. India produced
30.82 billion cubic metres in 2004-05. Gas Authority of India Limited was incorporated in 1984 for
processing, transporting, distributing, and marketing of natural gas.Presently it operates over 4200
kilometre of pipelines in the country and supplies gas to power plants for generation of about 5000
MW of power and to fertiiser sector for production of over 10 milllion tonnes of urea. It supplies gas
to about 500 industrial units located in different parts of the country.

11.7.4 Nuclear Energy

Nuclear power is obtained from uranium and thorium.uranium is available in the copper belt of bihar
and the rocks of Aravalli range in Rajasthan.the monazite sands on the Kerala Coasts also contain
uranium. It is also obtained from the mica mines in Gaya (Bihar), Nellore ( Andhra Pradesh), and
Udaipur and Jipur districts of Rajasthan.
Although nuclear power contributes only 3.4% of our total power generation at present, it gas vast
potential for future development. India is one of the six countries, including the USA, Russia, UK,
France and Canada, which have developed the capability of designing, constructing, commissioning
and operating a nuclear power station without any help from outside most of the nuclear power
stations in India have been constructed near sources of water because it is required in large quantity
for cooling purpose. Nuclear power programme was initiated in 1940s when ‗Tata‘ Atomic Research
Commission was incorporated in August, 1948. However, the real progress was made only after the
establishment of the atomic energy institution at trombay in 1954. this was renamed as the ‗Bhabha
Atomic Research Cntre‘ (BARC) in 1967. The first nuclear power station. With 320 MW capacity
was set up at tarapur near Mumbai in 1969 Later, atomic reactors were instelled at Rawatbhata
(300MW) near Kota in Rajasthan, Kalpakkam (440MW) in Tamil Nadu, and Narora in Uttar
Pradesh. Kaiga in Karnataka and Kakarapara in Gujarat also have nuclear energy plants. Thus at
present, nuclear energy is produced from ten units located at six centres. Requirments of fuel and
heavy water of these power reactors are fulfilled by the nuclear fuel complex located at Hyderabad
and heavy water plant at Vadodara. Total installed capacity of these nuclear reaction was 29
thousand MW in 2001-02. they generates only 19.3 billions kwh of energy was only 3.37% of total
energy generated in India.

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11.7.5 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
Energy based upon exhaustible sources, such as coal, mineral oil and nuclear minerals, will
not last long. Therefore, efforts are being made to obtain energy from inexhaustible sources. These
sources of energy cover biogas, biomass, solar energy, wind energy, small hydropower , solar
photovoltaic power and recovery of energy from urban, municipal and industrial wastes. The
important of the renewable energy resources was recognized in the early 1970s. it is now accepted
that renewable energy resources can provide the basis for sustainable energy development on
account of their inexhaustible nature and environment friendly character. During the past quarter
century, a variety of renewable energy technologies have been developed and deployed in villages
and cities. India has succeeded in developing technologies for harnessing renewable non-
conventional energy resources.

11.7.5.1 Solar Energy

When sun‘s rays are tapped in photovoltaic cells and converted in to energy, it is known as solar
energy. There are two processes which are very effective in tapping solar energy, these are
photovoltaics and solar thermal energy. Solar thermal technology has its own advantages because it
is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to construct. Solar energy is 7 % more effective
than coal or oil based plants and 10 % more effective than nuclear plants. It is generally used more
in appliances like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc. the western part of India has greater potential
for the development of solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

11.7.5.2 Wind energy

Wind energy is harnessed with the help of wind mill, which in turn drives a generator to convert
kinetic energy into electrical energy. This energy can be derived from the permanent wind systems
such as the trade winds, westerlies and seasonal winds like monsoons. Beside these, local winds,
land and sea breezes can also be used to produce electricity. India has an ambitious plan to install
250 wind-driven turbines with a total capacity of 45 megawatts spread over 12 locations. Coastal
locations are specially suited to setting up of wind driven turbines. The country‘s potential of wind
power generation is more than 50,000 megawatts of which one-fourth can be easily harnessed. A
capacity of 5,340 MW up to 31 march, 2006 has been added through wind. Energy exist in the states
of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharasthra and Karnataka. Wind power plant at Lamba in Gujarat in
Kachchh is the largest in Asia. Another, wind power plant is located at Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu.

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11.7.5.3 Tidal and Waves Energy
Tides and waves have vast energy stored in them due to movement of water. Efforts have been made
to harness this energy since the beginning of 17th and 18th century.it is estimated that India possesses
8000-9000 MW of tidal energy potential. Gulf of khambhat is the best suited area with about
7000MW potential of tidal energy. This is followed by gulf of Kachchh (100MW) and Sunderbans
(100Mw).

11.7.5.4 Geo-Thermal Energy

Geothermal is made up of two words,Geo meaning Earth and Thermal meaning Heat. Thus,
geothermal is obtained from the heat of the earth. Tremendous heat is released when magma from
the interior of the earth comes out on the surface. In addition to this, hot water that gushes out
through geyser wells is also a great source of energy. The hot springs and geysers are being used
since medieval period. In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in
Himachal Pradesh.

11.7.5.5 Bio-Thermal Energy

Bio-energy is obtained from biological products such as agrocultural residues, municipal wastes,
industrial wastes and other types of waste material. This energy can be converted in to electrical
energy,heat energy or gas energy for cooking purpose. It will also solve the problem of waste
management and reduce environment pollution. A plant to convert munuciapal waste in to energy
has been set up at OKhla in Delhi.

11.8 CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Conservation of mineral and power resources has become very essential in view of their limited
supply and ever increasing demand. Old and traditional methods of use result in lot of wastage and
lead to environmental degradation. We have to conserve our resources for sustainable development
so that our future generations are not deprived of these assets. Use of conventional sources of energy
should be discouraged and that of non-conventional energy source should be encouraged as far as
possible. use of scrap can save several metals.This practice is especially useful for metals like
iron,copper,lead and zinc in some of which india‘s reserves are limited. Use of substitutes for scarce
metal s another way of conserving our scarce resources.export of strategic and scarce minerals must
be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for a long period.

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11.9 SUMMARY
A country of any of its areas may have a resource potential but may not be utilising it at the moment.
It depends upon human knowledge and effords to develop productive forces to convert the natural
resources into economic resources .In the long run it is the exploitation or its conversion into utility
and an efficient use which ad value to what nature has given us. On facing the many enviornmental
problems in the country has received the maximum attention from thegovernment and the general
public but ironically, government policies on afforestation have attacked the greatest public criticism.

11.10 ACTIVITY
Prepare a figure of India showing Iron Ore deposits and name the important mining centres and show
through graphs the increase in production of these minerals, consultant latest annual reference book
on India.

11.11 QUESTIONS
- Define Macro Region and its Genesis.
-Write a brief account of any five categories of land use in India.
-Write an account of strategy of development in India.
-Discuss the availability of Water Resources in the country and factors that determine its spatial
distribution.
-What is Watershed Management. Do you think it can play an important role in think it can play an
important role in sustainable development.
- What depleting water resources may lead to social conflict and disputes it with suitable examples.
- Write an essay on Conservation of Mineral Resources.
-Describe the distribution of Iron Ore in Peninsular India.
Write a detailed note on the Petroleum Resources of India.

11.12 REFERENCES
Ahmed, E.,1972 ― Coastal Geomorphology Of India‖ Orient Longman, New Delhi.

Gill, K.S., 1977 ― Evolution Of Indian Economy‖ NCERT, New Delhi.

Government Of India, 1975, ― The Gazetteer Of India‖ Vol. III. Ministry Of Education, New Delhi.

236
Gregory, D., 1978 ― Ideology, Science and Human Geography‖ London. Hutchinson.

Kamarackt, M., Andrew, 1977 ― The Tropics Of Economic Development‖ Development Digest,
Washington, DC. Vol.XV, July.

Khullar, 2008 ― Geography‖ Saraswati House Pvt. Ltd. Educational Publishers New Delhi.

Lambert,R.D. 1960 ― The Encyclopaedia American XV.

Parakh, B.S.. 2000, ― Geography Of India‖ NCERT, New Delhi.

Parekh, B.S., 1976 ― India On The Move‖ NCERT, New Delhi.

Planning Commission: Seventh Five Year Plan.

Trewarthagleen, 1969, ― Geography Of Population World Pattern‖ John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Zelinsky, W., (Edn) 1978 ― Human Geography Coming Of Age‖. An Behav. Sci: 22 ( Special Issue).

237
BLOCK 4 POPULATIONS AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
Everything is available in our enviornment human resources or simply the number of people living in
a country constitute its manpower. This is one of the most vital resources of a conntry because it is
this force which exploits the natural enviornment for the entire population of the country. It is this
forces which explits the natural enviornment for the entire population of the country. It is both the
producer and consumer of all types of goods and we need for our comfortable living.
There are three uhits in this block. Unit-12, introduces you to various types of resources on the basis
of the status of development.
Unit-13. Discusses the meaning of population development, age. sex structure,optimum population
and theories their importance
Unit-14. deals with the enviornment programmes and resources development land resources, soil
resources and climate of India.
We hope that the units will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the fields.

Unit-12 Human Resource Utilation..

Unit-13 Population Development.
Unit-14. Envionment Interfac Policies and Programme.

238
UNIT-12 HUMAN RESOURCE UTILIZATION

STRUCTURE
12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction.
12.2 Human Resources
12.3 Types of Human Resources
12.4 On the Basis of Origin
12.5 On the Basis of Exhaustibility
12.6 On the Basis of Ownership
12.7 On the basis of Status of Development
12.8 Summary
12.9 Activity
12.10 Questions
12.11 References

12.0 OBJECTIVE
To know the concept of human resources
To know about the resources planning
To understand exhaustibilty of resources
To know soils resource and its values.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of people and their activities from spatial and ecological perspectives. The nature has
been benevolent towards the human beings. Ever since their appearance on the surface of the earth.
They have been dependent on the natural resources for their subsistence,viz, edible plants and
animals. In order to obtain these resources, which were available within their immediate enviornment
they interacted with natrure with the help of primitive tools.

239
12.2 HUMAN RESOURCES
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is
technologically accessible,economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as
‗Resource‘

The process of transformation of things available in our environment involves an inter-dependent

relationship between nature, technology and institutions. Human beings interact with nature through
technology and create institutions to accelerate their economic development.do you think that (Refer
Figure 26) resource resources are free gifts of nature as is they are not. Resource are a function of
human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources.they transform
material available in our environment in to resources and use them. These resources can be classified
in the following ways-
(a) on the basis of origin-biotic and abiotic
(b) on the basis of exhaustibility- renewable and non-renewable
(c) on the basis of ownership-individual, community, national and international
(d) on the basis of status of development-potential, developed stock and reserves.

240
12.3 TYPE OF RESOURCES

Resources

Natural Human

Renewable Non renewable Structures Quantity and

and Institutions Quality

Continuous or Biological
Flow e.g. Wind Recyclable e.g. Non Recyclable
Water metals e.g. Fossll fuels

Natural
Vegetation (Forested) Wild Life

12.4 ON THE BASIS OF ORIGIN

(a) Biotic Resources: These are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings, flora
and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
(b) Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic
resources. For example, rocks and metals.

12.5 ON THE BASIS OF EXHAUSTIBILITY

(a) Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical,
chemical or mechanical processes are known as renewable or replenishable resources. For example,
solar and wind energy, water forests and wildlife, etc. the renewable resource may further be divided
in to continuous or flow.

Non- Renewable Resource:

These occur over a very long geological time. Minerals and fossil fuels are examples of such
resources. These resources take millions of years in their formation some of the resources like metals
are recyclable and some like fossil fuels can not be recycled and get exhausted with their use.

241
12.6 ON THE BASIS OF OWNERSHIP
Individual Resources: These are also owned privately by individuals. Many farmers own land
which is allotted to them by government against the payment of revenue. In villages there are people
with land ownership but there are many who are landless. Urban people own plots, houses and other
property. Plantation,pasture lands, ponds, water in well etc.are some of the examples of resources
ownership by individuals .make a list of resources owned by your household.
Community owned Resources:
There are resources which are accessible to all the members of the community. Village commons
(grazing grounds , burial grounds, village ponds,etc.) public parks, picnic spots, playground in urban
areas are de facto accessible to all the people living there.
National Resources: Technically, all the resources belong to the nation. The country has legal
powers to acquire even private property for public good. You might have seen roads, canals, railways
being contructed on fields owned by some individuals. Urban development authorities get
empowered by the government to acquire land. All the minerals,water resources, forests, wildlife,
land within the political boundaries and oceanic up to 12 nautical miles (19.2 kilometers) from the
coast termed as territorial water and resources there in belong to the nation.
International Resources: There are international institutions which regulated some resources.the
oceanic resources beyond 200km of the exclusive economic Zone belong to open ocean and no
individual country can utilize these without the concurrence of international institutions.

12.7 ON THE BASIS OF THE STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT

Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a region, but have not been utilized. For
example, the western parts of India particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for
the development of wind and solar energy, but so far these have not been developed properly.
Developed Resources:Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been
determined for utilization. The development of resources depends on technology and level of their
feasibility.
Stock: Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but human
beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these, are included among.for example,
water is a compound of two inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen, which can be used as a rich
source of energy.but we do not have the required technical know-how‘ to use them for this purpose.
Hence. It can be considered as stock.

242
Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put in to use with the help of existing technical
know-how but their use has not been started. These can be used for meeting future requirements.
River water can be used for generating hydroelectric power but presently, it is being utilized only to
a limited extent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc. are a reserve which can be used in the
future. Environment interface policies and programmes:

12.8 SUMMARY
Every resarce has some utility. Some are used as food article, some as raw materials and others as the
source of energy. In the early stages of the of theeconomic development, man first obtained those
resources which were used as food. Large amount of food is obtained from vegetation. Conservation
of human resources is extremely necessary because economic devalopment in future and its
continuity would depend upon the availability of these resources.

12.9 ACTIVITY
Prepare a list nof the reserve which are utilised in your house hold and indicate which resources are
renewable and which are non-renewable.

12.10 QUESTIONS
What are human resources. Discuss the role of resources in the economic development.
All Biotic resources are not renewable. Discuss the statement.

12.11 REFERENCES
Gill,K.S, 1997, ― Evolution of India‘s Economy‖ NCERT, New Delhi.

Kamarackt, M. Andrew, 1977 ―The Tropics and Economic Development: Development Digest‖
Washington, D.C. Vol. XV, July.

Repetto, R., 1987., ― Population Resources Enviornment-An Uncertain Future‖ Population Bullentin-
42 No-2, Washington D.C.

Siman,J., 1981, ― The Ultimate Resource‖ Princeton .N.J. Princeton University Press.

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UNIT-13 : POPULATION DEVELOPMENT

STRUCTURE
13.0 Objctive
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Population Development
13.2.1 History of Population Growth
13.2.2 Factors Influencing Distribution Of Population
13.3 Density Of Population
13.4 Popolation Distribution
13.5 Future istribution Of population
13.6 Definitions Of Some Population Terms
13.7 Age and Structure
13.7.1 Literacy
13.7.2 Determinant Of Literacy
13.8 Theories Of Population
13.8.1 Malthusian Theory Of Population Growth
13.8.1.1 Spatial Patterns Of Literacy
13.9 The Demographic transition theory
13.9.1 Optimum population
13.10 Population Policy (2000)
13.11 Population Projection (2001-26.)
13.12 Demographic Indicators
13.13 Summary
13.14 Activity
13.15 Questions
13.16 References

13.0 OBJCTIVE
To know about population development and its growth
To understand various factors influencing population distribution
To know population density and literacy
To know various theories regarding population theories.
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13.1 INTRODUCTION
The present day population of India is an outcome of a very long process of peopling of the sub-
continent. Human groups with different thnic-backgrounds have entered the region at different points
of time. The ethnic and cultural diversities displayed by the Indian population to-ay have thus
acquired their distinguishing traits through this process of intermixing. As over population of our
population about 76% lives in rural areas. This indicates a massives dependence on agriculture and
other rural industries. the population is growing at a very fast rate. A present we are secomd only to
China in terms of size of population.

13.2 POPULATION DEVELOPMENT

The spatial distribution of population is one of the most important topics of human geography it is
significantly important, because man has brought tremendous change over the globe.at present, man
is the single most important powerful geographical factor, transforming the earth surface at
unparallel pace. Man has walked on the surface of the moon. Scientists are at the threshold of
achieving super conductivity, which will usher in revolvtionnary changes in global civilization. Man
has tools to change the climatic conditions. Man‘s scientific advancement has resulted in to acid rain,
global warming, atmospheric popllution, ozone depletion, nuclear winter and nuclear radiation and
has further threatened to destroy nature‘s ecosystem. The study of population and its spatial patterns
are thus of vital importance.

13.2.1 History of Population Growth

By the time our ancesters invented culture, the information started passing from generation to
generation, the transmission of knowledge about hunting, gathering and preparation of food and
identification of enemics helped in the expansion of agriculture and growth of population. The
development of agriculture resulted into decline of death rate.It is guessed that the increased food
supply led to better nutrition, greater resistance to disease, increased longevity of life and hence a
growth on population. It is also possible that increase in birth rates after adoption of agriculture
resulted in some social changes. When man started agriculture, the imperatives for child spacing
disappeared and population started growing at a faster pace. It is generally agreed that agriculture
and high natality go hand in hand. The prime plausible for this is the perceived economic value of
children to farming famalies. The growth and development of irrigation and the emergence of towns
and cities concentrated economic power in the hands of numerically small elite. Who controlled
much of the land and food resources.

245
The great mass of society, however, consisted of peasands labourers who worked the land and
produced the food surpluses upon which the entire social structure was built.
During the medieval period of human history, there was more emphasis on commerce and trade this
resulted in to the growth and development of towns and cities and the consequent increase in the
demand of consumer goods.the second major forming point in the population growth came with the
industrial revolution (Refer Figure
27) the industrial revolution led the
systemaliza-tion of production with
the help of power driven machine
this resulted into high out put per
capita and rapid accumula-tion of
wealth.The distinguish-ing feature
of industrial revolution was that
fossil fuels, primarly coal,provided
an energy source other than animal
muscles, wind or water power. The
use of fossil fuels allowed
productivity to increase rapidly because human efforts was supplemented by powered machinical
devices.

13.2.2 Factors Influencing Distribution of Population

The uneverness in the distribution of population may be attributed to the following factots:
1. Availability of arable land and water.
2. Age of civilization
3. Accessibility of places.
4. Restriction of national boundries.

1. Arable land
There is a close relationship between the arable land and the concentration of population. The plain
areas having fertile soils and suitable climate(temperature and rain fall) for the cultivation of crops
are the regions of high density of population still 70% of the India‘s population is dependent on
agriculture for their livehood. Consequently the areas of intensive agriculture have high density of
population. It is not only the plain areas where agriculture is possible because man through his efferts

246
has developed agriculture on terraceson mountain side ( e.g Angang tribes near Kohima in Nagaland
etc.) heating green houses in cold climates, and irrigating deserts ( Jaisalmer and Sikaner districts of
Rajasthan etc.)
Never the less a comparision of the distribution of arable areas and population reveals several
similarities. In the great plains of India and the eastern plains of China, there are high densities of
population.

2. Age of civilization
The second most important factor which influences the growth density and concentration of
population is the age of civilization. Generally, the longer a place has been continuously used by
farmers, the dense and large is the population. The indogenetic plains have long history of intensive
agriculture.
3. Accessibility
Accesssibility of places and regions is also a very important determinants population growth and its
distribution. It is agriculturally less productive but industrially advanced societies the people are
dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors and most of the industries have been located at places
which are easily accessible. Accessible places are those which are easily connected by transportation
to many other places. The factors of accessibility is most important in an economy based on
manufacturing and trading. The economic advantages of locations like Kolkata, Mumbai Chennai,
Banglore, Gurgoan, Noida, Kanpur, create employment opportunities that attract large populations.
These centres of dense population growth both by natural demagraphic increase and by producing
the markets that generate even more economic opportunities for additional population.

4. Pestrictions of Natural Boundaries

Each country has its international boundaries crossing of these boundaries by the people country to
another country is not allowed by provision of internatinol law. Owing to this restriction the people
of over populated countries cannot enter the developed countries with less density of population .it
may be seen from (Refer Table-41) that population growth has India possesses about 2.4% of the
total area of the world but she has to support about 17% of the word population At the beginning of
this century India‘s population was 236 million and according to 2001 census. A Study of growth
rate of India‘s population talls into tour places.
1891-1921: Stagnant population
1921-1951: Steady growth
1951-1981: Rapid high growh
247
1981-2001: High growth with define signs of slowing down
During the first phase of 30 years (1891 to 1921), the population of India grew 236 million in 1891
to 251 million in 1921 i.e., Just by 15 million. The compound annual growth rate was negligible
i.e., 0.19 % per annum for the period. The growth of population was held in check by the
prevalence of a high death rate against a high birth rate. Birth and death rates were more of less
equal during this period. India was in the first stage of demographic transition in this period
marked by stagment population.
Refer Table 41 Growth of Population in India (1891-2008)
Census year Population in millions Increase Percentage
Or decrease Increase
(in millions) or decrease
1891 236 - -
1901 236 0.0 0.0
1911 252 +16 +5.7
1921 251 --1 --0.3
(1891-1921) +15 +0.19
1931 279 +28 +11.0
1941 319 +40 +14.2
1951 361 +42 +13.3
(1921-1951) - +110 +1.22
1961 439 +78 +21.5
1971 548 +109 +24.8
1981 683 +135 +24.7
(1951-1981) - +322 +2.14
1991 844 +161 +23.5
2001 1,027 +183 +21.3
2008 1,154 +127 +12.4
Compound Annual Growth Rate of Population
1891-1921 0.19
1921-1951 1.22
1951-1981 2.15
1981-1991 2.11
1991-2001 1.93
2001-2008 1.67

Source : Census of India 2001, Series 1, Paper 1 of 2001, Provisional populatioTotal

248
During the second phase of 30 years (1921to1951), the population of India grew from 251 million in
1921 to 361 million in 1951 i.e. by 110 million. The main reason for the increase in population
growth rate was a decline in death from about 49 per thousand to 27 per thousand, but compared
with this, there was a very small decrease in birth rate. The fall in death rate was largely due to the
control of widespread epidemics like plague, small pox; cholera etc. which took a heavy tool of
human lives.india had started its entry into the second phase of demographic transition during this
period which marked a steady but low growth rate of population.
During the third phase of 30 years (1951to1981), the population of India grew from 361 million in
1951 to 683 million in 1981, with the advent of planning, the extension of hospitals and medical
facilities was undertaken on a big scale and these measures of death control resulted in a further and
sharp decline of death rate to a level of 15 per thousand, but the birth rate fell very tardily from 40 to
37 per thousand during this period. As a consequence, there was a population explosion during this
period.
During 1981 to 2001, India entered the fourth phase of high population growth with definite signs of
slowing down. Total population increased from 683 million in 2001 indicating an increase of 50.4 %
during the 20 year period. The annual average rate of growth of population during 1981-2001 was of
the order 2.05% . During the decade (1991-2001), population grew from 844 million to 1,027 million
–an increase of 183 million. The annual average rate of growth registered a decline to 1.93 %. There
is further decline in population growth to 1.56 % during 2001-05, this is a welcome trend which
should be strengthened.
Rate of growth of population is a function of birth rate and death rate. Consequently, variations in
birth and Death rates can provde an explanation of the acceleration of the population growth
experienced in India. The birth and death-rates for India (Refer Table-42) clearly reveals that the
growth of population was held in check by the high birth and high death rates prevalent in India
before 1921. birth rate during 1901-1921 fluctuated between 46 and 49 per thousand and the death
rate between 42 and 48. Correspondingly, the growth of population was little or negligible. But after
1921, a clear fall in death rate is noticeable. Death rate which stood at 48.6 per thousand in 1911-20
came down to 18.9 during 1961-70. As against it, the birth rate showed a slight decline. As a
consequence of the family planning drive birth rate also registered a decline to 23.8 per thousand in
2005.

249
Refer Table 42 Average Annual Birth and Death Rates in India
Decade Births per 1,000 Death per 1,000
1891-1900 45.8 44.4
1901-1910 48.1 42.6
1911-20 49.2 48.6
1921-30 46.4 36.3
1931-40 45.2 31.2
1941-50 39.9 27.4
1951-60 40.0 18.0
1961-70 41.2 19.2
1971-80 37.2 15.0
1985-86 32.6 11.1
2008-09 22.8 7.4
Source : Census of India, 1971, Age and Life Tables and Census of Inida 1981, Series I, India,
Paper 1 of 1984 and Office of Register General and Ministry of health and Family Welfare,
Annual Report(2000-01) and Economic Survey (2009-10)

Death rate has further fallen to a level of 7.6 per thousand. Prior to 1921, India was in the first
stage of demographic transition. But form 1921 onwards it has entered in to the second stage of
demographic transition in which the high growth potential of the population was realised as a high
actual growth of population. It is expected that shortly India will enter the third stage.

Refer Table 43. Birth and Death Rates (2008) for 15 Major States of India
S.No. State Birth Death IMR Mean age* at
Rate Rate Marriage
(female)
1 Kerala 14.6 6.6 13 22.3
2 Tamil nadu 16.0 7.4 35 20.2
3 Andhra Pradesh 18.4 7.5 54 17.8
4 Maharashtra 17.9 6.6 34 19.1
5 Karnataka 19.8 7.4 47 19.4
6 West Bengal 17.5 6.2 37 19.5
7 Punjab 17.3 7.2 43 20.3
8 Orissa 21.4 9.0 71 19.5
9 Gujarat 22.6 6.9 52 20.4
10 Haryana 23.0 6.9 55 19.2
11 Assam 23.9 8.6 66
12 Bihar 28.9 7.3 58 18.6
13 Madhya pradesh 28.0 8.6 72 18.8
14 Rajasthan 27.5 6.8 65 18.4
15 Uttar Pradesh 29.1 8.4 69 19.3
All India 22.8 7.4 55 19.4
Source:* office of the registar general, India and economic survey ( 2007-08)

250
Statewise analysis of data pertaining to birth and death rates reveals (Refer Table-43) that Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Karnataka,Maharashtra and Punjab have achieved a
birth rate below 20 per thousand in this sense, they have entered the third stage of demographic
transition ironically, Haryana and Gujarat which occupies a high place in India in terms of per capita
income, are also far behind in reducing birth rate.as against it, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Bihar,
and Madhya Pradesh have a very high birth rate in the range of 25-31 per thousand. All these states
are still in the second stage of demographic transition, but taken together they account for 44 % of
the total Indian population. Unless an impact is made by the family planning programmes in these
states, India as a whole will not be able to enter the third stage of demographic transition.

13.3 DENSITY OF POPULATION

The spatial distribution of India‘s population is not uniform. There are wide regional variations in
the degree of population concentration according to 1991 the density of population rose to 276 per
square kilometre and further shot up to 324 per squar kilimetre in 2001 density of population figures
( Refer Table 44)indicate the manland ration. Clearly, India does not either rank among contries with
a very high man land ratio or among those with a very low man. Land ratio.
Density of population that can the supported in any country depends upon the availability of
natural resources and the extent of the use of technology to exploit the resources. In other words,
natural resources coupled with the level of economic development determine the extent to which a
higher density of population can be supported. For instance,japan supports a higher density (336 per
square kilometre) at a higher standard of living. The main reason for this is that Japan has
industrialised herself whereas 60 % of the population of India draws its livehood from agriculture.
However, the extremely high standard of living in U.S.A. is partly the result of a very favourable
land-man ration and natural endowments and partly due to the higher stage of economic stage of
economic development achieved.in short density of population can not be treated as an index either
of the poverty or of the prosperity of a country.

251
Refer Table 44. Density of Population in India According to 2001 Census
State/Union Territory Population Density per sq. Density per sq.
in millios Km (1991) km. (2001)
Delhi 13.8 6,352 9,294
Chandigarh 0.9 5,632 7,903
West Bengal 80.2 767 904
Kerala 31.8 749 819
Bihar 82.9 497 880
Jharkhand 26.9 274 338
Uttar Pradesh 166.0 548 689
Tamil Nadu 62.1 429 478
Punjab 24.3 403 482
Haryana 21.1 372 477
Assam 26.6 286 340
India 1,027.0 267 324
Maharashtra 96.7 257 314
Andhra Pradesh 75.7 242 275
Karnataka 52.7 235 275
Gujarat 50.6 211 258
Orissa 36.7 203 236
Madhya Pradesh 60.4 149 196
Chathisgarh 20.8 133 154
Rajasthan 56.5 129 165
Himachal Pradesh 61 93 109
Jammu and Kashmir 101 77 99
Source: Census of India, 2001, Series-1 (India), Paper 1 of 2001, Provisional
Population Totals.

13.4 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

The single most striking fact about the India‘s population is that it is not uniformly distributed.
Moreover, the population distribution has continuosly changed in space and time with migration and
varying rates of population growth. The spatial distribution of people with its greates unevenness is
one of the important questions of human geography that demands exploration discussion and
explanation.

13.5 FUTURE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

The existing distribution of India‘s population has been discussed in the preceding paras. The
distribution of the population during the next few decades is expected to remain similar to the present
pattern.the main reasons may be that the international law and politics do not permit free migration
from one country to another. Secondly the sparsely populated areas have adverse climate and poor
resources potential. Prospects for the large-scale expansion of population in the cold,arid, or hot and

252
wet climates seem to be dim. The cold climates with their short growing seasons and long distance
from existing commercial and industrial regions probably have limited potential for agriculture or
industry. These areas will remain inhabited by the indigenous groups that have adjusted to the harsh
condition over many centuries or by the outsiders who are busy in minerals extraction, military
tranining and research activities.
In the arid and desert areas also the prospects of large population agglomeration are bleak owing to
the non-avilability of water for drinking and irrigation. Consequently, most of the desert remains
uninhabited or else thinly populated by nomads, hunters and gatherers.The young folded and other
rugged mountains also provide very little scope for the future expansion of human population in the
hilly areas development of more settlements in the mountainous areas may lead to pollution,
degradation of natural environment, and the excessive demands for food. Thus it can safely be said
that the future pattern of world‘s population distribution will remain the same.

13.6 DEFINITIONS OF SOME POPULATION TERMS

1 Birth Rate Number of live birth per year per 1,000 of the
population
2 Death Rate Number of deaths per year per, 1000 of the population.

3 Infant Mortality Rate Number of deaths of children below one year of age
per 1,000 of the population
4 Life Expectacy The average age at which people die. It in important to
realize, however, that is not the age at which most
people die, i.e., in New Zealand and Britain it is 74 and
75 respectively, this is because more young children
die in India and thus bring drown the average
expectancy.
5 Natural Increase Excess of brth over deaths per 1,000 of population.
This does not include increase in population due to
immigration.

13.7 AGE AND SEX STRUCTURE

The composition of population according to age and /or sex is known as the age and sex structure.
The universal characteristics of human population are fundamental to understanding demographic
processes of fertility, mortality and migration. Age compostion may be summarized in terms of age-
253
groups (e.g 0-14 years, 15-59 years and 60 or above). The sex ratio is most commonly expressed as
the number of females per 1,000 of males.
One of the important aspects of population study is the age composition. The age
composition strongly influences the rates of growth and have profound effects on the social and
economic condition under which a population lives. There are three basic determinants of age
composition. These are: (i) natality, (ii) mortality, (iii) mobility. These factors are interdependent,
and any change in one of these may influence the other two. It is through these variables that the
socio-economic conditions influence the age structure. It is the fertility rate that determines the
proportion of population in different age cetegories.
The study of age compostion is helpful determining the proportion of the labour force in the
total population. An estimate of the labour force in Indian is made in the 2001 census report. The
working age of the population is considered is considered as 15-60. On this basis, Percentage
distribution of India‘s population is shown in (Refer Table-45)
Table 45. Precentage Distribution of India‘s Population by Age Groups (1911-2001)
Year Age Group
0-14 15-59 And above
1911 38.8 60.2 1.0
1921 39.2 59.6 1.2
1931 38.3 60.2 1.5
1961 41.0 53.3 5.7
1971 41.4 53.4 5.2
1981 39.7 54.1 6.2
1991 36.5 57.1 6.4
2001 35.6 58.2 6.3
Source : IAMR Fact Book on Manpower , p. 12, and census of India, 1981, Series-1, India, paper 2 of 1983..

These fugure indicate that the proportion of child population in the 0-14 age group was 35.6
in 2001. This figure is lower than the figure of earlier four decades. The principal reason for a higher
for a higher chid population in India is the high birth rate. The recent decline in infant mortality has
also added to our child population. A high proportion of children only reflects a large proportion of
unproductive consumer. To reduce the percentage of non-productive consumers, it is essential to
bring down the birth rate. The decline in child population in 2001 is a reflection of the decline in
over all birth rate in India.

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13.7.1 Literacy
Literacy has been defined as the ability to read and write with under standing. Literacy reflects the
socio-economic and cultural set-up of nation, ethnic group or community. The concept of literacy,
which varies from state to state, generally refers to the minimum level of literacy skills. This
minimum level of skill varies from ability to communicate orally, to make a check of a variety of
difficult arithmetical computations. The length of schooling has, however often been considered as a
basis of distinguishing between a literate and illiterate.
(Trewartha 1969) considers the basis of length of schooling not a valid measurement of educational
accomplisments. He also disapproves of the ability to read and write one‘s name in the language of
his country as the criterion for defining a literate. The Indian census has adopted this definition and
now many of the developing countries are shifting to this definition too. However, a distinction can
be made between the literates and the educated as has been done in the case of India. All those
persons who are classified as literates on the basis of their ability to both read and write are further
sub-divided in to a number of categories on the basis of their length of schooling.
There are inter-regional and intra-regional variations in the literacy rate. The literacy variation is
quite significant between the developed and the developing countries. In general, low literacy rates
are as-sociated with high birth rates. If a population is illiterate, it will tend to change slowly and to
resist new ideas and innovations. Illiteracy is a form of isolation. It is not surprising, therefore, that
the countries with the high birth rates have proportion of illiterate population.

13.7.2 Determinants of Literacy

The literacy rates in a country or region are determined largely by the historical, social, cultural and
economic factors. The main factors that determine the literact are(i) cost of education,(ii)
political/ideological background,(iii) type of economy, (iv) standard of living,(v) degree of
urbanization, (vi) stage of technological advancement,(vii) degree of development of means of
transporation and communication, (viii) religious background,(ix) medium of instruction,(x) staus of
women in the society,(xi) prejudices against the females‘ mobility and education,(xii) availability of
education institutions, (xiii) general value system,and (xiv) public policies.
The political situation and administrative governance have affected the rate of literacy in the ex-
colonial countries. In general, the literacy rate in the ex-colonies has been generally low. The present
governments in these countries have taken the literacy drive, but the scarcity of resources is coming
in the way of eradication of illiteracy in the second part of the twentieth century, the areas of
isolation and relative isolation have been connected by metalled roads. The development of transport

255
network and improved accessibility has increased the spatial interaction. The so-called rural isolation
has been broken. The education institution in the urban areas now has become accessible to the
countryside. The rural masses of the developing countries are now increasingly appreciating the
importance of education and literacy.
In the propagation of education, the role of religion is also quite vital. Similarly, language in which
the education is usually imparted is another important determinant of literacy rates of an area. The
mother tongue as a medium of instruction can help to accentuate the literacy rate.
Discrimination and prejudice against females also effect adversely the
literacy rate in a region. Those societies which do not give equal status to males and females suffer
from low female literacy rates.similarly, the societies where the females the females are not allowed
mobility or which ssuffer from the prejudice against females‘ education also display low female
literacy and hence low general literacy. It is perhaps one of the reasons why the female literacy rate
among the Muslim women is the lowest. The availability of educational instutions is also largely
responsible for the enhancement of literacy rate.
The literacy rate is also closely influenced by the type of economy.the differences in the literacy
levels of the industrial and agricultural retions contrast so much that one cannot help inferring a
correlation between the type of economy and the literacy rates the requirements of the non-
agricultural economy are such that acquisition of literacy skills becomes a functional prerequisite. On
the other hand, the agricultural operations, especially in the developing countries, are such that these
do not have any demand on education.the standard of living also affects the literacy rate. In general,
there is a positive correlation between the literacy rates and the standard of living, such a correlation
has greater significance for poor countries where the appalling poverty of masses demands different
priorities. The factor of cost of education is also important as the poor people can not afford the high
cost of education. It is difficult to expect the children belonging to the families to the families that lie
below the poverty line to go to schools.the experience of India in this regard reveals that even if the
education is made compulsory and free, the extremely poor families prefer their children to help
them in making them an earning, howsoever, meager it may be, rather than sparing them for school.

13.8 THEORIES OF POPULATION

Right from the rise of human civilization, the scholars did not agree on the population growth. While
some of them argued a continuous increase in population for the survival of human species, races
and nations, the others believed that the fast growth of population had been the cause of
disappearance of many civilizations from the earth surface. It is therefore quite appropriate to give a
historical overview of population growth,
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13.8.1 Malthusian Theory of Population Growth
Malthus Thomas Robert, the English economist and demographer, is well-known for his theory of
population growth. He published an essay on principal of population in 1798 it is to his ideas that the
sub-sequent thinking on the economic on the economic approach to demography may be traced. His
general view was that population tends to increase faster than the means of subsistence. The fast
increase in population absorbs all economic gains, unless controlled by what he termed ‗preventive‘
and ‗positive‘ checks. He maintained that population if unchecked tended to increase at a geometric
rate(i.e.,1,2,4,8,16) while subsistence increased at an arithmetic rate ( 1,2,3,4,5….). Tthe population
doubles after every twenty – five years, and in two centuries the population would be to the means of
subsistence as 256 to 9. in the three centuries as 4096 to 13 and in two thousand years the difference
would be almost incalculable Malthus principal states that:
1. Population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence.
2. Population invariably increases where the means of subsistence increased, unless
prevented by some very powerful and obvious checks.
3. these checks, and the checks which repress the superior power of population and keep
its effects on a level with the means subsistence, all are resolvable in to moral
restraint, vice and misery.
Malthus belived that two of man‘s characteristics essential to the maintence of life were immutable,
were laws, and were antagonistic:(i) the need for food, and (ii) the passion between the sexes. He
was the second who led people to marry at a relatively early age and would result in such a large
number of births that the population would double itself in few years if unchecked by misery and
vice.
The widening gap between population and subsistence will increase a man‘s tendency to press upon
the means of subsistence. With the result, the society gets divided in to two sets of people the rich
(haves) and the poor (have nots) giving rise to capitalistic set-up the rich who are the owners of the
modes of production earn profit and accumulate capital. With the increased capital they enhance
their consumption but do not increase their population for fear of decline in their standard of living.
Malthus defends the capitalistic set-up of society on the ground that if the capital was to be
distributed among poor, it will not be available for investment on the mode production. Thus, the
rich will continue to grow richer and poor constituting the labour class poorer. In his opinion, the
increasing gap between the population and resources shall ultimately lead to the point where misery
and poverty shall become inevitable. According to him, postponement to marriage was and would
continue to be the chief preventive. He did believe that the preventive checks, such as delayed
marriage, moral restraint etc. would so reduce man‘s rate of production that the positive checks
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would not operate contiuously he believed that change in society and social institutions would
mitigate the positive checks for a shortwhile, until man‘s number would again grow more under his
new institutions, and that man would then suffer from such positive checks like vicious customs
about women, pestilence, war, hunger, disease, etc.
The ‗positive‘ and preventive‘ checks which occur in human literacy . There is a positive correlation
between literacy rate and the degree pf urban development. Thus, the most urbanized societies have a
very high or even universl literacy rates, while the rural and agrarian societies have low level of
literac rates.

13.8.1.1 Spatial Pattern of Literacy

Adequate and reliable data on spatial pattern of literacy are not available. Even the United Nation has
not prepared a figure showing the spatial distribution of literacy in the world. However, on the basis
of the available data,it may be said that the continent of Africa has the lowest literacy rate. The
females are particularly more illiterate in the developing countries Next to Africa comes the
continent of Asia where also in most of the countries the literacy rate is below 30 %. The female
literacy in Asia is also relatively low. There is a marked variation in the rural and urban literacy also.
The literacy rate in the Latin American countries is relatively greater. The continents of Europe,
North America and Oceania have almost universal literacy rates.
In India, according to the Census of 1991, about 54 % of the total population is literate.
This, however, does not include the children which are below six years. The relatively low literacy
rate in India may be attributed to the rigid caste system of the Hindus and the religious orthodoxy of
the Muslims and some of the castes, mainly liing living in the rural and remote areas. Among the
Hindus, the Sundra were denied education as they were considered to be untouchables.
In India, there are striking ariation in the (Refer Table 46) litereacy rates of males and
females and those of the rural and urban people. The females in India are not provided adequate
facilities for education. Moreover, the factors of poverty, early marriage, and prejudice against their
mobility have a kept the females of India far behind their male counterparts in the matter of literacy
and education . These rural-urban differentials in the literacy rates of India emanate from the
differences in the type of economy, social life and migratory pattern of the two areas.

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 Refer Table 46 : Literacy Rate in India
Year Persons Males Females
1951* 18.3 27.2 8.9
1961* 28.3 40.4 15.3
1971* 34.5 46.0 22.0
1981* 41.4 53.4 28.5
(43.7) (56.5) (29.5)
1991 52.2 64.1 39.3
2001 65.4 75.8 52.1
Source : Census of India 2001, Series 1 india, Paper 1 of 2001.
Note : * Literacy rates for 1951, 1961 and 1971 relate to population aged 5 years and above.
The literacy rates for the year 1981 and 1991 relate to the population aged 7 years and
above. Literacy rate for the population aged 7 year and above in 1981 have been shown in
brackets.

As such, the figure based on the earlier definition is not comparable with those based on the
definition adopted in 1991. Notwithstanding the revised definition the literacy rate improved from
43.7% in 1981 to 52.2% in 1991, male literacy improved from 56.5% to 64.1% and female literacy
from 29.5% to 39.3% during the same period. There is not doubt that in 1991, 352 million persons
were literate, but simultaneously, there was a huge mass of 324 million illiterate persons. The growth
of literacy rate by 8.5% during 1981-91 decade marks a slight improvement over the 1971-81
decade, during which literacy improved by about 7% points. The literacy rate improved from 52.2 %
in 1991 to 65.4 % in 2001, Male literacy has improved by 11.7 % and female literacy has improved
by 14.9% . ―Thus, the increase in literacy rates observed during 1991-2001 in respect of persons,
males as well as femles have been the highest recordedin comparison to earlier to decades since 1951
expect on the case of males during 1951-61 this improvement augurs well fro the country and needs
only to be sustained but required a fillip in the case of fairer sex‖ according to the Census
Commissioner Mr. JK Banthia it is heartening to note that the gap between male and female literacy
has narrowed during 1991-2001.
On the trends in fertility and mortality being experienced in Europe, America and Australia. The
theory postulates a particular pattern of demographic change from a high fertility and high mortality
to a low fertility and low mortality when a society progresses from a largely rural agrarian and it
literate society to a dominantly urban, industrial, literate and modern cociety. The three very clearly
stated hypotheses involved in the process are:
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 (i) that the decline in mortality comes before the decline in fertility;
(ii) that the fertility eventually declines to match mortality; and
(iii) That socio-economic transformation of a society takes place simultaneously with its
demographic transformation.
In the present-day world, as would be true of any point in time, different countrie of the world are at
different stage of the demographic transition. In the opinion of Trewartha, this is largely due to the
dual nature of man. According
to him, biologically, man is
same everywhere and is
engaged in the process of
reproduction but culturally
man differs from one part of
the world to another. It is the
cultural diversity of man that
gives rise to varying fertility
patterns in different areas
resulting in different stages of
demographic transition.
The demographic transition theory is characterized by conspicuous transition stages.The
transition from high birth and (Refer Figure 28) death rates to low rates can be divided in to
following five stages:

Stage I High and fluctuating birth and death rates, and slow population growth.
Stage II High birth rates and declining death rates and rapid population growth.
Stage III Declining birth rates and low death rates, and declining rate of population Growth.
Stage IV Low birth and death rates, and slow population growth.
Stage V Birth and death rates approximately equal, which in time will result in
Zero population growth.
In the first stage, the fertility is over thirty-five per thousand and the mortality is also high being
more than thirty-five per thousand. The behaviour of mortality is, however, erratic due to epidemics
and variable food supply. This stage, thus, postulates a stable and slowly growingpopulation where
the people are engaged in wasteful process f production. This stage mainly occurs in agrarian
societies where the population densities are low moderate, generally productivity level is low, large-
sized families are an asset, life expectancy in low, the development of agricultural sector is at its
260
infancy stage, masses are illiterate, technological know-how is lacking and urban development is
limited population to prevent, excessive growth relate to practices affecting mortality and fertility
respectively. So his ‗positive‘ checks included wars,disease,poverty, and especially lack of food. His
‗preventive‘checks included principally ‗moral restraint‘ or the postponement of marriage, and ‗vice‘
in which he included aduletery, birth control and abortion .The Malthusian theory has been criticized
on several counts. His thesis that population was growing quickly and that man was a biological as
well as social being, depending on sexual drive and food, yet he confused moralist and scientific
approaches. Marx was one of the most powerful critics of Malthus asseting that poverty is the unjust
social institution of capitalism rather than of population growth, no country of Europe or North
America except possibly Ireland conformed to the Malthusian prediction. It has also been argued that
Malthus‘ reactionary views impeded the development of demography as a science.
The main points of criticism of Malthus have been given as under:
1. The basic assumption of Malthus on passion between the sexes has been questioned on the
ground that the desire to have children can not be mixed passion and desire for sex. The
desire for sex is biological instinct, whereas the desire to have children is a social instinct.
2. The validity of his two sets of ratios has also been questioned by his critics. Population has
rarely grown in geometrical proportion and means of production have rarely multiplied in
arithmetic progression.
3. The span of twenty-five years assumed by Malthus to allow population to double itself also
does not seem to be anywhere near reality. The doubling period for a population varies from
country to country and from region to region depending upon the stage of its economy,and
scientific and technological advancement. For example, it took only about twenty years for
the population of Bangladesh and Mexico to double itself and over 120 years to double for
the population of U.S.A Sweden, Germany, France, Belgium, Netherland and Denmark.
4. Malthus overemphasized the ‗positive‘ checks and did not visualize the role of ‗preventive‘
checks like contraceptives and family planning.
5. Moreover, natural calamities have occurred in under- populated areas also and thus there was
no causal relationship between positive checks and over-population.
6. Malthus has been severely criticized for ignoring the role of changing technology and the
consequent transformation in socio economic set-up of a society.
7. Malthus also failed to realize even the biological limitations that a population can not grow
beyond a certain limit.
Maltus was not so much wrong as he was premature. He recognized that migration and improved
techniques of production would temporarily postpone thedifficulties engendered by population
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increase.but he could not have been expected to foresee to the tremendous burst of productivity in
the modern world (especially in Europe and America) during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
which brought progressive release from the positive checks.
In spite of all these criticism, Malthusian principle of population has been successful in highlighting
the urgency to maintaining a balanced relationship between population and means of subsistence.
The critics of Malthus failed to realize that it was because of large measures of truth in Malthusian
principal of population that men of today feel the need of resorting to contraception to keep their
families with in reasonable limits. Another main contribution of Malthus was to bring the study of
population into the fold of social sciences. It gave a new line of thinking whereby the dynamics of
population growth were viewed in the context of man‘s welfare, above all the Malthusian principal
of population initiated theory building and for this reason, his work is of great value.

13.9 THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

The demographic transition theory is one of the most important populationtheories which is the best
documented by the data and statistics of recent demographic history. In its original form, the
demographic transition theory was put forward by W.S Thompson (1929) and frank W.Notestein
(1945). These scholars based their statement and arguments.
The second stage of demographic transition is characterized by a high and gradual declining fertility
of over thirty per thousand and a sharply reduced mortality rate of over fifteen per thousand. In this
expanding stage of demographic transition, while the improvements in health and sanitation
condition result in sharp declines in the mortality rates, the fertility maintains a high level, at least in
the early second stage.as the second stage prolongs, the fertility also shows signsgradual decline.
In the last stage of demographic transition, both birth and death rates decline appreciably. The
population is either stable or grows only slowly, in this stage, the population is highly industrialized
and urbanized. The technical know-how is abundant, the deliberate controls on family size are
common, the literacy andeducation levels are high, and the degree of specialization is also very high.
Although the theory of demographic transition has been appreciated widely by the demographers, it
has been criticized on many counts. This theory is based upon empirical observation in Europe,
America, and Australia. The role of man‘s technical innovation cannot be underrated, particularly in
the field of medicine which can arrest the rate of mortality.in spite of these shortcomings the theory
does provide an effective portrayal of the World‘s / India‘s demographic history at macro level of
generalization.

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13.9.1 Optimum Population
The distributional pattern and density of population are highly unevenly distributed over the earth
surface and same is the case with natural resources. The pressure of population on the resources base
and the available technology determine whether the region is over-populated or under-populated. A
country is said to have an optimum population when the number of people is in balance with the
available resources. Optimum condition can only be maintained if the exploitation of new resources
or the development of other forms of employment keeps pace with increases in population. If the
population becomes too large the law of diminishing returns begins to operate. Up to a certain point
an increase in the number of people working on the land leads to a marked increase in production.
Once the optimum population has been reached, however, a further increase may increase
production but at a decreasing rate, so that output per capita declines. As more people become
dependent on the same resource base, each individual will become poorer. Contrary to this, if there
are not enough people to develop all the resources of an area, its standard of living may remain lower
than it could be,were its full potential realized. Under population or over-population, therefore must
be considered mainly in terms of stage of development of the country/region concerned, and the
standard by which this is measured in that of the industrial countries. An advanced country can be
considered and social services are all well-developed and the resources of the country are fully
utilized. There is no real shortage of labour but unemployment is insignificant.

13.10 POPULATION POLICY (2000)

The NDA government finally decided on February, 15, 2000. to adopt the national population policy
(2000) with a view to encourage two-child norm and aim at stabilizing the population by 2046 A.D.
the main features of the national population policy are as under. Firstly, the government decided that
the freeze on Lok Sabha seats imposed as per the 42nd constitutional amendment with 1971 census as
the basis for deciding the number of seats which is valid up to 2001, is being extended till 2026. This
is being done so that states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which have followed the small family norm
effectively should not be penalized and states like uttar Pradesh, bihar, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan should not be rewarded by granting more seats in Lok Sabha.
Besides this, national population policy listed the following measures to achieve a stable population
by 2046.
1. Reduction of infant mortality rate below 30 per 1000 live births.
2. Reduction of maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 1,00,000 live births
3. universal immunization

263
 4. To achieve 80 % deliveries in regular dispensaries, hospitals and medical institutions with
trained staff.
5. Access to information, containing AIDS, prevention and control of communicable diseases.
6. incentive to adopt two-child small family norm
7. Facilities for safe abortions to be increased
8. Strict enforcement of child marriage restraint act and pre-natal diagnostic techniques act,
9. Rising the age of marriage girls not earlier than 18, and preferably raising it to 20 years or
more.
10. A special reward for women who marry after 21 and opt for a terminal method of
contraception after the second child.
11. Health insurance cover for those below the poverty line who undergo sterilization after
having two children.
The action plan drawn for next 10 crucial years included the following:
(a) self-help groups at village panchayat levels comprising mostly of housewive will interact
with healthcare workers and gram panchayats.
(b) Elementary education to be made free and compulsory.
(c) Registration of marriage, pregnancy to be made compulsory along with births and deaths.
The government hopes to achieve the objective of population stabilization by 2046 A.D.
immediately to improve the infrastructure; an additional allocation of Rs. 3,000 crores is
required so that the unmet needs of contraception can be taken care of.
Critics, however, feel that the new population policy puts the entire burden of family limitation on
‗women‘‘ Dr. Nina Puri, President, Family Planning Association of India criticizing the Government
stated: ‗the policy was ‗soft‘‘ on the male participation.the message the new policy sends across is
that the women will bear the burden of population control with men being let off easily‘‘ the policy
provides incentives only to women to accept terminal method of contraception after the second child.
It would have been far better, had the policy also provided similar incentives for‘‘ men‘‘ for
sterilisaton after the second child. There is much force in the argument and the government should
suitably modify the incentives to place burden of population control qually on both the partners-male
as well as female.
It is really a pity that vasectomy accounts for only 6 % of current contraceptive use. In fact,
vasectomu is a much simple, safe and easier method compared with tubectomy performed on
females which is a relatively more complex procedure than vasectomy. The working group and
population stabilization for the eleventh plan (2007-12) constituted by the planning commission
acknowledges that vasectomy has gone out of favour after the excesses committed during the
264
emergency (1975-77). However, there is a need to undertake a big programme to re-educate males
regarding the adoption of voluntary vasectomy. Some incentives may also be provided to promote
voluntary vasectomy.

13.11 POPULATION PROJECTION (2001-26)

Report of the technical group on population projection constituted by the national commission on
population pertaining to period 2001-2026 was submitted in May 2006. The Census of India has
revised the projections in December 2006. The findings of ( Refer Table 47) this report bring out the
trend of population and its variables for 25-years which has serious implications for policy-making in
various spheres of national and regional planning.
The report made the following assumption:
1. Total fertility rate decline observed during 1981-2000 will continue in the future years also.
2. sex ration at birth of all the states are assumed to Remain constant during future years.
Refer Table 47: Projected Population Characteristics on 31st March 2001-2026
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026
Population (million) 1,029 1,112 1,192 1,269 1,340 1,400
Male (million) 532 575 617 657 694 725
Female (million) 496 537 575 612 646 675
Sex Ratio 933 932 932 931 930 930
Urban Population (million) 286 321 358 395 433 468
Population Density (sq. km.) 313 338 363 386 408 426
Population by age group (%)
0-14 35.5 32.1 29.1 26.8 25.1 23.3
15-64 60.1 62.9 65.4 67.1 67.8 68.4
Above 65 years 4.4 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.1 8.3
Source:Report of the technical group on population projection for India and states 2001-2026,
revised December 2006.

3. The increase in life expectancy becomes slower as it reaches higher levels.

4. inter-state net migration during 1991-2001 has been assumed to remain constant throughout
the projection period for all states.
5. urban-rural growth differentials for the period 1991-2001 has been assumed to be same in
future as well up to 2026.
The report is conscious of the fact that ‗predicting of the future course of fertility and mortality is
not an easy task, especially when looking beyond in time is bound to be influenced by medical and
intervention strategies, food production and its equitable availability, climatic variability, socio-

265
cultural setting. Politico-economic conditions and a host of other factors affecting the population
dynamics‘‘ the findings should be viewed in the light of these limitation.
. The main findings are summarized in Refer Table 47.
. The population of India is expected to in crease from 1,029 million to 1,401 million during the
period 2001-2026 an increase of 36% in 25 years i.e. at the rate of 1.2% per year. Consequently, the
density of population will increase from 323 to 426 persons per square kilomtre.
. The sex ratio (females per 1000 males) is likely to slightly decline from 933 to930 during 2001-
2026.
Child population (age group 0-14) is likely to decline from 35.3% to 23.3% of the total population
during 2001-2026.
Working age group population (15-64 years) is likely show an increase from 60.1% to 68.4% during
the 25 years period.
. Urban population is likely to increase from 286 million to 468 million during 2001-2026. as a
population of total population, it is expected to increase from 28% in 2001 to 33% in 2026.
. Youth population in the age group 15-24 years is expected to increase from 195 million in 2001 to
240 million in 2011 and continue to decrease to 224 million in 2026 as.percentage of total
population, it expected to fall from 19% in 2001 to 16% in 2026.

13.12 DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS

. Population growth will continue to register ( Refr Table 48) a decline in growth rate from 1.6%
during 2001-05 to 1.3% in 2111-15 and further to 0.9% during 2021-25.
. Crude birth rate will decline from 23.2% during 2001-05 to 16% during 2021-25 because of falling
total fertility. In contrast, crude death rate is expected to fail marginally from during 2001-05 to 7.2%
during 2021-25.
. Infant mortality rate is estimated to decline from 61% in 2001-05 to 40% by the end of the period
2021-25.
Refer Table 48: Demographic Indicators in India ( 2001-2025)
Indicator 2001-05 2006-10 2011-15 2016-20 2021-25
Population Growth rate 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 0.9
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) 23.2 21.3 19.6 18.0 16.0
Crude Death Rate (CDR) 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.2
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 61.3 54.3 49.2 44.0 40.2
Under 5 Mortality Rate 82.0 72.8 65.9 59.0 54.0

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 Total Fertility (TFR) 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.0
Life expectancy of Males 63.8 65.8 67.3 68.8 69.8
Life Expectancy of Females 66.1 68.1 69.6 71.1 72.3
Source: report of the technical group on population projection for India and states 2001-2026, revised
December 2006.
Total fertility rate (TFR) is expected to decline from 2.9 during 2001-05 to 2.0 during 2021-25 with
this , the weighter TFR is projected to reach replacement level of 2.1 by 2015.
At the state level, as is evident from ( Refer Table 49 ) four states, viz, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Delhi
have already achieved the TFR replacement level. The laggards in this regard are Jharkahnd, Assam,
Bihar, Rajasthan,Uttaranchal, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Of the projected
increase in population of 371 million in India, nearly 187 million is likely to take place in seven
states of Bihar, Chattisgarh. Jharkhand,Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal (
termed as BIMARU states). This implies that 57% of india‘s population increases during the 25
years period will occur in these states. About 22% of the total population increase is to occur in uttar
Pradesh alone.
Refer Table 49: Year By Which Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.1 will Be Achieved
India and Major States TFR in 2010 Year by which Pojected TFR
will be 2.1
India 2.5 2015
Kerala 1.8 Achieved in 1988
Tamil Nadu 1.8 Achieved in 2000
Delhi Na. Achieved in 2001
Himachal Pradesh 1.8 Achieved in 2002
Andhra Pradesh 1.8 2002
West Bengal 1.8 2003
Karnataka 1.8 2005
Punjab 1.8 2006
Maharashtara 1.9 2009
Orissa 2.0 2010
Gujarat 2.6 2012
Haryana 2.4 2012
Jharkhand n.a. 2018
Assam 2.6 2019

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 Bihar 3.2 2021
Rajasthan 3.7 2021
Uttaranchal n.a. 2022
Chattisgarh n.a. 2022
Madhya Pradesh 3.0 2025
Uttar Pradesh 3.9 2027
Note: rearranged in the ascending order for year in which TFR is expected to be 2.1
Source: census of India. Population projections for India and states 2001-2026.

13.13 SUMMARY
To attain the goal of population stablization health care is important not only to reaping benefits of
demographic divident in terms of a healthy workforce, but also reducing birth rate and promoting
general welfare of infant mortality safe motherhood and increasing contracption. The reduction of
malnutrition in the over all population especally among chilren and women can also contribute to the
growth of a healthy and stable population.

13.14 ACTIVITY
Take up any two Indioan states for the study of their population geography under the following
heads-
(i) Distribution and Density
(ii) Working population
(iii) Sex-ratio and age structure.
Compare the two states in thse aspects of their population.

13.15 QUESTION
-What do you understand by term population development.
- Prepare an outline of the populatioin problem of India and suggest some steps to solve it.
- What are the basic components of population growth in India.
- Explain the basic principles of Malthus theory of population.
- Describe briefly the salient features of the age composition of the Indian population.

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13.16 REFERENCES
Basu, D.D. 1994 ― Introduction to the constitution of India‖ 17th (edn), New Delhi, prentice- Hall of
India, p-5.
Bombwall, K.R. (1967), ― The Foundation, Mumbai‖ Asia Publishing House.
Bryce, J. 1888, ― American Commonwealth‖, Vol. I, New York, Macmillan. Coatman, J.1941 ―
India, the Road to Self-Government‖ 1908-1941, London, George Allen and Unwin Commission on
Centre-State Relations (the Sarkaria Commission) (1988 Report), Part I, Nasik, Government of India
Press.
Census of India (2001) Series-1(India) Paper 1 of 2001,Population Totals.
Census of India (2001), Report of the Technical Group on Population Constituted by the National
Commission on Population (May 2006)
Census of India, 1961, Paper No.1,1962 and Census of India, 1971.
Dikshit, R.D. 1967 ― India‘s Evolution As a Nation-State‘‘ Indo-Asian Culture, October 1966, pp.
211-226 .
Dikshit, R.D.1981 ― The Nature of Revolutionary Nationalism in India: A Historical Geographical
perspective‘‘, pp.193-200, in L.R. singh (Ed.), New Perspectives in Geography, Allahabad,
Thinker‘s Library.
Haggett, 1975, in Hussain, M. 1994 ― A Human Geography‘‘ Rawat Publications Jaipur p-104.
Hendry, Peter, 1988 ― Food and Population: Beyond Five Billions‖ Population Bulletin 43, No.2
Wasshington D.C Population Reference Bureau.
Ilbert, C.1915 ― Government of India, 3rd edn‖ London, Oxford University Press.
Jacobson, J.I, 1987, ― Planning the Global Family,‖ World Watch Paper 18,Washington, D.C.,
Worldwatch Institute.
Jone, H.R, 1981, ― A Population Geography‖ London, Harper and Row.
Kosinski, L.A, and Maudood Elahi, 1985(eds) ― Population Redistribution and Development in
South Asia‖ Dordrecht, Holland,D. Reidel Pub. Co.
Malthus, T.S, 1926 ― An Essay on The Principles of Population 1798, Reprint‖ London.
Merrick, Thomas, W., 1986, ― World Population in Transition‖ Population Bulletin, 41,No.2,
Washington, D.C, Population Conference Bureau.
National A Academy of Sciences, 1986 ― Population Growth and Economic Development Policy
Question Washington, D.C. National Academy Press.
Newman, J.A., et al., 1984 ― Population Patterns, Dynamics and Prospects, Englewood cliffs, N.J
prentice Hall.

269
Paters, G.L and Larkin, R.P. 1979 ― Population Geography, Problems, Concepts, and Prospects‖
Dubuque, lowa,
Pethe V.P 1981 ― Population Policy and Compulsion in Family Planning..
Planning Commission Seventh Five Year Plan Vol. II P- 285.
Planning Commission: Seventh Five Year Plan.
Raiker,Y.A. 1960 ― Indian history: A study in dynamics‖ Vadodara M.S. University, Vadodara.
Repetto, R,1987 ― Population, Resources, Enviroment-An Uncertain future‖ Population Bulletin 42,
No. 2 Washington, D.C.
Rotbeng R and T Rabb, 1984(eds) ― Hunger and History- The Impact of Changing Food Production
and Consumption Pattern on Socity‖ New York, Cambridge University Press.
Scientific American, 1974. ― The Human Population‖ San Francisco, W.H Freeman.
Simon, J., 1981. ― The Ultimate Resource‖ Princeton, N.J. Princeton University Press.
Singhvi, L.M. 1988 ― Article 356 virtually a ‗ dead letter‘‘ The Ttimes of India, September 29, 1998.
Stamp,L.D., 1964, ― The Geography of Life and Death‖ Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell University Press.
Trewartha, Glenn, 1969, ― A Geography of Population: World Patterns, New York, John Wiley and
Sons.
Trewarthe Glenn, 1969 ― Geography of Population World Pattern‖ New York, John Wiley and Sons.
Trewarthe,. Glenn in Husaain M 1994 ― Human Geography‘‘ Rawat Publication‘s Jaipur p- 104.
UNDP (2007), Human Development Report (2007/08)
United Nations, Population Division, 1988 ― World Population Prospects‖ N.York.
W.S. Thomson, 1929, and Frank K.W.Notesten 1945, in Hussain, M. 1994. ― A Human Geography‘‘
Rawat Publications. Jaipur p 103
Wood, R.I. 1982, ― Theoretical Population Geography‘ London, Longman.
Wood, R.I., 1979. ― Population Analysis in Geography, London, Longman.
World Bank, 1984. ― World Development Report,New York, Oxford University Press.
World Bank, World Development Report (1997) and (1999-2000) and (2006)
Wrighly, E.A., 1969. ―Population and History‖ New York.
Zelinsky, W. 1966, ―A Prologue to Population Geography‖ Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall.
Zelinsky, W., et al., 1970, ― Geography and a Crowding World‖ New York, Oxford University Press.

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UNIT-14 ENVIORNMENT INTERFACE POLICIES AND
PROGRAMME

STRUCTURE
14.0 Objective
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sustainable Development
14.2.1 Rio Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
14.2.2 Development Resources
14.2.3 Resource Planning
14.2.4 Resource planning in India
14.2.5 Conservation of Resources
14.3 Land Resources
14.3.1 Land Utilisation
14.3.2 Land Use Pattern In India
14.3.3 Land Degration and Conservation Measures
14.4 Soil As Resource
14.4.1 Classification of Soils
14.4.2 Soil Erosion and soil Conservation
14.5 Global Climate Change in India
14.5.1 Un Initiative Kyoto Protocol and Bali Convention
14.5.2 US Versus The Resi
14.5.3 Instruments of Kyoto Protocol
14.5.4 Emissions Trading
14.5.5 Indian Initiative
14.5.6 Kyoto protocol Bali Copenhagen convention
14.6 Summary
14.7 Activity
14.8 Questions
14.9 References

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14.0 OBJECTIVE
To know Enviornment and Sustainable Development
To understand Riode Janiro Earth Summit
To understand Resource Planning
To Know Soils and Its Classification

14.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the popular and widely accepted concepts of human gography is the man and his adjustment
to his natural enviornment. There are numerous racial and ethnic groups in India and the geo-climatic
conditions of the various parts of the earth also diffr from each other substantially. Each socity uses
misuses, its natural/ human resources base according to its cultural stage and technological
advancemnt.

14.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the
environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future
generations.

14.2.1 Rio Do Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

In june 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de janeiro in Brazil, for the first international
Earth summit. The summit was convened for addressing urgent problems of environmental
protection and socio-economic development at the global level.the assembled leaders signed the
declaration on global climatic change and Biological diversity. The Rio convention endorsed the
global forest principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving sustainable development in the 21 st
century.
Agenda 21
It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the united nations conference on
Enviromental and development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de janairo, Brazil. It aims at
achieving global sustainable development. It is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty,
disease through global co-operatiort on common interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.
One major objective of the responsibilities. One major objective of the agenda 21 is that every local
government should draw its own local agenda21.

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14.2.2 Devlopment of Resources
Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. It was belived
that resources are free gifts of nature.as a result, human beings used them indiscriminately and this
has led to the following major problems.
 Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals.
 Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, in turn,divided the society in to two
segments i.e. haves notes or rich and poor.
 Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global
warming, ozone layer depletion, enviromentalpollution and land degration.

14.2.3 Resources Planning

Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has importance in a country
like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources. There are regions which are
rich in certain types of resources but are deficient in some other resources. There are some regions
which can be considerd self sufficient in terms of the availability of resources and there are some
regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources. For example, the states of Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.Arunachal Pradesh has
abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development. The state of Rajasthan is very
well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh is
relatively isolated from the rest of the country. It has very rich cultural heritage but it is deficient in
water, infrastructure and some vital minerals. This calls for balanced resources planning at the
national, state, regional and local levels.

14.2.4 Resource Planning In India

Resources planning are a complex process which involves: (i) identification and inventory of
resources across the region of the country. This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and
quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed
with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resources development
plans.(iii) matching the resources development plans with overall national development plans.India
has made concerted efforts for achieving the goals of resources planning right from the first five year
plan launched independence.The availability of resources is a necessary condition for the
development of any region, but mere availability changes in technology and institution may hinder
development. There are many regions in our country that are rich in resources but these are included

273
in economically backward regions. On the country there are some regions which have a poor
resources base but they are economically developed:
The history of colonization reveals that rich resources in colonies were the main attractions for the
foreign invaders. It was primarily the higher level of technological development of the colonizing
countries that helped them to exploit resources of other regions and establish their supremacy over
the colonies, there fore; resources can contribute to development only when thay are accompanied by
appropriate technological development and institutional changes. India has experienced all this in
different phases of colonization. Therefore, in India, development, in general, and resources
development in particular does not only involve the availability of resources, but also the technology,
quality of human resources and the historical experiences of the people.

14.2.5 Conservation of Resources

Resources are vital for any development activity. But irrational consumption and over utilization of
resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems. To overcome these problems,
resource conservation at various levels is important. This had been the main concern of the leaders
and thinkers in the past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in voicing his concern about resource
conservation in these words: ‗there is enough for everybody‘s need and not for any body‘s greed.‘
He placed the greedy and selfish individuals and exploitative nature of modern technology as the
root cause for resource depletion at the global level. He was against mass production and wanted to
replace it with the production by the masses. At the international level, the club of Rome advocated
resources conservation for the first time in a more systematis way in 1968. subsequently, in 1974,
Gandhian philosophy was once again presented by Schumacher in his book small is Beautiful. The
seminal contribution with respect to resource conservation at the global level was made by the
brundtland commission report, 1987.this report introduced the concept of sustainable development‘
and advocated it as a means for resources conservation, which was subsequently published in a book
entitled our common future. Another significant contribution made at the earth summit at Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.

14.3 LAND RESOURCES

We live on land we prform our economic activities on land and we use it in different ways. Thus land
is a natural resource of utmost importance. it supports natural vegetation, wildlif, human life and
conomic activities. However. land is important to use the available lands for various purposes with
planning. India has land under a varity of relif features ( Refer Figure-29) namely mountains,

274
plateau, plains and islands. About 43% of land
area is plains which provides facilitis to
agriculture and industry. Mountains account for
30% of the total surfac area of the country and
nsur prennial flow of some rivers, provid
facilities for tourism and cological aspcts. About
27% a of the area of country is the plateau region.
It possesses rich resourcs of minerals, fossil fuel
and forests.

14.3.1 Land Utilization

Land resources are used for the following purposes:
(i ) Forest
(ii) Land not available for cultivation
(a ) Barren and waste land
(b ) Land put to non agriculture uses. e.g. buildings, roads factories,etc.
(iii ) Other uncultivated land (excluding fallowland)
(a) Prmanent pasturs and grazing land.
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area)
(iv ) Fallow lands:
(a) Current fallow.(left without cultivation for one or less than one agriculture year).
(b) Other than current fallow ( left cultivated for the past 1to5 agricultural year
(v) Net sown Area:
Area sown morethan once in an agricultural rear plus net sown area is known as gross cropped
area.

14.3.2 Land Use Pattern In India

The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types as well
as human factors such as population density. Technological capability and culture and traditions etc.
Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million square kilometre. Land use data, however, is
available only for 93 % of the total area because the land use reporting for most of the north-east
states excepy assam has not been done fully. Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir ( Refer

275
Figure 30 ) occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed, the land under permanent
pasture has also decreased.
How are we able to feed our huge cattle population on this pasture land and what are the
consequences of it Most of the other than the current fallow lands is either of poor quality or the cost
of cultivation of such land is very high. Hence, these lands are cultivated once or twice in about two
to three years and if these are included in the net sown area then the percentage of NSA in India
comes to about 54% of the total reporting area. The pattern of net sown area varies greatly from one
state to another. It is over 80% of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than 10 % in
Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar islands. Forest area in the country is
far lower than the desired 33 % of geographical area, as it was outlined in the national forest policy
(1952). It was considered essential for maintenance of the ecological balance. The livelihood of
million of people who live on the fringes of these forests depends upon it. A part of the land is
termed as waste land and land put to other non-agricultural uses.waste land includes rocky. Arid and
desert areas and land put to another non-agricultural uses includes settlements,roads,
railways,industry etc. continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate
measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land degradation. This, in turn, has serious
repercussions on society and the environment.

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14.3.3 Land Degradation And Conservation Measures
We have shared our land with the past generations and will have to do so with the future generations
too. Ninety-five percent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from
lad.human activities have not only brought about degration of land but have also aggravated the pace
of natural forces to cause damage to land.
At present, there are about 130 million hectares of degraded land in India. Approximately, 28 % of it
belongs to the category of forest degraded area, 56% of it is water eroded area and the rest is
affected by saline and alkaline deposits. Some human activities such as deforestation, over grazing,
mining and quarrying too have contributed significantly in land degradation.
Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete leaving deep scars and traces of over-
burdening. In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to
mining have caused servere land degradation. In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra overgrazing is one of the main reasons for land degradation. In the states of Punjab,
over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging (Refer Figure 31) leading to
increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil. The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for
cement industry and calcite and soapstone for
ceramic industry generate huge quantity of dust in
the atmosphere. It retards the process of
infiltration of water in to the soil after settles
down on the land. In recent years, industrial
effluents as waste have become a major source of
land and water pollution in many parts of the
country.
There are many ways to solve the problem
of land degration. Afforestation and proper
management of grazing can help to some extent.
Planting of shelts belts of plants, control on over
grazing., stabilization of snd dunes by growing
thorny bushes are some of the methods to check
land degradation. Proper management of waste lands. Control of miniting activities, proper discharge
and disposal of industrial effuents and waste after treatment can reduce land and water degradation in
industrial and suburban areas.

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14.4 SOIL AS A RESOURCE
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports
different types of living organisms on the earth.
The soil is a living system. It takes millions of years to from soil upto a few centimetre in depth.
Relief, parent rock, climate, vegetation and other forms
of life and time are important factors in the formation of
soil.variious forces of nature such as change in
temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers,
activities of decomposers etc. contribute to the formation
soil. Chemical and organice changes which take place in
the soil are equally important.Soil also consists of
organice (humus) and inorganic materials ( Refer Figure
32)
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil
formation colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and
physical properties, the soil of India can be classified in
different types.

14.4.1 Clasiification of Soils

India has varied relief feature lanforms major Soils India
climatic realms and vegetation types. These have contributed in the development of varioustypes of
soils.
1. Alluvial Soils
This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are made of
alluvial soil. These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river (Refer Figure 33 )
systems-the Indus the Ganga and Brahmputra. These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat
through a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the
deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inlands
towards the river valleys, soil particales appear some what bigger in size. In the upper

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India: MajorSoil Types
reaches of the river
valley i.e. near the place
of the break of slope. The
soils are coarse. Such soils
are more common in
piedmont plains such as
Duars, Chos and Terai
apart from the size of their
grains or components,
soils are also described on
the basis of their age.
According to their age
alluvial soils can be
classified as old alluvial
(Bangar) and new alluvial
(khaddar). The Bangar
soil has higher
concentration of kanker
nodules than the khaddar.
It has more fine particles
and is more fertile than the
Bangar. Alluvial soils as
awhole are very
fertile.mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric and acid and lime which
are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its high
fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated. Soils in the drier
areas are more alkaline and can be productive after proper treatment and irrigation.

2. Black soil
These soils are black in colour and are also known as regur soils black soil is ideal for growing
cotton and is also known as black cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition along with the
parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil. This type of soil is
typical of the deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest deccan plateau and is made up of
279
lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra,Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. claye material. They are well-known for
their capacity to hold moisture. In addition, they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate,
magnesium, potash and lime. These soil are generally poor in phosphoric contents.they develop deep
cracks during hot weather,which helps in the proper aeration of the soil.these soils are sticky when
wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower or during the pre-
monsoon period.

3. Red and yellow soils

Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern
parts of the Deccan Plateau. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh,
southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western ghats. These
soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

4. Laterite soil
Laterite has been derived from the latin word ‗later‘ which means brick. The laterite soil develops in
areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. This is the result of intense leaching due to heavy
rain. Humus content of the soil is low because most of the micro organisms, particularly the
decomposers, like bacteria,get destroyed due to high temperature. Laterite soils are suitable for
cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers. These soils are mainly found in
Karnataka, kerala,tamil nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam. After
adopting appropriate soil conservation techniques particularly in the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut.

5. Arid Soils
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in texture and saline in
nature. In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the
water. Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and soil lacks humus and
moisture. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by kankar because of the increasing calcium
content downwards. The kankar layer formation in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of

280
water. After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been in the case of western
rajasthan.

6. Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available.
The soils texture varies according to the mountainenvironment where they are formed. They are
loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas of
Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content. The soils found
in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.

14.4.2 Soil Erosion And Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. The
processes of soil formation and erosion, go on simultaneously and generally there is a balance
between the two. Sometimes, this balance is disturbed due to human activities like
deforestation,overgrazing,construction and mining etc. while natural forces like wind, glacier and
water lead to soil erosion. The running water cuts through the clayey soil and makes deep channels
as gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. In the Chambal basin
such lands are called ravines. Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. In
such cases the top soil is washed away.this is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows loose soil off flat
or sloping land known as wind erosion. Soil erosion is also caused due to defective methods of
farming. Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. up and down the slope form channels for the quick flow of
water leading to soil erosion.Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water down
the slopes.this is called contour ploughing. Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western and central Himalayas have well developed terrace
farming.
Large fields can be divided in to strips.strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. This breaks
up the force of the wind.this method is known as strip cropping. Planting lines of trees to create
shelter also works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are called shelter belts. These shelter belts
have contributed significantly to the stabilization of sand dunes and in stabilizing the desert in
western India.

281
 State of India‘s Environment
 The village of sukhomairi and the district of Jhabua have shown that it is possible to reverse
land degradation. Tree density in Sukhomajri increased from 13 per hectare in 1976 to 1,272
per hectare in 1992.
 Regeneration of the environment leads to economic well-being, as a result of greater resource
availability, improved agriculture and animal care, and

14.5 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA

A new dimension to the environment situation has been added in the form of global climate
changes‘‘ due to high carbon emission. This has taken the form of rapid melting of glaciers in Arctic
and Antarctic regions, melting of snows in high mountain regions like the Himalayas, untimely rain
and heavy floods,frequent earthquakes and Tsunamis, rise in seas levels and erosion of coastal
regions etc. Global warming is turning out to be a reality and the humanity is reeling under the
same.in urban areas pollution levels have increased to dangerous levels and breathing fresh air has
become a luxury.
Increasing pollution levels are causing global warming due to the green house effect (GHE). The
outer atmosphere of the earth has several gases, which are critical for life on earth as they keep some
of the sun‘s warmth from reflecting back in to space and without them the world, would be a cold
and barren place to live. The ‗green house effect‘‘ refers to the temperature regulating effect that
such atmospheric gases have on the earth. The temperature regulating gases are called green gases,
which form a blanket around the earth, keeping some heat from the sun within the earth‘s
atmospheric orbit and thus keeping the planet warm and habitable. Six types of gases have been
identified as ‗green house gases‘
1. carbon dioxide (co2).
2. methane (ch4).
3. nitrous oxide (N2o).
4. hydro fluorocarbons (HFC‘s).
5. per fluorocarbons (PFC‘s)
6. sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Increased level of pollution had caused the emission of gases in increased and augmented quantities
due to which the global temperature is increasing artificially. Some climatic change is now inevitable
because of emissions of such gases over the years. The climate generally does not respond

282
immediately to such external changes but after 150 years of industrialization, global warming has
gained momentum and it is bound to affect the earth‘s atmosphere in future. Though green house
gases makeup only one percent of the atmosphere, but they act like a blanket around the earth.
Human activities are making the blanket thick‘ the natural levels of these gases are being
supplemented by emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of coal,oil and natural gas; by
additional methane and nitrous oxide produced by farming activities and change in land use; and by
several long lived industrial gases that do not occur naturally.
The average temperatre on the surface on the earth has risen by 0.60 Celsius since the late
1800‘s and is expected to increase by another 20 Celsius. Average sea level has also increased by 10
to 20 centimetres and is expected to rise further by another 40 centimeters by 2100, causing
contamination of underground source of water across the world. Pollution and global warming is
endangering the living species. Higher temperatures are expected to expand the range of diseases like
malaria, Influenza etc. According to Human Development Report 2007-08, high-income OECD
countries total emissions of CO2 were 10,055.4 million metric tonnes in 1990 and 12,137.5 in 2004.
United states alone caused 4818.3 in 1990 and 6045.8 in the year 2004. As on date US account for
only 4.6 % of world population and is causing 22 % of world‘ Pollution, where as India which is
17.4 % of the world population, causes hardly 4 % of CO2 emissions.

14.5.1 UN Intitiative, Kyoto Protocol and Bali Convention

UN took the initiative and made efforts towards coping with rising global temperatures and
hazardous effects of global warming, in the form of Inter-Govermental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) which gave its assessment report in 1990. The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change(UNFCCC) took effect in 1994 and after a series of meeting and discussions an
International Treaty was adopted at the Kyoto Summit in 1997, an International agreement linked to
the existing treaty, but standing on its own. The text of the Kyoto Protocol was adopted unanimously
in 1997; it entered into force on February,16, 2005.
Article 3 of Protocol binds the member countries to reduce their combined emissions to 5%
below 1990levels by 2012. The overall target of 5% varies from nation to nation and range between
8% to 10%. The overall 5% target is to be met through cuts of 8% in the European Union and most
Central European economies, 6% by Hungary Japan Poland and Canada and 7% in the united States,
0% by New Zealand, Russia and Ukraine i.e. these countries have to maintain their present level of
emissions, while countries like Norway may increase its emissions by 1% Australia by 8% and
Iceland by 10%. All the countries, which have a fixed commitment in the Protocol, are setup on the

283
basis of level of industrializations, Current carbon emissions, geographic spread of the member
countries, the economic progress done till now, the atmospheric countents and such several other
factors.
Many developing nation like China, India, and Brazil are not included for the first
commitment period as during negotiation stage. These countries resisted to the pressure of developed
countries for fixed commitments in their own national economic interests.

14.5.2 US Versus The Rest

It is significant to note that U.S. had pulled itself out of the Kyoto protocol in 2001, saying
implementing it would gravely damage the U.S economy. U.S is asking for an alternative way of
emissions reduction commitments based on absolute emission intead of reduction in percentage
terms. This should mean pressure on India, China, Brazil and also many other developing countries
to reduce their emission levels.such an arreangement would put develpoming countires like India and
china at advantage due to the fact that these countries will be forced to overhaul their production
processes and process that has to be either development a new or be imported from the ones who
already have the technology. This is likely to adversely affect their efforts aimed at reducing poverty
and inequalities.
On the other hand developing countries including India are of the view that per capita approach be
adapted instead. They argue that whereas U.S. accounts for 22% of global carbon emissions with a
population less than one third that of India and India accounts for hardly 4% of global carbon
emissions. In percapita terms this comes to 20.6 per metric tons for us and 1.2 metric tonnes for
India, which means on per capita basis us accounts for 17 times more emissions than India in per
capita terms. Therefore from the point of view of eqity intead of aggregate approach, per capita
approach is adatead instead of aggregate or percentage approach.

14.5.3 Instruments of Kyoto Protocol

Though targets have been set for the member countries to reduce their emission levels, and these
targets have also been as binding targets,flexibility has also been provided in the protocol itself.to
understand this flexibility, one needs to know about the terms like sinking, clean development
mechanism, emission trading etc.
Sinking Member Countries can partially compensate for their emission by increasing ‗sinks‘- by
planting trees and soil conservation, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. That may be
accomplished either on their own territories of in other countries. Such countries may pay for foreign

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projects that result in greenhouse-gas cuts. This way the countries making such efforts are also to
gain credits for activities which boost the environment‘s capacity to absorb carbon.

14.5.4 Emissions Trading (Carbon Credits Trading)

The flexibility provided under the protocol allows countries to buy and sell their agreed allowances
of greenhouse gas emission. Highly polluting countries can buy unsed ‗credits‘‘ from those which
are allowed to emit more than actually do.at micro level companies that need to increase their
emission must buy credits from who polluteless. The transfer of allowances is reffered to as trade.In
effect; the buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having
reduced emission. Potential buyers of carbon credits are the entities which emit co2 to the atmosphere
and may be required by the law to balance their emission through mechanism of emissionsm
reduction. On the other hand potential sellers of the carbon credits are two kinds of entities.
 Entities that manage forest or agricultural land might sell carbon credits based on the
accumulation of carbon in their forest trees or agricultural soil.
 Business entities that reduce their carbon emission may be able to sell their reductions to
other emitters.
There are certain very significant scientific question about efficacy of sinking and emissions trading
program. We understand that part of the reason of global warming is excessive land clearing.
Therefore restoring vegetation is thought to be the solution to the problem. But the note of caution
here is that in the name of emissions trading old growth forests (which have slow carbon absorption
rates) are being cleared and replaced with fast-growing vegetation, to the detriment of the local
communities.

14.5.5 Indian Initiative

Government of India ratified Kyoto Protocol on climate change on August, 7, 2002. Till than 707
countries had already ratified the protocol. Under the protocol India is not required to reduce
emission of green house gases. Under the protocol basically the develop countries were required to
reduced emission of GHG by an average of 5.2 % below 1990 level by 2012. According to the
Government of India, India will benefit from transfer of technology and additional foreign
investments as the result of Kyoto protocol coming in to force. Additional investment will come in to
renewable energy, energy generation and efficiency promotion and afforestation projects.India has
undertaken numerous response measures contributing to the objectives of UNFCC.Our development
plans take care of balance economic development and environment concerns. In the recent years the

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reform in energy and power sector has enhanced the efficiency of energy use. Various measures
relating to environment to issues have be introduced. They include the following:
- significant increase in the capacity of renewable energy installations.
- Improving the air quality in major cities by encouraging used of compressed natural
gas (CNG). For instance the world‘s largest fleet of vehicles fuelled by compressed
natural gas has been introduced in Delhi.
- Introduction of improved norms about vehicular pollution levels.
- Encouragement to afforestation.
Sectoral initiative has been started in this regards.for instance in coal sectors various measures for
ensuring efficient use of coal. In oil sector various measures are being adopted to promote fuel
efficiency and conservation. Regarding hyper power the government‘s objective is to exploit the
huge potential in india‘s northeast. At present about 25% of the total installed capacity is accounted
for by hydro.government has been actively encouraging used of renewable energy including solar
wind bio-gas, small hydro etc. in transport sectors a measure has been the upgradation of vehicular
emission norms. In the industrial sector we find a significant improvement in the intensity of energy
use in industries. Regarding afforestation and land restoration special initiatives have been started
encouraging protection of existing forest, putting a chek on the diversion of forest land for non-
forestry purpose.

14.5.6 Kyoto Protocol Bali Copenhagen Convention

In UN climate conference, at the end of 2007 at bali an agreement was reached. Whereby developed
countries conceded for deep cuts in emission (though without really quantifying the same). But the
stand of us and its allies has thrown a challenge for developing countries specillay India and china.
Totally rejecting Kyoto protocol and refusing to accept reduction in emission as per Kyoto protocol,
us has demanded cuts in emissions by India and China. During the period from 1990 to 2004, co2
emissions of India have approximately doubled, thanks to our efforts to imrovestandard of living and
reduction in poverty. In December 2009, another such convention was held in Copenhagen
(Denmark). But before this convention US and its allies have toughened their stand and efforts are
being made to compel India, China and Brazil to reduce their emissions. A part from this US has
changed its law, forbidding US companies to sell green technology to developing countries like
China, India and Brazil. Copenhagen was anable to achieve any concrete results,except a last minute
accord reached between united states on the one had and china, India, south Africa and Brazil on the
other. This at best could be called a united position of these countries and does not talk of successor
of Kyoto protocol which ends in 2012. in other words we can say that tere is a total lack of consensus
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an how to same our earth. However there is also a hope that a holistic view would emerge on the
issue of climate change.
Instead of accepting its responsibility to reduce emission, USA has been contionously been trying to
exert pressure on India, China and other emerging economies to reduce their emission levels.
If US succeed in forcing India to reduce its emission levels, our efforts towards growth would get
jeopardized. And if instead India is forced to buy emission credits, a significant protion of India‘s
fruits of growth get would get transferred to the rest of the world.

14.6 SUMMARY
The progressive depletion of the country‘s wealth is literally driving the country towards an
ecological collapse. Increasing floods, soil erosion, heavy siltration of dams constructed at enormous
costs, changes in the climate these are the dangerous consequences of deforestation. Increasing
pollution levels are causing global warming due to Green House Effect (GHS). The green house
effect refers of the temperature regulating effect that such atmospheric gases have on the earth. The
temperature regulating gases are called green house gases, which form a blancket around the earth,
keeping some heat from the Sun within the earth‘s atmospheric orbit and thus keeping the planet
warm and habitable.

14.7 ACTIVITY
Prepare a list of stock and reserve resources that you are familiar with from your local area.

14.8 QUESTIONS
- How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources.
- Explain land use pattern in India.
- What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast. Give main features of this type of
soils.
- Describe the impact of Globalization on Climate.

14.9 REFERENCES
Centre for Science And Enviorment, The State Of India‘s Enviornment, The First and Second
Citizen Reports, 1982.

Economic Survey, 2007-2008, Chapter, 7 and 8.

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Kriti, S. Parikh and Radha Krishna, R, (ed) Indian Development Report, 2002 Chapter, 10 and 14.

Planning Commission: Elevanth Five Year Plan, 2007-12. Vol. II.

Statistics on Indian Fisheries are Taken Economic Survey, 2007-2008.

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BLOCK-5 MESO REGION AND ECONOMIC LINKAGES

INTRODUCTION
Regional approach is geographic studies has been long regarded as in herently geographic or rather
the focal concept of all geographic work. It focusses on a particular area of the earth and studies it
through the whole gamut of geographical factors, which working in union and interesting among
themselves and with other areas over a long period of time provide relative homogeniety or a
distinctive character to it from the neighbouring areas.
There are three units in this block. Unit 15 introduces meso region, and new concept of economic
planning region.
Unit -16, we discuss physical resources in II order region and physiographic divisions. In Unit-17,
we deal with human and physical linkages in region.
We hope that the units will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the fields.

Unit-15, Meso Region and Bases of Regionalization

Unit-16, Physical resoueces
Unit-17, Human and Economic Linkages.

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UNIT-15 MESO REGIONS AND BASIS OF REGIONALIZATION

STRUCTURE
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Meso Region
15.3 Basis of Regionalization
15.4 New Concept of Economic Planning Region
15.5 Summary
15.6 Activity
15.7 Questions
15.8 References

15.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand concept of Meso Region.
To understand major divisions of Meso region and its new concept.
To understand physical, and physical division in meso region of India.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Asecond order of meso region emerges out of a number of micro region (III order regions at the
lowest level on the other hand the latter are trooped to give us an area sharing a common set of
physical factors and resources, embracing a few districts of one or more than one state.

15.2 MESO REGIONS BASES OF REGIONALIZATION

A second order of meso economic region emerges out of a number of micro units (III order regions
at the lowest level. On the other hand, the latter are grouped to give us an area sharing a common set
of physical factors and resource, embracing a few districts of one or more than one states. On the
other hand, meso regions are also marked out as sub-division of big Macro- regions at intermediate
levels. They have an overall uniformity in geographical environment and potentially of resources to
meet local, regional and even some national needs. As sub-division of a meso- region, a meso
division is basic unit for purpose effective exploitation, utilization and conservation of the areas
resource

290
It is essential that each such unit has a minimum economic viability with a potential for creating a
production pattern that may supply the food and employment needs of the people. The proportion of
usable land per capita may be one of the tests to determine economic viability in the case of rural
India. It is multipurpose unit for achieving some specialization through its various production
activities. Towards this end a meso unit must have atleast one production cycle of national
importance at its regional growth centre linked down to growth points at subdivision levels.
This has made it necessary that the two physically separated tracts are united in same cases to form
one meso region if they exist close to each other and their economics are interrelated. The coastal
belt of Kerala is combined with its sub mantane plantation districts as their resource will supplement
each other and it imports a district character to it. Like wise, a backward section of territory has been
combined with a relatively prosperous tract to lend a strong economics base to the resulting unit. In
this way, Telengana area of Andhara Pradesh is Joined to Krishna- Godavari Coastal plains to give
more stability to the former to give more stability to the tormer under developed territory.

15.3 BASES OF REGIONALIZATION

DIVISION OF MAJOR REGIONS

Name of Meso Regions Resources Available Economic Specialization

1 a . Kerala Plantations, teak, coconut, Plantation economy and associated
thorium, hydro potential. industry, fishing, ship building, light
engineering
1.b. Madras-Coimbatore Neyveli lignite iron ore, Light engineering, ceramics, cement.
industrial regions magnesite, cotton, coconut, Potential for ferrous metallurgy
sugarcane, cash crops of industry. Textiles, sugarcane and oil-
industrial importance seeds crushing
1.c. Tamil Nadu coastal Cultivation of rice, cotton Agriculture of Delta region agro
plain region and millets, marine fisheries industries, fisheries, tourism.
salt, limestone.
2.a. Karnataka coastal and Rich forest, hydro power Forest-based
interior industrial region resources, plantations, iron industry,engineeringand aeronautical
ore, manganese, gold. industries.
2.b. Rayalaseema and Potential irrigation Irrigated agriculture, mixed farming
adjoining coastal plain (Tungabhadra) potential iron light engineering industry.
region ore reserves, precious stones.

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2.c. Bellary –Hospet Large potential for ferrous Iron and steel industry, live stock
Mining industrial region and non-ferrous minerals. farming, irrigated agriculture (Krishna
(Iron ore, manganese bauxite, Valley Development).
China Clay).
2.d. Telengana and Coal, hydro power, ferrous Industries based on Nagarjun Sagar
adjoining coastal plains and non-ferrous crops, Dam coasal plain in – tensive
tobacco. cultivation. Food processing and
tobacco industry.
3.a. Mumbai- Deccan Mainly cotton, millets. Cotton processing, tourism.
(Marathwada) and Deccan
trap agro-industrial region
3.b. Konan and agro – Power, cotton, horticulture. Cotton processing, light engineering,
industrial Deccan region fisheries.
4.a. Narmada Valley region Cotton, millets. Cotton processing, Narmada power
of Madhya Pradesh potential for the development of
heavy machines, fertilizers, ceramics,
and chemicals.
4.b. Khandesh –Berar Cotton, coal, iron. Cotton processing, potential for
region ferrous metallurgical industries.
5.a. North-east Deccan and Manganese, food crops, Agriculture (Mahanadi Delta) – agro
coastal plain fisheries. processing fisheries.
5.b. Dandakaranya Forest, iron ore. Forest –based industry. Iron and steel.
5.c. Mahanadi Basin Power, ice. Rice Bowl. Industrial development
based on minerals from adjoining
regions.
5.d. Son Valley region Procimity to Rihand Dam, Possibility of minerals-based
power and minerals of Chota- industries.
nagpur
5.e. Chhotanapur industrial Power resources, ferrous and Heavy engineering coal and chemical
region non ferrous minerals. industries.
5.f. Brahamani industrial Iron ore. Metal –based industry.
region
6a. Gujarat plains and hills Rich in power resources, Cotton processing petrochemical

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region petroleum and cotton industries
6.b. Kathiawar-Kucth Limestone , salt bauxite Cotton processing livestock farming,
region cotton, oilseeds chemical industry possibility of
irrigation in Kutch (Narmada valley )
7.a. Desert region Gypsum, limestone lignite, Animal husbandary and limited
irrigated area industry based cultivation.
on gypsum, limestone,
lignite.
8.a. Kota industrial and Rich in power, non-ferrous Non ferrous metal industries irrigated
Chambal valley region metals, timestone and salt. agriculture (Chambal project).
8.b. jaipur, Udaipur Copper (Khetri). Mixed farming, tourism.
9a. Jammu and Kashmir Forest, horticulture. Forest –based industry and
horticultural industry.
9.b. Ladakh -do- -do-
10.a. Bhakra Nangal Agro- Fertile land for wheat, sugar- Agriculture wheat specialization.
industrial region cane fodder-stock farming, Agro-processing, textiles, light
horticulture in hills. engineering, tourism.
10.b.Delhi- west Uttar Wheat, sugarcane, Agriculture, agro-based and light
Pradesh plains and Uttar horticulture, hydro-power. engineering industries.
Pradesh hills region
11.a. Kanpur- Agra Sugarcane, cotton, wheat, Agriculture, agro-based and light
industrial region oilseeds engineering industries.
11.b. Eastern Uttar Pradesh Sugarcane, wheat. Agriculture, agro-based industry.
Baghelkhand region
12.a. North Bihar Agro- Rice, sugarcane, Barauni oil. Agro- based industry.
industrial region
12.b. Kolkata- Hoogly Rice, jute and proximity to Industries resulting from higger
industry region power resources. technical skills.
12.c. North Bengal plain Rice cultivation. Agro-based industry.
13.a. Lower Bragmaputra Jute, tea, sillimanite, Jute cultivation, coal, chemical
shillong plateau region horticultural produce, forest industry.
resources and coal.
13.b.Upper Brahaputra and Tea, petroleum timeber, coal, Natural gas and petro-chemical

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Hill region natural gas. industries.
13.c.Easten Hills and plains Tea, jute, forest. Forest –based industry.
region
Note: No scheme of India‘s economics regionalization is yet final. Each has its good and weak
points. The above table is only illustrative of the working of the its scops for national planning.

15.4 NEW CONCEPT OF AN ECONOMIC/PLANNING REGION

New Concept of an Economic/Planning Region

Territorial division Resources based Territorial production

of labour production cycles complexes

Economic regionalization
Multi-level region

(Macro Regions) (Meso Regons) (Micro regions )

Regions of first order, Regions of second order Region of the third order
having diversity of natural comprising a number of smallest in size having a
conditions but common micro units at the lowest great similarity of natural
needs and problems, self- level. Multipurpose units conditions a common
suffciency in food, and for achieving effective community interest and no
some industrial raw utilization of resources conflicting problems.
materials, power base, and specialization through Meant for local planning in
transport system, potential various production rural pockets, metropolitan
for development of activities. Has the districts or transport zones.
resources, production minimum economic
complex and growth viability and potential for
centres for an integrated supplying food people.
economic development. Two physically separated
tracts or at different
economic levels are put in
one such region if these
are close to each other and
have resource
complementary to each
other.

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15.5 SUMMARY
Planning concerns it self decisions about mthe usual direction, order and progress in economic
development relating the human welfare. For instance, in the case of a emphasis on viewing the
position of resource development with in a scheme of economic regionalization does not ignore the
other aspects.

15.6 ACTIVITY
Organise a class debate on the topic ― we must divide India into economic regions for better
planning of our resources‖

15.7 QUESTIONS
- Give examples of the use and reuse of some initial raw materials for manufacturing processes.
- Explain term, Meso Region and its Bases of regionalization.

15.8 REFERENCES
Kamarackt, M. Andrew, 1977 ― The Tropics and Economic development Digest, Washington, DC,
Vol. XV, July.
Mishra, R.P., Sundaram, K.V. and Prakash Rao, V.L.S., 1976 ― Regional Development planning in
India‖ Vikas Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd, New Delti.

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UNIT 16 PHYSICAL RESOURCES

STRUCTURE
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Itroduction
16.2 Physical Resources
16.3 India on the Globe
16.4 The Indian Sub continent
16.4.1 Story of the Indian Sub-Continent
16.5 The Major Physiographic Divisions
16.5.1 The Great Mountain Wall of the North
16.5.2 The Northern Plains
16.5.2.1 The Indus
16.5.2.2 The Ganga Basin
16.5.2.3 The Brahma Putra Valley
16.5.2.4 The Ganga BrahmaPutra Delta
16.5.3 The Great Peninsular Plateau
16.5.3.1 The Central Highlands
16.5.3.2 The Decan Plateau
16.5.4 The Coastal plains
16.5.5 The Indian Islands
16.6 Summary
16.7 Activity
16.8 Questions
16.9 References

16.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand physical divisions of Meso Region
To know types of resources and its values
To understand the Indian- Sub Continent
To know physiographic divisions of Meso region

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16.1 INTRODUCTION
Traditionally the familiar division of the Indian Sub-continent into the physical components
described in this unit among these the contrast between the last two is unique while the physical
difference between the first two and the resulting topography are equally striking.

16.2 PHYSICAL RESOURCES

Though India is a vast
country covering 3.28 million
square kilometre., it is a well
knit political entity. This is the
largest democracy in the
world. It has a wide range of
diversities. Under varied
natural conditions, people
speaking different languages,
following (Refer Figure 34)
different religions and living in
rural or urban areas, live
amicably side by side. This
diversity in fact, is the
unfailing source of its real
strength. We will learn about it
in the following pages.
There are many ways
of learning among them;
learning by doing is one of the
best. It would provide you with
a joy of learning as you draw
your own inferences and
conclusions with this end in view, the work suggested here, as also in the rest would be found highly
rewarding.

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16.3 INDIA ON THE GLOBE
Being situated north of the equator, India belongs to the Northern Hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer
(23º 30' N) divides the country into almost two equal parts. While the southern half coinciding with
peninsular India lies in the tropical zone. The northern half, somewhat continental in nature belongs
to the subtropical zone.
Situated to the east of the prime Meridian, India also belongs to the eastern Hemisphere. A
glance at the Eastern Hemisphere is enough to
realize its central Being situated north of the equator
India belongs to the Northern Hemisphere. The tropic
of cancer 23030‘ N divides the country into almost
two equal parts. While the southern half coinciding
with Peninsular India lies in the tropical zone. The
northern half some what continental in nature
belongs to the Subtropical zone, situated to the east
of prime Meridian, India also belongs to the Eastern
hemisphere is enough to realise its central position
India (Refer Figure 35) occupies the south central
Peninsula of the Asian continent, which is not only
the largest but also the most populous continent of
the world. Such a location has its economic
advantages. In ancient times its location helped in
establishing cultural and commercial contacts with
the Arab world in the west and the south- east Asia
and the Far East.
Look at the central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean. Towards the west lie the
countries of West Asia and Africa. Since the opening of the Suez Canal (year 1869), its distance
from Europe has been reduced by 7,000 kilometer. The countries of South –East Asia lie to the south
–east. To their north – east are located the countries of East Asia.
India is favourably situated (Refer Figure 36) on the world‘s highways of trade and commerce both
to the east and the west the oceanic routes serving East and South East Asia and the oceanic
Australia pass through the Indian Ocean. India is connected with Europe, North America and South
America through both the routes- the Suez and the Cape of Good Hope. We can also reach America
by crossing the Pacific Ocean.

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16.4 THE INDIAN SUB CONTINENT
A look at the relief figure (Refer
Figure 37) of Asia will
immediately bring home the
distinct identity of the Indian
subcontinent from the rest of
Asia. It is the most natural
geographical unit which has
developed a very distinctive
culture. The bulk of it has been
further conditioned by a common
foreign rule of over two centuries.
The countries that form the Indian
subcontinent today are Pakistan in
the North West India at the core,
Nepal in the north, Bhutan in the
north east and Bangladesh in the
east. India shares its land frontiers

299
with all of them. But none of them have common border with one another. While India, Pakistan and
Bangladesh are republics, Nepal and Bhutan are kingdoms. The island states of Sri Lanka and the
Maldives are our southern neighbours in the Indian Ocean.

16.4.1 Story of The Indian Sub-continent

The present relief features have evolved as a result of changes which have taken place over millions
of years. The remains of vegetal and animals life preserved in different layers of the rocks help to
determine their age. Geologists have pieced together the story of the Indian subcontinent written as it
were in its rocks.
The story takes us millions and millions of years back into the geological past. The world at
that time was far different from what it is today. The area now occupied by the Himalayas and the
Northern Plains of India was under a sea, called ‗Tethys‘. It was an elongated an shallow sea
sandwiched between the two giant land masses- ‗the Angara land in the north and the
‗Gondwanaland‘ in the south. The Tethys stretched ferm the present Indo-Myanmar border in the
east and converted a vast area including Western Asia, North Eastern and Central parts of Africa
before it joined the south Atlantic Ocean in the Gulf of Guinea in the west. For millions of years
denudation of the two land masses resulted in deposition of silt into the Tethys. These two giant land
masses were slowly but steadily heading towards each other. This lateral compress ional force acting
from two opposite directions made the sea not only shrink further but also buckle up forming a chain
of islands to begin with and over millions of years into the mighty fold mountains such as the
Himalayas of today.
As the Himalayas began to gain in height, the rivers and other agents of denudation became
increasingly active in eroding them, and carrying huge amounts of silt to deposits in ever- shrinking
Tethys.
The result has been what we call the Northern Plains or the Indo-Gangetic plains lying in
India and Pakistan. The river Brahmaputra too did the same in the north-eastern part of India and
Bangladesh. If you look at the figure of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta carefully, you will get the
clues to conclude that the process is still on and the land has been slowly but surely advancing,
pushing the sea back.

16.5 THE MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

The collision between the two ancient land masses has resulted in the formation of a well- integrated
Indian subcontinent. It consists of divers surface features, which may be grouped as follows: (i) the

300
Great Mountain wall of the North, (ii) the Northern plains, (iii) the Great peninsular plateau, (iv) the
Coastal plains, and (v) the island.

16.5.1 The Great Mountain Wall of The North

In Central Asia, not far from India, lies the well- known Pamir knot. It is often called the roof of the
world. From this knot run several mountain ranges. One of them is the Kunlun which moves
eastwards into Tibet. Another range, i.e. the Karakoram, enters into Kashmir and runs south-east and
includes the plateau of Aksai Chin. It extends further east and is known as the Kailas Range in Tibet.
The Karakoram are lofty mountains containing k2, the second highest mountains pass has now
acquired special importance. There are big glaciers, i.e. extremely slow moving rivers of solid ice
and snow in this part. The Baltoro and the Siachin are some of the glaciers of this area. To the south
of Karakoram lie two parallel ranges. They are known as the Ladakh and the Zaskar ranges. Note the
Indus river rising in the vicinity of the Kailas peak. It manages to cris cross the Kailas and other
ranges before entering India. In Kashmir it flows between the Ladakh and the Zaskar mountain
ranges from south east to north west.
North the Nanga Parbat overlooking the Indus in the north. The Himalayas extends from the
Indus in the west to the Brahmaputra in the east. They form an arc between these two extremes,
covering a distance of 2,500 kilometre. The width of the Himalayas varies form 400 kilometre. in the
west to 150 kilometre. in the east, it is wide in Kashmir and becomes narrow towards the east. The
height of the eastern half is greater than the western half.
The Himalayas are young fold mountains. By and large there are distinct ranges running
parallel to one another. The northern most range, known as the Greater Himalayas on Himadri, (
Refer Figure 38) is the loftiest of all. All the high peaks of the Himalayas belong to this range. Mt.
Everest or Sagarmatha is the highest peak in the world. Its height is 8,848 metres. It is located in
Nepal. Kanchenjunga is the second highest piak of the Himalayas and lies in Sikkim in India. Nanga
Parbat in Kashmir and Nandadevi in Uttar Pradesh. are the other two important peaks of the
Himalayas. Namcha Barwa is an important peak (in Tibet) in the east overlooking the Brahmaputra
where this range takes a sudden turn towards south to enter India.
To the south of the Greater Himalayas lies the middle or lesser Himalaya. All the important
hill stations such as Dalhousie, Dharmshala, Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, and Darjeeling belong to
this range. The Pir Punjab in Kashmir and Dhaloladhar in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh belong to the Middle Himalaya; so does the Mahabharat range of Nepal.

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 The southern most ranges of the Himalayas are known as the Outer Himalaya or the Siwalik
ranges. This range is more prominent in the western half of the Himalaya. These are made of
unconsolidated river deposits, and are prone to earthquakes and land- slides. Soil erosion is at it
worst in these youngest of the Himalayan Family.
The Himalayas are also divided in east-west direction. The Himalayas in Jammu and Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh known as Western Himalaya. In Uttar Pradesh and Nepal, it is known as
Central Himalaya. In West Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh the pass in Sikkim is
known as Nathula and is on the way from India to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. Further east, the
Bomdila pass lies in Arunachal Pradesh. In this is age of Air Travel the Himalayas are no more
invincible.
The Himalayas are known for some of the beautiful valleys of the world. They have become
star attraction to tourists from all over the world. The Kashmir valley is a classical example. It is
rightly described as paradise on the earth‘. The other important valleys are Kulu and Kangra in
Himachal Pradesh. The Doons in the Kumayaun Himalaya of Uttrakhand are also well known. All
these valleys are known for fruit Orchards Several big rivers originate from the Himalayas. They
flow into Northern Plains and empty themselves either in the Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal. But
more interesting is the fact that three major rivers of the subcontinent, the Indus, the Satluj and the
Brahmaputra originate beyond the Himalayas in a region surrounding Kailas and Mansarovar in
Tibet. They flow almost parallel to the Himalayan though in different directions for a long distance.
Then all of a sudden, they turn to the south piercing through the Himalayan mountain chain, and
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emerge into the northern plains. It indicated that the Himalaya is not a perfect water divide.
Moreover, it can be inferred that these rivers existed before the formation of the Himalayas. They
continued cutting down their valleys faster than the rising Himalayas. As such theymake huge and
spectacular gorges or canyons. They are also called I-shaped valleys since the river on their either
side have vertical walls.
As mentioned earlier, the Brahmaputra marks the eastern –most geographical limit of the Himalaya.
Mountains along the eastern boundary of India are called Purvanchal. These mountains are less
spectacular than the Himalaya. They are of medium height. They comprise the Patkai Bum, and the
Naga Hills in the north, and theMizo Hills in south. At the centre, they take a westward turn along
the Bangladesh- India border in Meghalaya. Here they consist of Jaintia, Khasi and Garo Hills from
east to west.

16.5.2 The Northern Plains

The northern Plains of India are made up of the fine silt called alluvium. It is brought down by the
rivers from the Himalayas in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. Such a plain is called
an alluvial plain. If you look at the delta of the Ganga-Brahmaputra, you will find tat this work of
deposition is still going on. The Northern Plains are divided into two river systems – the Indus in the
west and the Ganga Brahmaputra in the east. Even on the relief map of India one can hardly notice
any relief feature acting as a possible water divide between the two river systems.

16.5.2.1 The Indus Basin

Less than one third of the Indus basin is located in India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Punjab). The Indus is about 2900 kilometre in length. Its main tributaries are the Satluj,
Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. Look at the figure to see how these rivers join together one by one
before they ultimately join the Indus. The Indus plain has a very gentle between the Arabian Sea in
the south-west and foothills of the Western Himalaya in the north –east. Over this total distance, the
over-all fall of the plain is hardly 300 metres or so. The rivers have made the plain very fertile and it
now possesses one of the densest networks of canals for irrigation.

16.5.2.2 The Ganga Basin

The Ganga has two main headwaters in the Himalaya: the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda. Both join at
Devprayag and flow as the Ganga thereafter. It enters the northern Plains at Hardwar the Yamuna
joined it at Allahabad . The Yamuna joined by the Chambal, Sind, Betwa and ken. They all flow

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through the Malwa plateau before entering into the plains. The Son is the only big rive to join the
Ganga directly from the southern plateau. Further east, the Damondar draining the Chotanagpur
plateau joins the Hughali, a distributary of the Ganga down stream of Allahabad from west to east
are the Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi. The Ganga river system drains most of Haryana,
southeast Rajasthan, northern Madhaya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and major parts of west
Bengal. Ambala is located on the water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river systems. The
plains from Ambala in the northwest to Sundarbans in the east stretch over nearly 1800 kilometre.
During its entire stretch from Haryana to Bangladesh, there is fall of hardly 300 metres in its slope.
The zig- zag or meandering courses of the rivers tell us how level the plains are. The length of the
Ganga is over 2500 kilometre.

16.5.2.3 The Brahmaputra Valley

The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet near the source of the Indus and the Satluj. It carries a
tremendous volume of water. The river is slightly longer than the Indus but most of its course lies in
Tibet. It flows parallel to the Himalayan Mountains in Tibet, where it is known as Tsangpo. When it
takes a hairpin turn around Namcha Barwa (7757metre ), the undercutting done by this powerful
river is of the order of 5,500 metres. Is it not unbelievable? Here and in Arunachal Pradesh it is
known as Dihang. After the confluence of the Lohit, Dihang and Dibang, it is called the
Brahmaputra. Besides a great volume of water, it also carries huge amount of silt with it, in northern
Bangladesh it is known as Jamuna. In the central part after meeting the Gangam, it is called Padma.
Further south, the Meghna meets the main stream and the joint stream is also called Meghna.

16.5.2.4 The Ganga- Brahmaputra Delta

It is the largest and the fastest growing delta of the world. Besides being well –watered, it is also the
most fertile. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra split into numerous distributaries in their lower
courses. Due to the gentle slope or gradient, the rivers become sluggish, and islands of silt and mud
develop in their channel. To circumvent these obstructions, the rivers tend to split into a number of
channels. The process is repeated several times to develop a classical delta. The lower part of the
delta becomes marshy where fresh water and sea water get mingled owing to high and low tides.

16.5.3 The Great Peninsular Plateaus

After studying of the young and folded mountains (Refer Figure 39) of the north and a much younger
plains to their south, we move further south. It is the oldest structure of the Indian subcontinent. In
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fact, the slow but steady movement of this landmass towards north and north- east has been
responsible for the creation of the Himalayas and the northern Plains in place of the Tethys of
geological times. The peninsular plateau is subdivided into the Central Highlands and the Deccan
Plateau.

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16.5.3.1 The Central Highlands
The northern part of the peninsular block is called the Central Highlands although they are not really
high. It is made of hard igneous and metamorphic rocks. The block consists of two parts demarcated
by the west flowing Narmada. The one lying to the north is bounded by the Vindhyas and its eastern
extensions on one side. In the north west it is flanked by the Aravallis. The plateau extends further
west but is covered by the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. These are very old fold mountains.
On the third side , this plateau merges gradually in the Gangetic Plains of the north. This is known as
the Malwa Plateau. It is fairly wide in the west and goes on tapering in the east. Its eastern part is
known as Chhotangagpur plateau. The southern tributaries of the Yamuna and the Ganga drain the
plateau.

16.5.3.2 The Deccan Plateau

The Deccan Plateau extends from the Vindhyas to the southern tip of the peninsula. This triangular
plateau is at its widest in the north. The Vindhyan Range and its eastern extensions namely Mahadev
Hills, Kaimur Hills and Maikal Range runs from north to south almost parallel to the Arabian sea.
The Western Ghats are known by different local names. In Maharashtra and Karnataka they are
called sahyadri. Further south, they are called the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu. Still further south, along
the Kerala and Tamil Nadu border, they are known as Anaimalai and Cardamom Hills. The Deccan
Plateau is the highest along its western edge and gently slopes towards the Bay of Bengal in the east.
The Western Ghats are relatively higher in their southern part. The Anai Mudi, the highest peak, is
2,695 metres above the sea level. Udagamandalam is a well known hill station of the south located in
Tamil Nadu.
Unlike the western edge, the eastern limit of the Deccan plateau is less sharp. It is in fact
widely broken into small hills by the river such as the Mahanadi, Godabari, Krishna and Kaveri. The
Eastern Gats are locally known by different names.
The north-west part of the Deccan plateau merits special mention. It is made up of igneous
rocks of volcanic origin. Form the earth‘s highly turbulent interior, lava oozed out through huge
cracks or fissures in the earth‘s crust. It took millions of years and it is estimated the volume of the
lava flow exceded the volume of the Himalayas. Geologists believe that this activity was closely
associated with the birth of the Himalayas.
While allthe major rivers of the peninsular block flow into the bay of Bengal, the Narmada
and Tapia are the only two rivers flowing in the opposite direction to fall in the Arabian sea. These
long rivers flow Narmada valley narrow elongated valleys. The Narmada valley is bounded by the

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Vindhyas on the north and the Satpuras lies the Tapi river. These two rivers alleys are said to be
through narrow estuaries.

16.5.4 The Coastal Plains

The Deccan plateau has a coastal strip in the east and the west. The west coastal plain extends form
Gujarat to kerala. The coastal strip along the Arbian sea in the west is known as Konkan in the north
and Malabar in the south of Goa. These are several estuaries the major ones being those of the
Narmada and Tapi in Gujarat. It is blessed with deep natural harbours like Mumbai and Marmagao.
In the south, the coast is studed with salt water lakes called lagoons. There are also sand bars or spits
at their mouths. The coast is known for its placid backwaters. The coastal strip along the Bay of
Bengal is broad and more level unlike the western strip. Locate and name the four deltas on the east
coast. The coastal strip, but for the deltas, is rocky and highly dissected by small but fast flowing
rivers.

16.5.5 The Indian Islands

Lakshadweep Islands, lying opposite to the coast of Kerala, are small but numerous. They are the
product of a very quiet work of the short- lived microscopic species – the coral polyps. They flourish
only in shallow, warm and mudfree waters. Many islands are generally ring or horse-shoe shaped
and is called Atolls. The Andaman Nicobar Islands, on the other hand, are bigger in size and more
numerous. They are of strategic importance to the Indian mainland. They are located on a submerged
hilly range in the Bay of Bengal. Some of them are of volcanic origin. The only active volcano of
India is located on the Barren Island of this group.

16.6 SUMMARY
Physiographic divisions of India described above are complementary to each other. The
peninsular is the stable block with ample building material. It is a store house of minerals providing
base for heavy industry. The northern mountains are the major source of water, and girdle the
subcontinent for thousand of kilometers. The Northern Plains are densely populated and act as a
granary of India. The partially enclosed character of the subcontinent has helped in strengthening the
forces of homogeneity of our people.
16.7 ACTIVITY

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You already possess a fair amount of knowledge about India. The work suggested would help
consolidate your knowledge. It will also prepare you to appreciate the text that is to follow.
Comprehension of basic facts and preliminary study have been confined to the following:
(i) Location and Size, (ii) International boundaries.
(i) Location and Size
(a) Note the degrees of latitude of the southern tip of the Indian mainland.
(b) See by how many degrees it is different from the southern most point of the Indian Union.
(c) Note down the degree of latitude of northern extremity of India.
(d) Work out the total north-south extent of the country: (i) in degrees of latitude and (ii) in
kilometers. (the distance per degree of latitude is about 111 kilometer)
(e) Write down the degree of longitude of the western tip of India lying in Kachchh.
(f) Find out the degree of longitude of the eastern tip of India lying in Arunachal Pradesh.
(g) List six countries of the world bigger than India. Compare the area of India with China.
(ii) International Boundaries
(a) Classify the States in four groups each having common frontiers with (i) Pakistan, (ii)
China, (iii) Myanmar, and (iv) Bangladesh.
(b) Name the States and Union Territories from north to south situated on the Arabian
Sea. See if they are seven in number.
(c) Do the same (from south to north) for those situated on the Bay of Bengal see if they
are six in number?
(d) Name the place said to be situated on three saea. Name the seas as well.
(e) Name the island groups of our country lying in the (i) Arabian Sea, and (ii) Bay of
Bengal

16.8 QUESTIONS
Name the major physic divisions of India, Write a brief account of the coastal plains and Island
group of India.

Describe briefly the formation of the Northern Plains.

Which countries constitute the Indian Sub- Continent.

How can we determine the Age of Rocks.

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16.9 REFERENCES
Ahmed, E., 1972, ― Coastal Geomorphology Of India‖ Orient Longman, New Delhi.

Blanford, W.T., 1876 ― Physical Geography of Indian Desert‖ In Jour. of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal.

Burrard, S.G., 1915 ― Origin of the Indo-Ganetic Troigh Commonly Called himalayan Foredeep‖ In
Proceeing ofb Royal Society. No. 91A pp-220-238. London.

Singh, R.L. 1977 (ed) ― India: A Regional Geography of India‖ National Geographical Society,
Varanasi.

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UNIT-17 HUMAN AND ECONOMIC LINKAGES

STRUCTURE
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Human Resources
17.2.1 Human Development Index
17.2.2 Gender Related Development Index (GDI)
17.2.3 Human poverty Index
17.3 Human Development Index for Various states in India.
17.4 National human Development Report 2001
17.5 Rural Urban differences in HDI
17.6 Economic Linkages
17.6.1 Definition and Basis
17.6.2 Economic Planning Region
17.6.3 Territorial Division of Labour
17.6.4 Concept of Resource Based Production Cycle
17.6.5 Territorial Production Complex
17.7 Difference Between Old Industrial Cluster and New production Complexs
17.8 Summary
17.9 Activity
17.10 Questions
17.11 References

17.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand human development in India
To know human poverty Index
To unerstand national development report 2001
To know economic linkages and its importance

17.1 INTRODUCTION
Economic growth constitutes most to poverty reduction when it exoands the employment
productivity and wages of poor people and when public resources are channelled to promoting
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human development. A ritual cycle of economic growth and human development arises when
growth is labour using and employment generating and when human skills and health improve
rapidly

UNDP Human Development Report, 1997.

17.2 HUMAN RESOURCES

Elucidating the concept of human Resource development, UNDP human development Report
(1997) describes it as ―the process of widening people‘s choices and the level of well-being they
achieve are it the core of the notion of human development. Such theories are neither finite nor static.
But regardless of the level of development, the three essential choices for people are to lead a long
and healthy life, to acquire knowledge and to have access to the resources needed for a decent
standard of living. Human development does not end there, however. Other choices highly valued by
many people, range from political, economic and social freedom to opportunities for being creative
and productive and enjoying self respect and guaranteed human rights‖.
Elucidating further, HDR (1997) states ―Income clearly is only one option that people would
like to have though an important one. But it is not the sum total of their lives. Income is also a
means, with human development the end‖.
Ever since the publication of the Human development Report 1990 under the guidance of
(Mhabul-ul-Huq, 1997 ) of human development. Three measures have been developed. They are
Human Development Index (HDI), Gender- related Development Index (GDI) and Human Poverty
Index (HPI).

17.2.1 Human Development Index (HDI)

HDI measures the average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development:
 A long and healthy life as measured by life expectancy at birth.
 Knowledge as measured by the adult Literacy rate (with two third weight) and combined primary,
secondary and tertiary gross enrrolment ration (with one third weight)
 A decent standard of living as measured by GDP per capita(PPP US$).
Before calculating HDI, an index for each for of the three dimensions is created. For this purpose,
maximum and minimum values ( Refer Table 50 ) are chosen for each indicator.

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Refer Table 50: Maximum and Minimum Values for calculating HDI
S.No Indicator Maximum value Value
1 Life expectancy at birth 85 25
2 Adult literacy rate 100 0
3 Gross enrolment ratio 100 0
4 GDP per capita(PPP 40,000 100
US$)

Performance in each dimension is expressed as a value between 0 and 1 by applying the following
formula

Dimension Index = Actual value-minimum value

Maximum value-minimum value

The HDI is calculated as a simple average of the dimension indices. We present Human
Development Index for 2007 for selected countries as reported in HDR2009. Countries have been
grouped ( Refer Table 51) under three categories: (i) Countries in the HDI range 0.8 and above are
in the High Human Development group; (ii) Countries in the HDI range 0.5 to 0.8 are in range of
Medium Human Development group and (iii) Countries in the HDI range less than 0.5 are in the
Low Human Development group.

The data has been collected for 182 countries. Among them 83 countries were in the High
Human Development range, 75 countries were in Medium Human Development range and 24
countries were in Low Human Development range.

India which was at No. 138 in HDI in 1994 had improved its position to No. 128 in 2005, but in 2007
its position slipped to 134. We present the HDI trends for selected countries. A close perusal of the
data for the nearly three decades (1975 to 2007) reveals that all countries are making efforts in
varying degrees to improve their human development indices. Among the high performers during
1980-2007 can be considered as Iran. China, south korea, Egypt and India, and to a certain extent
Pakistan and Bangladesh. If he trend is maintained. Several medium HDI countries will enter the
high HDI group and several low HDI countries will join the medium HDI range. This is a welcome
development.

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 Refer Table 51: Human Development Index (2007) for selected countries
HDI Rank Country Life Adult Combined GDP Human
Expectance Literacy Primary, per Development
at birth (age 15 Secondary capita Index
(year) and and (PPP (2007)
(2007) above) tertiary US$)
(%) enrolment (2007)
(2007) ratio (%)
(2007)
High Human Development (HDI, 0.8 and above)
1. Norway 80.5 99.0 98.6 53,433 0.971
4. Canada 80.6 99.0 99.3 35,812 0.966
10. Japan 82.7 99.0 86.6 33,632 0.960
13. United States 79.1 99.0 92.4 45,592 0.956
21. United Kingdom 79.3 99.0 89.2 35,130 0.947
26. South Korea 79.2 99.0 98.5 24,801 0.937
53. Mexico 76.0 92.8 80.2 10,842 0.854
58. Venezuela 7.36 95.2 85.9 12,156 0.844
59. Saudi Arabia 72.7 85.0 78.5 22,935 0.843
66. Malaysia 74.1 91.9 71.5 13,518 0.829
71. Russian Federation 66.2 99.5 81.9 14,690 0.817
75. Brazil 72.2 90.0 87.2 9,567 0.813
Medium Human Development (HDI 0.5 to 0.8)
88. Iran 71.2 82.3 73.2 10,955 0.782
92. China 72.9 93.3 68.7 5,383 0.772
102. Sri Lanka 74.0 90.8 68.7 4,243 0.759
105. Phlippines 71.6 93.4 79.6 3,406 0.751
111. Insonesia 70.5 92.0 68.2 3,712 0.734
116. Vietnam 74.3 90.3 62.3 2,600 0.725
123. Egypt 69.9 66.4 76.4 5,349 0.703
134. India 63.4 66.0 61.0 2,753 0.612
141. Pakistan 66.2 54.2 39.3 2,496 0.572
146. Bangladesh 65.7 53.5 52.1 1,241 0.543
158. Nigeria 47.7 72.0 53.0 1,969 0.511
Low Human development (HDI less than 0.5)
182. Niger 50.8 28.7 27.2 627 0.340
UNDP, Human Development Report 2009.

India has improved ( Refer Table 52) its HDI index from 0.142 in 1980 to 0.612 in 2007. It is still a
long way to go, before India would enter the high HDI group.

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Refer Table 52: Development Index Trends For Selected Countries Average In The
Descending Orders on The Basis of 2004
HDI Rank 1975 1985 1995 2004 2007
High Human Development
1.Norway 0.868 0.898 0.936 0.968 0.971
4.Canada 0.869 0.909 0.934 0.961 0.966
10.Japan 0.857 0.895 0.925 0.953 0.960
13.United States 0867 0.901 0.929 0.951 0.956
21.United Kingdom 0.845 0.863 0.921 0.946 0.947
26. South Korea 0.707 0.780 0.855 0.921 0.937
53.Maxico 0.689 0.755 0.782 0.829 0.854
58.Venezuela 0.718 0.740 0.767 0.792 0.844
66.Malaysia 0.615 0.695 0.760 0.811 0.843
59.soudi Arabia 0.603 0.673 0.741 0.812 0.829
71.Russian Federation … …. 0.770 0.802 0.817
75. Brazil 0.645 0.698 0.747 0.800 0.812
Medium Human Development
88. Iran 0.556 0.610 0.694 0.759 0.782
92.China 0.525 0.594 0.683 0.777 0.772
102.Sri Lanka 0.607 0.681 0.727 0.743 0.759
105.Philippines 0.654 0.693 0.736 0.771 0.751
111.Indonesia 0.468 0.583 0.663 0.728 0.734
116.Vietnam …. 0581 0.660 0.733 0.725
123.Egypt 0.439 0.540 0.611 0.708 0.703
134.india 0.412 0.476 0.546 0.619 0.612
141.pakistan 0.363 0.419 0.492 0.551 0.572
146.Bangladesh 0.345 0.389 0.452 0.547 0.543
158.Nigeria 0.318 0.386 0.418 0.470 0.511
Low Human Development
182.Niger 0.236 0.242 0.256 0.374 0.340
Source : Complied and computed from UNDP, Human Development Report 2009 and earlier issues.

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17.2.2 Gender Related Development Index (GDI)
While HDI measures average achievement, the GDI adjusts the average achievement to reflect the
inequalities between men and women. The three components used for the purpose are: (i) female life
expectancy, (ii) female adult literacy and gross enrolment ratio, and (iii) female per capita income.
If gender inequality did not exists, and value of GDI and HDI would be the same, but if
gender inequality exists, the value of GDI would be lower than that of HDI. The greater the
difference between HDI and GDI, the greater is the gender inequality. The (Refer Table 53)
provides data both for HDI and GDI for selected countries. It may be noted that near gender equality
exists in Norway, Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Japan, Mexico, Malaysia, Venezuela,
Philippines, Sri Lanka, China, Vietnam and Indonesia. Countries which indicate gender in equality
are Saudi Arabia, Pakistan , Iran, India, Egypt and Nigeria.
Refer Table 53 : Comparison of Human development Indices (2007) some selected countries
Human Gender related Human Income
Development Development Poverty Index Poverty line
(HDI) Index (HPI-1) US$ 1.25 a
2005 (GDI) day1993 ppp
2002-07
High Human Development
1. Norway 0.971 0.961 - 6.6
4.Canada 0.966 0.959 - 11.2
10.Japan 0.960 0.945 - 11.6
13.United States 0.956 0.942 - 15.2
21.U.K. 0.947 0.943 - 14.6
26.South Korea 0.957 0.926 - <2.0
53.Maxico 0.854 0.827 5.9 28.1
58.Venezuela 0.844 0.827 6.6 3.5
66.Malaysia 0.843 0.823 6.1 <2.0
75.Brazil 0.813 0.810 8.6 5.2
Medium Human Development
88.Iran 0.782 0.770 12.8 <2.0
92.China 0.772 0.770 7.7 15.9
102.Sri Lanka 0.759 0.756 16.8 14.0
105.Philippines 0.751 0.748 12.4 22.6
111.Indonesia 0.734 0.726 17.0 -
116.Vietnam 0.725 0.723 12.4 21.5
123.Egypt 0.703 0.634 23.4 <2
134.India 0.612 0.594 28.0 41.6
141.Pakistan 0.572 0.532 33.4 62.9
146.Bangladesh 0.543 0.536 36.1 49.6
158.Nigera 0.511 0.499 36.2 64.4
Low Human Development
182. Niger 0.340 0.308 55.8 65.9
*for 1994-95 using $ 11 a day (1994 PPP US$)

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+ for the year 2002
Note: Countries have been arranged in the descending order on the basis of HDI
Source: compiled form UNDP, Human Development Report 2009

However, there is a greater awareness in the world about gender inequality and efforts are being
made to reduce gender inequality by promoting the education of females and giving them a better
status in the family.
Some countries have lagged behind due to biases against the females. However in them also, women
movements are promoting the cause of bringing about gender equality.

17.2.3 Human Poverty Index (HPI)

Human Development Report 1997 introduced the concept of Human Poverty Index, which
concentrates on deprivation in three essential elements of human life already reflected in HDI
longevity, knowledge and decent living standard.
The first deprivation is vulnerability to death at a relatively early age and is represented in the
HPI by the percentage of people expected to die before age 40.
The second deprivation is related to knowledge and is measured by the percentage of adults
who are illiterate.
The third deprivation relates to a decent standard of living , in particular, overall
provisioning. This is represented by a composite of three variables- the percentage of people with
access to (a) health services, (b) to safe water, and (c) the percentage of malnourished children under
five.
If would be relevant to understand why income does not figure in Human Poverty Index
(HPI). According to the HDR (1991), the logic underlying the construction of economic provisioning
is that the GNP included in the HPI is actually a combination of private and public facilities, since
public services are paid out of aggregate national income.
One of the problems in assessing the prevalence of income Poverty is that the use of the same
poverty line in different countries can be very misleading because of the variation in ―necessary‖
commodities. Depending upon the prevailing pattern of consumption – clothing, accommodation and
such tools of communication and interaction as radios and telephones –many provisions are taken to
be essential for social participation in one community without being treated as such in other
communities. As a result , the minimum income needed to escape social estrangement can be quite
different between communities.

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 For this purpose, the HPI decided to use the prevalence of malnutrition of children which is
relatively easier to measure and for which data are more readily available, along with access to
health services and safe water. Combining these three variables, it was thought, would provide an
adequate and broad picture about human poverty.
For selected OECD countries, a different human poverty index has been used. This includes
four variables:
(i)Probability at birth not surviving to age60.
(ii) percentage adults lacking functional literacy line US $ 11 a day (1994 PPP)
(iii) Long-term unemployment rate (12 mounts or more) or the determinant of social exclusion
HPI is the average of these four variables. A close perusal of Human Poverty Index for developing
countries reveals the existence of high value of HPI in Nigar (55.8%), Bangladesh (36.1%), Pakistan
(33.4%). Even India, which has a medium HDI, has a very high HPI (28.0%) and Egypt with HPL of
23.4%.
In ( Refer Table 53) , HPL and Income poverty index (measured by percentage of population
below US $ 1.25 a day have been juxtaposed. It may be noted that in the case of Nigeria, 64.4 % of
the population suffers from income poverty, but HPI index is 36.2%. However, in the case of
Bangladesh, the situation is totally reversed- HPI 36.1, but income- poor population is 49.6 %. In the
case of India, proportion of population below international income poverty line is 41.6%, but Human
Poverty Index is 28.0. Human Poverty Index is thus a more comprehensive measure which takes into
account differences in degrees of deprivation measured by three variables listed above, while the
income poverty line, through important , is based on only one variable.
Reviewing the progress of the world in achieving the goals of human development , the
UNDP Human Development Report (2001) mentions: ―At the United Nations Millennium and
monitor able goals for development and poverty eradication to achieve by 2015. Progress the world
has mad over the past 30 years shows that these goals are attainable. But many developing countries
will not achieve them without much faster progress.
While 66 countries are on track to reduce under five moutality rates by two –thirds, 93
countries with 62% of the world are lagging far behind or slipping. Similarly, while 50 countries
with 70% of the world‘s people are not. More than 40% of the world‘s people are living in countries
on track to United National Millennium Declaration For 2105 ;
 To halve the proportion of the world‘s people living on less than $ 1 a day
 To halve the proportion of world‘s people suffering from hunger
 To halve the proportion of world‘s people with-out access to safe drinking water
 To achieve universal completion of primary schooling
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  To achieve gender equality in access to education
 To reduce maternal mortality ratios by three-quarters
 To reduce under- five mortality rates by two-thirds
 To halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS, malaria and other major diseases
HDI, HP-1, HP-2 and GDI-SAME COPONENTS, DIFFERENT MEASUREMENT
Index Longevity Knowledge Decent Standard of Participation
Living
HDI Life expectancy 1. Adult GDP per capita (PPP ……..
at birth literacy rate US $)
HPI-1 Probability at Adult illiteracy Deprivation in ……..
birth of not rate economic provisioning,
surviving to age measured by 1.
40 Percentage of people
not using improved ……..
water sources
2.percentage of
children under five who
are underweight
………
HPI-2 Probability at Percentage of Percentage of people Long term
birth of not adults lacking below the income unemployment
surviving to age functional poverty line (50% of (12months or
60 literacy skills medium disposable more)
income )
GDI Female and 1. Female and Estimated female and …..
male life male adult male earned income,
expectancy atliteracy rates reflecting women‘s and
birth 2.Female and men‘s command over
male combined resources
primary,
secondary and
tertiary
enrolment
ratios
Source: UNDP, Human Development Report 2001 living in countries on track to halve income
poverty by 2015. yet they are in just 11 countries that include China and India (with 38% of the
worlds people), and 70 countries are far behind or slipping. Without China and India, only 9
countries with 5% of the world‘s people are on track to halve income poverty.‖

17.3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX FOR VARIOUS STATES IN INDIA

Many of India‘s states can be compared with medium- size countries. It would, therefore, be
appropriate to construct human development index (HDI) for various states so as to understand
the differences in HDI among them. The UNFPA published a report on human development in
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 Indian in a book entitled ―India: Towards Population and Development Goals‖ In 1997.
Mahbub-ul-Huq in his book Human Development in South Asia, 1997 also carried out a study
of human development in the various states of India. The UNFPA in its study used three
dimensions of Human Development: (i) The index of life expectancy, (ii) the index of per capita
income of education based on literacy rate and school enrolment ration. (Mahul-ul-Haq, 1997)
also considered similar three dimensions of human development with a minor difference that he
used only literacy rate in his index of education in the study while neglecting the indicator of
school enrolment ratio.

(Guha, 1998) has questioned both these studies by asserting that they neglected many
important aspects of human development. He made an attempt to overcome this inadequacy by
including three additional dimensions of human development, such as, the quality of life, poverty
eradication and urbanization. Thus, on the basis of six dimensions, Guha constructed four indices
of human development. All these indices pertained to the period 1988-94. Guha used the UNDP,
Human Development Report methodology for the purpose.
The index of quality of life was constructed based on the five indicators: (i) electricity
connection, (iii) enjoyment of two square meals a day throughout the year, (iv) residence in
―pucca houses‖ and (v) availability of beds in public hospitals to total population.
The index of poverty eradication has been prepared with respect to the eradication of poverty
in the total population of the state. The index has been oped on the basis of proportion of
population above the poverty line as outlined by the Expert Group of the Planning Commission.
The index of urbanization for reach state has been prepared on the basis of statewise data
derived from the census of 1991. In (Refer diagram), we have indicated the different dimensions
of human development as HDI1,HDI2 ,HDI3, and HDI4.

Refer Diagram - Human Development Indices

(i) Life Expectancy
(ii) Per Capita state Domestic Products HDI1
(iii) Literacy Rate and Domestic Gross
Enrolment Ratio
(iv) Quality of Life HDI2
(v) Population Above the Poverty Line HDI3
(vi) Urbanization HDI4
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 (Refer Table 54) we present the results of the three studies, viz., UNFPA, Mahbub-ul-Haq and
Guha in development Report methodology.
HDI data on the basis of these studies with minor variations reveals Kerala, Maharashtra,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Haryana- five states at the top. By ignoring school enrolment ratio,
provides different ranks to the states UNFPA study ranks the sates ore or less in the same order.
At the bottom are five sates, viz., Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
showing poor HDI values. In the middle range of HDI are five states, viz., Gujarat, Karnataka,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Assam.
Biswajit Guha, however, has developed four indices of HDI as HDI, HDI and HDI. HDI is
based on UNDP methodology asgiven in HDR, but he has enlarged the scope of human
development index by including three more dimensions: quality of life, poverty
Refer Table 54: Major State-Wise Alternative Studies Of Human Development In India (HDI)
Value Of HDI As Studied By
S.No. Rank State UNFPA Hag Guha(1988-94)
1. Kerala 62.79(1) 59.7(1) 74.33(1)
2. Maharashtra 55.49(2) 51.3(3) 59.24(2)
3. Punjab 54.86(3) 51.6(2) 57.36(4)
4. TamilNadu 51.11(4) 43.2(8) 57.53(3)
5. Haryana 50.56.(5) 47.4(4) 53.75(5)
6. Gujarat 47.82(6) 45.8(5) 52.48(6)
7. Karanataka 46.83(7) 44.2(7) 52.24(7)
8. WestBengal 45.37(8) 45.2(6). 51.33(8)
9. AndhraPradesh 41.28(9) 39.3.(9) 46.82(9)
10. Assam 39.48(10) 37.4(10) 44.25(10)
11. Madhya Pradesh 36.71(11) 34.1(15) 41.56(14)
12. Orissa 37.25(12) 36.8(11) 43.18(11)
13. Rajasthan 37.11(13) 35.03(13) 42.56(12)
14. UttarPradesh 35.51(14) 34.3(14) 41.06(15)
15. Bihar 34.05(15) 35.04(12) 42.12(13)

Note: (1) States have been arranged on the basis of UNFPA Study in the decending order of HDI.
(2) Figures in brackets indicate respective statewise ranks.
Sources: (1) UNFPA India towards population and development goals OUP, 1997.
(2) Mahbul-ul-haq, human devalopment in South Asia OUP, 1997.
(3) Biswajit Guha Human Development in India study of Interstate disparity, Indian
Economic Association, Conference Volume 1998.
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Eradication and urbanization. The result of Guha‘s study are summarized in (Refer Table 55) the
most comprehensive index of human development in Guha‘s study is HDI. comparing the result of
HDI and HDI reveals several sharp variations in these value. One unique features, however , is that
the top rank in all the other ranks for different states have shown divergences. For instance. As
against rank No.2 for Maharashtra dimension shifts its rank to position No5.

However, opposite is the case with Andhra Pradesh whose rank stood at No.9 in HDI but
improved to No. 6 in HDI. In case of Orissa it ranked at No. 11 in HDI but shifted to the bottom
most rank No. 15 in HDI.

There is double that Guha in his study has enlarged the number of dimensions and has
included some additional and very meaningful dimensions such as poverty eradication, extent of
urbanization, but still there is scope for including some more relevant dimensions which have a
bearing on human development. Dr. Guha rightly mentions: ―the non- availability of some important
official statistical data, say, on sanitation, per capita states separately could not represent the true
picture of the quality of life of rural and urban population as well as that of the entire population of
each state in the present study. On account of similar non availability of official statistical data of all
the states, it was not possible to consider the factors, like statewise growth of employment
opportunities, progress of land reform etc…. so, there are always some conceptual and practical
limitations involved in this type of analysis. However, in spite of all these limitations, it can be stated
that even if some factors are excluded from the analysis of human development , there will have
some impact upon the per capita state domestic product. So per capita income will still act as an
important index of development ‖ similar views have also be expressed in Human Development
Report regarding the inclusion of dimensions and indicators of human development. According to
Human Development Report 2001, the HDI is summary, not a comprehensive measure of human
development‖ But, these indices do provide ―an approximate picture‖ , if not a complete and true
picture. It is better to have an approximate picture than not to have any picture at all. Various
countries, India being no exception, are continuously making efforts to improve and enlarge the
scope of available statistical information, but this should not prevent researchers to develop indices
of human development.

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Refer Table 55 Major State Wise Alternatives Studies Of Human Development In India
S.No. State HDI1 HDI2 HDI3 HDI4
1. Kerala 74.33(1) 73.14(1) 74.47(1) 73.54(1)
2. Maharashtra 59.24(2) 59.67(3) 61.27(5) 60.02(5)
3. Punjab 57.36(4) 62.16(2) 70.29(2) 69.26(2)
4. TamilNadu 57.53(3) 57.99(4) 59.07(6) 57.99(7)
5. Haryana 53.75(5) 55.78(5) 65.78(3) 65.11(3)
6. Gujarat 52.48(6) 55.24(6) 63.30(4) 62.47(4)
7. Karanataka 52.24(7) 53.52(7) 55.79(9) 54.64(9)
8. WestBengal 51.33(8) 52.07(8) 56.84(8) 55.84(8)
9. AndhraPradesh 46.82(9) 48.85(9) 58.51(7) 58.07(6)
10. Assam 44.25(10) 43.95(11) 54.71(10) 54.49(10)
11. Madhya Pradesh 41.56(14) 43045(12) 46.74(12) 45.81(12)
12. Orissa 43.18(11) 42.92(14) 43.50(15) 42.77(15)
13. Rajasthan 42.56(12) 45.43(10) 54.08(11) 53.64(11)
14. UttarPradesh 41.6(15) 42.17(15) 45.91(13) 45.08(13)
15. Bihar 42.14(13) 43.24(13) 45.12(14) 44.61(14)
Source: Biswajit Singh Guha, Op. Cit. Table-6.
Note: State have arranged on the basis of UNFPA stuy in the ecening order of HDI.

17.4 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2001

Planning Commission brought out the national Human Development Report (2001) which has
presented statewise as well as All-India Human Development indices for 1981, 1991 and 2001.
Due to limitations of data, HDI for 2001 has been calculated for 15 major states.
Although National Human Development Report (NHDR) also uses the same broad
attainment dimensions as the UNDP, Human Development Report, viz longevity, educational
attainment ( Refer Table 56) and economic attainment, it has made departures from UNDP
indicators. A synoptic view of the indicators used in NHDR is given below NHDR has assigned
weights to various indicators while calculating the composite HDL. For instance, for health
index, life expectancy has been given a weight of 65 % as against only 35 % for infant mortality
rate. Similarly, for composie index of educational attainment, while literacy rate has been given a
weight of 65 % , the indicator capturing intensity of formal education (based on current
enrolment rates in successive classes at school from I to XII ) has been given a weight of 35 % .

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 In case of indicator on economic attainment, namely, inequality adjusted for inflation over the
period has been made to make it amenable for inflation over the period has been made to make it
amenable for inter-temporal and inter-state comparisons. The three indices of longevity,
educational attainment and economics development have been given equal weights in the final
calculation of Human Development Index on the pattern of the UNDP methodology.
Refer Table 56: HDI – Departures From UNDP Indicators
UNDP- Indicators Attainment NHDE-INDICATORS
Life Expectancy at Birth Longevity (i) Life Expectancy at Age 1,and
(ii) Infant Mortality Rate
Adult Literacy Rate combined with Educational (iii) Literacy rate for age 7 and
Enrolment Ratio above, and (iv) Intensity of Formal
Educational
Real GDP per capita in PPP $ Economic (v) Per capita real consumption
Attainment expenditure adjusted for inequality
Source: National Human Development Report(2001),p.23.

For developing the various indices, the NHDR has laid down the following scaling norms:
The scaling norms are ( Refer Table 57) such that they support inter-temporal comparisons
for a reasonable period of time starting 1980. The scaling norms that have been selected would
remain valid at least till about 2020 at a reasonably improved pace of human development,
according to NHDR (2001).
Refer Table 57 Scaling Norms for HDI
Indicator Minimum Maximum
Consumption Expenditure (per) Rs. 65 Rs.325
capita per month)
Literacy for 7+years 0 100
Adjusted intensity of formal 0 7
education (Estimated)
Life expectancy at age one 50 years 80 years
Infant mortality rate 20 per 1000 -
Source: national Human Development Report 2001,p.133

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 A unique feature of the Report is that it has calculated HDI for rural and urban areas
separately for 1981 and 1991, the periods for which data was available. Due to non- availability
of data, HDI for selected major states for 2001 has been done.
It may be noted that HDI for India has been improving form 0.302 in 1981 to 0.381 in 1991
and further to 0.472 in 2001. Since HDI is less than 0.500 even in 2001, India continues to be a
low HDI country judged by international standards.
(Refer Table 58) for provides HDI values for 1981, 1991 and 2001 for 15 major states of
India, along with their ranks. NHDR has drawn the following conclusions from the data for HDI
for the last two decades:
1. HDI varies between 0.638 for Kerala and 0.367 for Bihar in 2001 while Kerala can be
ranked as a medium HDI state , Bihar presents a dismal value of HDI even among low
HDI states.
2. Among the better- off states, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra had a HDI value of
above 0.52. At the other end, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar had values less than 0.400.
3. by and large, the states maintained their relative positions between 1981 and 2001 with
a few exceptions:
(a) Tamil Nadu improved its ranking by 4 positions from 7 to 3, while Rajasthan
from 12 to 9.
(b) However, the position of Assam deteriorated from 10 to 14.
(c) Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh continued to be tail-enders in HDI
race.
4. The economically better off states are also the ones with relatively better performance
on the similarly, the economically poor states show poor performance on the HDI.
However, the relationship between the HDI and the level of development does not show
any correspondence among the middle income states in the country.
5. Inquality across states on the HDI is less than the income inequality as captured in the
state domestic product. The ratio between the maximum and minimum per capita NSDP
for 1997-98 works out to be 4.47, but between maximum and minimum HDI is 1.74.
This only underlines the fact that though economic attainment represented by per capita
NSDP or monthly per capita expenditure is an important variable, yet states can achieve
other attainments in terms of longevity and education by pushing forth effective policies
in these education by pushing forth effective policies in these areas. This explains the
highest rank for HDI in a state like Kerala which is middle income level state. It is also

324
 true that Maharashtra with Rank 1 in terms of NSDP was at Rank No. 4 in terms of HDI
in 2001.

Refer Table 58: Human Development index for India (combined d-selected states)
States 1981 1981 1991 1991 2001 2001 Per
Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank capita*
NSDP
1997-98
Kerala 0.500 1 0.590 1 0.638 1 2,490
Punjab 0.411 2 0.475 2 0.537 2 4,389
Tamil Nadu 0.343 7 0.466 3 0.531 3 3,141
Maharashtra 0.363 3 0.452 4 0.523 4 5,032
Haryana 0.360 5 0.443 5 0.509 5 4,025
Gujarat 0.360 4 0.431 6 0.479 6 3,918
Karnataka 0.346 6 0.412 7 0.478 7 2,866
West Bengal 0.305 8 0.404 8 0.472 8 2,977
Rajasthan 0.256 12 0.347 11 0.424 9 2,226
Andhra 0.298 9 0.377 9 0.416 10 2,550
Pradesh
Orissa 0.267 11 0.345 12 0.404 11 1,666
Madhya 0.245 14 0.328 13 0.394 12 1,992
Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh 0.255 12 0.314 14 0.388 13 1,725
Assam 0.272 10 0.348 10 0.386 14 1,675
Bihar 0.237 15 0.308 15 0.367 15 1,126
All India 0.302 0.381 0.472 2,840

17.5 RURAL- URBAN DIFFERENCES IN HDI

NHDR has drawn attention to the rural- urban disparity in HDI in India. At the all India level
in 1981, rural HDI was 0.263 and urban was 0.442. Thus, the urban rural ratio was 1.68. In 1991,
rural HDI to 0.340 and (Refer Table 59) urban HDI increased to 0.511. The urban rural ratio was

325
1.50. This indicates that urban rural disparity has Shown a decline from 1.68 to 1.50, which though
not very sharp, is significant in the sense that rural areas are receiving relatively better attention.

Refer Table 59 HDI for Rural and Urban Areas All India
1981 1991 2001
Rural 0.263 0.340 -
Urban 0.442 0.511 -
Combined 0.302 0.381 0.472
Source: National Human Development Report 2001,
However, at the level of the states, sharp variations were observed in terms of urban rural
disparity in HDI. If we classify states on the basis of urban rural HDI ratio, then states/ UTS which
show low rural urban disparity (i.e. less than 1.25) are Kerala, Goa, Pondicherry, Delhi. Andaman
&Nicobar islands, Manipur and Lakshadweep. However, states with medium level urban rural HDI
disparity (Between 1.25to 1.50) are Mizoram, Nagaland, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Haryana, Gujarat,Karnataka, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. In contrast, states with high
urban rural HDI disparity (1.50 above) were Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Jammu Kashmir, Tripura,
Meghalaya. Assam, Rajasthan, Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

17.6 ECONOMICS AND LINKAGES

In geography we study various phonemenona by marking their spatial distribution within a given
territory. It can‘ be an area, a zone or a region. By ‗area‘ we merely mean a territory within the
limits of which the presence of a certain phenomenon is observed. A zone is a sort of Sub- area
showing some degree of intensity or density of a distribution. The term ‗region‘ denotes the space it
occupies close to other areas similarity of general conditions some sort of distinction and common
development problems.

17.6.1 Definition and Basis.

A relative uniformity or homogeneity of geographical conditions in a region is most clearly
observed only around the core of its territory. While there is unity of an interconnection of elements
within it, discontinuities that occur in distributions towards the margins of a region make it distinct
from its neighboring territory. Thus each region comes to have a uniform structure or an
individuality setting is apart forming others. Still, it is not easy to mark out exact boundaries of a

326
region because often an intermediate zone is found between any to of them. In this zone, there is an
intermixing or overlapping of phenomena shared by both the regions.
Moreover, regions have been formed on various bases and a variety of interrelationships is
observed within them. The concept of region is thus wider and has become most complex. It may be
a natural, cultural, an economic type of region or a mixture of all, based on different or a combined
set of conditions. We are familiar with the types of physical, climatic and natural regions into which
India has been divided for studying its regional geography. Any type of region may include a whole
state, parts of two states, just one district or parts of more than one or an area comprising only a
group of villages.
In nutshell, we identify a region first by noticing a similarity of internal arrangement or areal
grouping of the phenomena. Secondly, its external relations with other regions are observed and
measured other regions are observed and measured for dividing a country into a number of regions.
This is just as we find out various traits of a person and then see how he is different from others. In
this way, besides being independent units of territory, most of the regions are interdependent or
interrelated with their higher and lower orders.
There are two broad types of regions:
(h) Homogenous regions and (ii) functional region. The first of region may be recognized on the
basis of a general similarity of conditions, interconnection of elements or certain common
problems like unemployment or under development of industries. The second type of region
is indentified on the basis of the distance over which a nodal place or a city exercises its
influence. It refers to a flow of goods, men and ideas from nodal centre of intense economic
activity to its periphery. Such a functional linkage or an interdependence constantly growing
between a central place and its hinterland makes it a dynamic type of region emerging fast
with the growth of towns and routes.

17.6.2 Economic and Planning Region

It is true to say that naturalness in a natural region is now fast disappearing because of man‘s great
role in changing the face of the earth. That is one reason why much thought is being given to the
modern concept of economic regions, on which economic regionalization and regional development
of economy are based. This concept has grown in the wake of great need for recognizing the fact that
all resources are space bound and it is realistic to start with those elements which ultimately go to
form a socioeconomic region.
We can talk of an economic region only when we first consider the organization of national
economy or location and distribution of production plus other human activities in terms of space. At
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the same time we must not forget that the formation of an economic region is a continuous process
just as are the devel distribution of production plus other human region opment of regional resources,
changes in their demand and those in the pattern of flow of goods of human skills.
The rate of development of resources has not uniform in all regions. A number of them in
India are still the problem regions on various grounds. Only a few are advanced, relatively well-
developed regions by virtue of their potential to develop. As all these needs, processes and stages of
economic development have made the distribution of economic production and of human activity
acquiring great complexity, a region has become a tool for selecting and studying its real grouping.
Some sort of regionalization or division of territory in regions has been in vogue for long. But
now all over the would, under both the free and planned economic systems, difficulty is experienced
in mapping and analyzing the regional location of various objects we deal with in Economic
Geography. Still the division of a national territory into such regions has become a need for
preparing plains for rapid economic progress in a big, densly populated and developing country like
India. It does not rest only with the division of economy into big sectors like industry and
agriculture. Rather, it takes into account the territorial distribution and possibilities of resources and
the problems being faced for attaining the goal of an equitable development of different regions.
The science of region has undergone big changes from the time of its earliest meanings. Any
scheme of economic regionalization of India moves round an important realization. It is that for a
planned economic development and efficient utlisation of resources, not only the phasing of
investment and production but also the locational aspects of development must be taken into account.
Quite different from environmental and administrative set of regions, a planning region (i.e. an
economic region for planned development) is a synthetic one blending into one whole the concepts
of other regions. By this, it may not be so homogenous as a natural region.
Although the methods of dividing the country into a series of economic regions at various
levels are in early stages, yet it has become the accepted trend of regional planning.
After knowing what a region is and for what it is needed in present times, we discuss some
concepts which are being applied in the study of the formation of economic regions.

17.6.3 Territorial Division of Labour

Arty region or a territorial division within a country has its requirements of manpower by
which it comes to play a specific role in the development of national economy. Labour force is one
of the major productive forces of an area for producing a variety of material goods. It points out the
need of a fair distribution of work force in various regions to produce and utilize their natural
resources.
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 It is the economic structure of a country which controls the division of working population
into different occupations and its reallocation or redistribution over different regions. We have
already studied the size and characteristics of our labour force, both in India as a whole and in its
major regions; it is interconnected with location of production, movement of population and the aims
of resource development.
A spatial redistribution and occupational reallocation of labour supply are regular process in
any development economy, taking place at a slow or rapid rate. In general, the greater the vertical
mobility of the work force from lower to vertical higher levels of occupations or its horizontal
movement from one to other regions, the higher is the rate of growth of modern economy. Even in
India, although the mobility of labour force continues to be relatively slow an there is not much of
occupational shift from agricultural to non- agricultural sectors yet initial changes in the traditional
pattern are observed.
As soon as a new industry and an improvement in the local economy of an area are observed,
an inflow of working people, usually from short distance in the neighboring areas, follows, such a
neighboring area may have a surplus of unemployed manpower and may be a depressed area of low
developmental activity. A great disparity in the general levels of regional development in India has
made such shifting of labour in India has made such sifting of labour force a familiar phenomenon.
It is linked directly with resource development in that part of the country. It makes it possible to
utilize the local skills through a full and rational employment of both the male and female labour.
Alongside the growing concertration of working population is places or areas of new
development, the labour force itself becomes a factor in attracting new enterprises particularly
manufacturing industry to them. Both the processes of inflow of population and the clustering of
industry are taking place against the background of general rapid urbanization. This result in
drawing out people engaged in house hold work and from farming for working in industrial units.
A redistribution of employment from agriculture into industry is observed as the demand of
manpower for various social and economic services grows. The change in the old pattern of
territorial division of labour accompanies the migration of people from rural to urban areas with
changes in the mode of their living. If such a shift of population is allowed to continue uncontrolled
for a long time, it goes out of proportion with the economic opportunities and social amenities in
cities. While big cities come to have a surplus of unemployed, underemployed or just a floating
manpower, the village economic may start decaying for the lack of it.
In rapidly advancing industrialized countries, all natural and economic advantages are used to
obtain an effective pattern of regional and occupational distribution of labour. As labour mobility
means a change of job, occupation, working people, it has a big influence on the development of an
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area or on the shifting of an industry from a region. A nation or region is, for an instance, not
considered wealthy if the largest numbers of people are employed in the tertiary sector without a
good increase in the productivity of primary and secondary sectors. Like-wise, the stockpiling of
only non- agricultural workers within a few regions creates problems in them and depresses the
economy of the areas from where they are deployed.
In a county like the United States of America where such a labour changes are very fast, the
changing pattern of Industrial employment in its different parts, both in the short and long run of
time, is carefully examined. In the Soviet Union where the economic development is completely
planned by the State, the maximum labour efficiency is achieved by building up new industrial
enterprises, towns and cities in such a way that there is neither surplus nor shortage of the country. In
India, even our major cities are no longer in a position to usefully absorb the surplus migrant labour
from the rural areas at a high rate. A fresh thought has to be given to the labour requirements of
different resource regions in order to guide the course of workers migration mostly from rural to
urban areas. Except the Punjab, which has built up a prosperous rural economy, probably there is no
other state in India from where a push, out of rural poverty, is not sending people to towns within or
outside the home region.
In advanced industrialized countries, as soon as the growth of production per man hour
increases by automation (greater mechanization needing less manual labour), a good part to labour
force becomes surplus or unemployed. For difficult tasks like coal mining, the new generation of
workers is showing less inclination to join. These chages require a reallocation of the labour force so
that a proper trend for its redistribution is set in. the migration and division of labour can become an
agent of economic change in an area if the process of mobility is regularly looked after.
In our country, a large number of industrial, mining, water power projects, construction of
highways and towns have been underway since the beginning of planning era in 1951. The rapid
pace of this development has given us a fore taste of the problems of territorial division of labour. As
soon as such plan- period projects are completed, a large part of even the skilled manpower is
rendered surplus. Planning process in such cases has to start years earlier to shift the workers to new
sites where they could be absorbed in similar developmental activities.
A redistribution of labour force has to be planned by the state, in the cases of declining
industries, mismanaged enterprises, natural or other calamities which result in large- scale
unemployment of workers in a region. Such studies can no longer be ignored as they help us in
understanding the need as well as the formation of resource manpower region in the country.

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17.6.4 Concept of Resource-Based Production Cycle
The process of modern industrial isation in a region with rich resources tends to bring about a
concentration of industrial centres in it. In such areas, we observe a sort of regular chain of major and
minor industries right from the place of extraction of raw materials to production of finished goods
and their supply in the market. The initial raw materials are used and reused in acomplex way by
treating and processing them consecutively. In this manner, a cycle of production of an unlimited
variety of substances starts by multi-stage conversions of mineral, animals and plant products, and
even of water or air into industrial raw materials.
The growing power needs of different regions are met by tapping all available source of
energy in a region and harnessing them to run the whole course of energy production cycles. Besides
the eight old cycles based on the utilization of energy potential of mineral fuels, thermal and river
waters, sun, wind and tides, two new production cycle deriving power from atomic and oceanic
minerals have emerged. The water of some rivers may also be used and reused at a number of
suitable places to generate hydro-power. In all these instances, the harnessing of energy is at first
based on potential power resources of the region. A production cycle is complicated by aiming at its
fuller utilization and a long distance transmission though zonal and national power grids, with which
we are getting familiar in India.
The streams of fuel and electrical energy run though pipelines or transmission wires and
become the lifelines of an expanding cycle of industrial and power production.
There are as many as seven resource based production cycles which can be enumerated as
follows. Each one stands for a particular specialization and a territorial division of labour.
(i) petroleum and gas chemicals cycle.
(ii)- Metallurgical cycles of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
(iii) Agro-processing cycle.
(iv) Cycle of consumer industries.
(v) Hydro-power production cycle.
Besides the power production cycles already described, a few more are taken up here to fully
illustrate the idea.
The introduction of chemicals and chemical methods in the utilization of resource has led to
the appearance of a series of production cycles in the industrial sector. A wide variety of
technological methods makes it possible to derive numerous chemical products from one and the
same type of raw material. By way of an example, plastics, synthetic rubber and synthetic fatty acids
are all obtained from oil. In the development of large- scale synthetic materials, ranging from

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ordinary household articles to key products, production is based on a number of secondary raw
materials.
This has increased manifold the value of oil as a primary industrial raw material. The latest
experiment is that of preparing synthetic paper which may after the pattern of timber utilization and
add to the importance of petro-chemical complex. The expansion of such cycles has given rise to the
great aggregation of chemical industries around a single location of petroleum, natural has and
important non0-ferrous minerals.
In smelting of copper ore or in refining of crude oil, a host of by products are got by
capturing the escaping gases, liquids and re-processing of the waste products. In the processing g of
iron ore, the scrap iron becomes a raw material for making steel out of it, if the quality is otherwise
good. Industrial wastes of one plant are drawn upon by another situated in its proximity.
While making sugar, the bagasse and the molasses as waste and side products are recycled in
manufacturing carboard, synthetic rubber and power- alcohol. In rich farming and horticultural
areas, the grain, potato and fruit going to turn into a waste are utilized as industrial raw-materials for
making alcohol and jams.
Such production cycles are a great help in further utilization of natural and economic resource
of a region. In these days of resource scarcity, when supplies are falling short of the needs of
increasing population, we can hope to conserve many of them by such intensive uses of each
component of raw materials, by products and waste products. Many kinds are no longer satisfied
just by using one or two resource found in a region. It believes in completing the whole cycle by
using and reprocessing all of them fully at various levels and at various stages of manufacturing.
An important side gain of this recycling is the protection of our land, water and atmosphere
from the danger of pollution. Much of the smoke , escaping gaseous vapour, chemical polluters of
water, and solid scraps of mineral have polluted our environment. We come across the huge dumps
of mineral and industrial wastes disfiguring the land surface in small industrial pockets of India and
rairly large areas in other parts of the world. Much of the polluting dirt going into our rivers oceans
and atmosphere can be put back in the industrial production cycle. It may go to save us from the
danger of environmental pollution, producing many new useful things at the same time.

17.6.5 Territorial Production Complex

The spatial division of labour and the expansion of power production or other resource based
production eyes give birth to the formation of territorial production complexes in an area in course
of time. These complexes prepare the way for determining the economic type of region, the scope of
which has been discussed at the outset. Many of the points it raises were already known in studies
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on industrial locations carried on in various countries. But in its present form, it has proved more
valuable in focusing our attention on all related locational aspects of production in modern industrial
clusters.
It was N.N. kolossvosky, a regional scientist of Russia who coined this tern first of all. By a
territorial production in a certain area which are inter-connected by developing an increasing
interdependence. While each Industrial unit with its parts and processes is sub- system, their
concentration in a bigger belt makes one system or a production complex. Each such unit is
independent a swell as interdependent. The modern industrial development offers the basis for
formation of such complexes by encouraging interaction with geographical environment and
between various branches of economic activity. A production complex is, in other words, the total
economic landscape of a territory or a region.
The most suitable set of industries makes the best use of the locational advantages, sources of
raw material, cost of transport, fuel manpower and facilities for the conservation of environment in a
selected area. Their combination results in saving the expenditure on construction of building, many
of which they can use as common to all. Much of the cost of transport, of supply of raw materials
and of finished products is reduced, trade-service facilities are easier and skilled manpower is
locally available. All these obvious benefits derived by locating mutually dependent industries near
each other over a common space were responsible for the development of big industrial regions
round metropolitan cities. But this practice has also led to adverse effects by ignoring an all-round
planning of industrial location at different regional levels. In place of multi-centered economic
region, only gingle-centered economic or metropolitan regions developed with all the adverse
effects of such a centralization. The factories looked mostly to local advantages for enterprises at a
place. On the other hand, the current idea of organizing one or more than one territorial production
complexes depending upon the nature of a region‘s resources, start panning about the development
of an area and a region around multi level small and big growth centers.
Such a complex is noted for achieving a specificity of production, combination of plants,
their territorial concentration, diversification on of industries, an ntense interaction and social-
economic ties with different parts of the territory. Difference between old industrial clusters and
new production complexes.

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17.7 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OLD INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS AN NEW
PRODUCTION COMPLEXS
The theory of production complexes does not aim at developing the economy of a region
round the industrial centre of a big city or a few growth points conflned only to a small strip of
territory. It is considered better for the improvement of a regional economy if growth centres cover a
wider region. It avoids the bad results of an uncontrolled successive concentration of industrial
production in a few major places in the country as it has been observed so far. Such a structure
becomes too much expensive in course of time as it is happening in cities like Mumbai with rise in
the cost of land, taxes and other constructions. The expansion of work force takes place by
migration of workers from the countryside. Such cities have grown the countryside with or at the
cost of their surrounding rural areas. The manpower from villages is drained out without putting any
life back into the rural economy. Our two metropolitan districts of Mumbai and Kolkata having only
2.5% of country‘s population have, for examples, come to nonopolise one- third of the total
industrial production of India and three- fourths of the gross value of factory production in each of
the two states. This makes it clear how the concentration of industries in these cities took place at
cost of the other parts of these states and of the whole country. Industries developed here because of
many locational advantages and the policy of the earlier British Empire. But it has created
imbalances between regions and a widening disparity in levels o economic development in them.
The concept of Territorial Production Complex views the concentration of industries
differently. A chain of productive activities in various branches of an industry or in different units
at different sites provides a running link for the development of the whole region. These links
remain incomplete as long as the economic landscape of the region is in the making in early stages.
The regional scientists in the Soviet Union have been trying hard to develop production
complexes round the natural resources found in the virgin territories of Siberia and Central Asia.
They have been taking care that either such an economic activity is located near the local
concentration of population of working population is planned over the entire territory. While in
Europe, the United States of America, Japan, countries of South America and Africa, production
complex are spotted in sea-side industrial region because of the combination of many advantages, in
the Soviet Union these are planned in the depth of its land territory: They have been basd on
mineral, forest, agricultural and hydro power resource since the last world war to, the east of Urals.
The following instance helps us to see the way these complexes have been built up.
(i) Fuel and Power Chemical Complex: Production and processing of oil natural gas, coal- mining,
generation of power, production of nitrogenous and phosphorus fertilizers, sulphuric acid, varnishes
and paints, plastics, chemical fibers, herbicides etc.
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(ii) Agro- industrial complex: (Based on cotton, fruit and vegetable growing) agricultural processing
industry like cleaning, spinning, weaving, packing of cotton of canning, preservation of fruit,
alcoholic production and bottling of canned articles.
(iii)Basis Mineral Industrial Complex: Coal- mining, coke, iron and steel, rolled metals, generation
of electric power, machine building, synthetic fuel, synthetic rubber, various chemical branches.
Let us now pick up a new instance from India to follow the concept in our home situations.
Durgapur- Ranchi- Rourkela industrial region in the eastern part of the country includes many
districts of Bihar. West Bengal and Orissa. It is neither a natural geographic region nor a river –
valley region like kolkata or Mumbai which has grown round a dominant city. In this region, there is
an interplay of three complexes: (i) a mineral complex, (ii) a power complex, and (iii) a steel and
heavy engineering complex. The use of various combinations of rich minerals has helped a number
of basic industries to grow at different places in this region. The secondary and subsidiary industries
have started growing round them. The power and transport lines, the technical , economic and social
infra-structure means the buildings and installations for establishing factories, lines of power and
have supplied the links to interconnect the various production complexes. (Infra-structure) means
the buildings and installations for establishing factories, lines of power and transport and for
supplying the social needs of workers).
We can see how these production complexes are acting as cores round which a new basic
industrial region of India is fast appearing on the map of the country. Here both the process of (i)
concentration and (ii) decentralization of Industries are operating side by side. The working
population tends to be distributed in settlements of varying sizes ranging from hamlets to cities.
Different industries and industrial centers are likely to be related to each other by diversification of
economy. As much as 50 % of India‘s investment in public sector of country‘s planning has been
put in such backward regions of Orissa- Bihar- Madhya Pradesh to stimu-late their economic
growth. It was expected that it will lead to the emergence of a model of territorial production
complexes. But so far there has been a little or no impact of the new growth centers on traditional
agricultural economy of the region in spite of the development of modern industry.
The organization of territorial agro industrial complexes in many parts of an agricultural
country like ours will be of great benefit. It will bring about a closer functional association among
the different sectors of the economy in our rural countryside. The rural manpower can possible be
more effectively used throughout the year by a synthesis of agricultural and industry. It can go to
boost up the economy of many small and medium-sized towns which have been growing at a very
slow rate in the last decades.

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 In the case of manufacture industries, even small-scale but technically well-equipped
enterprises forming parts of a large territorial complex can achieve greater economic efficiency.
Such a complex can be local when located in a particular locality or a small area in the beginning. It
may become regional when it is dispersed at many become regional when it is dispersed at many
place conforming to the dispersal of population or resource in an area. It is inter regional in nature
when concentrated group of enterprises is seen along a string of settlements or along a line cutting
across administrative boundaries.
The whole approach attaches great importance to coordination of activities at different levels
and a systematic planning of the for social betterment of the region as well. An integrated system of
urban settlements is also called a Production Territorial Complex as it often acts as a core, a node
providing an industrial belt or a central transport zone. Afterwards close to them the regional
hinterland develops.
Although this whole theory is still at an experimental stage, it has given us a valuable concept
for planning the development of various regions in a developing country like India.

17.8 SUMMARY
The human groups with different ethnic backgrounds have entered the region at different points of
time. People and human resources their settlements in India and later movements within the country
have led to a high degree of intermingling between the various resoueces an cultural streams.The
resources displayed by the Indian population tp-day have thus acquired their distinguishing traiots
throughthis process of social intermixing. A ‗Zone‘ is a sort of sub-area showing some degree of
intensity of distribution. The term ‗ region‘ denotes the space it occupies close to other areas,
similarity of general conditions, some sort of distinction and common development problems.

17.9 ACTIVITY
Study carefully human development Index (HDI), of your town.

17.10 QUESTIONS
- Define Human Development and its types.
- Analysis the Human Development Index for various states in India.
- Define Economic Linkages and its types
- What considerations are kept in mind in drawing up the scheme of Economic Regions
- What for should be plan the Territorial Division of Labour
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17.11 REFERENCES
Compiled and Computed From UNDP Human Development Report 2009 and Earlier Issues.
Dreze, Jean and Sen Amartya 1995 ―Indian Economic Development and Social Opportunity‖
Oxford University Press, Delhi
Guha Biswajeet 1998 ― Human Development of India‘s‖ A study of Interstate Disparity, Indian
Economic Association Conference Volume p-125.
Human Commission, 2002 National Human Development Report
Kolossvosky, N.N., in Joshi, K.L. 1978 ―Geography of India Resources and Regional Development‖
NCERT, New Delhi
Mahbul-ul Haq, 1997 ― HumanDevelopment in South Asia OUP.
Ruddar Dutt 2002, ―Human Development and Economic Development.
UNDP 2001 Human Development Report p-14.
UNDP 2009 Human Development Report
UNDP Human Development Report 2001
UNDP Human development Report 2001 p-1.
UNDP,1997 Human Development Report, p-13-14.
World Development Report, 2008.

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BLOCK-6 POPULATION DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIORNMENT

INTRODUCTION
Over a period of time, population of a country or regions rises or falls but usually it registers an
increase like all other living organism, population of human beings is also not static. Its natural
growth occurs through births, deaths and the difference between the two. Population also increases
by in migration of people from other areas or immigration from abroad. It declines by out migration
from an area or emigration of people to foreign countries. Although people move from one state to
another emigration and immigration are hardly of any significance to our total pupulation.
There are three units in this block. Unit 18. Deals with population development, density, and
occupational structure.
Unit 19. Introduces about enviornment interface, migration and social consequences.
Unit 20. Deals with different population policies, human development and health indicators, etc.
We hope that the Block will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the fields.

Unit 18 Population Development.

Unit 19 Enviornment Interface and Migration.
Unit 20 Policies Programs.

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UNIT 18 POPULATION DEVELOPMENTS

STRUCTURE
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Density of Population and its Distribution
18.2.1 Area of High Density
18.2.2 Area of Medium Density
18.2.3 Area of Low Density
18.3 Population Size in India
18.3.1 Census of Population
18.3.2 Distribution of Population
18.4 Causes of Uneven Distribution of Population
18.4.1 Physical Factors
18.4.2 Socio-Economic and Historical Factors
18.5 Density of Population
18.5.1 State level Analysis
18.5.2 Growth of Population
18.5.3 Phases of Population Growth
18.5.4 Regional Variation in Population Growth
18.5.5 Growth of Adolscent Population
18.6 Population Composition
18.6.1 Rural- Urban Composition
18.7 Urbanization
18.7.1 Regional Variation In Urbanization
18.8 Liguistic Composition
18.8.1 Linguistic Classification
18.9 Religious Composition
18.9.1 Hindu
18.9.2 Muslim

18.9.3 Christians

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 18.9.4 Sikhs
18.9.5 Buddhists
18.9.6 Jains
18.9.7 Paris
18.10 Composition of Workin Population
18.10.1 Main Workers
18.10.2 Marginal Workers
18.10.3 Non- Workers
18.11 Participation Rate
18.12 Occupational Structure
18.13 Sectoral Composition of Work Force
18.14 Summary
18.15 Activity
18.16 Questions
18.17 References

18.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand population density and its distribution
To know size of population and its causes of distribution
To know population composition
To know regional variation in urbanization

18.1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings are the central theme in the subject matter of human geography. In the earlier titles we
have studied man as a producer, creator and consumer. He utilizes the natural resources, and in doing
so, he influences the environment. He has a tremendous capacity to adjust. No human being is free
form the influence of nature and no part of this earth is untouched to study distribution of population,
spatial pattern of its density and growth as well as the demographic structure.

18.2 DENSITY OF POPULATION AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

The world can be divided into three segments on the basis of the density of population i.e. the areas
of high density, medium density and low density.

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18.2.1 Areas of High Density
There are four regions of high density of population in the world. These are, China and the Far East,
South and South East Asia, Europe and the eastern coastal plain of North America.
China and the Far East
China and other counties of the Far East such as Japan, Korea, Philippines etc accommodate about
one fourth of the total population of the. World. In Japan, which is a small country 12.4 crore people
live over3.7 lakh square kilometre of area it has an average density of 328 persons per square
kilometre but the actual land area under the occupance of people is even smaller. Thus, the actual
density of population is much higher.
In china, high density of population is confined to the eastern coastal belt from north to south.
Besides, the northern plain of China,Chang basin and Sichuan are also densely populated region.
The highest density of population is recorded on the islands located near the main land of china.
There is a great pressure of population on cultivated lands in these countries and, therefore, people
in large numbers have emigrated from here. People from China have migrated and settled in most of
the countries of South- East Asia.
South And South East Asia
South Asia includes India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan etc. this region has
an average density of 181 persons per square kilo metre but if each country is taken individually,
the density of population in many countries is much higher than the average. For example, the
population densities in Bangladesh and India are 825 and 258 persons per square kilometre
respectively. The population density in India is high in the coastal plains and fertile river valleys but
the plateaus, mountains and desert regions are thinly populated. In comparison to India and
Bangladesh, Pakistan has lower density of population 145 persons per square kilometre but there
too, Punjab and Sind have higher density while Baluchistan and north west frontier province have
low density. It shows that higher densities of population are associated with beter economic
opportunities. Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Singapore and Vietnam etc. are
the countries of South East Asia. Most of these countries have high density of population. Highest
density is recorded in Singapore where 4471 persons live per suare kilometre likewise java also has
very high density of population. It is mainly because if it‘s fertile soil.
Europe
9.3% of the total population of the world is found in this region. The population density inukraine,
Latvia, Estonia, bclarus, and Moldova are 99 persons per square kilometre Southern and Eastern
Europe have densities of 108 and 113 persons per square kilometre respectively. Northern Europe
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records a comparatively lower density i.e. 50 persons per sq. km. the high population concentration
in Europe may be explained by the industrial development of different countries.
Eastern Coastal Region Of North America
The population map of North America gives the impression that the countries here are thinly
populated but there has been great concentration of population on the eastern coastal part of United
States of America and Canada. The main reason for this concentration is that the immigrants from
Europe came and settled first in this part of North America. Hence it experienced an early
development of urbanization and industrialization. The mining and industrial development provided
increasing economic opportunities which attracted more and more people spread of population to
the west of Appalachia ranges took place at a later stage. Therefore, the density of population in
coastal part is higher.

18.2.2 Areas of Medium Density

The areas of medium density of population in the world are not found in a continuous belt. These
are found in those regions between the high and low density population areas, where favourable
economic opportunities attracted people and thus the density increased, for example, delta region of
the nile velley, the Mediterranean coastal part of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia in North Africa, the
Mediterranean Coast of Asia, plains of the Tigris and the Euphrates, Mazaendran and Gilan plains
on the Caspian coast in Iran and Soviet Central Asia. There are a few such belts of medium density
in the coastal areas of South America. The Brazilian coast to the South of the Amazon, coastal areas
of Argentina, Venezuela and Chile have such concentrations. The development of irrigation,
expansion of mining activity or the development of industry are some of the reasons causing
increase in the density of population.

18.2.3 Areas of Low Density

The most extensive part with low density of population is located in Africa and Asia. This thinly
populated region extends from western margins of Sahara in the west to the eastern margins of the
desert, plateaus and the mountainous regions of Central Asia across Saudi Arabia, plateau of Iran
and Afghanistan. This vast area extending over roughly 16 thousand square kilometre has a low
density of population except for a few pockets where density is slightly higher.
Northern parts of Eurasia is extremely cold. This region extends from the Scandinavian coast to the
east Siberian coast. The density of population is very low. The northern part of Canada is also very
cold and hence low density of population. This region has been settled by Eskimos. Lapps live in the

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Tundra region of Eurasia.other regions of low density of population are the Amazon Basin, South
West Africa, Northern Mexico, the Zaire Basin, Western Australia, the Southern Peninsular part of
south America (Patagonia) etc. the conditions of the physical environment are not favourable for
human concentration. The environment factors have imposed serious limitations in the development
of resources for human subsistence. Therefore, the population in these areas is very sparse.

18.3 POPULATION SIZE IN INDIA

India is one of the most populous countries of the world. Our country covers just 2.4% of the land
area of the world whereas it is the home of about 16.7% of the world‘s population. India is second
only to China in terms of size of population. Our population is more than the population of the
North America, south America and Australia put together. India‘s total population is about five and
a half times the Russia, 2.8 times the USA, 7 times the UK and 44 times that of Australia. The
population of Uttar Pradesh alone is as much as that of Japan and is more than the population of
Bangladesh, Nigeria or Pakistan. Again , the population of India is one and a half times the total
population of the whole continent of Africa. This huge population has to depend upon scarce
resources and has a wide range social, political and economic implications. India could be a strong
country had its population growth rate been lower and population size smaller. Poverty and
environment degradation are two main consequences of over population in India. In addition ethnic
diversity, rural character and uneven distribution are the other aspects of population affecting the
process and pace of socio-economic development. India is primarily a country of village. About
72.2 % of the population lives in villages. Providing social services and basic amenities to such vast
humanity living in so large number of villages is an uphill task. Most villagers are engaged in
primary activities like agriculture which is unable to absorb a fast growing population.

18.3.1 Census of Population

Data regarding population are collected through censuses all over the world. A census count offers a
spectrum of population at a particular point of time covering a wide range of demographic, social
and economic attributes of population. First census in India was held in 1872, although the first
complete census was taken in 1881 only. Since then the censuses have been held regularly after
every ten years. The last censuswas held in the year 2001. Provisional Figures at a glance of census
2011 is given in (Refer Table- 60 ). Have been released, Inia now has a popupopulation of 1.21
billion. Comprising 624 million males and 587 million females. This is an increase of 181 million
people since the census 2001 which is nealy equivelent to the population of Brazil.

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 India‘s population wrowth rate has decelerated to 17.64 % in the decade 2001-2011 in the
lowest rate of growth in the past century with expection of 1911-21 in which India had negative
population growth rate.
The preliminary figures of the census 2011 show that India‘s female population gew by 18.12 % ove
the past decade against 17.19 % of males. The sex ratio (i.e., number of females per 1000 males) has
improved to 940 from 933 a decade ago. But a matter of over whelming concern lies in the fact that
the child sex ratio stans at 914 which is the lowest since India‘s independence.
India‘s literacy rate has gone up from 63.8. % in 2001 to 74.04 % in 2011. Male liteacy an female
literacy stand at 82.14 % and 65.46 % respctively. Literate constitute 74 % population aged seven
and above. The density of population has gone upto 382 from 325 of census 2001. The India‘s
population accounts for the world‘s 17.5 %, second only to China that constitutes 19.5 % of worl
population. India‘s population is now bigger than the combined population of USa, Inonesia, Brazil,
Pakistan and Bangladesh. Uttarpradesh is the most populous state and combined population of
Maharashtra is bigger than USA. Uttar Predesh population is estimated at 199 million, being the
most populous state while the Lakshadweep with only 64429 people becomes the least populated.
Another remarking features of the preliminary census results shows that the percentage growth of
six most populous states- Uttarpradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
have derclined which show another impact of improved literacy and economic growth. According to
2011 census, the total population at the drawn of March, 1st, 2011 was 121.02 crores. India accounts
for a meagre 2.4 % of the world surface area of 135-79 million square kilometre. Yet, it supports
and sustains a whopping 17.5% of world population.According to UNPPA repot entitled ― State
World Population‖ world population has touched the height of 6 billion on October, 12, 1999. UNO
has declared October, 12, as ― Days of 6 bilion‖. Indian population growth rate is high enough to
draw serious attention. India today possesses about 2.4 % of the total land area of the world but she
has to support about 16 % of the world population. According to the United Nations population fund
(UNFPA) estimates. Out of an annual increase of 76 million in world population, India alone
accounts for as much as 16 million making a sizeable (21%) contribution. India is a second largest
country in the world after China to cross the one billion mark. It is now estimateed that by 2050,
India will most likely overtake China to become the most populous country on the earth with 19.4 %
population living here. The United Nations has estimated that the world population grew at an
annual rate of 1.4 % uring 1990-2000. China registering a much lower annual growth rate of
population of 1% as compared to that for India, at 1.95 % during 1991-2001.

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Refer Table- 60 : Census 2011 at a Glance (Provisional Figures)
S. State/UTs Total Population Sex- Density Percentage Literacy Rate (%) Contribution
No. Persons Males Females Ratio (persons Decadal In Total Males Females of States
(No. of per sq. growth Population Population
Females km.) in Total
per Population
1,000 (per cent)
Males)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
India 1,210,193,422 623,724,248 586,469,174 940 382 17.64 74.04 82.14 65.46 100.00
1. Jammu & Kashmir 12,548,926 6,665,561 5,883,365 883 124 23.71 68.74 78.26 58.01 1.04
2. Himachal Pradesh 6,856,509 3,473,892 3,382,617 971 123 12.81 83.78 90.83 76.60 0.57
3. Punjab 27,704,236 14,634,819 13,069,415 893 550 13.73 76.68 81.48 71.34 2.29
4. Chandigarh 1,054,686 580,282 474,404 818 9,252 17.10 86.43 90.54 81.38 0.09
5. Uttarakhand 10,116,752 5,154,478 4,962,574 963 189 19.17 79.63 88.33 70.70 0.84
6. Haryana 25,353,081 13,505,130 11,847,951 877 573 19.90 76.64 85.38 66.77 2.09
7. Delhi 16,753,235 8,976,410 7,776,825 860 11,297 20.96 86.34 91.03 80.93 1.38
8. Rajasthan 68,621,012 35,620,086 33,000,926 926 201 21.44 67.06 80.51 52.66 5.67
9. Uttar Pradesh 199,581,477 104,596,415 94,985,062 908 828 20.09 69.72 79.24 59.26 16.49
10. Bihar 103,804,637 54,185,347 49,619,290 916 1,102 25.07 63.82 73.39 53.33 8.58
11. Sikkim 607,688 321,661 286,027 889 86 12.36 82.20 87.29 76.43 0.05
12. Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 720,232 662,379 920 17 25.92 66.95 73.69 59.57 0.11
13. Nagaland 1,980,602 1,025,707 954,895 931 119 -0.47 80.11 83.29 76.69 0.16
14. Manipur 2,721,756 1,369,764 1,351,992 987 122 18.65 79.85 86.49 73.17 0.22
15. Mizoram 1,091,014 552,339 538,675 975 52 22.78 91.58 93.72 89.40 0.09
16. Tripura 3,671,032 1,871,867 1,799,165 961 350 14.75 87.75 92.18 83.15 0.30

Cont.... 345
17. Meghalaya 2,964,007 1,492,668 1,471,339 986 132 27.82 75.48 77.17 73.78 0.24
18. Assam 31,169,272 15,954,927 15,214,345 954 397 16.93 73.18 78.81 67.27 2.58
19. West Bengal 91,347,736 46,927,389 44,420,347 947 1,029 13.93 77.08 82.67 71.16 7.55
20. Jharkhand 32,966,238 16,931,688 16,034,550 947 414 22.34 67.63 78.45 56.21 2.72
21. Odisha 41,947,358 21,201,678 20,745,680 978 269 13.97 73.45 82.40 64.36 3.47
22. Chhattisgarh 25,540,196 12,827,915 12,712,281 991 189 22.59 71.04 81.45 60.59 2.11
23. Madhya Pradesh 72,597,565 17,612,920 1,984,645 930 230 20.36 70.63 80.53 60.02 6.00
24. Gujarat 60,383,628 31,482,282 28,901,346 918 308 19.17 79.31 87.23 70.73 4.99
25. Daman & Diu 242,911 150,100 92,811 618 2,469 53.54 87.07 91.48 79.59 0.02
26. Dadra & Nagar 342,853 193,178 149,675 775 698 55.50 77.65 86.46 65.93 0.03
Haveli
27. Maharashtra 112,372,972 58,361,397 54,011,375 925 363 15.29 82.91 89.82 75.48 9.29
28. Andhra Pradesh 84,665,533 42,509,881 42,155,652 992 308 11.10 67.66 75.56 59.74 7.00
29. Karnataka 61,130,704 31,057,742 30,072,962 968 319 15.67 75.60 82.85 68.13 5.05
30. Goa 1,457,723 740,711 717,012 968 394 8.17 87.40 92.81 81.84 0.12
31. Lakshadweep 64,429 33,106 31,323 946 2,013 6.23 92.28 96.11 88.25 0.01
32. Kerala 33,387,677 16,021,290 17,366,387 1,084 859 4.86 93.91 96.02 91.98 2.76
33. Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 36,158,871 35,980,087 995 555 15.60 80.33 86.81 73.86 5.96
34. Puducherry 1,244,464 610,485 633,979 1,038 2,598 27.72 86.55 92.12 81.22 0.10
35. Andaman & 379,944 202,330 177,614 878 46 6.68 86.27 90.11 81.84 0.03
Nicobar Islands

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18.3.2 Distribution of Population
The total population of India according to the 2001 census is 1028 millions. A casual (Refer Table

61) will reveal that the distribution of India‘s population is very uneven. The contrasts in

population distribution are quite clear at the level of states, and are furthur sharpened at the level of

districts. These constracts are due to varying size of the states and wide variations in their resources

base. Uttar Pradesh has the largest population of 166 millions. This is followed by Maharashtra

(96.88 millions), Bihar (82.99 million), West Bengal (80.17 millions and Andhra Pradesh (76.21

millions). These five states account for about half of the country‘s population. More than one-fourth

of our people live in two statesof Uttar pradesh and Maharashtra alone. This, however, does not

imply that states with large areas have large population also. For example, rajasthan is the largest

states of India accounting for over 10.4% area of the country. But this state supports only 5.49 %

population of India. Similarly Madhya Pradesh, the second largest state in terms of area, has 5.87 %

of population on 9.38 % of area of the country. Contrary to it, uttar Pradesh supports 16.16 % of

population on only 7.33 % of area of the country. In fact, Uttar Pradesh has more people than the

two largest states of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The three southern states of Kerala, Karnataka

and Tamil Nadu together have less population than Uttar Pradesh, Bihar has 8.07 % of population

on 9.86 % of area. In all, in eleven states and six union territories population size is much larger in

comparison to the areas. This means that these states have higher pressure of population than the

national average. On the other hand, Jammu and Kashmir covers 6.76 % area but supports only 0.98

% population of India . Arunachal Pradesh has 0.11 % of population on 2.55 % of area shows that

Sikkim, a Himalayan mini- states has only 5.4 lakh population which is only 0.05 % of the total

population of India. In fact, Sikkim has the smallest population among all the states of India. Delhi

with 13.85 million has the largest population among all the union territories. It is a matter of fact

that more people live in Delhi in Delhi than in the states of Jammu and Kashmir or in all the union

territories put together.

347
Refer Table 61 Statewise population Distribution, Density and Growth,2001
% of Area Growth
Total Area Total National Density
States /UTs to Total Rate
(sq.km.) Population Share (%) /sq. km.
National 1991-2001
Andaman/Nicobar Islands 8249 0.24 356152 0.03 43 26.9
Andhra Pradesh 275045 8.37 76210007 7.37 275 14.49
Arunachal Pradesh 83743 2.55 1097968 0.11 13 27.0
1
Assam 78438 2.39 26655528 2.59 340 18.92
Chhattisgarh 135191 4.11 20833803 20.25 154 18.27
Bihar 94163 9.86 82998509 8.07 880 28.62
Chandigarh 114 0.003 900635 0.09 7900 40.28
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0.01 220490 0.02 449 59.22
Daman & Diu 112 0.003 158204 0.02 1413 55.73
Delhi 1483 0.05 13850507 1.34 9340 47.02
Goa 3702 0.11 1347668 0.13 363 15.21
Gujarat 196024 5.96 50671017 4.93 258 22.66
Haryana 44212 1.34 21144564 2.05 477 28.43
Himachal Pradesh 55673 1.69 6077900 0.59 109 17.54
Jammu & Kashmir1 222236 6.76 10143700 0.98 99 29.43
Jharkhand 79714 2.42 26945829 2.62 338 23.36
Karnataka 191791 5.83 52850562 5.13 275 17.51
Kerala 38863 1.18 31841374 3.1 819 9.43
Lakshadweep 32 0.0009 60650 0.01 1895 17.3
Madhya Pradesh 308245 9.38 60348023 5.88 196 24.26
Maharashtra 307713 9.36 96878627 9.42 314 22.73
2
Manopur 22327 0.68 2293896 0.23 103 24.86
Mizoram 21081 0.64 888573 0.09 42 28.82
Meghalaya 22429 0.68 2318822 0.22 103 30.65
Nagaland 16579 0.5 1990036 0.19 120 64.53
Orissa 155707 4.74 36824660 3.57 236 16.25
Ponicherry 479 0.14 974345 0.09 2030 20.62
Punjab 50362 1.53 24358999 2.37 484 20.1
Rajasthan 342239 10.41 56507188 5.5 165 28.41
Sikkim 7096 0.21 540851 0.05 76 33.06
Tamil Nadu 130058 3.96 62405679 6.07 480 11.72
Tripura 10486 0.32 3199203 0.31 305 16.03
Uttar Pradesh 240928 7.33 166197921 16.17 690 25.85
Uttaranchal 53483 1.63 8489349 0.83 159 20.41
West Bengal 88752 5.7 80176197 7.81 903 17.77
India 3287240 100 1028737436 100 325 21.54
Source: Census of India, 2001
1. Includes interpolated population of Jammu and Kashmir for 1991 and estmated population of Assam for
1981.
2. Includes estimate population of Paomata, Mao, Maran and Purul Sub-Divisions of Senapati District of
Manipur.

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18.4 CAUSES OF UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
The uneven distribution of population described above is the result of several factors of which
physical, socio-economic and historical factors are more important.

18.4.1 Physical Factors

Among the physical factors, relief, climate and availability of water are the chief factors which
determine the population of an area.it is because of these factors that the North Indian Plains, deltas,
and coastal plains have higher proportion of population than ( Refer Figure 40) the interior districts
of Southern and Central Indian states, Himalayas, some of the North Eastern and the Western states.
However, development of irrigation facilities by Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan, rich deposits of
mineral and energy resources in Chotanagpur plateau of Jharkhand have resulted in moderate to high
proportion of population in these areas which were previously very thinly populated.

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18.4.2 Socio-Economic And Historical Factors
Evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development; pattern of human settlement;
development of transport network, industrialization and urbanization are some of the important
socio-economic and historical factors which influence the distribution of population. Generally
speaking river plains and coastal area have larger concentration of population due to early history of
human settlement and development of transport network. Urban areas like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and jaipur have high concentration of population due to high
level of industrisation and urbanization people in large numbers migrate from rural to urban areas.

18.5 DENSITY OF POPULATION

Density of population is better measure of understanding the variation in the distribution of
population.it is expresses as number of persons per unit area. In other words, it is the ratio of total
population to the total araa of the country or a part there of for example the total population of India
according to 2001 census is 1028 million living on a total area of 3.17 milion square kilometres
(excluding the area of Jammu and Kashmir illegally occupied by Pakistan and China). Therefore,
the density of population of India in 2001 is:

Total Population 1028

Total population
-------------------- = --------
Total area 3.17

= 325 persons per sq. km.

India‘s population density of 325 persons per square kilometre is much higher than China‘s 129
persons per square kilometre among the most populous ten countries of the World, India stands
third in density; the first and second being Bangladesh (849 persons) and Japan(334 persons). Thus
heavy pressure of population on land is one of the serious problems of the country. The main cause
of worry is that the population density in India has been consistently increasing since 1921 (Refer
Table 62) there has been four-fold increase in the density of population between 1921 and 2001.
the density of population increased rapidly between 1951 and 2001.

350
Refer Table 62 : Increase In Density Of Population Of India
S.No. Cesus Year Density of Population
(persons per sq. km.)
1 1921 81
2 1931 90
3 1941 103
4 1951 117
5 1961 142
6 1971 177
7 1981 221
8 1991 267
9 2001 325
10 2011 382

18.5.1 State Level Analysis

The national average density of 324 persons per square kilometre does not give an idea of the
nature of unevnness in population distribution in country. Let us, therefore, examine the spatial
patterns in populationdensity keeping the states and union territories in view ( Refer Table 61 and
Refer Figure 40)
There are large- scale variations in the population density from one state to another. the population
density varies from a minimum of 13 persons per square kilometre. Arunanchal Pradesh to 903
persons square kilometere in West Bengal. Among the Union Territories, Delhi is the most thickly
populatated with 9,340 square kilometre while Andaman and Nicobar Islands have the smallest
density of only 43 persons square kilometre the hilly states of the north and north-east have density
of population due to adverse environment conditions. The densities are as low as 76 persons per
square kilometre in Sikkim, 99 in Jammu and Kashmir, 103 in Meghalaya, 107 in Manipur, 109 in
Himachal Pradesh and 120 in Nagaland. The average density for Rajasthan, a generally dry state, is
165 persons per square kilometre densities are generally medium over the states in mid- Indian
region and the peninsular plateau, such as Madhya Pradesh(196), Chhattisgarh (154), Orissa
(236).Gujarat (258), Karnataka (275), Andhra Pradesh (275) and Maharashtra (314).densities are
high over coastal state of Tamil Nadu and very high in Kerala. These states have population
densities of 478 and 819 persons per square kilometre respectively. The densities are also very high
over the states of north Indian plain. The densities show an increasing trend while going from

351
Haryana to west Bengal on one hand and towards Punjab on the other. On an average 477 persons
live over one square kilometre, in Haryana, 690 persons in Uttar Pradesh, 880 persons in Bihar and
903 persons in West Bengal. Punjab has population density (Refer Figure 41) of 484 persons per
square kilometre.

On the face of it, variations in the density of population appear to have been caused by various
factors such as relief, climate, water supply, soil fertility and agricultural productivity. However, it
will be wrong to suppose that all variations in the density of population are caused by natural and
environmental factors alone. The influence of these factors is greater in some regions than in others
for example, relief, altitude and temperature exercise a great influence on the distribution of

352
population in the hilly regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the north-east. In
reality there are the social, economic, demographic, political and historical which have an important
role to play in the spatial distribution of population density. For example, urbanization,
industrialization and several other non-farm activities have always caused large scale migration of
population from rural to urban areas and alter density patterns. We can name West Bengal, Kerala,
and Delhi which present typical examples of the impact of these factors.
It is worth mentioning that the density of population is not the true reflection of pressure of
population on land because only arable/cultivable land sustains life. Entirely different picture
emerges if arable land is taken in to account. Madhya Pradesh is a thinly populated state because
which of the states is hilly dissected and to rested. Density does how ever give geographical picture
of the situation.
Three Types of Population Density
1. Arithmetical Density =
Total Population
Total Area
2. Physiological Density =
Total Population
Net Cultivated Area
3. Agricultural Density =
Total Agricultural Population
Net Cultivable Area
Agriculture population includes cultivators and agricultureal
labourers and their famiy members.

18.5.2 Growth of Population

Growth of population is expressed in terms of growth rate which is the net change in population
between two points of time expressed as percent of population at a given period of time. Population
growth is of following two types:

Positive Growth
When the population increases between two given points of time, it is called positive growth. It
takes place when the birth rate is higher than the death-rate or people migrate from other countries.

353
Negative Growth
The growth of population is called negative if the population decreases between two given of time. It
takes place if the birth-rate is lower than the death-rate or people migrate to other places.

18.5.3 Phases of Population Growth In India

(Refer Table 63) shows that India‘s population has increased more than four fold (330.8 % ) during
the 20th century. It increased from 238.40 million in 1901 to 1027.02 million in 2001. it means that
788.62 milion persons were added to India‘s population during the course of hundred years from
1901 to 2001.following four phase are recognized in the demographic history of India:

( i) period of stagnant growth rate (before 1921),

( ii) period of stady growth rate (1921-1951),

( iii) period of rapid growth rate (1951-1981), and

( iv) period of declining growth rate ( after 1981).

( i ) Period Of Stagnant Growth Rate Before 1921.

During most of the 19th Century, India withnessed sporadic, irregular and slow growth of population
which drifted in to twentieth century until 1921. since then the population of India has been
increasing consistently. However, census of 1921 is an exception as it reported a slight decline of
0.03%. it is because of this decline in place of rise in population that the year 1921 is called the
‗demographic divide‘ in the demo-graphic history of India. This was due to large number of deaths
caused by several fatal diseases such as influenza, plague, small-pox, cholera, etc. influenza alone
claimed about 12 million lives in 1981. large number of soldiers also lost their lives in world war 1
(1941-18).

354
Table: 63 Dacadal Growth Rates in India in India, 1901-2001
Census Year Total Population Growth Rate*
Absolute Number % of Growth
1901 238396327 ---------------- ------------------
1911 252093390 (+) 13697063 (+) 5.75
1921 251321213 (-) 772117 (-) 0.31
1931 278977238 (+) 27656025 (+) 11.60
1941 318660580 (+) 39683342 (+)14.22
1951 361088090 (+) 42420485 (+) 13.31
1961 439234771 (+) 77682873 (+) 21.51
1971 548159652 (+) 108924881 (+) 24.80
1981 683329097 (+) 135169445 (+) 24.66
1991 846421039 (+) 162973591 (+) 23.85
2001 1028737436 (+) 182316397 (+) 21.54
2011 1210195422 - 1.64
* Decadal growth rate:g = P2 – P1 X 100
P2
Where P1 = Population of the base year
P2 = Population of the present year

355
(ii) Period Of Steady Growth Rate (1921-51).
During 1921-51 the population of India increased from 251 million to 361 million. This
duration of years has thus registered a growth of 47.3 %. Therefore, this period is called the
period of steady growth rate. It was due to the development in medical facilities which reduced
(Refer Table 64) deaths caused by epidemics like plague, cholera and malaria deaths due to
famines declined and sanitation and medical facilities improved. Developed means of transport
were able to meet the exigencies of food shortage. The agricultural economy showed
substantial improvement. Consequently, crude death rate declined but crude birth rate remained
high is called mortality incluced growth.
Refer Table 64: India-Changing Birth Rates, Death Rates and Natural Increase, 1911-2002
Year Crude Birth Rate Crude Death Natural Rate
Per Thousand Rate Per Thousand Of Increase
Per Thousand
1911 49 43 6
1921 48 47 1
1931 46 36 10
1941 45 31 14
1951 40 27 13
1961 42 23 19
1971 37 15 22
1981 34 12 22
1991 31 11 20
1999 26 09 17
2002 25 8.1 16.9

(iii) Period Of Rapid Growth Rate (1951-81)

(Refer Table 63) shows that the population of the country increased from 361.1 million in
1951 to 683.3 million in 1981. this means that the population of India almost doubled in a
short span of 30 years from 1951 to 1981.the growth-rate during this period has been as high
as 89.36%. the average growth rate was about 2.2 % anuum. This unprecedented growth rate
was due to the accelerated development activities and further improvement in health
facilities. The living condition of the people improved enormously. Death rates declined
much faster than the birth rates this situation resulted in high natural increase. Thus, it was
fertility induced growth.

356
(iv) Period Of Declining Growth Rate (After 1981).
This is the period of high growth with definite signs of slowing down. Although the rate of
growth was still very high, it started declining after 1981. the highest ever growth rate of 2.48
% was recorded in 1971 which camedown to 2.46 in 1981. it declined to 2.38 % in 1991
and further to 2.15 % in 2001, this declining trend markes the beginning of the new era in the
country‘s demographic history. During this period, birth rate declined rapidly, from 34 per
thousand in 1981 to 26 per thousand in 1999 decline trend of death rate continued but at a
slower rate. The difference between birth and death rates narrowed to 17, this declining trend
is a positive indicator of the official efforts of birth control and people‘s own inclination to
opt for smaller families.

18.5.4 Regional Varioations In Population Growth

The average population growth rate of 21.54 % during 1991-2001 does not give true picture as
there are spatial differences in the
growth rate. There can be different
reasons for differential growth rate in
different parts of India. A study of
(Refer Table 61) gives an idea of
regional variations. In population
growth, Kerala recorded the lowest
rate of 9.4% in 1991-2001 while
Nagaland recorded the highest growth
rate of 64.41% during the same period.
This is a great variation indeed.
Nagaland, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
Daman and Diu recorded over 50%
growth rate in 1991-2001 in all, 20
states/ union territories recorded
growth rate higher than the national
average of 21.34%. The remaining 15
states/ union territories average. The
regional variations in population
growth are shown in (Refer Figure 42)

357
A glance at this Figure reveals that most of the southern states have lower growth rates. The lowest
growth rate of 9.42% has been recorded by Kerala, this states has reached high level of demographic
transition and can be easily compared with the advanced countries of Europe and America. The
other states with low growth rate in Sounth India are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Goa Orissa, and
Karnataka. Himachal Pradesh in the north and Tripura in the north-east also have low growth rate.
All these states have less than 18% growth rate. Punjab, Uttarakhand, Assam, and Chhattisgarh have
recorded 18 to 21 % growth rate. The Union Territory of Pondicherry also comes in this category.
West Bengal is the only states to record low growth rate in the whole of the Ganga Plain.
Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian sea also have recorded low growth rate. Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Jharkhand recorded a moderate growth rate between 21% and 24%. Our national average also in
this range. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh as well as Andaman and Nicobar
Island recorded 24% to 27% growth which is higher than the national average. Areas of extremely
high growth rate include states/union territories of Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir,
Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Sikkim, Chandigarh, Delhi, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar
Haveli and Nagaland. Daman and Diu, Dadra Haveli and Nagaland have recorded over 50 % growth
rate. The highest growth rate of 64.4 % has been recorded in Nagaland.

18.5.5 Growth of Adolescent Population

Adolescent population is a very important segment of our overall population and its growth has a
special significance in the demographic scene of India. According to 2001 census figures, adolescent
population (in the age group of 10-19 years) comprises 22% of the total population among which
53% are males and the remaining 47% are females. Although this segment of population is full of
energy and has vast potentials yet these youngsters are quite vulnerable and can fall prey to many ills
if not properly guided and their energy channelised in a proper way. There are many challenges for
the society as far as these adolescents are concerned, some of which are lower age at marriage,
illiteracy-particularly female illiteracy, school dropouts, low intake of nutrients, high rate of maternal
mortality of adolescent mothers, high rates of HIV/AIDS infections, physical and mental disability or
retardedness, drug abuse and alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and committing crimes, etc. keeping
the above situation in mind, the Government of India launched the National Young Policy in 2003
with the primary aim of all round improvement of youth and adolescent so that they are able to
shoulder responsibility towards constructive development of the country. It also aims at infusing
spirit of partriotism among the youth and make them responsible citizens. The thrust of the policy is
the empowerment of youth so that they can participate in decision making and can carry the
responsibility of able leader. Special emphasis has been laid on empowerment of women and girl
358
child so that they are at par with male counterparts. Special efforts were made to look in to youth
health, sports and recreation, creativity and awarness about new innovations in the spheres of science
and technology.

18.6 POPULATION COMPOSITION

Population composition refers to the physical, socio- cultural and economic attributes of the
population, such as age, sex, place of residence, language, religion, marital status, ethnicity, literacy,
education and occupation.

18.6.1 Rural-Urban Composition

Place of residence determines most of the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of
population. Like the population of all other countries, the population of India may be classified in to
rural and urban on the basis of their place of residence. Part of population living in the villages, i.e.,
rural areas is known as rural population and that living in towns and cities, i.e. urban areas is
known as urban population. The rural and urban people differ from each other in their way of life,
occupational structure and attitudes rural folks are simple and their social relation are quite close and
deep. They derive their livehood largely from primary activities such as agriculture, forestry and
livestock. On the other hand, urban population gets adjusted to urban way of living where the pace of
life is fast and social relations are formal. They drive their livelihood from secondary or tertiary
activities such as industry, trade, transport and services.

Rural population
India is primarily a country of villages. About three-fourths of our population lives in villages.
According to 2001 census, 741.66 million out of a total population of 1027 million i.e., 72.22% of
our total population lives in villages and only 285.34 million or 27.78% of our total population lives
in urban areas. The national average of rural and urban population present only the overall picture.
There are great regional variations in the percentage of rural population to total population.
According to 2001 census figures, Himachal Pradesh has the highest percentage of rural population
where 90.21 % population lives in areas. Bihar, Sikkim, Nagaland, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam and
Orissa come next where over 80 % of the population lives in rural areas. In Jmmu and Kashmir,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Jharkahnd, Chhattisgarh and Dadra and
Nagar Haveli over three- fourths of the total population are rural.Uttarankhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala also have percentage of rural population higher than the national
359
average of 72.22%. Haryana and West Bengal also have over 70 % of their population as rural. But
the proportion of rural population in these states is lower than the national average. In Mizoram,
Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Lakshadweep, 50 to 60 % of the total population lives in rural
areas. The capital city of Delhi has the minimum of below seven percent as the rural population. The
Union Territory Chandigarh also has about ten per cent as the rural population.
According to 2001 census, India has 638,588 villages out of which 5,93,731 ( 93% ) are inhabited in
villages. Average size of villages in terms of population ranges from 207 persons per village in
Arunachal Pradesh to 15,476 persons in Kerala. Each village consist of many hamlets. Rural
population,therefore, is highly scattered. The growth rate of rural population in general is declining
for the last several decades, even if slowly. This is largely because of higher mortality rates and
increasing rural to urban migration of people.

Urban population
According to census 2001 figures, about 285.35 people or 27.78 % of the total population of India
live in urban areas.contrary to ( Refer Table 65) rural population, the proportion of urban population
has been increasing since 1901. But the rate of addition was slow up to 1941 when it reached 13.86
% o total population from 10.85% in 1901. it jumped to 17.29 % in 1951 and 27.78 % in 2001.
Refer Table 65 : Proportattion of Urban Population, 1901-2001
Year % of Urban Year of Census % of Urban
of Population to Population to Total
Census Total Population Population
1901 10.85 1961 17.97
1911 10.29 1971 19.90
1921 11.17 1981 23.31
1931 11.99 1991 25.72
1941 13.86 2001 27.78
1951 17.29 - -

The urban population of India increased from 25.85 million in 1901 to 285.35 million in
2001, recording an eleven-fold increase during the last 100 years. Average growth rate of urban
population, thus was 100.37 % decade, while average growth rate of rural population was only
24.89 % decade during the same period such a rapid growth was due to the migration of people from
rural to urban areas. The growth rate of urban population, however, started declining from 1980s. it
grew by 31.13 % only during 1991-2001 Chandigarh, Delhi and Haryana in the north, Arunachal
Pradesh, Sikkim, and Nagaland in the NorthEast and Tamil Nadu in the south registered
360
comparatively higher rate of growth. Smaller states with low proportion of urban population
recorded their growth.

18.7 URBANIZATION
The process of society‘s transformation from a predominantly rural to a predominantly urban
population is known as ‗urbanisation‘it includes two things- an increase in the number of people
living in urban settlements, and an increase in the percentage of the population engaged in non-
agricultural activities, living in such places.

18.7.1 Regional Variations in Urbanization.

The level of urbanization varies widely among the states. Goa is the most urbanized states where
49.77 % of the population lives in urban areas. Among the larger states, Tamil Nadu with 43.86%
of its totalpopulation is the most urbanized states. This is followed by Maharashtra ( 42.40 %),
Gujarat(37.35 ), Karnataka( 33.98 ) and Punjab (33.95 ) where over one- third of the total population
is Urban.Himachal Pradesh has the lowest level of urbanization where less than 10 % of the total
population lives in urban areas. The percentage of urban population to total population is below the
national average in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarkhand, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Mizoram,
Meghalaya, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.the Union
Territories of Delhi and Chandigarh are most urbanized areas in the country. These territories have
93.01% and 89.78% of their population as urban respectively. On the other end of the scale, Dadra
and N nagar haveli is the least urbanized among the union territories where only 22.89% of the
population lives in urban areas.in fact all the Union Territories except Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are highly urbanized areas.
Mizoram, where 49.50% of the population lives in urban, has moved from the 15th position in 1981
to 6th position in 1991 and to second position in 2001.of the total urban population of India, more
than one-half lives in just five states. These are Maharashtra (41 million), uttar Pradesh (34.5
million), Tamil Nadu (27.2 million), West Bengal (22.5 million) and Andhra Pradesh (20.5 million).
The other fivestates of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Bihar and Rajashthan, account for one-
fourth of India‘s total urban population. Thus,the total for these two sets of states comes very high-
over three-fourths of the total urban population of India. It is interesting to note that Uttar Pradesh
figures in this, although it is one of the least urbanized states of India with only 20.78 of its
population living in urban areas. This happens because its size of urban population is very large (34.5
million) even though its urban percentage is low may compare Uttar Pradesh with Maharashtra

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where the degree of urbanization is one of the highest in the country but its absolute urban
population (41million) is slightly more than that of Uttar Pradesh.

18.8 LINGUISTIC COMPOSITION

Language is an important indicator of ethnic identity. At the same time, it is a strong integrating
force in the society. The inhabitants of India came from different parts of the world and brought
different languages to India. It is, therefore, natural that there are so many languages and dialects in
India. Language became a very important basis for the formation of states in India after
independence, thereby adding a new political meaning to the geographical distribution of languages.
According to Grierson (linguistic survey of India, 1903-1928) there where altogether 179 languages
and as many as 544 dialects in the country. The most comprehensive data on languages was collected
at the time of 1961 census. As many as 1652 languages were listed as mother tongues in India. Out
of these, as many as 94 languages are spoken by less than 10,000 persons each, and 23 languages
together account for 97% of the total population of the country. Of these 23 languages, 15 languages
in addition to English have been specified in the eighth schedule of the constitution of India. Three
more languages have been added to eighth schedule by a parliamentary act on August, 20, 1992.
These languages are Nepali Konkani and Manipuri. Thus, the total languages specified in the eighth
schedule of the Indian constitution is 18 in addition to English. They are (1) Kashmiri, (2) Punjabi,
(3) Hindi, (4) Urdu, (5) Bengali,(6) Assamese,(7) Gujarati, (8) Marathi, (9) kannada,(10) Tamil, (11)
Telugu, (12) Malayalam,(13) Sindhi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Oriya, (16) Nepali, (17) Konkani and (18)
Manipuri.the scheduled languages and the number of persons who use them as their mother tongues
(in 1991) are presented in the ( Refer Table 66) According to 1991 census figures, Hindi with its
variations is the most widely spoken of all the Indian languages. It is the mother who constitute
40.42 % of the total population of the country. Next to Hindi is Bengali, which is spoken by 8.30 %
of the total population. Teligu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Assamese are other major languages
spoken in the country. The constitution has recognized Hindi in Devanagari script as the national
language, and Hindi and English as the official languages of the Indian union. A three-language
formula-mother tongue, Hindi and English-has been followed as a compromise for changing over to
Hindi.

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Table 66 India-Comparative Strength of Scheduled Languages in 1991
Language Persons % of total Languages Persons Speaing % of total
specified in speaking population specified In VIII as mother tongue population
VII Schedule as mother Schedule (in million)
tongue
(in million)
1. Hindi 337.27 40.42 10.Oriya 28.06 3.35
2. Bengali 69.60 8.30 11. Punjabi 23.38 2.798
3. Telugu 66.02 7.87 12. Assamese 13.08 1.56
4. Marathi 62.48 7.45 13. Sindhi 2.12 0.25
5. Tamil 53.00 6.32 14. Nepali 2.08 0.25
6. Urdu 43.41 5.18 15. Konkani 1.76 0.21
7. Gujarati 40.67 4.85 16. Manipuri 1.27 0.15
8. Kannada 32.75 3.91 17. Kashmiri 0.06 0.01
9. Malayalam 30.38 3.62 18. Sanskrit 0.05 0.01

18.8.1 Linguistic Classification

The speakers of major Indian languages belong to four language families, which have their sub-
families and branches or groups. This can be better understood from( Refer Table 67)
Refer Table 67 :Classification of Modern Indian Languages
Family Sub-Family Branch/Group Speech Areas
Austric (Nishada) Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khrner Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands
1.38% Munda West Bengal, Bihar,
Orissa,Assam,Madhya Pradesh,
Maharasthra Outside India
Dravidian South-Dravidian Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
(Dravida) 20% Central Dravidian Kerala,Andhra Pradesh,
North Dravidian M.P.,Orissa, Maharasthra
Bihar,Orissa,West Bengal,
Madhya Pradesh
Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Myanmari Tibeto-Himalayan J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim
(Kirata) 0.85% Siamese-Chinese North Assam Assam- Arunachal Pradesh Assam,
Myanmari Nahaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
Tripura, Meghalaya
Indo-European Indo-Aryan Iranian Dardic Outside India ammu& Kasmir
(Aryan) 73% Indo-Aryan J&K, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
U.P.,Bihar, Orissa, W. Bengal,
Assam, Gujarat Maharashtra,
Goa

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18.9 RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION
Religion is a very important social and cultural attribute of the population of India. Religion plays a
crucial role in socio- cultural life of people. Religious (Refer Table 68) multiplicity is one of the
important characteristics of India.
India is the birth-place of four major religions- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. The most
dominant religion, however, is Hinduism. ‗Hindustan‘, the land of the Hindus is one of the names by
which India is known. The early pre-vedic Hindu religion got modified in the Vedic Period after the
middle of the second millennium B.C. Christianity and Islam came to India from others lands.
System Christians appeared on the west coast of India in the very first century of the Christian era.
The Arab traders brought Islam to the west coast of India much before the muslim conquest of this
country. Sikhism appeared on the religious scene of India only about five centuries ago.

18.9.1 Hindus
According to 2001 census figures, Hiduism accounts for the largest part of the Indian population.
There were 825.58 million Hindus in India which was 80.5% of the total population of the countary.
Hindus of India constituted 12% of world population, ranking blow those professing Christianity and
equal with the followers of Islam.
If we examine the percentage of hindus to total population by distrists, it becomes quite clear that
except the peripheral areas and a few pockets in the in the interior of the country, hindus are the
dominant religious group everywhere. The state level analysis reveals that the proportion of hindus
in total population is highest in himachal Pradesh (95.4 %) and lowest in Mizoram (3.6 %) it is
higher than the national average in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Tripura, while it is much lower in
NorthEastern, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab.

18.9.2 Muslims
Muslims constitute the second largest religious group after Hindus. According to 2001 census,
Muslim population numbered 138.19 million which accounted for 12.1% of the country‘s total
population. The major areas of Muslim concentration are situated in the Kashmir valley, parts of the
upper Ganga Plain, a number of districts in West Bengal and Bihar and a few pockets in Haryana and
Rajasthan.
Among the states, uttar Pradesh has the largest number of 30.7 million Muslims (2001). This is
followed by west Bengal (20.2 million) and Bihar (13.7 million) the proportion of muslim population

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to total population ranges from 1.1 % in Mizoram to 67 % in Jammu Kashmir and (2001) and 95.5
% in Lakshadweep. The proportion is higher than the national average in Assam, Bihar (including
Jharkhand), Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh ( including Uttarakhand) and West Bengal.

18.9.3 Christians
According to 2001 census figures there are 24 million Christians living in India. Christians formed
just 1.6% of Indian population in 1941 but it rose to 2.3% in 1951 perhaps due to partion of the sub-
continent. In 1971, there were 2.6% Christians in India which fell slightly to 2.4% in 1981 and to
2.3% in 2001. the north eastern states are predominantly inhabited by Christians. For example,
Christians constitute 90% in Nagaland, 87% in Mizoram 70% in Meghalaya and 34% in Manipur.
Christians are in large proportion in goa and Kerala where they form 26.7 and 19.0% of the total
population respectively. But speaking in absolute figures, Kerala has the largest number of Christians
where their total population is 6 million. After Kerala, the important states with Christian population
are Tamil Nadu (3.7 million),Andra Pradesh (1.1 million), Karnataka, Bihar, Mizoram and Goa.

18.9.4 Sikhs
There are 19.2 million Sikhs according to 2001 census figures. This amounts to 1.9% of the total
population of India. While there is no part in India where the Sikhs are not represented, their major
concentration is seen in Punjab and neighbouring districts of Haryana. This is obvious because
Sikhism from the soil of Punjab as a consequence of the teachings of Guru Nanak. At present, Sikhs
account for 59.9% of the total population of Punjab. Out of 19.2 million Sikhs of the country, 14.6
million (76 %) are in Punjab alone. Minor pockets of sikh concentration are found in the Tarai
region of Uttarakhand, Ganganagar, Alwar and Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan.
Refer Table 68 : India-Population by Religion in 1961 and 2001
Religious group 1961 2001
Million Percent Million Percent
Persons Persons
Hindus 366.5 83.5 827.58 80.5
Muslims 46.9 10.7 138.19 12.1
Christians 10.7 2.4 24..08 2.3
Sikhs 7.8 1.8 19.21 1.9
Buddhists 3.2 0.7 7.95 0.8
Jains 2.0 0.5 4.22 0.4
Others 1.6 0.4 6.64 0.6
Total 439.2 100.0 1028.71* 100.00*
Source: census of India-2001,the first report on religion data abstract(sept. 2004)

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18.9.5 Buddhists
India‘s 7.95 million Buddhists are largely found in Maharashtra, Arunachal Pradesh and the Ladakh
district of Jammu and Kashmir they are also found to a lesser extent in Mizoram, Tripura and
Himachal Pradesh. The concentration of Buddhists in the northern part of India is mainly because it
is near here that the Buddhism originated and spread over the Himalayas. Maharashtra accounts for
67% of the total Buddhist population of India, though it is only 6.9% of the total population of the
state. Sikkim‘s 1.5 lakh Buddhists, however, give this state the largest proportion of Buddhists in the
country, 28% of its total population.

18.9.6 Jains
4.2 million Jains of India are widely spread in the western parts of the country. Maharashtra (1.5
million), Gujarat (5.2 lakh) and Rajasthan (6.5 lakh) are important states. But nowhere they from
more than 6% of the population. An interesting feature of the Jains is that their majority lives in
urban areas.

18.9.7 Parsis
About one million Parsis, Zoroastrians by religion, are the smallest religious group and from just
0.4% of the population of India. About 90% of this community is concentrated in the city of Mumbai
and the southern coastal Gujarat, around Surat.

18.10 COMPOSITION OF WORKING POPULATION

The population of India on the basis of their productive work is divided in to three groups,viz., main
workers, marginal workers and non-workers.

18.10.1 Main Workers

The census of India, 1981 recognised an individual as a main worker if the was engaged in any
economically gainful work for a period of 183 days in a year. In 2001 census, main workers are
defined as those workers who had worked for the major part of the reference period (i.e. 6 months or
more).

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18.10.2 Marginal Workers
Those workers who put in a lesser number of days (less than 183 days) in the year were classified as
marginal workers. In 2001 census, the marginal workers are defined as those workers who had not
worked for the major part of the reference period (i.e. less than 6 month).

18.10.3 Non-Workers
Non-worker is one who does not work for earning his/her livelihood at any time during the year.

18.11 PARTICIPATION RATE

The proportion of workers in a population is expressed by a rate called participation rate. It shows
the proportion of workers (main workers+ marginal ) in the total population in percentage.
Participation rates may be calculated for males and females separately.
In India, 30.4 % of the people are main workers, 8.7 % marginal workers, and 60.9 % non-workers.
Thus there is high dependency rate in India. It reflects an underdeveloped state of economy which
means large scale underemployment and unemployment. Participation rate increased from 37.5 % in
1991 to 39.1 % in 2001. this increase is an indicator of slight improvement in employment
opportunities and loosening of the social stigma to manual work. Large scale contrasts are found
with respect to work participation at the state/union territory level. The work participation rates vary
from 25.3 % in Lakhadweep to 52.6 % in Mizoram. All 16 states and 2 Union Territories have
higher participation rates than the national average. The remaining 12 states and 5 Unin Territories
have lower participation than the national average. Most states except Pondicherry, Jharkhand, Goa
and Orissa in the Peninsular India have work participation rate higher than the national average. All
states of north India except Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Assam, Tripura, West Bengal, Uttarakhand,
Punjab and Chandigarh have higher work participation rate than average of all India level. One
typical feature of the Indian workforce that differentiates the country from the developed world is the
wide disparity in the participation rates of males and females. In India the female participation in
economically gainful activities is only nominal. More than half (51.7 % ) of males are classed as
main workers, while only 25.6 % of females fall in this category.following five factors are
responsible for poor female participation in work in India:
(i) Joint family system still prevails in several parts of India which leaves little scope for female
participation in work.
(ii) Females are generally deprived of proper education and as such they are often incapable of
participating in economic activities.

367
(iv) Family planning is yet to become popular in several parts of the country. Consequently,
frequent child birth leave women immobilized.
(v) Women have to share greater family responsibility and they do not find time for gainful
economic activities.
(vi) In a male dominated society, job opportunities for females are extremely limited.

18.12 OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE

The study of demographic pattern of population is incomplete without refrence to its occupational
compositon. The occupation of an individual refers to his trade, profession and type of work. There
is a large variety of occupations and it is difficult to give a simple classification of occupations
adopted by man.
The classification of workers as adopted in 1981 has again been accepted in 2001 census.the
distribution of each class of workers is given in( Refer Table 69 and Refer Figure 43).
Table 69 : India-Occupational Structure of Workers (%) 2001

Occupations Person Males Females

Cultivators 31.71 31.34 32.50
Agricultural 26.54 20.82 39.43
Labourers
Household 4.07 3.02 6.37
industries
Other workers 37.58 44.82 21.70
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

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 It is significant to note that proportion of agricultural workers declined from 69.49 % in 1971
to 58.4 % in 2001. The household industries too lost their significant workers in this category; it was
only 4.07 % in 2001. This shift towards other non- farm activites is a good symptom. India has too
many people dependent on agriculture and allied activities. During the last two decades, number of
non-agricultural workers engaged in manufacturing, trade and commerce, transport, storage and
communication and other services grew phenomenally. They account for 37.53 % of the total
workers. The workers in the tertiary sector are more in towns and cities.
There is a wide variation among the states in their proportion of workers in different occupations.
Cultivators for example constitute only 0.47 % of main workers in Chandigarh. In Nagaland,
percentage is 68.23. the proportion of agricultural laboures also varies significantly between a
maximum of 39.63 % in Andhra Pradesh and a minimum of 0.11 % in Chandigarh.agricultural
laborers present an inverse relationship with that of the cultivators. This segment of workers comes
from the weaker sections of the society and remains underemployed for major part of the year.

18.13 SECTORAL COMPOSITION OF WORK FORCE

Primary, secondary and tertiary are the three main activities of Indian population. Male-female
participation varies in these three activities. The number of female workers is relatively high in
primary sector, though in recent years there has been some improvement in work participation of
women in secondary and tertiary sectors.
The most important change that has taken place in the work force of India is that the proportion of
workers in agricultural sector has declined from 66.85% in 1991 to 58.2% 2001. this has led to
increase in workers engaged in secondary and tertiary occupations. (Refer Table 70) shows the
sectoral compostion of work force in India.
Refer Table 70 : Sectoral Composition of Work Force In India, 2001
Categoroes Population
Persons % to Total Male Female
Workers
Primary 234088181 58.2 142745598 91342583
Secondary 16956942 4.2 8744183 8212759
Tertiary 151189601 37.6 123524695 27664906

There are wide spatial variations in work participation in different types of activities for instance, the
states like Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have very large share of cultivators. These states have
65.3% and 64.7% of total workers engaged in cultivation. On the other hand, states like Andhra

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Pradesh Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal Madhya Pradesh have higher proportion of
agricultural laboures. The highly urbanized areas like Delhi, proportion of workers being engaged in
other services. This indicates not only availability of limited farming land, but also large scale
urbanization and industrialization requiring more workers in non-farm sectors.

18.14 SUMMARY
India is primarily a country of villages. About 72.2% of population lives in villages. Providing social
services and basic amenities to such vast humanity living in so large number of villages is an uphill
task. Most villages are engaged in primary activitieslike agriculture which is unable to absorb a fast
growing population. Density of population is a better measure of understanding the variatioin in the
distribution of population ; expressed as number of persons per unit area. Population composition
refers to the physical, socio-cultural and economic attributes of the populatioin such as age, sex,
place of residence, language, religion, martial status ethnicity, literacy education and occupation. The
Three basic activities of Indian Population are primary, secondary and tertiary.

18.15 ACTIVITY
Arrange Indian States.
( 1 ) According to their size
( 2 ) In order to their total population
( 3 ) As per their density of population
( 4 ) According to their percentage of working population
( 5 ) As percent of their population.

18.16 QUESTIONS
-Population in India is unevenly distributed, Discuss the statement with examples.
-Discuss the spatial pattern of density of population in India.
-Write a brief account of growth of adolescent population and mention the problems of this
population. What steps have been taken by the Government of India to solve these problems.
-Whats is meant by growth of populaion Discuss briefly, phases of population growth in India.

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REFERENCES
Chandra, R.C., 1990., ― A Geography of Population‖ Kalyani Press, New Delhi.

Chishom, M., 1982, ― Modern World Development: A Geographical Perspective‖ Totwa, NJ. Barnes
and Noble.

Clark, J J.,1972, ― Population Geography‖ Oxford Pergamon Press.

Cole,J.I., (ed) 1984., ― Geography and Population Approaches and Applications‖ Pergamon Press,
New-York.

Delgado de- Carvalho,C.M., 1962, ― The Geography of Languages in Readings in Cultural

Geography‖ (edt) by Philip, 1., Wagner, Chicago University Press, Chicago.

Trewartha, G., 1969, ―A Geography of Population – World patterns‖. Wiley and Sons, New York.

Wheeler, James, O., and Muller, Peter, O., 1981, ― Economic development‖ Wily, New York.

Zilinsky, W.,1966, ― A Prologue to Population Geography‖ Englewood Cliffs.NJ. Pentice Hall.

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UNIT-19 ENVIORNMENT INTERFACE AND MIGRATION
STRUCTURE
19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Enviornment Interface
19.3 Enviornmental Determinism
19.4 Learning About The Enviornment
19.4.1 Values and learning
19.4.2 Obstacles to learning
19.4.3 Perception of Areas
19.4.4 Appraisals of Areas
19.5 Migration Behaviour
19.5.1 Migration and Census of India
19.5.2 Streams of Migration
19.5.2.1 International Migration
19.5.2.2 Spatial Variation in Migration
19.5.2.3 Causes of Migration
19.5.2.4 Pull and Push Factors
19.5.3 Consenquences of Migration
19.5.3.1 Economic Consequences
19.5.3.2 Demographic Consequences
19.5.3.3 Social Consequences
19.5.3.4 Enviornmental Consequences.
19.6 Summary
19.7 Activity
19.8 Questions
19.9 References

19.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand enviornmental determinism
To understand migration and international migration
To know enviornmental values and social consequences
To know various streams of migration

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19.1 INTRODUCTION
Enviornmental change is a continual process that has been in operation since the earth first came into
existence about 4,500million years ago. Since then dynamic systems of energy and material transfers
have operated on a global scale to bring about gradual and sometimes Catastrophic trans-formations
of atmosphere and Biosphere. For the most of the earth history the agents of change have been the
natural forcrs like volcanoes, earthquakes, natural elements of wind,ice, water plants and animals; all
of these have interacted to produce dynamic eco=systems that both controls are controlled by each
other.

19.2 ENVIRONMENT INTERFACE

One of the popular and widely accepted definition of human geography is the man and his
adjustment to his natural environment there are numerous racial and ethic groops in the world, and
the geo climatic condition of the various parts of the earth also differ from each other substantially.
Each society or ethnic group uses, misuses and underuses its its natural resource base according to its
natural stage and technological advancement.
Basis of Geographical Enviorment

Physical Enviorment Culture Geographical

of Habitat (1) Language
(1) Location or
(2) Religion
(2) Topography
(3)Technology Total
(3) Drainage
(4) Social organization
(4) Climate Enviorment
(5) Economic Justitution
(5) Natural vegetation
(1) Political system
(6) Soils
(2) Asthentic Drive Arts
(7) Mainerals
Painting Drawa ,
Literrature
Folklore,Music
Dance Paintings
sports

The Nages, who used to practice head- hunting till recent past., have a very closed territorial
demarcation and their life style in al together different from the Napalese and Kukis living in the
same environment. The Gujjar and Bakarwals who oscilate in the higher Himalayan and the Siwalk

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in the summer and winter season differ how the Kashmiris and Dogras who also live in the same
habitat. These variations in the life style in fact are expressions of mains adjustment to his natural
environment. The impact of environment on man and his adaptation to physical environment have
been emphasized by the Greek, Roman and Arab scholers. Aristole and Darwin were also of the
same view that man struggles for his survival. The indigenous peoples living in the areas of isolation
and relative isolation are judiciously utilizing their habitat without disturbing much the ecological
balance, though their economics are often called primitive and their technology dismissel as stone
age. A number of examples may be cited to show the symbiotic relationship of the primitive social
groups and their physical surroundings the various ethnic groops and indigeneous people have
developed certain norms, traditions and values to protect their environment, while obtaining their
food, fuel and and other basic needs.
The Gujjars and Bakarwala‘s of Jammu and Kashmir, the Tharus of the Terai region of Uttar
Pradesh. The Bhutias and Lapchas of Sikkim and Bhutan ascillate in the valleys and alpine pastures
with their cattle to utilize the available green grasses in the different seasons of the year. The terraced
farming of Agani Nagas ( tribes living around Kolima), the Jhuming of Lothas, Aos, Semas,
Konyaks kukis, East India and rice fish culture in the paddy fields by results of their physical
environment by their environment to adopted a particular mode of life. And they have developed
appropriate technologies for the utilization of their resources for the utilization of their resources and
maintain their eco-system resilient and sustainable. The key to success is sutainability these tribals
and ethnic groups utilize the available resources rationality without depleting them. For this purpose
they use their intimate knowledge. Of plants, animals, soils, climate, seasons and terrain, not to
exploit nature but to co-exist with it. This involves careful management of resources control of
population. The life in the arid and semi arid areas is difficult because of the the scarcity of water for
drinking and irrigation. The inadequacy of rainfall and scarcity of water in the arid areas have
resulted into most complex made of life in dry regions. All development of life in dry regions is
subject to water supply. Even when the temperature might ensure for plants (crops) a sufficiently
long period in which growth might, take place. The lack of moisture imposes strict limitations.
Owing to in certain and precarious supply of water that all human life is of an unstable character.
The yield from crops is irregular and poor,and the whole crop is at the mery of an erratic rainfall.
Agriculture in such areas is not a reliable economic activity and cattle keeping is the dominant
activity of work force. In order to feed their cattle, goats and sheep, the shepherds have to move them
about from pasture to pasture. Pastoralism in such areas assumes nomadism, and its pastures are after
at the mercy of drought.

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Another example of man‘s adjust men to his environment may be cited from the mountaineous areas
or the India in the hilly and mountainous areas, the life of peoples closely being controlled by
terrain and geo-climatic conditions. The mountains have however always given rise to closed
societies,self centred, orthodox and presenting old customs. They have often served as a refer for the
people driven from the lowlands (plains) by conquerers who have better development technique.
Sowing of crops on the steeps slopes, covered with thin soils, of high altitudes is not a rewarding
economic activity in mountainous tracts. Under the low temperature conditions of high altitudes
cereal crops live maize take very long period to harvest. In the young folded mountains, Like
Himalayas. Alps, caucasus , Tien-Shan and Hindu Kush, Transhumance is practised to utilize the
winter and summer pastures. In the summers when snow melting results in to green pastures the
Transhumants ascend in the Alpine pastures, while into winter season when temperature goes below
freezing point, they descend to the winter . pastures situated at low altitudes. Thus, the life these
people is a kind of periodical shifting. This oscillation movement assumes that they must have two
separate dwellings- a permanent are in the village at low attitudes and another in the term of hut in
alpine pastures. The life of the people living in mountains is also restricted by the inversion of
temperature- causing hard frost and the stagnation of layers of frozen fog more over, they have to
avoid the path of avalanches ( e.g. Nashri near Batota and Ramban on the Jammu and Srinagar
National Highway). The movement of mass of snow and rocks may be hazard for human
establishments. In the montains people usually settled on alluvial Fansdachigumtebal alluvial Fan in
Kashmir near Srinagar). These alluvial Fans deposited by funal action are highly productive and
provide good sustence to their populations the people of the mountains. Where terrain and climatic
conditions are not very conducive. Have also adjusted well in their physical environment. Mountains
influence the life of their inhabitants and social groups and their neighbours fundamentally and
variously, but always reveal their barrier nature. For Example the Himalayas for the occupants of its
southern slope provide an abundant rainfall; while to the Leeward side they admit dry winds, and
only from the melting snow or the precipitation on their summit do they yield a scantly supply of
water. The Himalayas are flanked by the teeming million population of India and the scattered
nomadic tribes of Tibet. Montains are always a challenge to the energies of man.

19.3 ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM

Failure to recognize man‘s ability to mediate his perceptions of the environment invalidated the
environmental determinist approach which dominated geographical thought in America during the

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1920 s and 1930s. environmental determinists sought. Causal influences on human behaviour, but
they chose to view the physical environment rather than human capability as the determinant. Man‘s
behaviour was erroneously ascribed to the physical conditions under which he lived. The
determinism thesis made man a mere creature of his environment, predestined to civilization or
savagery,wealth or poverty by the physical conditions with in which he lived.
Tradition and culture and the free will of man was devied. As Lewth waite (1966) remarked:
Yes, gentlemen, give me the map of a country.Iits configurations its climate, its waters, its winds,
and all its physical geography; give me its natural production, its flora its zoology, and i pledge us
self to tell you a priri, what role the man of that country will play in history, not by accident, but of
necessity; not at one epoch, but in all epochs. Environmental determinists adopted the S.R prardign;
that the physical environment provides the stimulus and man responds. As result of anthropological
research we have achieved an under standing of the conplese strategy which people in tropical lands
have development to utiize resources of the lands they occupy a sophisticated S-M-R learning
process has enabled men to achieved delicate balance between man and the land where resource are
scarce. By playing games with nature, tropical tramers have selected crop rotations suited to the low-
nutrients soil and reliable raintall.

19.4 LEARNING ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT

We have climited knowledge of the complex process by which people sense and respond to
their environment. The process may be portrayed schematically, but the digram must be viewed as a
simplitication of a highly complex situation, although our senses include vision, hearing smell touch
and temperature perception, most of us receive about 90% of our information through sight.

The following sections concentrate upon critria that relate to visual stimuli and awareness.
Adaption of an individual to an enviornment involves three processes: awareness of the stimulus,
thinking or meditating about the stimulus and the decision or response. The source of information is
the real world of which individuals become aware through receiving stimuli. This information is
thought about by the individual in terms of the individual‘s knowledge, ability and value system
information passed through these ―Filters‖ enables the individual to construct his image of the real
world. This is perceptual image, rather than an exact replica, because perception is affected by an
individual‘s knowledge and values. On the basis of this image an individual decides to act or not, or
to search the real world or hos own memory before acting. The decision to act is the observed
behaviour and the very act it self changes the enviornment creating feed back as new information.

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 Ignore

Pereption Stimulus Information

receptors

Awareness

Value system

Real world
Physical and
Cognition human

Image

Response Human
Decision
Process Behaviour

Envionment

environmental perception and response. Perceptual receptres are continually receiving stimuli a few
stimuli result in a beheavioural response.most are lostin mediation (after down, 1970 figure 8).

19.4.1 Values and Learning

Decisions and the behaviour resulting from them originate from a complex. Individuals differ in their
awarness of environmental stimuli and in their ability and willingness to make decision. However,
the value system among men is more consistent it is this consistenly of needs and desires with in
groups and societies that produces regularity in the patterns of spatial behaviour that geographers
seek to comprehend.
Segregation behaviour on the basis of skin color is learned from friends or relatives. The stereotype
behaviour anticipated for people of white black or brown skin preexists in the value system and
warps, the manner in which individuals perceive the behaviour of others. There is no casual relation

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between skin colour and behaviour. Segration behaviour is a fantasy which men and women develop
in their attempt to oganise the baffling situations of life to their own advantage.

19.4.2 Obstacles to learning

(Downs 1970) has compared the psycological process to a communication channel. Stimuli provide
the information and response are the out put. But there is rarely exact correspondence between input
and out put. The deviation is due to two sets of factors:
1. Noise: the irrelevant stimuli that are received from the environment in addition to the desired
information. The stimiulus is obscured perception of relevant information becomes difficult.
And thinking is confused.
2. Information within the organism (memories and value systems ) modifies. Even distorts the
stimuli before they are decoded this information also affects the awarness process because, it
alerts individuals to information relevant to the valve system. Cultural bias, ethnocentricity,
racial biases and attitudes are manitestation of the operation of this factor upon behaviour..
The valve system that an individual acquires through language and learned traditions affects the way
in which he not only perceives the world but also the way in which he behaves. The long range
projection for mineral resources is as gloomy as petroleum fore caste society can not sutain the
current rate of population and industrial growth if we remain dependent upon the known resource.
Shorth- range technological fixes might give some relief, but a genuine conservation ethic is required
if the affluent society is to survive. But progress towards a more conservationist way of life can not
achieved if people fail to perceive the problem accurately.

19.4.3 Perception of Areas

Consciousness sets man apart from nature. It enables him to perceives the earth that surrounds him
and to organize it to reflect his own values and aspirations.
Often the mental image that man creates is inaccurate because it is tinged by experience and wrapped
by the opinions of friends and relatives. The patterns of agricultural, industrial, and commercial
location, and the social and political process that have been presented are affected by the
psychological process.our understanding of both the patterns and the process will be fragmentary and
superficial with out some knowledge of how spatial patterns are associated with conceptual images.
Though his system of values, man is able to discriminate between the better of stimuli he receives
and to organise them into sensible patterns. The values he acquires differ with his culture and within
patterns. The values he acquire differ with his culture and with in culture by social group and

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geographical areas these different value systems more appropriately labeled in geography as views of
the world- will affect appraisal of areas and resources, migration behaviour, and appropriate
environmental designs.

19.4.4 Appraisals of Areas

People develop their own systems of categorizing information about places. These system differ, not
only in content but also in complexity and rigidity. Mental or cognitive maps are terms used to
describe these images.if you are traveling in foreign countries and altempts to ask directions you will
quickly realize the cultural effect. Upon mental maps American and most English- speaking people
tend to organize their perception of urban areas about landmarks and pathways oriented to an
approximate north. South,East-West grid. But if you ask directions of the Mexican citizen in your
best Spanish, he will attempt to give directions in refrence to a Cental Plaza rather than in reference
to your present location. Information about areas is versely related to distance. Familiar areas are
exaggerated and the unfamiliar are reduced, omitted or misplaced. Mass-Media furthur distort the
image. Hollywood and Florida are prominent for just this reason.

19.5 MIGRATION BEHAVIOUR

The movement of population from one place to another is known as migration it may be permanent
or temporary. When people migrate permanently from one place to another, it is known as permanent
migration. Temporary migration may be annual, seasonal or daily. Census of India determines the
migration by place of birth or residence.migration is a very important factor in redistributed
population over time and space because migration causes decreases in population of the out-
migration area and increases the population of in migrating area. India withessed lage scale in-
migration in the historical post. Waves after waves of migrants have been coming to India from
central, west and South East Asia. India has also withessed large scale out migration. Large number
of Indians have migrated to several countries especially these of the Middle East. Western Europe,
America, Autralia and east and south East Asia.

19.5.1 Migration and Census of India

Along with other things, census data contain information about. Migration also. Infact,
migration data were recorded at the time of first India census in 1881. it was based on the place of
birth. In 1961, modification was made to include place of birth and direction of residence (if bornelse

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where). In 1971, additional information on place of last residence and direction of stay at the place of
enumeration were incorporated.
Information on resons for migration were incorporated in 1981 census and modified in consecutive
censuses.
Following questions are asked about migration at the time of census enumeration:
is the person born in this village or town? If no, then further information is taken on rural/ urban
status of the place of birth, name of district and state and if outside India then name of the country of
birth.
Has the person come to this village or town from elsewhere. If yes, then further question are asked
about the status (rural/urban) of previous place of residence, name of district and state and if outside
Indian then name of the country. In addition, reasons for migration from the place of last residence
and duration of residence in place of enumeration are also asked.
In the census of India, migration is enumerated on the following two bases.
(i) Place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration(known as
life-time migrant);
(ii) Place of residence; if the place of last residence is different from the place of
enumeration (know as migrant by place of last residence).
It is and that Indian population is one of the least mobile populations of the world. In 2001, about
307 million people out of total of 1028 million i.e. about 30% were reported as migrants by place of
birth. However, this figure was 315 million (31%) in case of place of last residence.

19.5.2 Streams of Migration

Generally speaking migration is of two types, viz, internal migration (migration within the country)
and international migration (i.e. migration out of the country and in to the country from other
countries). On the basis of direction of movement migration can be of four types, viz.,
(a) rural to urban (R-U)
(b)urban to urban (U-U)
(c) rural to rural (R-R)
(d) urban to rural (U-R)
At the time of 2001 census out of 315 million migration, enumerated on the basis of the last
residence, 98 million had changed their place of residence in the last ten years. Out of these, 81
million were intrastate migrants. The stream was dominated by female migrants. Most of these were
migrants related to marriage.

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(Refer Figures 45(a) and 45(b) show the distribution of male and female migrants in different
streams of intra-state and inter-state migration. In both tyes of migration females predominate the
streams of short distance rural-rural migration. This is primarily because of marriage because
females have to leave their parents and live with in-laws. In contrast men predominate the rural to
urban stream of inter state migration because men migrate to urban areas in search of jobs and better
quality of life.

19.5.2.1 International Migration

According to 2001 census figures, more than 5 million persons ( Refer Table 71) have migrated to
India from other countries. Out of these, 96 % came from the neighbouring countries:Bangladesh
(3.0 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million) and Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 016
million refugees from Tibet Sri Lankas, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan , Iran, and Myanmar. As
far as emigration from India is concerned it is estimated that there are around 20 million people of
Indian Diaspora, spread across 110 countries.
Refer Table 71 : Immigrants By Last Residence From Neighbouring Countries By All
Duration In India, 2001
Countries% No. of immigrants % of total immigrants
Total International Migration 5,155,423 100
Migration from Neighbouring Countries 4,918,266 95.5
Afghanistan 9,194 0.2
Bangladesh 3,084,826 59.8
Bhutan 8,337 0.2
China 23,721 0.5
Myanmar 49,086 1.0
Nepal 596,696 11.6
Pakistan 997,103 19.3
Sri Lanka 149,300 2.9
Source : Census of India, 2001
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19.5.2.2 Spatial Variation in Migration
There are some states like Maharashtra, Gujrat, Delhi and Haryana which attract migrants
from other states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar of all the states, Maharashtra received the maximum
of 2-3 million in-migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana according to 2001 census
figures. On the country, Uttar Pradesh(-2.6 million) and bihar (-1.7 million) sent out the largest
number of out-migrants among the urban agglomeration (UA), greater Mumbai received the higher
number of in-migrants. Intra-state migration constituted the largest share in it. These differences are
largely due to the size of the state in which these urban agglomeration are located.

19.5.2.3 Causes Of Migration

Migration are caused by a variety of factors including economic, social and political factors. They
are briefly described as under:
1. Employment. People migrate in large number from rural to urban areas in search of
employment. The agricultural base of rural areas does not provide employment to all the
people living there. Even the small-scale and cottage industries of the villages fail to provide
employment to the entire rural folk. Country to this, urban areas provide vast scope for
employment in industries, trade, transport and services.
2. Marriage. Marriage is a very important social factor of migration. Every girl has to migrate
to her in-law‘s a place of residence after marriage. Thus the entire female population of India
has to migrate over short or long distance
3. Education. Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher
education and rural people have to migrate to the urabn centres for this purpose. Many of
them settle down in the cities for earning a livelihood after completing their education.
4. Lack of security. Political disturbances and inter-ethnic conflicts drive people away from
their homes. Large numbers of people have migrated out of Jammu and Kashmir and Assam
during the last few years due to disturbed condition there.
People also migrate on a short-term basis in search of better opportunities for recreation, health care
facilities, and legal advices or for availing services which the nearby towns provide.

19.5.2.4 ‗Pull‘ And ‗Push‘ Factors

Urban centres provide vast scope for employment in industries, transport, trade and other services.
They also offer modern facilities of life. Thus, they act as ‗magnets‘ for the migrant population and
attract people from other areas. This is known as ‗pull factor‘ people also migrate due to ‗ push

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factors‘ such as unemployment, hunger and starvation. When they do not find means of livelihood in
their home villages, they are ‗pushed‘ out to the nearby or distance towns.milions of people who
migrate from their far-off villages to the big cities of Kolkata, Mumbai or Delhi did so because these
cities offered them some promise for a better living.their home villages had virtually rejected them as
surplus population which the rural resources of land were not able to sustain any longer. Moreover,
natural disasters like flood drought, Earthquake, Tsunami, wars, local conflicts etc. also give extra
push to migrate.
(Refer Figure 45) show that there are different reasons for migration of males and females. Whereas
employment is the Main cause of maximum males i.e. 38% of the total. Only 3% females move out
for the purpose of employment. On the contrary as much as 65% of females migrate due to marriage.
This is the most important causes in the rural areas of India except in Meghalava where reverse is the
case.in comparison to these marriage migration of the male, is only 2 % in the country.

19.5.3 Consequences of Migration

Migration has both positive and negative consequences of which economic, demographic social and
environment consequences are more important.

19.5.3.1 Economic Consequences

Most people migrate for economic gain and economic benefit is the most important consequence of
migration. People migranting out send remittance to their families at home and add to economic

383
prosperity. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign
exchange. According to World Bank‘s migration and remittances factbook 2008, India is the top
receiver of remittances from abroad and received US $ 27.0 billion in 2007. this followd by China
(US$25.7 billion), Mexico (US$25.0 bilion), Philippines (US $ 17.0 billion), France (US $ 12.5
billion), Spain (US $ 8.9 billion),Beligium (US $ 7.2 billion), Germany and UK US $ 7.0 billion
each). And Romania ( US $ 6.8 billion). Punjab,Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very significant
amount from their internatonal migrants. Remittances role in the economic growth of the source
regions these remittances are used for food. Repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children‘s
education, agricultural input, construction of houses, etc. for thousands of the poor villages of Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc.remittance works as life blood for their
economy.with the ushering of the green revolution particularly in Punjab, Haryana and western part
of Uttar Pradesh, large number of poor people migrated to these states from eastern part of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. However, unregulated migration to metropolitan cities
has caused overcrowding and growth of slums.

19.5.3.2 Demographic Consequences

Migration leads to unbalanced demographic distribution of population within the country. Only the
able bodied young people migrate from villages to cities in search of jobs and the rest of the family
members stay back in the rural homes. This leads to serious imbalances in age and sex ratio
particularly in areas of high out-migration like Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern
Maharashtra. Similar imbalances are seen in the recipient states also.

19.5.3.3 Social Consequences

Migrants are very good agents of social change as they bring new ideas related to technologies,
family planning, girl education etc.migration results in intermixing of diverse cultures and leads to
the evolution of composite culture. It breaks the narrow considerations and widens the mental
horizon of the people. But at the same time, migration has serious negative consequences. These
include anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals.
Continued feeling of dejection may motives people to fall in the trap of anti social activities like
crime and drug abuse.

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19.5.3.4 Environmental Consequences
Large scale rural-urban migration leads to overcrowding in the cities and puts Tremendous pressure
on the infrastructure. It also results in unplanned and haphazard growth of cities in which slums and
shanty colonies are very common.overcrowding is also related to over-exploitation of natural
resources and cities are facing serious problems of water shortage, air and water pollution, problem
of sewage disposal and management of solid wastes.

19.6 SUMMARY
Migration has a deep impact on the status of women.generally, male members of the family migrate
from rural to urban areas and leave their wives behind at home this. Puts tremendous physical and
mental pressure on the women. Although migration of women enhances their autonomy and role in
economy yet it increases their vulnerability.
Migration enhances remittances to the source region but there is heavy loss of human resources,
particularly those of skilled people market for advanced skills has increased considerably at the
international level. As suchmost dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting
significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the
existing underdevelopment in the source region gete reinforced.

19.7 ACTIVITY
Find out stories prevalent in your region which is about the harmonious relationship between human
being and nature.

19.8 QUESTIONS
- Define concept Enviornment Interface.
- Explain term Enviornment Determinism.
- Explain any five Economic consequences associated with migration in India.
- Discuss consequences of International Migration in India.
- What are the Socio-Demographic consequences of Migration.

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19.9 REFERENCES
Abler, Ronald Adams, Johnsand Gould, Peter., 1971, ― Individual Spatial Decisions in a Descriptive
Framework‖ Spatial Organization: The Geographer‘s View of the World Englewood Cliffs, N,J.
Pentice Hall. pp. 491-530.

Burton, Jan and Kates, Robert, W., 1964, ― The Perception of Natural Hazards in Resource
Management‖ Natural Resource Journal: 412-441.

Downs, Roger,M.,1970, ― Geographic Space Perception‖ Progress in Geography, 2: 67-108.

Kates, Robert,W., 1962, Hazard and Choice Perception in Flood Plain Management‖ Research Paper
No. 78.Chicago: Development of Geography, University of Chicago.

Lewthwaite Gordon, R., 1966 ―Enviornmentalism and Determinism: A Search for Clarification‖
Annals of The Association of American Geographers 56: 1-23.
Mannion, A.M.,1991, ― Global Enviornmental Change‖ Longman, New-York.

Moore, Eric, G.,1972, ― Residential Mobility in the City Resource‖ Paper No.13. Washington DC:
Association of American Geographers, Commoission on College Geography.

Saarinen, Thomas, F., 1969, ―Perception of Enviornment Resource‖. Paper No.5, Washington D C,
Association of American Geographers, Commission on College.

Sommer, Robert.,1969, ― Personal Space: The Behavioural Basis of Design‖. Englewood Cliff,N.J.
Pentice Hall.

Tuan, Yifu., 1972, ― Man And Nature‖ Paper No-10. Washington D C: Association of American
Geographers Commission on College Geography.

White, Gilbert,F., 1964, ― Choice of Adjustments to Floods‖ Research Paper No.93. Chicago:
Department of Geography, University Press, Chicago.
Wolpert, Julian, 1966, ― Behavioural Aspects of The Decision to Migrate‖ Papers of The Regional
Science Association, 15 (1966) : 159-172.

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UNIT-20 POLICIES PROGRAMS

STRUCTURE
20.0 Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Direction of Policy
20.3 Human Devalopment Report, 1996
20.4 Progresses in Policies Programs
20.5 Health Indicators
20.6 Gender Related Development
20.7 Economic Indicators
20.8 Summary
20.9 Activity
20.10 Questions
20.11 References

20.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand population developoment policies
To understand human development Report 1996
To Know Gender related development indicators
To understand Economic and health indicators.

20.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian culture and civilization have been vary sensitive to population resources and development
right from the begining and our scriptures were deeply concerned about balance and harmony among
the elements of nature.

20.2 DIRECTION OF POLICY PROGRAMS

Experience the world over and India is no exception, reveals that the structure and quality of growth
demand more attention to human development, employment generation, poverty reduction and long-
term sustainability. Pressures are developing in India, as in other countries, to reduce the damage
caused due to the development process which has not reduced problems of conservation, pollution,

387
inequality and unemployment. The human development report,(1996) therefore, makes a strong
assertion: ‗ ―Development that perpetuates today‘s inequalities is neither sustainable nor worth
sustaining.‘‘ As suggested by the human development report (1996), India should follow a pattern of
development which should promote:
(i) Employment generating growth
(ii) Equitable growth,
(iii) Participatory growth,
(iv) Grassroot growth and
(v) Sustainable growth.
If such a pattern of development is fostered, then it would be possible to avoid lopsided
development. In this connection, the human development report (1996)warns; The record of
economic growth and human development over the past 30 years shows that no country can follow a
course of lopsided development for such a long time- where economic growth is not matched by
advances in human development, or vice versa.‘‘provides some interesting insight in to the situation
in different (Refer Table 72) states of India. Kerla emerges as the example of a state which indicates
lower economic growth with development .The birth rate in kerla reached a low of 14.6 per 1,000 in
2008 which compares favourably with developed countries.
Refer Table 72-Scaling Names for HDI
S.No. Indiators Minimu Maximum
1 Consumtion Expenditure Rs. 65 Rs. 325
(Per capital permonth)
2 Literacy for 7th years 0 100
3 Ajusted intensity of torned 0 7
Education (estimated)
4 Life exepectancy age one 50 years 80 years
5 Intantmortality rate 20 year 1000 -
Source : National Human Development Report 2001 Rs. 133

The female literacy touched a peak of 88 % with overall literacy reaching 79 % level. However,
state domestic product grew by 7.8 % annum during 2002-03 and 2008-09. On the other end of the
spectrum, Haryana had per capita NSDP of Rs. 35,893 in 2004-05 (at 1999-2000 prices). However,
its record on the humandevelopment front was poor, with a birth rate 23.0 price per 1,000 in 2008
and a literacy rate of about 69%, with female literacy at a low level of about 59 % only. Another
peculiar case is that of Rajasthan which showed a growth rate of 10.0 % in state domestic product,
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it has improved its position among the 14 major states from no. 10 to no. 8 in 2003. it has also been
able to reduce population below the poverty line from 35.2% in 1987-88 to 22% in 2004-05.
however, its record on human development appears to be poor since the birth rate is 27.5 per 1,000 in
2008, infant mortality rate at 65 and miserably low female literacy at about 44 % and overall literacy
at about 61 % . The state of Rajasthan is moving up on the road of economic growth, but is miserably
lagging on the road to human development. In the Indian situation, we have striking contrasts and the
states show wide variations. A few example willillustrate:
1. Higher human development with relatively lower income- Kerala.
2. Lower human development at higher income- Haryana.
3. Fast economic growth and slow human development- Rajasthan.
4. Mutually reinforcing growth and human development- Punjab, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and
Maharashtra and West Bengal.
5. Mutually depressing growth and human development- Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Orissa and Bihar.
The Indian scenario present several striking contrasts and there are dangers inherent in several
patterns. States with lopsided pattern of development tilted against human development, as Rajasthan
would be very soon in a dead end. The fast economic growth would also start slowing down after a
decade or so, unless the state undertook a massive programme of improving human development.
Similarly, Kerala has to undertake programmes of accelerating economic growth to match with
human development growth so that it can reap the benefits of better human development in terms of
higher productivity.
The laggards like Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar are caught in
the vicious circle of low economic growth and low human development. They must break this
vicious circle by fostering investment first to step up growth and later to take up human development
or to move the other way, by stepping up human development which would later put pressure to
accelerate economic growth. Andhra Pradesh has started breaking this vicious circle during the
nineties.
The basic question is : Is there a conflict between growth and equity at one stage, Simon Kuznets
argued that in the early stages of economic growth, inequality would rise, as workers left agriculture
for industry and then fall as industrial production became more wide-spread. Similarly, Nicholas
kaldor argued that the savings needed for accelerating growth would have to come from the pockets
of industrialists and thus more profits to this class will have to be tolerated so that they could provide
savings for promoting higher levels of investment so as to accelerate the growth process.

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20.3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT, 1996
Makes a very categorical assertion: ―The traditional view that economic growth in early stages is
inevitably associated with deteriorating income distribution has been proved false. The new insight is
that an equitable distribution of public and private resource can enhance the prospects for further
growth.‘‘ in this context, there is a need to move the objectives of growth, equity and democracy
together, since they are strongly linked to each other.
A world bank study of 192 countries reveals that only 16% of growth is explained by physical
capital(machinery, buildings and physical infrastructure), while 20% comes from natural capital. But
no less than 64% can be attributed to human and social capital.
In view of such convicing evidence, it would not be desirable to wait for economic growth to trickle
down. The ‗trickle down approach‘ should be replaced be employment- generating growth, for which
India must demonstrate its commitment to full employment. Along with this, growth process should
promote equitable growth with greater people‘s participation. This would require making heavy
investments in the social sector, viz., health and education so that a better equipped labour force
improves productivity and thus can claim legitimately a better share in the fruits of development. In
other words, there is no conflict between rapid economic growth and rapid human development, both
are mutually reinforcing and unless India brings about a balance between the two, the objectives of
growth, equity and democracy will not be achieved and development would remain deficient for the
vast mass of the poor people.

20.4 PROGRESS IN POLICIES PROGRAMS

The basic purpose of planning in India is to widen people‘s choices and improve the well- being of
the people. In this context, human development was the key issue so that people could lead a long
and healthy life, they could acquire knowledge so as to have better vertical mobility in life and last,
but not the least, to achieve a decent standard of living of all. It would be, therefore, appropriate to
examine the progress of human developmentin India.
India has been categorized by the human development report 2007/2008 as a medium human
development country. The human development index has risen gradually from 0.406 in 1975 to
o.510 in 1990 and stands at 0.619 in 2005. In fact, it can take quite long for India to cross the mark of
0.8 in HDI to join the rank of high HDI countries.
A major impediment to progreses in human development is the very fast growth of population
experienced in India. India‘s population increased from 620.7 million in 1975 to 1,027 million in
2001 giving a growth rate of 2.0 % per annum during the period (1975-2001), which is fairly high. It

390
is expected that the growth rate of population during 2000-2015 will come down to 1.3 %. This
would provide a welcome relief to push forward the process of human development.
Urbanization is considerd to be a factor, which promotes human development. The share of urban
population which was 21.3 % in 1975, has reached a level of 27.8 % in 2001, but by 2015, urban
population would reach the level of 32.2 %. In absolute terms, urban population was 285 million in
2001 and would reach a level of 407 million in 2015. This would certainly help to enlarge human
development because it has been observed that urban areas are better looked after in terms of
education and health facilities.
Anothet healthy feature of likely demographic transition is the proportion of children or
populationunder age, 15, whose proportion stood at 33.7 % in 2001 but is likely to decline to 27.7 %
by 2015, in a absolute terms, population under age 15, was 348 million in 2001 and would get
reduced to 345 million in 2015. this will imply decreasing population pressures from below in future
which would also help in releasing resources to improve human development.it would be quite
useful to consider factors related with the education of the population that are likely to promote
human development. The most important factor is adult literacy rate, which was 61.0% in 2005. This
implies an adult illiteracy rate of 39 % . In absolute terms, 296 million adults were illiterates in 2005,
the share of India in the world‘s illiterate population is 33.3 % . According the Human Development
Report 2001, a total of 854 million persons were illiterate in the world in 1999 and nearly one-third
of these were accounted for India. As compared with the total world population, the share of India in
World Population is only 16.6 %. In other words, in the total World Population, India‘s share is one-
sixth, but among the world‘s illiterates, her share is one-third. This only underlines the need for
strengthening literacy rate still furthur to reduce adult illiteracy in India. Although evidence of
substantial increase in literacy during the decades of the nineties has become evident, still India has a
long way to go. Compared to China, which has improved its adult literacy rate to 90.9 % in 2005,
India lags behind considerably at 61 % in this very important area of human development.
Another important indicator is the combined gross ( primary, secondary and tertiary) enrolment ratio,
which was only 61.0 % in 2005 in India. China had a gross enrolment ratio of 68.7 % in 2007. India
is lagging behind at 61 % and has to catch up, not only with refrence to development countries, but
also with reference to some developing countries like China.
Public expenditure on education as a percent of GNP is considered as an indicator of state policy
towards promoting education. This proportion remainded unchanged between 1991 and 2002-05
3.8% of GNP and was reported as 3.4% for 2006 as per UNDP. According to the report of the
education commission (1964-65) this expenditure should have been raised to 6% GNP.although it is
nearly four decades now, but the target set by the Education Commission has yet to be realized. The
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proportion of education expenditure devoted to pre-primary and primary education has marginally
increased from 35% in 1985-86 to 38.4% in 2000-02. There is a strong need to enrich state-run
school at the primary level so as to bring about a decline in dropout rates. Since the children
belonging to Upper Middle Class and affluent section are now going to the so-called Public Schools,
it should be possible for the state to improve facilities both in terms of human and material resources
deployed in state-run primary school.

The information technology revolution has necessitated an increase in the proportion of tertiary
students in science, math and engineering to be stepped up.their proportion was only 20% during
1998-2003 in India. As against this, their proportion in china was 53% this proportion was about 49
% in Russian federation. India has to bring about a shift to meet the changing demands of the new
economy.
So far as youth literacy rate is concerned, it is 76.4% in 2005, but ironically in a majority of medium
human development countries, youth literacy rate is above 90 % . India has, therefore, to improve its
literacy rate among the youth (i.e. population in the age group (15-24).

20.5 HEALTH INDICATORS

Life expectancy at birth has shown a continuous improvement from 50.7 years during 1970-75 to
66.0 years in 2000-07. however, the probability at birth not surviving to age 40 is 15.5% in 2005-10.
India has to improve health facilities as well as nutrition levels so that it can reduce the probability at
birth not surviving to age 40. several medium human development countries have much better
survival rates. A few mentioning are Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and China. In this
context, it would be revevant that 46% of the children under five were underweight in 2000-06. In
absolute terms, 178 million under five were underweight. The country should support a programme
of improving nutrition in poor families to reduce this massive number of underweight children.
Population not using improved water sources was 11% in 2006. This is a very healthy development,
but in absolute terms 124 million persons are unable to make use of improved water source and thus
become victims of all kind of water-bone diseases. Similarly, improved sanitation facilities were not
available to 33% of the population in 2004. in absolute terms, 375 million persons were living under
insanitary condition.
It is really distressing that 49% of the Indian population did not have access to essential drugs in
1999.this implies that 527 million persons were without effective medical cover. This reduces the
survival rate in India.the proportion of under-nourished people in India in 2004 was 20%. This
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implies that 220 million people were under-nourished. This under-nourishment is primarily due to
the existence of poverty. There is a need to strengthen poverty eradication strategies to reduce under-
nourishment. The survival rate has considerably improved in India. In 1970 infant mortality rate per
1,000 live births was 127; it has been brought down to 53 in 2007. These are healthy developments.
Likewise, maternal mortality rate per 1, 00,000 live births have been brough down to 254 during
1985-2007, control of diseases and improvement in hospital facilities has contributed to improve
ments in survival rate.

20.6 GENDER- RELATED DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS

Life expectancy at birth of females in 2005 was 65.3 years, but for males, it was 62.3 years.
Comparing with medium human development countries, Indian achievement, though good, is still
much lower in relation to Mexico, Venezuela, Russian Federation, Thiland, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Iran, Vietnam, to name a few among them.
Although gap between life expectancy of females and males is very small, but in other gender-related
development indicators, this gap is very wide. For instance, adult literacy of females was barely 54.5
% as against 76.9 % of males in 2007. similarly, combined gross enrolment ratio of females was
57.4 % as against 64.3 % for males in 2007. Likewise, estimated earned income of females was $
1304 as compared with that of males to be $ 4102 in 2005. This implies that female income was just
32 % of male income. Obviously, either females suffered from gender discrimination in wage
income or they did not have regular employment and a big proportion was employed as casual
laboures or a large proportion of females worked part time. There may be many more factors. But it
cannot be denied that females suffered gender bias both in education and employment. Incidentally
10 ministerial positions were held by women.

20.7 ECONOMIC INDICATORS

GDP per capita of India was $ 3,452 in 2005 (PPPUS $). The average annual growth rate of GDP
during 1980-90 was 5,8, it declined to 4.2 % during 1990-2005.
However, the measures of inequality of consumption revealed that the share of the poorest 10% in
total consumption in 2007 was just 3.6 % and that of the richest 10% was 31.1 % . Thus, the ration
of consumption between the richest 10% to the poorest 10% was 8.6 similarly, the poorest 20 %
shared (Refer Table 73) only 8.1 % in total consumption, but the richest 20 5 shared 45.3 % . Thus,

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the ration of consumption of the richest 20% to the poorest 20% was 5.6 compared with medium
human development countries,

Refer Table 73: Selected Indicators of Economic Grssowth And Human Development In India-
Statewise.
State Annual % of Rate of Birth Death Infant Over- Litenacy
Growth Population Unempl- Rate Rate mortality all (2001)
Rate of Below oyment 2008 2008 2008 Over all
NSDP the (1999- Female
(2004- Povert 200)
05) to Line
2008-09

Pinjab 6.14 8.4 4.0 17.3 7.2 49 69.9 63.6

Maharashtra 7.35 30.7 7.2 17.9 6.6 42 77.3 67.5
Haryana 9.98 14.0 4.8 23.0 6.9 59 68.6 56.3
Gujarat 9.88 16.8 4.6 22.6 6.9 57 70.0 58.6
West Bengal 5.77 24.7 15.0 17.5 6.2 46 69.2 60.2
Karnataka 7.58 15.0 4.6 19.8 7.4 52 67.0 57.5
Kerala 7.81 15.0 21.0 14.6 6.6 11 79.9 87.9
Tamil Nadu 8.48 22.5 11.8 16.0 7.4 43 73.5 64.5
Andhra Pradesh 8.81 15.5 8.0 18.4 7.5 59 61.1 51.2
Madhya Pradesh 5.00 38.5 4.5 28.0 8.6 82 64.1 50.3
Assam 5.51 19.7 8.3 23.9 8.6 67 64.3 56.0
Uttar Pradesh 6.14 32.8 4.1 29.1 8.4 76 57.4 43.0
Orissa 9.35 46.4 7.3 21.4 9.0 83 63.6 51.0
Rajasthan 9.98 22.1 3.1 27.5 6.8 75 61.0 44.3
Bihar 8.04 41.4 7.3 28.9 7.3 60 47.5 33.6
All-India 27.5 7.3 22.8 7.4 60 65.4 54.2

India shows moderate inequality. A very large number of countries in this group show much higher
inequality of income or consumption. However, there is a need to improve the condition of the
poorest 10 % or 20 % of the population so that India is able to reduce inequality still furthur date on
priority in public expenditure on education reveals that it was 3.7% of GDP in 1990 and has slightly
deteriorated to 3.5% in 2007. But public expenditure on health was distressingly low at 1.1% of
GDP in 2007. There is, therefore, an urgent need to improve the proportion of public expenditure
both on education and health so as foster human development.

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This, however, should not mislead us to conclude that India is spending more on military expenditure
of has to use a big proportion of GDP in debt service. Data available on both the indicators reveals
that military expenditure accounted for 2.7 % of GDP in 1990,and it was nearly of the same
magnitude in 2005 i.e. 2.8% of GDP. Similarly total debt service payments were of the order of 2.6
% of GDP in 1990, but they have shown a increase to 3.0 % in 2005.Obviously,India is neither
using a big proportion of its public spending on military expenditure nor on debt service payment.
We have therefore, to search for some other areas like general administration and subsidies, which
may be appropriating a big proportion of public expenditure.
Lastly, we may consider fuel consumption as a proximate measure for industrialization or
modernization of our economy. Data reveal that traditional fuel consumption in total energy use
declined from 47.5% in 1990 to 29.4% in 2004. this was natural and is in accordance with the
process of development. However,it may be noted that per capita electricity consumption sharply
improved from 173 KWH in 1990 to 618 KWH in 2004. this only underlines the fact that sources of
energy other electric energy such as coal and oil,have contributed more to energy use. Energy is a
basic constraint on development. India has become more dependent on non-renewable sources of
energy like coal and oil and less on renewable sources like hydropower. It would be more desirable
to tap hydro resources more effectively.
To sum up, the fact sheet on human development has many plus points. Population growth rate has
begun to decline and would be 1.3 % annum during 1999-2015. This will release quite a good
proportion of resources being currently used for supporting a higher growth rate of population.
Growth of urbanization willstrengthen the sinews of human development since urbanareas are better
looked after in terms of education and health. The proportion of child population in total population
has already indicated a decline and the trend is likely to be strengthend. Although India has shown a
better record in improving its literacy rate and gross enrolment ratio, yet it lags behind considerably,
even with referenve to medium human development countries, not to speak of catching up with high
human development countries. Public expenditure on education has not made perceptible progress in
reaching the goal of 6 % of GNP set by the education commission ( 1964-65). The proportion of
tertiary students in science, math and engineering has been around 20, which is rather low. Similarly,
youth literacy at about 76 % is much ower than the achievement of a majority of medium human
development countries around 90 % and above.
Health indicators reveal a continuous improvement in life expectancy, infant mortality rate and
maternal mortality rate, though our achievement is not commensurate with the levels attaind in
several of the medium development countries. But our record about the proportion of underweight
children around 46% is very dismal. Equally distressing is 51 % of the population did not have
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access to life saving drugs.Gender related development indicators revealed the gap between male and
female in adult literacy,gross enrolment ratio and earned income was too wide and indicated the
existence of a strong gender bias.
The growth rate of the Indian economy has remained about 6 % during the last two decades and can
be considered as satisfactory. Similarly, India showed moderate inquality of
income/consumption,although there is further scope for reducing inequality by poverty eradication
programmes targeted to the poorest 20 % of the population public expenditure on health has been
pitiably low at 1.1 % of GDP. Military expenditure as a percentinge of GDP indicated a decline
during the nineties.

20.8 SUMMARY
Keeping in view the above mentioned problem the UNDP tries to make some amendments in its
Human Development Report 1993, In which people‘s participatiopn their security, democratisation,
empowerment to people, etc. were made major issues. The report gave greaterrecognition to the
constructive role of civil societies for human development. It emphassised on the greater role by
society to reduce armed conflicts and less expenditure on defence so that the money so saved could
be used for the benefit of human beings.

20.9 ACTIVITY
Prepare a list of primary activities found in your city and also identify the tertiary resources that are
important but deficit in your city.

20.10 QUESTIONS
- What is Human Development. Describe in brief approaches to Human Development
- What is Human Development Index HDI.
- Explain basic areas of Human Development.
- Define Development and Policies in India.

20.10 REFERENCES
Disparity ―. Indian Economic Association Conference‖ Volume. p-125
Dreze, Jean and Sen, Amartya, 1995, ― Indian: Economic Development and Social Opportunity‖
Oxford University Press, Delhi.

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Guha Biswajeet, 1998, ― Human Development of India. A study of Inter-State
Indian Economic Association, IEA Amrit Jubilee 81, Conference Volume, 1998

Kolossvosky, N.N. in Joshi K.L., 1997, ― Resources and Regional Development‘‘

Lewth waite, Gorden, R., 1966, ― Enviornmentalism and Determinism; A search for Clarification‘‘
Annals of The Asociation of American Geographers, 56: 1-23.

Mahbul- UI Haq, 1997, ― Human Development in South Asia OUP.

Mahbul-ul-haq 1997, ― Human Development in South Asia, OUP

National Human Development Report, 2001. p.133 NCERT, New Delhi. p-114.

Nicholas Kaldor in Dutt Gaurav, and Mahajan, Ashwani, 2011, ― Indian Economy‖. S.
Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi..

Planning Commission 2002, National Human Development Report.

UNDP Human Development Report, 1997 , p 13-14.

UNDP, Human Development Report 1997, (2007,2008)

UNDP, Human Development Report, 2009.

UNDP, Human Developmet Report, 1996, p 4, 6.
UNDP, Human Developmet Report, 2001. p.14.

UNFPA, 1997 India: Towards Population and Development Goals, OUP

World Bank, World Development Report, 2008.

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BLOCK-7 MICRO REGIONS AND MULTI LEVEL PLANNING

INTRODUCTION
Geography is a science of space and is concerned with studying the variations in
phenomenona found in space. The basic criterion in the delimitation of a region seems to be a
relative uniformity of homogeneity of geographical phenomena over the multilevel planning itself in
identifying clearly defined national goals and objevtives and to frame overall policies in order to
realise those goals and aims. It attempts at working out rational solutions to economic problems by
coordinating means and the ends.

There are three unit in this block Unit 21 deals with Micro Region and their human activities in this
region.
Unit 22. Introduces with planning and various aspects of Multi Media Planning , and a case Studies
of Baster block
Unit 23 Deals with the a brief study of Indo -Ganetic Plain.
We hope that the Block will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the fields.

Unit 21 Micro Regions and Human Economics

Unit 22 Multi Media Planning and Micro Level Cases Studies
Unit 23. Indo-Ganetic Plain.

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UNIT-21 MICRO REGIONS AND HUMAN ECONOMICS

STRUCTURE
21.0 Objectives
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Micro Region Bases of Regionalization
21.2.1Bases of Regionalization
21.2.2 Bases of Formation
21.3 Physical Human and Economic Resources
21.3.1 Economic Regions
21.3.2 Planning Regions
21.4 Formal and Functional Linkages
21.4.1 Economic Basis
21.4.2 Administrative Basis
21.4.3 Functional Classification
21.4.4 Administrative Towns
21.4.5 Defence Towns
21.4.6 Cultural Towns
21.4.7 Towns Based on Economic ( Activities)
21.4.8 Functional Linkages of Rural Settlement
21.4.8.1 Town Village Inter- Relationship
21.5 Population Developoment Nexus
21.5.1 Parametres of Development
21.5.2 Population Vis a Vis Enviornment
21.6 Policies and Programmes
21.7 Summary
21.8 Activity
21.9 Questions
21.10 References

21.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand basic concept of micro-region
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 To know formal and functional linkages
To understand population via-a vis environment.
To understand physical and human resources and inter -linkages.

21.1 INTRODUCTION
Economic region provide the firm spatial base for economic planning. The general principles
underlying the delimitation of regions according to their hierarchy are as under production
specialisation should provide the base for delimiting economic regions for planning the hierarchy of
economic planning regions exists within the frame of natural region and Sub-regions. Therefore the
county should be divided into natural regions as the first steps of economic regionalization.

21.2 MICRO REGION BASES OF REGIONALIZATION

Micro regions are the smallest in size and pertain to lower level of planning. Each such unit covers
an area at lower than district level a few tehsils or even the whole or a part of a development block in
the rural Countryside. A group of Villages Linked with a central village is served inturn prove to be
the potential paints for the economic growth of this smallest region. Each of them develops the
hierarchy of hinterlands all merging into the total area of a Micro Region Level.
Such regions may cover a big city or a metropolitan region. a backward rural or a tribal region
having their specific problems. In brief, any region around a core point, Situated along its periphery
or in the remotest part can form a micro-level study area. The only condition is that such a region
must have a common community interest or a shared problem eliminating all conflicts which stand in
the way of grass root planning.
The need for Sub-dividing a district tehsil into smaller community development blocks may also
where there is a diversity of conditions or problems of conflicting nature are found even within the
limits of local areas. India has been divided into more than 5000, approximate such blocks in a bid to
identify the lowest level planning units in our rural areas. Each such block is spread over about
more than 100 villages approximately with a population of 60 to 70 thousand people. Though small
and at the lowest ladder of natural planning micro-regions are required to determine the role of
transport material and non material services, industrial complexes and demographic factors in the
growth of the country‘s economy. As the number and types of micro regions is large, they cannot be
easy determined only a general idea is given here by citing the administrative divisions of India right
from state units down to the lowest level development block (Refer Figure 46), for towns and Cities
there are master plans prepared for their development as the need arises as Components of a meso

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region each micro region and micro-level spatial planning lays down the most practical bases to
build up the integrated economy in second and first level regions .

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Two case studies in last of this unit are undertaken to make you understand the general condition,
distribution of natural and human resources and the varied problems of such regions. The discussion
highlights the idea that the process
of territorial planning needs spatial
level. Principles of regional
classification are being laid down to
adopt some uniform approach for
reducing the personal Judgment of
various scholars in dividing the
country. As a first step to arrive at
an objective classification, a number
of regional regional schemes have
appeared in the last for decades.
Without entering into the
nomenclature and evaluation of each
of the many classification scheme.
We take up only one in fuller
details. This scheme is based in the
figure of India‘s planning region
(Refer Figure 47) proposing 13
macro and 35 meso units.

Each Macro region has two to as many as six meso region depending upon a combination of
conditions for getting an overall idea of all that a ‗Planning region‘ implies and details of its multi-
level divisions.

21.2.1 Bases of Regionalization

Geography is a Science of space and is concerned with studying the variations in phenomena found
in space. The Space in which such variations are studies may be designed area. Zone or region
usually, all these there impressions are used to denote a segment of territory. An ‗Area‘ refers to the
territory in which a particular phenomena is observed. The limits of an area are demarcated by the
presence or absence of the phenomena which is being studies. Thus area should be understand as a
territory characterized by availability of the phenomena A ‗Zone‘ is a territory which is distinguished
by a certain degree of intensity (density) of the phenomena under study. A ‗Zone‘ is characterized by
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availability as well as intensity ( density) of the phenomena which is to studies, e.g. climate zone
maintime Zone, railway zone , A ‗region‘ is a more complex concept in geographical studies.

21.2.2 Bases of Formation

A region is a perceived segment of space differentiated from others on the basis of one zone or more
defining characteristics. These characteristics may be of different types and so are the regions. For
example, the defining characteristics may be natural (viz natural vegetation thus the defined region
will be a natural region (tropicalrroon forests region), if the defined characteristic is cultural
(language) or economic (industrial clusters), the regions will be identified as cultural regions (Tamil
Telegu or Kannad region) or economic regions (Mumbai hinterland).
The basic criterion in the limitation of a region seems to be a relative uniformity of homogeneity of
geographical phenomena over space. Thus every has a certain level of homogeneity of geographical
phenomena over space. As Such, within a region a certain level of homogeneity is found in the
phenomena observed and this makes it distance other regions. The observed phenomena may be
physical, economic or social or other characteristics. All those contiguous territories over which the
uniformity or homogeneity of the selected phenomena extends are included in one region. Contiguity
there fore is an important attribute of region but it is not a necessary condition for all types of a
regions. Sometimes non-contiguous spatial units are also put under one region. The United States of
America is a political region with Alaska and Hawaii as its non contiguous units.

Schwartzberg-1973
The regions may be recognized as naively given and instituted or denoted. A naively given region
refers to a territory as recognized by people by people who live outside this territory. For Example
Avadh Mithila and Mewal are naively given regions Generally these regions do not have sharply
defined boundaries as they are delimited on the basis of shared culture or history and a sense of
belongingness amongst the people Instituted regions are delimited by human agency and thus, have
distinct limits, for example states districts and the administrative regions.
Therefore, Uttar Pradesh, National capital region and Damodar Valley Corporation and instituted or
denoted regions . The denoted region is further classified as formal (uniform) regions and
functional nodal regions. The formal region is a geographical area which is homogeneous in terms of
selected geographical characteristics such as topography climate, soil or natural vegetation as in the
case of natural regions. The regions having similarity in social cultural factors are designated as
socio-cultural regions, for example linguistic regions are based on similarity of language and tribal

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regions are based on ethnicity. if the homogeneity is observed in economic attributes such as
production structure income levels etc. region are known as economic regions.

21.3 PHYSIAL HUMAN AND ECONOMICS RESOURCES

The functional regions are recognised on the basis of organization, internal flows of people goods,
services, communication and the presence of a nodal place or a focus. Thus, functional regions
emphasis inter dependence (linkage) and may be composed of heterogeneous units such as cities
towns, and villages which get interlinked through flows in a system of interdependencies. The part-
hinterland relationships and the city umlands represent functional regions.

21.3.1 Economic Regions

Human beings have been pursuing different types of economic activities in different parts of the
earth. In this economic pursuit they have modified space. We cannot think of a natural space to exist
in its virgin form after it has been occupied by human being. Rather we can think of humanized
space the level of economic development can be ascertained by the capacity of human beings to use
and transform resources. All resources are space bound. Therefore the homogeneity in the type‘s
resource base and its utilization has given rise to the need of identifying economic regions. Economic
region is a segment of the territory representing the national economy. Economic region can be
thought of only when we accept the organization, location and distribution of production as well as
other human activities in terms a territory or space. Economic activities are dynamic in nature
because they keep on changing with the change in technology. The formation of economic regions
therefore is also a dynamic and they change with the development of resources changes with the
demand products and improvement skills. The levels of economic development in the regions is a
function of its natural resource endowment and cultural development of the people which gets
expressed in terms of human beings-nature-culture interaction.
The rate of the development of resource is not uniform in all the regions. It is largely due to the that
their cultural attainments expressed in terms of technology development is not uniform in any
national a few regions are economic more developed and some happens to be less developed . The
economic regionalisation of the country is essential in order to plan economic development.

21.3.2 Planning Regions

A planning region is a segment of territory over which economic decisions apply. The term planning
in the present context means has taking decisions to implement them in order to attain economic

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development. The regions for planning purposes may be administrative or political regions such as
state, district or the block. Since planning is based on statistical data which are generally collected at
the level of administrative divisions the planning regions as a matter of fact, coincide with
administrative regions. Thus whole country is a planning region for national plans state is the
planning region for state plans and districts or blocks are the planning regions for micro-regional
plans. For proper implementation and realization of plan objectives a planning region should have
fairly homogeneous economic structure as well as topographical and socio-culture homogeneity.
Therefore a balance has to be struck between homogeneity nodality and administrative convenience
while delineating the planning regions. A planning region should be large enough to contain a range
of resources to provide it economic viability. It should be large enough to contain a large of
resources to provide it economic viability it should be internally cohesive. Its resources endowment
should be such that a satisfactory level of product combination for construction and exchange is
feasible. It should also have a few nodal points to regulate the flows. Geographically, it should be
contiguous areal units.

21.4 FORMAL AND FUNCTIONAL LINKAGES

Man, according his place off residence is either urban or rural. The population which lives in urban
centres is known as urban population and those living in rural areas is known as rural. Urban
settlements are differentiated from the rural settlements on the basis of certain characteristics.

21.4.1 Economic Basis

In India, besides the size of population the basis of urban settlement is its economic structure e.g. in
Indian states, the urban settlement should have more than 75% of its workforce engaged in non-
agricultural activities.

21.4.2 Administrative Basis

The way an urban settlement is administered is also a basis for its identification. In India an urban
settlement must have a municipality, cantonment board or be notified area.

21.4.3 Functional Classification

You may have fixed ideas about towns and cities either on the basis of your our own experience of
living in a town or on the basis of information gathered from other sources. Jamshedpur is known as
an industrial town but Varanasi is famous as a religious centre Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai, Cochin
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etc. have developed as ports. It means that town is known for its function. Many towns and cities are
multi functional, these functional may change from time to time.

21.4.4 Administrative Towns

These towns are the headquarters of the administrative departments of central or state governments.
The National capital such as New Delhi in India and state capital in India such as Jaipur, Bhopal,
Patna, Lucknow, Dehradun, Banglore, Raipur, Gandhiagar, Ranchi Thiruvanantuapuran, Mumbai,
shillong, Aizwal, Kolima, Chandigarh, Chennai, Kolkata. Aizawal, Simla, Srinagar Kolima,
Hyderabad, Panji Dispur Jtanagar Bengalure Bhubneshwar etc. one administrative cities.

21.4.5 Defense Towns

These towns are centres of military activities these are of three types (1) towns in North India Such
towns generally have the wordgarh tagged with their names e.g. Aligarh.
(ii) Garrison towns are these where the army contingents are posted. The mohallas known as Paltan
Bazar and Urdu Bazar in many towns in India Show that either Armies were posted there or the army
people did their shopping in those areas. A good example of Garrison town is Mow in Madhya
Pradesh near Indore. It is abbreviation of Military Headquarter of war.

21.4.6 Cultural Towns

There are different types of cultural centres but two types are important, Religious Centres such as
Ayodhya, Haridwar Varanasi Badrinath, Kedarnath Gangotri, Yamunatri and Dwarika etc. have their
origin because of religious gatherings and some places have become famous because of their
educational institutions and they are called Educational Centres has been placed an important seat of
learning.

21.4.7 Towns Based on Economic on Activities

Many towns have developed as trade centres and industrial agglomerations. These are of the
following types. Towns which have developed in mineral rich areas due to mining activities such as
Dhanbad, Khetri, Kalgoorlie etc. called mining towns.
Towns which have developed due to setting up of industries such as Jamshedpur Kanpur, Mumbai
etc. are called industrial towns. Most of older towns were centres of exchange of goods of goods
which are known as trade centres. Some towns have developed as transport towns . Two types of
transport have been responsible for the development of such towns. Port Towns are the centres of
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imports and exports and are located on the sea coasts. Transport and trade are the main sectors which
offer employment to large number. The Junctions of rail routes develop into urban centres Lateron .
Mughalsarai and Harsi are appropriate example of such towns.

21.4.8 Functional Linkages of Rural Settlements

The form of rural settlements is determined by production. The main occupation in a village is
agriculture. Villages generally have all such services and facilities which are related to agriculture.
Some large village has a few small shops which sell the goods against the payment of money as well
as grains. All the villages in India have Panchyats which perform administrative functions. Villages
located near the forests have forestry as their main function while it is fishery for those located near
water bodies. Few big villages provide specific services to be surrounding villages. With the
mechanization of agriculture many villages have developed expertise in repairing agricultural
machinery and implements.

21.4.8.1 Town Village Inter-Relationship

It is said about most towns that village which succeeded become towns but it is not necessary that
every town was a village once upon a time many towns are now and have been planned.
There is neither a conflict nor competition among urban and rural settlements. They are in fact
complimentary rural settlements. They villages supply the food grains required in the towns while
towns supply the industrial goods demanded in the villages. towns and villages are linked with the
means of transportation.
There are four types of inter relationships which develop between rural and urban linkages.

Trade Relations
The villages located in the hinterlands of the towns send their marketable surplus to the towns for
sale. The commodities moving and villages to towns consist of agriculture and animal product. The
town supplies the villages with industrial products.

Social Relations (Linkages)

The towns have different cultural institutions which the villages makes use of fairs, Cinema and
theatres are some of the facilities which are shared by villages for their recreation

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Community Relations
Many people from villages come to the towns for work. They commute every day. Such a relation is
mutually beneficial to both villages as well towns.

Agricultural Relation
The village farmers adjust their cropping pattern in response to the demand of agricultural products
in the towns. The cultivation of vegetables and fruits in the close vicinity of the towns is a good
example of such an adjustment. The farmers get the seed and fertilizers from the towns. Agricultural
implements and machinery are repaired in shops located in towns; such facilities are also available in
some villages. The villages and towns are bonded together in a system of interdependence which
provides strength to the existence of both.

21.5 POPULATION DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT NEXUS

The notion of development in the context of regional development refers to a value positive concept
which aims at enhancing the levels of the living of the people and general conditions of human
welfare in a region. It is value positive concept because development is not only a change for better,
just a plant develops into a tree and chilled into a adult and there is no reversal of the position
attained. Economic development is reflected through growth of output and national income. Thus, an
important indicator of economic development is the increase in per capital income. Development is
neither class neutral nor it is uniformly available across the regions. The developmental process
benefits some classes of the society more than other classes. It helps certain regions to attain higher
levels of development than other regions. This gives rise to social disparities as well as regional
disparities such a situation operates because of the behaviour of parameters of development.

21.5.1 Parametres of Development

Natural environment technology and institutions are the three basic parameters of economic
development Natural environment indicate the direction of economic development. It simultaneously
puts a limit on the extent of development (at given level of technology) For Example the major
economic activity has been agriculture in the river valleys, lumbering in forested regions and fishing
in the coastal regions more over, the extend of production levels in all these activity has been
agriculture in the river valleys, lumbering in forested regions and fishing in the coastal regions.
Moreover the extend of production levels in all these activities are limited the level of technology
available to the people in the respective regions Technology has its own characteristics. Primitive

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technology is size neutral and is available to a irrespective of their income levels. Intermediary
technology is size based and is available only to those who have some investible surplus
sophisticated and large scale technology is so costly that it has to be brought under social control and
any technology which is under social control, becomes to all irrespective of their size after a nominal
payment. Thus the intermediary technology creates income disparities within a social group and
across the region. The institutions have been created by human beings for accelerating the pace of
economic development. When these institution rather than acceleration of the pace of economic
development. That is why the institution are modified or changed with the passage of time Thus the
level of economic development is the function of the harmonious interaction between natural
environment, technology and the institution created in a region.

21.5.2 Population Vis a Vis Environment

As a huge and fast growing population our first and foremost concern is to feed every belles both
young and old alike. We have to plan and provide for adequate, nutritious and balanced diet in tune
with modern trends all the India. It is a daunting challenge to our hard working farmers farm
Scientists and administrators. Not more production but a continuous increase in our yields per unit
land is the prime need of the hour. We have hardly left with any additional area to be brought under
cultivation. In fact large chunks of farms lands are being converted into residential and other kinds of
areas in view of the changing nature of our society aiming to industrialise itself as fast as it could we
need to develop varieties of seeds which are high yielding and early maturing. They need to improve
genetically which is a time consuming process. We are almost one billion strong and not before long
we would be crossing a ―one-and-half billion mark‖ in another decade or so. We need increased
production and yield per hectare in every kind of food and other crops-cereals, pulses oilseeds,
vegetables, fruits, sugarcane beverages fibre crops, rubber and what not. We have to plan for greater
consumption of poultry, meat, milk and several other animal products, including fish. In turn they
also need higher amounts of feed to bring under irrigation more and more of our land when we are
now very close to the saturation point, both in surface and ground water resources. This would call
for more dams, more wells and tube wells. New and imaginative farming practices, tools implements
and manageable machines will have to be developed and popularized. This would call for more
incentives and huge investment. Better pest management, enlarged storage and cooling facilities,
avoidance of wastage during past, harvest stages, provision of better credit and marketing facilities to
the farmers, assurance of letter remunerative prices are some of the task that continue to await US.
Our per capita share of cultivated land has been dwindling very fast from one generation to another.
More and more people are becoming landless. Our encroachment on pasture and forest lands have
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already caused immense damage not only our economy, but even to the ecological balance which is
already highly fragile. Our fast urbanization and industrialization have been causing pollution of
every sort soil water air and noise. Our land and water resources are far from infinite they have a
limit which we have been approaching very fast. We are likely to be in for diminishing returns from
our land. Development of our mineral resources calls for a more scientific and enlightened deal.
Reserves of known fossil fuels particularly national oil and gas are almost exhausted forcing us to go
back to the consumption of coal.
Our rising consumption and changes life styles have been fast converting us into a society in tested
with the germ of consumerism and wasteful life styles. In the long run-in another couple of decades
they may prove harmful to our environment and its ecological balance. The need of the hour is to
nuture leadership of both makes and females and start planning to the extent possible from local
grass roots level upwards, protecting our fragile environment in every possible way.

21.6 POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

Economic regions provide the farm spatial base for economic planning policies. The general
principles underlying the delimitation of regions, according to their hierarchy are as under.
(1) Production specialization should provide the base for delimiting economic regions for
planning purposes.
(2) Through understanding of the natural region with their resources endowment is essential for
economic planning.
(3) The hierarchy of economic planning regions exists within frame of natural regions and sub-
regions. Therefore the country should be divided into natural regions as the first step of
economic regionalization.
(4) The carving out of the macro, meso and micro regions should start from the delimitation of
the planning unit at the lower order (Micro) and then by grouping and regrouping them meso
and micro region may be obtained.
(5) As a principle the region boundaries should not out across various ranks of the regions. The
regional boundaries at the micro level have to coincide with the administrative boundaries as
there units are also the units of data collection.
(6) Meso economic regions for planning will emerge by combining the micro units representing
area of common sets of physical factors and resource endowment.

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 (7) The macro regions are delineated by grouping the meso regions. Generally they should
conform with the states with common sets of problems of utilizing natural resources. These
regions cover large areas having
diversified natural resources which
can help in developing a self
sustaining economy. Therefore, the
number and the boundaries of
these (Refer Figure 48) planning
regions depend upon the criterion
applied in their delimitation.

India is an agriculture country and

development of this sector is very
essential for overall development
of the economy. Recently the
agricultural development planning
based an agro-climatic zone has
been considered more appropriate
in order to reduce the regional
imbalances and to realize the the unexploited potentials. The main objectives of agro-
climatic planning are to bring about a balance in demand and supply of major commodities
utilizing the potential of each one of them; maximize the net income of the producers;
generate additional employment; and provide the framework for Sustainable use of natural
resources particularly land, water and forests.
The strategy of agro-climate planning aims at more scientific utilization of resources. The holistic
approach of assessing climate, soil, type topography, water resources and facilities would provide
base for exploiting potential for growth and diversification.
The country has been divided into 15 agro climatic zones on the basis of homogeneity in factors like
soil types, rain fall temperature water resources etc. These are:
(1) Western Himalyan Region.
(2) Eastern Himalayan Region
(3) Lower Ganetic Plans Region
(4) Middle Gangetic Plain Region
(5) Upper Gangetic Plain Region.
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(6) Trans-Gangetic Plain Region.
(7) Eastern Plateau and Hills Region.
(8) Central Plateau and Hills Region.
(9) Western Plateau and Hills Region.
(10) Southern Plateau and Hills Region.
(11) East Coast Plains and Ghats Region.
(12) West Coast Plains and Ghats Region.
(13) Gujarat Plain and Hills Resort Region.
(14) Western Dry Region.
(15) The Island Region.
ELEMENT OF INTEGRAL REGION
Elements of
Geographical Landscape

Economic Elements Social Elements Natural Element

Economic Region Social Region Natural Region

Socio Economic Natural Economic Recreational Region

Region Region

Integral Region

Economic link - - - - - - - - Social Link- - - - - - - - - - Natural Link

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The strategies for developing land and water as well as a suitable cropping pattern for each region
have been worked out. The non crop based activities such as forestry, fisheries, animal husbandry
and agro-processing activities have also been emphasized.
Besides the region a number of other concepts are also to understand in order to understand the
regional development.

21.7 SUMMARY
A zone is a territory which is distinguished by a certain degree of intensity of the phenomenon
understudy. A region is a more complex concept in geographical studies a planning region should be
large enough to contain a range of resources to provide it economic viability. The idea of
development in the context of regional development refers to a value-positive concept which aims at
enhancing the levels of living of the people of and general conditions of human welfare in a region.

21.8 ACTIVITY
Visit a Panchayat Samiti office and acquaint yourself with the functioning of a Panchayat Samiti.

21.9 QUESTIONS
- What do you understand by Population Development.
- Block as a primary unit for local planning. Explain.
- Define Micro-Region with reference to physical human economics.
- Explain formal and Functional Linkage at Micro-Level Region.

21.10 REFERENCES
Gill, K.S., 1971., ― Evolution of India‘s Economy‖ NCERT, New Delhi.

Nekrasov, 1974., ― Territorial Organization of Soviet Economy‖ Progress Publication Moscow.

Qureshi,M.H.., 1990., ― India: resources and Regional development‖ NCERT, New Delhi
Schwartzberg,J.E.,1973., ― Prolegomena to the Study of South Asia Regions and Regionalism in
Regions and Regionalism in the South Asia Studies: An Exploratory Study‖ Edited Robert 1 Crane
Monograph No. 5. Duke.

Sinha,B.N., 1972., ―Industrial Geography of India‖ The World Press Pvt. Ltd, Kolkata.
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UNIT-22 MULTI LEVEL PLANNING AND MICRO LEVEL CASES
STUDIES

STRUCTURE
22.0 Objectives
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Multi Media Planning in India
22.3 First Case Study (DVC)
22.3.1 Physical Setting
22.3.2 Climate Characteristics and Water Power Development
22.3.3 Soil Conservation and Afforestation
22.3.4 Mineral Resource Base
22.3.5 Development of Transport Infrastructure
22.3.6 Industrial development
22.3.7 The People
22.3.8 The Problem
22.4 Second Case Study ( A Tribal Development Block: Baster)
22.4.1 Physical Setting
22.4.2 Physiography
22.4.3 The Resource Base
22.4.4 The Environment and Human Interaction
22.4.5 Planning the Development
22.5 Summary
22.6 Activity
22.7 Questions
22.8 References

22.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand multi-level planning concept
To know the aims of Damodar Valley Corporation Project
To understand a tribal development block Baster
To understand physiographic environment and human interaction of case studies.

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22.1 INTRODUCTION
The region has assumed added importance by the construction of multipurpose dams, control of
excessive water and its utilization by DVC authority and development block-Baster.
Thus minerals, railway routes and water control are the three cores round which a distinct personality
of small region has grown. The regions selected for the study is a part of the heavily industralised
region of India are well known for the concentration of industrial mineral resources

22.2 MULTIMEDIA LEVEL PLANNING IN INDIA

Planning concerns it self in identifying clearly defined national goals and objectives and to frame
overall policies in order to realize those goals and objective. It attempts at working out rational
solution to economic problems by coordinating means and the ends. Temporally, Planning may be
short term or long term it may attempts. It may attempts to develop the sectoral aspects of the
economy or the spatial aspects. When we discuss of sectoral planning it means that the resources are
allocated keeping in view the overall requirement of sectors like primary secondary and tertiary. The
spatial or regional plan takes into account the balanced development of regions. In order to reduce
economic disparities. The planning in India initially has been attempted at national level and state
level. Districts and block have been taken as spatial units for planning at a later stage. The first three
plans were formulated by the centre and it was only during the Fourth Five Year plan, that States
formulated their plan. It is at the implementation stage that other spatial units like states, districts
etc. enter into the planning process .A scheme for stretching the planning machinery at the state level
was launched by the planning commission in 1972 and the guidelines for district plans were issued in
1969. The planning for target area and target groups was a major strategy for removing poverty and
unemployment and this called more decentralized planning at the grass root level. Block level
planning was introduced during the plan period 1978-83 which aimed complementing rural
development efforts through better utilization of local resources. This provided the experience of
planning from below and thus planning at the lower order spatial units become a major components
or regional planning.
District planning is the sub-system of multilevel planning agency at the district level. The district
planning has to be linked with block level planning as well as the state planning. The blocks and
villages are basically the levels of plan implementation rather than plan formation. The Panchayat
Samati look after the developmental tasks at the block level.
District planning is the sub-system of multi level planning which has be handled by a single planning
agency at the district level. The district planning has to be linked with level planning as well as the

415
state planning. The blocks and villages are basically the levels of plan implenementation rather than
plan formation. The panchyat samiti look after the developmental tasks at the block level. The need
for regional and decentralised planning and the popular participation of people in .
The planning process has increasingly been recognized in the last decades. The sixth five Year plan
was heavily oriented towards rural planning and rural development and there fore the plan document
aid emphasis on strengthening the levels below the state (specially district and block levels). The
Dantwala Working Group on Block level planning and Ashok Mehta committee on ‗Panchayat Raj
Institutions were appointed by the planning commission to suggest ways and means to accomplish
the takes set forth by the Sixth Plan Document. The devise to revitalize the planning process at the
block level was the result of the belief of the planning commission that block is the primary unit for
local planning and is very use full for adopting programmes suitable to local environment and local
capacity. According to the Dantwala working Group the following activities can be planted and
executed at the block levels.
(i) Agriculture and allied activities
(ii) Minor irrigation
(iii) Soil conservation and water management.
(iv) Animal husbandry and poultry.
(v) Fisheries
(vi) Forestry
(vii) Processing of agricultureal produce
(viii) Organizing input supply.
(ix) Cottage and smalls scale industries
(x) Local infrastructure
(xi) Social amenities
i. drinking water supply
ii. health and nutrition
iii. education
iv. housing
v. sanitation
vi. local transport
vii. welfare programmes
viii. Training of local youth and up grading skills of local population.

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The main problem of block level planning is the absence of any planning machinery at this level. The
block development agency has been responsible for caring out direction given from higher levels in
implementing the plan proposals, it does not have the proper expertise to formulate plans. Moreover,
all block/ taluks may not be viable economic units for planning due to resources constraints .
The Panchyat Samitis have also not been able to manage development and ensure equitable
distribution of fruits of development .
The planning at the lowest level may be attempted after creating economically viable unit (may be
cluster of villages), selecting dynamic cluster and locating growth centres in such dynamic clusters.

22.3 FIRST CASE STUDY DAMODAR VALLEY CORPORATION (DVC)

The Damodar river is tributary of the Hooghly and flows across Bihar and Bengal for about 541
kilometre from its origin in the hills of Chotanagpur to its confluence with the Hooghly. Out of this
course, 270 kilometre lies in Bihar and rest lies in west Bengal. In its upper reaches, it is known as
Deonadi Damodar drains Ranchi, Hazaribagh Dhanbad and Santhal Parganas districts of Bihar and
Bankura and Bardhman districts of West Bengal. After emerging from the Chotanagpur hills, if
flows for about 40 kilometre and forms the boundary between Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts. From
here it enters Hazaribagh district and flows in an easterly direction and receives Bakaro river as its
tributary. Barkar river joins Damodar in Dhanbad district. After receive Barkar, it enters into West
Bengal. It flows across Bankura district and then enters Bardhman district. It takes a southerly turn
from the town of Bardhman and falls in river Hooghly about 50 kilometre upstream from Kolkata.
Damodar valley covers an area of 24,235 square kilometre in Biharand West Bengal.
Damodar flows across the major coal belt of India. It used to be a notorious river due to its floods
which caused damage in Bihar and West Bengal. It was known as the sorrow of the region . Its
notoriety was demonstrated by the devastating floods in 1823, 1848, 1856,
1859,1863,1882,1890,1901,1905,1907,1913,1916,1923,1935 and 1943. These frequent floods
attracted the attention of the Governments of Bengal and Bihar and the need was felt to control the
floods, conserve and regulate the water and generate power. The Damodar Floods Enquiry
Committee suggested a comprehensive Plan for the development of the Damodar basin on the model
of the Tennessee Valley Authority in the USA.

22.3.1 Physical Setting

Damodar Valley has occupied a sunken though in the middle of Chotanagar extending in an east-
west direction between plateaus of Chotanagpur and Hazaribagh in the North and Ranchi in the

417
South. The average elevation of this plateau complex varies between 300 and 600 metres above the
mean sea level. The riveroriginates at an altitude of 510 metres above mean sea level and discharges
its water in Hooghly at an altitude of less than 30 metres above the mean sea level. This difference in
elevation gives an idea of its gradient and also about its erosive power. The river leaves the plateau at
aheight of about 150 metres and reaches the plains in Bardhman district.
The topography in its course is varied and undulating. Its descent from one surface level of
the plateau to the other is sudden. Most of its major tributaries join the mainstream on its left bank.
The confluence of the tributaries with the mainstream has provided break points which are suitable
sites for locating hydel-power stations. The undulating nature of the topography and the faulted
nature of the strata have not only favoured the extraction of coal but also provided suitable sites for
damming the river.

22.3.2 Climate Characteristics and Water-Power Development

The average annual rainfall experienced in the region is about 125 centimetres which is concentrated
between June and September Sometimes the region experiences cyclonic storms accompanied by
heavy rain fall. The source region of the river receive higher rainfall than the lower reaches. The
incidence of flooding is highet during the stormy rainfall when the channel is unable to
accommodate the rush of water. The weathered rocks and the erosive power of the river add to the
load of debris which often chokes the channel and thus the flood situation is aggravated. The
deforestation in the upper hills has further accentuated the erosion. As soon as the river emerges
through a narrow passage near Asansol its flow is burst open. The plains below Bardhman get
suberged under flood waters.sometimes to a depth of 2 to 2.5 metres and the crops and settlements
are devastated. While major floods occur at intervals minor floods are experienced almost every
year. The sediments brought by the Damodar creat the problem of sedimentation in the Hooghly
which in turn endangers the Kolkata port.
In order the control floods and other related problem, the Central Government in consultation
with the Governments of Bihar and West Bengal worked out a unified development project for
Damodar basin on the basis of the memorandum submitted by W.L. Voorduin, an engineer with the
TVA . The Damodar valley Corporation (DVC) became a reality on 18 February 1948, when the
draft of its constitution was passed by the parliament.
The original memorandum envisaged the construction of seven major major dams. Aiyar and
Paanchet Hill on the Damodar river. Maithon,Belphari and Tilay on the Barakar river; Konar on the
Lonar river and Bokaro on the Bokaro river. The stators function of the DVC are promotion and
operation of scheme of irrigation water supply and drainage; generation, transmission and
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distribution of electrical energy and flood control; production and control of navigation in the
Damodar river,its tributaries and channels; promotion of afforestation and control of soil ersion in
the Damodar valley and promotion of public health,agriculture, industrial and general well-being of
the Damodar valley thus it became a multipurpose project with major objectives of flood control,
irrigation generation and transmission of HIP and promotion of year round navigation. The DVC has
implemented the construction four multipurpose dams as against Voorduin‘s proposal of seven dams.
These four dams are Tilaiya, Maithon, Konar and Panchet. Three thermal power station at
Chandrapura, Bokaro and Durgapur with a net work of transmission and distribution lines have also
been completed. (Refer Table 74) provides the salient feature of the the dams in the Damodar Valley.
The estimated capacity of generating hydel power at different dam sites is 260.000 kw.Bokaro,
Chandrapura and Durgapur thermal power station produce another addition power of 1,545MW.
The Durgapur barrage located at about 23 kilometre from Raniganj has been created for the
storage of irrigation water. It is 83 metres long and about 12 metres high. It stores the water from
Konar, Tilaiay, Maithon and Panchet Hill dams.
The bulk of the water for storage is provided by Maiton and Panchet hill dams. This irrigation
water is regulated through a network of canals extending over an area of about 5,000 square
kilometre in Bankura, Bardhman, Hooghly and Howrah districts in West Bengal. The barrage was
completed mainly in 1955. About 4 lakhs hectare will be irrigated along the left bank in Bardhman
and Hooghly districts. The hilly nature of the terrain in Bihar has restricted the irrigated area .
The left left bank Damodar canal is navigation cum-irrigation canal connecting Kolkata with
the Damodar valley coalfields.
Refer Table -74: Salient Feature of Four Dams in the Damodar Valley.
Salient Feature Dams
Tilaya Konar Maithon Panchet
RiverTypes of dam Barakar Konar Earthen Barkar Earthen Damodar
Concrete dam with dam with Earthern dam
Concrete Spill- concrete spill with concrete
way way spill-way
Length (in metres) 366 3549 994 2545
Maximum height above river bed 30 49 49 49
Cross storage capacity (m.cu.m) 395 337 1357 1497
Live storage capacity (m.cu.m) 321 276 - 1307
Year of start 1950 1950 1951 1952
Year of comptetion 1953 1955 1958 1959

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22.3.3 Soil Conservation and Afforestation
Soil in the Damodar valley are heavy clays and loams. They are deep and heavy on flat coal layers of
low-lying tracts and light coarse and thin in the uplands. Most of the land in the upeer part of the
basin in Chotanagpur region of Bihar is of relatively low fertility. The terrain is undulating and lacks
irrigation facilities. The population is not very high but limited nature of arable land available to the
peasants brought down the land-man ratio. The coal-mining activity heaps of removed over burden,
mining settlements, dense network of transportation lines, thick forest cover and obliterated local
drainage have constrained the agriculture in he region. The forest cover and obliterated local
drainage have constrained have constrained the agriculture resources of the region. There are rich
sal(Shorea robusta) forests. The hill slopes are covered with poorer vegetation like palm, bersabai,
grass, bamboo and thorny plants.
Agriculture in the Damodar Basin is not different from the prevalling patterns in other parts of the
Chotanangpur plateau . Generally, one crop is produced in one agriculture year. Lowland rice, maize,
pulses and ragi are important crops.
The DVC has also been entrusted with the responsibility of soil conservation and afforestation. The
main objectives of soil conservation. The main objectives of soil conservation and afforestation in
the catchment area is to reduce the soil erosion and save the reservoirs from heavy siltation. The
problem of soil erosion is being tackled on watershed basis.
The measures adopted for soil conservation are survey of soils taking into account the various
physio-chemical properties of the soils, degree of slope, extent of erosion, present land use and
suitability of irrigation , demonstration of better method of land management and assessing the soil
fertility.
Afforestation within the catchment of Damodar valley is being carried out by the forest
division of the Corporation as well as the forest departments of the state governments of Bihar and
West Bengal.

22.3.4 Mineral Resources Base

The Damodar valley region is a highly mineralized region in India. The Gondwana sedimentary rock
in the valley contain rich coal deposits. The richest largest and most productive coalfilds lie in this
region. Jharia and Chandrapura coal fields are located in Dhanbad Jharia is the most important
coalfields with a reserve of about 1862 crore tones of good grade bituminous coal. it spreads over an
area of about 440 square kilometre. Chandrapura is the second important coalfield in Dhanbad
district . Its coal is used in the Chandrpura thermal power station. East and West Bokaro, Giridih,

420
North and Southkaranpura and Ramgarh coalfields lie in Hazaribagh district. The Kargali seam of
East Bokaro Coalfield is of 30 metres thickness. Karanpura coalfields spread over 1560 square
kilometre and in production they rank next to Jharia and Raniganj coalfields.
Raniganj coalifields spread over 1067 square kilometre across Burdwan, Purulia Bankura in
West Bengal. A large quantity of coal from Ranjiganj is used for producing power at
Bandel,Durgapur, and New Kashipore.
Fire clay graphite limestone, quartz, bauxite, copper and manganese are other minerals which
are found in the Damodar valley besides, the surrounding regions also have rich mineral deposits.
The Damodar valley itself has abundant forest resources, from where lac and grasses for
manufacturing paper are extracted.
The richness of the region in mineral and forest resources coupled with the hydro-thermal
power development has been the basis of the economic development of the Damodar valley .

22.3.5 Development of Transport Infrastructure

Transport is vital regional development as it provide outlet for flows of both human beings and
goods. The lower basin of the Damodar has dense rail network where railways from north, north-
west, west, south-west and east coverage.
It has the locational advantage of laying near Kolkata , one the prominent port towns of the country.
Damodar has become the foci of convergence of road and rail networks. The grand chord line joining
Delhi and Kolkata passes through the northern part of the Damodar valley. This line is now fully
electrified. Besides this many short railway lines criss-cross this area . A number of diverge towards
west of Asansol. The watershed between the Ajai and the Damodar rivers not very prominent hence
the railway link to Patna follows it and a branch line links Giridih. The railway line linking Kolkata
- Asansol to Gaya-Patna Passes through the upper Barakar river valley.
A railway line from Dehri-on-Son via Dalton ganj runs along the coalfields belt. A branch line of this
links Jamshedepur via Muri. The scrap-slope of Ranchi of Ranchi Plateau has receded and this has
provided gap through which the routes to Jamshedpur have laid. The western part of the Damodar
valley is hilly, forested and thinly populated. Therefore, it represented an undeveloped country while
eastern part has recorded economic development.
The rail network is supplemented by road network in the region. In more difficult terrain where
rail links cannot be provided, roads have been constructed negotiating the scraps, Sher Shah Suri
Marg runs almost parallel to the Grand Chord Railway line in the Dhanbad section of the region.
The industrial towns collieries and washer ices have-been linked by local roads. The transportation

421
infrastructure has helped not only in the utilization of the natural resources of the region but has
linked this region with the national market.

22.3.6 Industrial Development

The Damodar valley has developed a mineral based industrial landscape in the country. It has played
an important role in promoting industrial development. The region natural resources provided base
for rapid industrial development once power and other infrastructural facilities were developed. A
number of public sector undertakings also sprang up. Durgapur and Bokaro Steel complexes . Heavy
Engineering Corporation Ltd. at Ranchi, Sindri Fertilizer plant and Indian Explosives near
Hazaribagh provide some such examples. Six industrial complexes have emerged over time in the
Damodar valley region. These are:
(a) Durgapur industrial complex having thermal power plant coke oven iron and steel mining
machinery and cement machinery and electrical industries
(b) Asansol-Kulti-Burnpur industrial complex with steel factory at Burnpur Chittaranjan
Iocomotives Kulti foundary works, and Kumardhubi engineering works,
(c) Dhanbad Sindri-Jharia industrial area having Sindri fertilizer industry, chemical and coal based
industries
(d) Bokaro industrial area consisting of steel plant, thermal plants at Bokaro and Chandrapura a long
with coal washeries,
(e) Ramgarh-Patratu are with Indian explosives and thermal power plants and
(f) Ranchi Industrial township with HBC. HMT and foundry plants.
The preponderance of mining and industry can be been from the structure of the workforce in
various districts in the valley 8.7 % of the main workers in Giridhi 4.8 % in Dhanbad, 9.8% in
Hazzaribagh and 6.3 % in Santhal Parganas are engaged in mining about 16% of the main workers
in Dhanbad are engaged in other than household industries.
With the availability of hydro-electric power aided by thermal power plants more power
intensive industries may emerge steel plants coal washeries industries based on coal by products
and forest-based industries will ensure a large size industrial zone in this valley.

22.3.7 The People

Once notice large variations in the population density in the Damodar valley while the upper
catchment which is hilly and forested, has low density the lower part of the valley is thickly
populated and more urbanized . Since the processes of urbanization and industrialization are closely

422
interlinked the districts having concentration of industries witnessed rapid urbanization. The figure
of 1991 census showing proportion of urban population to total population clearly depict this trend
52.9 % of the total population in Purbi Singhbhum has recorded as urban followed by Dhanbad 51.3
% and Bardhman 35.4 % Garhwal and Dumka have low proportion of urban population which
have recorded 2.8 and 6.1 % urban population respectively .
A major part of Damodar valley especially laying in the Chotanagpur region has higher
proportion of tribal population. Development has its own course. It does not help all the classes
uniformly. This has caused social tensions and one often read reports about the operation of the anti-
social elements and mafia. The benefits of development will have to be channelised by institution
intervention. The weaker and exploited sections of the society will have to be given social protection
by developing their own organization.

22.3.8 The Problem

The major objective of the Damodar valley project was to control floods. The project has not been
able to eliminate floods altogether. The DVC has constructed four dams instead of seven suggested
by Voorduin . Heavy floods did occur in 1959, 1970-71 and 1978, thought their ferocity has been
greatly reduced. The vegetal cover in the upper catchment is a great regular of the flow of monsoonal
rain-water. The dams and reservoirs provide second line of defense. The over-utilization of forests
and lack of corresponding afforestation have aggravated siltation in the dam. The generation of
hydro electricity is being complements by multiplying thermal plants because the flood control dams
cannot be taken as power generating dams in view of the creation of flood cushion before monsoon
every year. However the DVC has been an important example of integrated regional development.
Its efficiency can be improved with better management and foresight.

22.4 SECOND CASE STUDY ( A TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT BLOCK:

BASTAR)
India has a pluralistic Society. Many communities co-exist amongst these some have been
living in the hills and forests with varying concentration in different part of the country and are
known as tribes . It is difficult to define a tribe but they are differentiated from the non-tribes on the
basis of some characteristics of their habitat, culture traits like language beliefs customs and
institution. the tribal accounted for about 8.0 % of the total population of India in 1991,
geographically their population is found scattered in any parts of the country but they exhibit
concentrations in three broad zones viz north-eastern hills and forested areas; hills and forest

423
stretches in-Central India extending from east to west and in the Island chains, particularly Andaman
and Nicobar Islands.
Tribal societies are different from the non-tribal societies in many ways. Though many changes
are taking place in-tribal societies also yet a number of differentiating characteristics still exist. In a
tribal community the means of production are generally owned collectively hence, the social and
economic disparities are not as glaring as in the non-tribal communication and the level of
technology in tribal communities. The level of technology in tribal communities is low. They directly
depend upon their immediate environment and have a harmonious relation with it. The external
influences are reaching in tribal areas also but the development strategy should be adopted according
to the specific needs of the people. The Government of India as well as the State Government have
launched a number of programmes during different five year in order to ameliorate the socio-
economic condition of the tribal without altering their cultural ethos. The Tribal Development
Block Project was one such strategy adopted for the development at the block level. It was designed
on the patterns of SFDA (Small Farmers Development Agency) and the MFALA (Marginal Farmers
and Agricultural Labour Agency) Projects in rural areas. Six such pilot projects were launched in
1971-72 on experimental basis. They were in Srikarulam district of Andhra Pradesh, Singbhum
district of Bihar, Dantewara and Kanta tehsils of district Bastar in Madhya Pradesh and Ganjam and
Koraput districts in Orissa. The jurisdiction of the project extends only one in the selected block
where the concentration of tribal population is high. The Tribal Development Agency‘s major
attempt was to develop the infrastructure in the area in respect of land development irrigation,
communication, credit and marketing. It also made attempt in locating and development the potential
growth centres.
The Bastar block represents a typical tribal scenario in a predominantly tribal district of Bastar
in Madhya Pradesh more than 65 % of the total population of Bastar District is tribal Some of these
tribes occupy a well-defined territory.

22.4.1 The Physical Setting: Location and Space Relation

Bastar district is situated in the south-eastern corner of Madhya Pradesh. It is bounded by Orissa in
the east, Maharasthra in the West and Andhra Pradesh in the South. It is located at a distance of
about 640 kilometre form Bhopal, the state Capital of Madhya Pradesh, 160 kilometre from the port
of Vishakapatnam the Andhra Coast along the Bay of Bengal and 88 kilometre from Raipur-Bhilai
industrial (Refer Figure 49) complexes in the north. It is on the leeward side of the Eastern Ghats
and therefore, is devoid of any oceanic influences from the east. It thus has an interior location. In
size it is one of the largest districts of India and is larger than the state of Kerala.
424
The Bastar tribal block extends between 170 and
200 north latitude and 800 to 820 east longitude
Climatically speaking it lies in the hot tropical
zone which is thickly forested with very few small
plain areas.

22.4.2 Physiography
The greater part of the Bastar district as a whole is
plateau having a general elevation of 600 metres
above the mean sea level. The Mahanandi valley
lies in the Godawari valley lies in the south
forming narrow plain area. The general terrain is
hilly and Sabari are the major tributaries of the
Godawari. Indrawati is the major river which flows
towards west in the middle of the district. Sabari
flows along its south east boundary. Though these
streams are small, they are perennial. The volume
of water fluctuates according to season..
Physiographically, Bastar is divided into five
distinct divisions.
(i) The nortern Mahanandi Plains slopes northward and merged into the Chattisgargarh
plains of Durg and Raipur districts. Its general elevation varies between 300 and 450
metres above the mean sea level.

(ii) The Abujhmar hills present high ridge and deep valley topography. Thus it is highly
rugged and undulating region criss-crossed by small stream. The general elevation of the
area varies from 450 to over 750 metres above the mean sea level. The hills and valleys
have created effective physical barrier from all sides and thus, have accentuated isolation
in the area.

(iii) The north-eastern plateau is marked by steep scarps to its north, south and west Indrawati
Plain lies towards its south. Its general elevation varies between 450 and 750 metres
above the mean sea level.

425
 (iv) The southern plateau has the Bailadila and Tikampati hills in its middle. The small
Dantewara plain lies in the north Baildila means hump of a bullock which is the highest
hill in the Bastar district. It rises up to 1,200 metres above the mean sea level. It has two
parallel ridges, which form physical barrier due to its height. The general height of the
southern plateau ranges from 300 to more than 750 metres above the mean sea level.

(v) The south plains of Godawari and Sabari rivers have general level of about 150 metres
300 metres . It is a rolling plain with only two hills in its south and south-west part. It
extends up to the base of the southern plateau.

22.4.3 The Resource Base

The Bastar district is endowed with two major natural resources forests and minerals . The
cultivable land is limited. The soil cover in the district is thin and the fertility is low. The
metamorphic and granite rocks form the parent material for red and pateritic soils are deeper in the
lowlands only . The have been thinned on the slopes due to erosion. The shifting cultivation in
different parts particularly on the Abhujmar hills further added to the loss of vegetation and soil
erosion agriculture is the main occupation in the lowlands and river valleys.
The forests in Bastar form the most extensive resources. These are mostly moist deciduous
forests consisting of hardwoods Teak sal and laurels account for about 80 % of the volume of wood
found in these forests. The forests have not only provided protection to tribal of Bastar, but have
provided them with sound economic base for carrying out wood based activities. Besides timber
these forests are the source of gum level fruits flowers and roots which are gathered by the tribal
people.
Bastar has rich mineral potential particularly rich iron are deposits. These are vast tracts containing
large quantities of iron ore. These are:
(i) Raoghat hills in Narayanpur tehsil
(ii) Chargaon-Kondapakha-Haliadi hills in the North West Bailadila range runs north south along
the western boundary of Dantewara tehsil. It is a 34 kilometre long and 10 kilometre wide range
varying from 300 to 900 metres in altitude . It has an estimated iron ore deposits of 1,153 million
tones with 60 to 70 % iron content. This iron are area is now opened up linked with
Vishakhapatnam port through which it is exported to Japan.

426
 Besides iron ore, Bastar has deposits of limestone, bauxite manganese, clays, glass sand and
building stone. The utilisation of most of these mineral resources is not being done due to low level
of technology and the lack of modern skills in the tribal people.
22.4.4 The Environment and Human Interaction
The environment has clear influence on distribution of population and human activities. The
lowlands better agricultural opportunities have comparatively higher density of population. The
forests occupy the uplands but some of the uplands also have imprints of human activity in spite their
hilly and undulating terrain . The southern plateau has been cleared off the forests for extending
cultivation. The Abhujhmaria tribes have settles on the lower margins of the upper hill slopes
because the moment of air is more free on the hill slopes as compared to the valley bottom . These
sites offer advantages of nearness to forests better drainage around the settlements as well as water-
points has restricted the availability of underground water hence no wells can be dug up particular on
higher slopes. Tanks therefore are the only sources of collecting and storing water High hills and
steeps slopes do not favour the construction roads. Moreover construction and maintenance of roads
is very costly.
The roads follow the narrow gaps in the plateau scarps and hill passes. The low level of the
development of transportational network explains the comparative isolation of this region. The
climate of Bastar is not tropical monoon type with a mean annual temperature of 24.50 Celsius and
average annual rainfall of about 120 centimetre. It has dry summers rainy season and dry winter
season. Thses is not much regional variation in climate conditions but some pockets like south-west
and north-west receive higher rainfall . The seasonal variations are quite pronounced. Agriculture is
largely rain-fed therefore, 90 % of the net sown area is confined to the kharif seasons. Soil moisture
for crop production is available during rainy season and due to lack of irrigational facilities the area
under rabi crops is limited. The winter temperatures are high in the southern Godawari lowlands
hence, Jawar is cultivated both as kharif and rabi crops. Fodder is available in the wet season and
tribal keep their flock of animals. They also do a limited fishing in the water bodies.
The population of the Bastar district is concentrated in the lowlands or in basin-shaped regions
bordered by hills to provide them natural protection. The hills and forests are devoid of any
population. The physical isolation created by difficult terrain has led the different tribal communities
to live in their own worlds developing their own customs, rituals and beliefs. Each one of the group
wants to preserve his identity and way of life.
The population is predominantly rural living in small hamlets in separate clearing in
forests. The higher population concentrations are found in the Mahanadi basin (Kankar tehsil),
Indrawati basin (Jagdalpur), Kotri plain (Bhanupratap), Dantewara Plains (northern Dentewara) and
427
Sabari plains (northern Konta). People are also concentred in Kandagoan (north-easternplateau) and
southern Dantewara because these tracts are isolated basin providing as sort of privacy to the tribals.
All the tribal population in Bastar is not homogenous. The numerically important tribes
are concentrated into isolated pockets. The seven major cultural sub-region differ amongst each other
in respect of house types, food dress, beliefs, language customs and techniques and tools which they
use in the production process.
The land of Abujhmaria tribe is extremely remote and rugged ‗Abujhmar‘ means the
unknown highland. These highlands are located in the middle of the district. The ruggedness of the
terrain the thinness of soil and lack or rich resources base, have kept these tribes economically very
backward. Their cultural advancement has been slowed down and they have not been able to cross
the stone-age culture even in the present century. They meet their economic needs from the local
products and have very few material possessional.
They depend on shifting cultivation (penda) They do not use plough or any other
agricultural implements. They cultivate the thin and poor upland soil and frequently shift the site of
cultivation as deteriorating soils cannot sustain them for long. Their needs are small and population
density is low. They are therefore, verse to the modern development like roads, markets and other
infrastructure. They are favourably inclined to accept such types of facilities as dispensary, poultry
scheme and approach roads. There is a cultural barrier to change and it may take time to accept such
changes.
The Maria tribal region is a tribal region of Bastar . The region extends over north-east
plateau and is adjoining areas their major economic activity is subsistence agriculture and they
produce rice and millets on which they subsist. Kosra is the important millet crop. They also gather
forest produce from their surrounding forests. The Marias in central Jagadalpur and southern
Kondagoan tehsil are culturally more advanced. They are known as ‗Raj Maria tribes. These tribes
are changing fast. They are more open to forces of market and their demands now include cloth,
utensils, and ornaments.
The Bhatra tribal region is almost a flat land. It has goods soils and better means of
transportation. Since they are receptive to innovations and change, they are culturally more
advanced. They practise agriculture and grow rice, oilseeds and sugarcance . The proximity to
Jagadalpur, the district headquaters of Bastar has also influenced the life style in this region.
The Dorla tribal tegion consists of the Godavari-Sabari lowlands along boundary of
Andhra Pradesh. They are culturally more advanced than the Bhatra tribe they have stated using
coconut oil which they obtain from the market. They do not cultivate any oilseed but rather collect
seeds from the forests to obtain oil.
428
 The Dhurwa (parja) tribal region extends over the southern part of Jagadalpur tehsil and
lies between north-eastern plateau and Sabari lowlands . The difficult terrain and thick forests have
restricted the internal communication. Culturally these tribes are less advanced than Bhatra and
Maria. They have developed high skills in the bamboo work.
The Bison-horn tribe region is a backward tract in Bastar district. They live in Dantewara
tehsil and parts of Bijapur east and Konta north tehsil. They use bison horns at the time of dancing
and that is how they have got this name. The Dantewara basin is part plain and partly plateaus. They
do not practise shifting agriculture but follow a system of rotation which they practice on the hill
slopes and permanent cultivation on the valley floor. The construction of a railway line between
Kirandul and Vishakhapatnam and mining of the iron are in Baildila are two important developments
in this region.
An unclassified Gond tribal region exists in the Mahanadi in the north extending over the
tehsil of Kankar and Bhanpura tappur . it lies on the margins of Chattisgarh plains and has better
communication facilities. This has provided contacts from outside. Its accessibility, low land relief,
goods soil have helped in its cultural and economic advancement . The main economic persued in
this region is agriculture. Rice is the dominate crop. The Kankar and Bhanpuratappur are two nodal
points which are connected with Raipur and Jagadalpur.

22.4.5 Planning The Development

Bastar had attracted the attention of the planners from the beginning of the five year plan strategy.
The two Special Multipurpose Tribal Blocks set up in the district for intensive development of tribal
areas in 1956-57 were renamed as Tribal Development Blocks during the Third Five Year plan
period. This strategy envisaged an integrated intensive programme covering all aspects of tribal life.
The tribal people as target group and the tribal areas as target areas have special needs which require
proper planning planning .The concept of tribal development block laid emphasis on soil
conservation, afforestation, social welfare, education, health cooperation and communication. The
programme is implemented by the District Collector under the direction of the Tribal Welfare
Department of the State Government.
The opening of the Bailadila iron are mining and laying of railway road network have
ushered the era of opening the economy of barter which has for long been a closed economy. A
closed economy based on the barter system hardly requires organized markets or means of
transportation to take produce to the market. The production specialization will require both because
the barter system will have to be replaced by the monetary system of transactions.

429
It is indicated that tribal people have welcomed the health service. Some changes in their
consumption pattern are also noticed. The two economic activities with which the tribal are familiar
are agriculture and forestry. These will have to be strengthened by introducing suitable skills as well
as inputs. The developmental processes may be induced from outside but it has to sustained by the
local people themselves.
The Tribal Development Block could not deliver the desired goods because blocks have been
found to be small an area for purposeful planning by the Shilu Ao Committte Moreover the
developmental planning has been fragmented and some of the schemes which were introduced in
tribal areas were actually meant for advanced communities. The employment-generating activities
have not been taken up properly. The local people‘s participation been missing in formulating the
plans and tailored programmes are introduced which have little impact. Moreover, a large area in
Bastar district has remained unsurveyed hence the real potential of the region cannot work out. The
land records should be updated backed up by cadastral mapping. The land laws formulated by the
states legislature must accommodated some of the provision of the tribal system of communal
ownership so that alienation of the tribal is minimal. The tribal areas should be opened up with some
protection so that non-tribal with their better skills and technology are not allowed to exploit the
tribal people. Unfortunately the development schemes are so designed that tribal become suspicious
and indifferent.

22.6 SUMMARY
As number and types of micro regions is large they cannot be easily determined only a general idea
is given hence by citing the administrative divisions of India right from territory units down to the
lowest level of development. For towns and cities, there are master plans prepared for their
development as need arises Principles of regional classification are being laid down to adopt some
uniform approach for reducing the personal Judgment of various researchers in dividing the
area/territory.

22.7 ACTIVITY
(i) Visit a Block Development office and discuss the activities per formed by this office with the
BDO.
(ii) Draw a map of the VC and show the major dam sites.

22.8 QUESTIONS
430
- What do you understand by development.
- Why have the development programmes not brought desired results in the tribal regions.
- Why is the multilevel planning is necessary in India .
- What were the main objectives of Damodar Valley Corporation.

22.9 REFERENCES
Ahmad, Enayat 1967 ― Bihar‖ Ranchi University.

Ahmed Fakruddin, 1973, ― Who is Killing India‘s Future Science To-Day‖ Mumbai August Patel B.
Shirish 1974 a Metropolitan Mumbai O2 West Mumbai No. 888 May-June Kamarackt M. Andhra
1977 ―The Tropic and Economic Development Digest Washington DC Vol. XV July.

Bose. A,970-71, ― A Studies in India‘s Urbanization‖ Moscow.

Census of India 1973 ― Economic and Socio Cultural Dimensions of Regionalization‖ (An India
Soviet Collaborative study)

Gill, K.S. 1977, ―Evolution of India‘s Economy‖ NCERT New Delhi.

Government of India 1976 ― Report of National Commission on Agriculture‘ Part 11 and IV

Ministry of Agriculture.

Government of India, 1975 ―The Gazetteer of India‖, Ministry of Education , New Delhi Volume
111.

India 1976 ― A Reference Annual Publication Division‖, New Delhi.

Mishra, R.P., Sundram, K.V. and Prakash Rao V.L.S., 1976, ― Regional Development Planning in
India‖ Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Delhi.

Nekrasov, 1974 ―Territorial Organization of Soviet Economy‖, Progress Publication, Moscow.

Parakh, B.S.,1976, ―India on the Move‖ NCERT, New Delhi

431
Registrar General of India 1974 ―Population of India (c.i.c.r.e.d. Series)

Schwartzberg, J.E., 1973, ― Prolegomera to the Study of South Asia Regions and Regionalism in
Regions and Regionalism in South Asia Studies: An Explanatory Study (Edited) By Robert 1 Crane
Monograph No. 5. Duke University.

Singh Jabir, 1976, ― The Green Revolution in India Agricultural Atlas of India‖ Vishal Publication,
Kurushetra.

Sinha B.N., 1972 ― Industrial Geography of India‖ The World Press Pvt.Ltd. Kolkata (Calcutta)

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UNIT-23 INDO GANETIC PLAIN

STRUCTURE
23.0 Objectives
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Indo Ganetic Plain Natural /Physical Region
23.2.1 History
23.2.2 Geography
23.2.3 Extent
23.2.4 Divisions
23.2.5 Administrative Division
23.2.6 Language
23.2.7 Agriculture
23.2.8 Fauna
23.2.9 Stressed Water Supplies
23.2.10 Cities
23.3 Physiographic Division
23.3.1 Bhabar Belt
23.3.2 Terai Belt
23.3.3 Banger Belt
23.3.4 Khadar Belt
23.4 Summary
23.5 Activity
23.6 Questions
23.7 References

23.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand about Indo Ganetic Plain
To understand physiographical division of Indo Ganetic Plain
To know about density and population
To understand Flora and Faunal wealth of a region.
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23.1 INTRODUCTION
The great plain of India occupies the intervening space between the plateau and mountains. It is
believed to have resulted from the gradual infilling of an initial marine depression by detrital
material. The superficial alluvial deposits are thus resting or the continental shelf of a sea which has
been receding ever since Territory times leaving and estuarine sediments. They now lie buried under
the thick mantle of alluvium.

23.2 INDO GANETIC PLAIN NATURAL/ PHYSICAL REGION

The northern Plains also known as the Indo- Gengetic Plain and the north Indian River Plain is a
large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most populous parts of
Pakistan, parts of southern Nepal and virtually all drain it.
The plain‘s population density is very high due to the fertile soil for farming.
The plains supports one of the most populous areas on Earth, being home to nearly I billion people
(or around 1/7 of the world‘s population) on
700,000 square kilometre (27,000 square mile).
Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain
are Ludhiana, Amritsar, Chandigarh, Delhi,
Raipur, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi,
Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati, Dhaka, Lahore,
Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Multan,
Hyderabad and Karachi. (Refer Figure 50) In this
region, it is hard to define where one megalopolis
begins and one ends.

The Indo-Gangetic plain is bound on the north by

the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its
numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile
alluvium deposited across the region by the two
river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the
Chotanagpur Plateau. On the west rises the Iranian Plateau. The physical and natural regions are
discussed in given below headings

434
23.2.1 History
The region is known for the Indus Valley Civilization centered in Pakistan, which was
responsible for the birth of ancient South Asian Culture. The flat and fertile terrain has facilitated the
repeated rise and expansion of various empire, include the Gupta empire, Kanuj, Megadha, the
Maurya Empire, the Mughal Empire and the Sultanate of Delhi- all of which had their demographic
and political centres in the Indo – Gangetic plain. During the Vedic and Epic eras of Indian history,
this region was referred to as ―Aryavarta‖ (Land of the Aryans) which was bordered on the west by
the Indus River and on the south by the Vindhya Mountain range. During the Islamic period, the
Turkish, Afghan and Iranian rules referred to this region as ―Hindustan‖(Land of the Hindus),
deriving from the Persian term for the Indus River. This term was later used to refer to the whole of
India but even into the modern era, the dialect of Hindi-Urdu spoken in this region is called
Hindustani, a term which is also used for the local music and culture.
Both British and independent India also had their demographic and political centres here (first in
Kolkata and then Delhi).

23.2.2 Geography
The Indus- Gangetic plains, also known as the ― Great Plains,‖ are large floodplains of the Indus
and the Ganges- Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya Mountain, from
Jammu and Kashmir in the West to Assam in the East and draining most of northern and eastern
India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 square kilometre (270,000 square mile)and vary in
width through their length by several hundred kilometres. The major rivers of this systems are the
Ganges and the Indus along with their length by several hundred kilometres. The major rivers of this
system are the Ganges and the Indus along their tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomati, Chambal, Sutlej
and Chenab.
Extent of the indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia. The great plains are sometimes classified into
four divisions;
 TheBhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalaya and consists of boulders and
pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is
very high, the stream flow underground. The Bhabar is generally narrow about 7-15
kilometre wide.
 The Terai belt- lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The
underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly

435
 forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of
wildlife.
 The Bangar belt- consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood
plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits by river
flowing down the plain.
The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world‘s most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by
the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it
conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources.
The plains are one of the world‘s most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rich and
wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other includes maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic
plains rank among the world‘s most densely populated areas.

23.2.3 Extent
As a large plain, the exact extent can vary source. Roughly, the Indo-Gengetic Plain stretches across:
 Kashmir in the north;
 The Punjab region of Pakistan and the Aravalli Range;
 Sindh in the west;
 The Himalayan foothills of Assam and Bangladesh in the east; and
 The Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chotanagpur Plateau in the North.
 Goes to northern Portion of Gujarat

The fertile Terai region is the Nepalese extension of the Plain. The rivers encompassed are the Beas,
the Chambal, the Chenab, the Ganges, the Gomti, the Indus, the Ravi Sutlej and the Yamuna. The
soil is rich in silt, making the plain one of the most intensely farmed areas of the world. Even rural
areas here are densely populated.

23.2.4 Divisions
Some geographers subdivide the Indo- Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valleys the
Punjab Plain, the Haryana
Plains, and the middle and lower Ganges. These regional distinctions are based primarily on the
availability of water.
By another definition, the Indo- Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi
ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part

436
consists of the Ganges- Brahmaputra drainage systems. This divide is only 300 metres above sea
level, causing the perception that the Indo-Gangetic Plain appears to be continuous between the two
drainage basins.
Both the Punjab and Haryana Plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej rivers.
The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water, which
reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valleys in Pakistan.
The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana farmers are controversial, due to the
effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan.
The middle Ganges extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the
east. The lower Ganges and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganges.
The lower Ganges is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into after joining the Yamuna
both rivers form the Ganges Delta. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zungbo River and
flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh.

23.2.5 Administrative Divisions

Because it is not fully possible to define the boundaries of the of the Indo Gangetic plain, it
is also difficult to give an exact list of which administrative areas are part on the plain.
The area that are completely part or more than half part of the plains are:
 Bangladesh (almost the whole country)
 India
 Assam
 Bihar
 Delhi
 Haryana
 Punjab
 Rajasthan
 Tripura
 Uttar Pradesh
 West Bengal
 Nepal
 The Madhaesh
 Pakistan
 Punjab
 Sindh
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Small parts of the following administrative areas or are not part of the plain :
 India
 Madhaya Pradesh
 Meghalaya
 Jharkhand
 Orissa
 Pakistan
 Balochistan
 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
 Kashmir Region
See also
 Doab
 Gujjar

23.2.6 Languages
The languages of the Indo-Gengetic Plain was previously Indo- Aryan. There is in addition a great
variety of regional languages, which in several cases from a dialect chain with one another.

23.2.7 Agriculture
Farming on the Indo-Gangetic Plain primarily consists of rice and wheat grown in rotation. Include
maize, sugarcane, and cotton. The main source of rainfall is the southwest monsoon which is
normally sufficient for general agriculture. The many rivers flowing out of the Himalayas provide
water for major irrigation works.

23.2.8 Fauna
Until recent history, the open grasslands of the Indo-Ganetic Plain was inhabited by several large
species of animal. The open plains were home to large numbers of herbivores which included three
species of Rhinoceros(Indian Rhinoceros, Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros). The open
grasslands were in many ways similar to the landscape of modern Africa. Gazelle, buffalo, rhinos,
elephants, lions, and hippo roamed the grasslands, the same way as they do in Africa today. Large
herds of elephants, gazelles, antelopes and horse lived alongsiode several species of wild cattle
including the now extinct Auroch. In the forested areas tere were several species of wild pig deer
and Mantjac. In wetter regions close to the Ganges there would have been large herds of Water
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Buffalo grazing on the riverbanks along with extinct species of hippopotamus. So many large
animals would have supported a large population of predators as well. Wolf, Dhole, Striped Hyena,
Indian cheetah and Asiatic Lion would have hunted large game on the open plains, while tigers and
leopards would stalk prey in the surrounding woods. In the Ganges there were large concentrations
of gharial, mugger crocodile and river dolphin controlling fish stocks and the occasional migrating
herd crossing the river.

23.2.9 Stressed Water Supplies

Due to a rapidly growing population (as well as other factors), this area is considered at high risk for
water shortages in the future. This area constitutes the land between the river Brahmaputra and
Aravlli mountain ranges, the famous river Ganges, Yamuna, Ghaggra, Chambal and Brahmaputra
flow through the area.

23.2.10 Cities
Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gengetic Plain are Ahmedabad, Ludhiana, Amritsar ,
Chadigarh, Delhi, Jaipur, Kanpurl, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna and Kolkata in India,
Dhaka in Bangladesh, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi- Islamabad , Multan, Hyderabad and Karachi
in Pakistan. In this region , it is hard to define where one megalopolis begins and one ends.

23.3 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION

Physiographic division of Indo-Gengetic Plains, also referred as the Great plains is the most
densely populated area of the country. This region run parallel to the Himalaya Mountain and
stretches from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and drain most of northern and
eastern India covering an area of 700,000 square kilometre.
These Great Plains are considered large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra
river systems covering major rivers namely the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries-
Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab. The region holds great important socially
and economically.
The Indo-Gangetic plain stretches from the Indus River system in Pakistan to the Punjab
Plain(in both Pakistan and India)and the Haryana Plain to the delta of the Ganga in Bangladesh. The
region forms the most densely populated area in the country.
The central Highlands are divided into northern and southern parts.
 Northern Aravalli Range of eastern Rajasthan.

439
 Southern part Malwa Plateau of northern Madhya Pradesh
The Indo-Gangetic Plains can be further classified into four catergories as Bhabar Belt, Terai Belt,
Bangar Belt and Khaddar Belt.

23.3.1 Bhabar Belt

Bhabar Belt is adjoining to the foothills of the Himalayas and comprises of boulders and pebbles
which have been carried down by the river streams. The streams flow underground due to high
porosity and have narrow width rnaging form 7to 15 kilometre.

23.3.2 Terai Belt

Tarai Belt is present next to Bhabar Belt and coveers the northern boundary of indo –Gangtic Plain.
The region gets heavy rainall through out the year.

23.3.3 Bangar Belt

Bangar belt is a low upland covered by lateritic deposits and consists of older alluvium forming the
alluvial terrace of the flood plains.

23.3.4 Khadar Belt

Khandar Belt lies downward to Beangar Belt and comprises new alluvium soil which is deposited by
the rivers flowing down the plain.
Some geographers subdivide the Indo –Gangetic plain on the basis of the availability of water into
following categories:
 Indus Valley (mostly in Pakistan)
 Punjab (divided between India and Pakistan)
 Haryana plains
 Middle and lower Ganga.
While others divide the region of indo-Gangetic plain into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge
as following:
 Indus Valley (mostly in Pakistan)
 Punjab (divided between India and Pakistan)
 Middle and lower Ganga

440
While others divide region of Indo-Gangetic Plain into two drainage basins by the Delhi ridge as
following:
Western part consists of the Punjab and the Haryana Plain
Eastern part consists of the Ganga-Brahmapputra drainage systems.
The region of Indo-Genetic Plain is rich in ground water and world‘s most wide spread of alluvium
formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers so suitable for farming. Mainly rice and
wheat crops are grown in rotation along with few other crops as maize, sugarcane and cotton.

23.4 SUMMARY
The evolution of the plain is thus sometimes attributed to a process of gradual infilling of an initial
rift valley stretched in front of northern plains are and formed as a consequence of a fracture in the
crust.

23.5 ACTIVITY
On an outline map of Indian sub-continent show the sources of rivers Indus, Sutluj, Ganga and
Brahmaputra.

23.6 QUESTIONS
- Trace the geographical factors responsible for the cultural influences of India getting diffused into
the distant lands for the assimilation of new cultural elements coming the outside India.
- Give a brief account in a historical perspective of the changing patterns of human activities in Indo
Ganetic Plains.

23.7 REFERENCES
― India‖ ( https: II www. cia.gov /library / publication /the world facebook / geos /in. html ). 1A-
The World Indo-Ganetic Plain-Wikipedia the free encyclopedia.
http: /india online . in / profile /Geography / Physiographic regions /Indo-Ganetic –Plain aspx.

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BLOCK-8 CASE STUIES MESO / MICRO LEVEL REGIONS IN
DETAIL (THE COASTAL REGION )

Introduction
The Indian coasts and Island have provided ever since a marine face to India for looking at the
overseas realm and it is needless to emphasis that its glory and sphere of influence remain in keeping
wit the light and strength, which the seaboard could project. This block consists of three units.
Unit 24 provides an introduction, historical aspects, physiography and regional development of
Gujarat region.
Unit 25 Discusses in detail study of the Eastern Coastal plain
Unit 26 Provides in details geographical study of the West Coastal Plains (Physical setting) and
regional development.
We hope that the Block will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the fields.

Unit 24 Gujarat Region A Physical Study

Unit 25 The Eastern Region (Physical Setting)
Unit 26 The West Coastal Plains (Physical setting)
and Regional Development.

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UNIT-24 GUJARAT REGION A PHYSICAL STUDY

STRUCTURE
24.0 Objectives
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Gujarat Region
24.3 Structure and Physiography
24.3.1 The Eastern Section
24.3.2 Drainage
24.3.3 Climate, Vegetation,and Soils
24.3.4 The Physical Resource Base
24.4 The Cultural Setting
24.4.1 The Economy
24.4.2 Irrigation
24.4.3 Cropping Pattern
24.5 Industrial Economy
24.6 Transport and Communication
24.7 The Region
24.7.1 The Gujarat Region West
24.7.2 Kathiawar Region
24.7.3 Ahmedabad Region
24.7.4 Khambad region
24.7.5 Eastern Hill region
24.8 Summary
24.9 Activity
24.10 Qustions
24.11 References

24.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand physiography of Gujarat Region
To know mineral resources, soils and vegetation
To know about transportation and communication
To understand rural and urban settlement
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24.1 INTRODUCTION
Gujarat region is one of the early settled parts of te country and archaeological and epigraphical
evidences denote that before the coming of the Aryans it was a homeland of sevaral dravidians tribes
whop lived in villages and towns and built forts and carried on agriculture and trade.

24.2 GUJARAT REGION

The Gujarat region ( 2001`-2407` N and 6804`-7404` E) the population of Gujarat state is 50,671,017
(as per census 2001), covers an area of 1,96,024 square kilometre and shares its border with states of
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The state has a literacy rate of 79.8 %. The 26
districts of Gujarat are: Ahmedabad, Amreli, Banaskantha, Bharuch, Bhavnagar, ahod, Dang,
Gandhinagar, Jamnagar, Junagad, Kheda, Kutch, Mehsana, Narmada, Navsari, Panchmahal, Patan,
Porbandar, Rajkot, Sabarkantha, Surat, Surendraqnagar, Tapti, Vadodara and Valsa. In the year
1960, Gujarat was created (Refer figure 51) out of 17 northen districts of the former Mumbai state:
Ahmedabad, Amreli, Banaskantha, Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Dang, Jamnagar, Junagadh, Kheda,
Kachchh, Mehsana, Panchmahal, Rajkot, Sabarkantha, Surat, Surendranagar,and Vadodara.
The population of Gujarat is
diverse, Hindus form the majority
among the Gujarat state
population, Muslims and Jains
make up the monorities in the
state.
In term of population, the Indian
state of Gujarat holds 10th
position among the states and
Union Territories of the Republic
of India.

The population growth in Gujarat

state is higher than the national
average. Gujarat has registered a population growth of 22.48% as compared to the national average
of 21.34 %. The number is relevant uring the decade starting from 1991 and ending at 2001.
The sex ratio of te population of Gujarat state has worsened in that period. The number of females
has come down to 921 from the 934 number recorded during the preceding census.

444
The literacy rate among the Gujarati population has improved. The literacy rate has increased to
69.97 % from 61.57 % recorded in the census conducted ten years ago.The number of literates
among the population of Gujarat according to the 2001, census stands at 29,050,019. The number of
males in this list comes to 17,349,179. Females make up the rest-11,700,840.
The above literacy levels if expressed in percentages imply that among the total population in
Gujarat, males comprise 76.47 % of the literacy count. The percentage of literate females vis-a vis
the female population comes to 55.61%.

24.3 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

The Gujarat Region consisting of major and minor peninsulas, gulfs, Islands, ranns, creeks, marshes,
hills plateaus and coastal strip is strewn with alluvium and milliolites. With the silting of the Ranns,
two tongues of water known as Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambay now enter the landmass to define
the peninsula of Kahiawar or Saurashtra. The gulfs aid to its comercial activities.
The ancient Archeacan base lies almost covered with later deposits except in the northeastern part of
Gujarat where the Aravallis appear as relict feature of the gigantic Pre-Cambrian mountain system
with pitching anticlines. No definite denudation chronology of the past can be out-lined,
Representatives of the highest Gondwana groups are found in Kutch, resting upon the marine
Jurassic rocks and capped by the Lower Cretaeous (Aptian) beds. Lithological marks in the form of
plateaus, Umia sandstone and shale (80 kilometre nortwest of Bhuj), Wadhwan sand stones
(occupying 2400 square kilometre), Narha dark shale and flags overlain by sandstones,
Dharangadhra freestone, Songir sandstone of Baroda, Nimar sandstone, and Ahmednagar sandstone
of Idar indicate their Upper Gondwana sequence.
The Decan Trap lies unconformably over the Umia Series. The Lower stage of Umia Series is
marine while its upper stage is equivalent to the Jabalpur beds. These Upper Gondwana Umia beds
are largely covered with a thick soil-cap. The bore-holes in the north show an alluvial cover. Eocene
emissions which mighthave continued to Miocene explain the varying sheets of lavas. They are
frequently traversed by numberous Trap dykes in Kathiawar, but such dykes are absent in the east
from where commences the Deccan Lava region. The new systems of streams organized themselves
eiter as feeders of the truncated streams or as independent systems. There appears to be simultaneous
evidence of elevation and silting by the peninsular rivers in Gujarat. Kathiwar pro bably was linked
with the mainland due to elevation and sedimenation. Relics of former channel- links exict in the
form of marshes and lakes as also the Nal depression.

445
24.3.1 The Eastern Section
The Eastern Section of Gujarat may be defined as a projected jet of Sindhu-Ganga alluvial tract in
the Peninsular India. This alluvial projection is the outcome of an extensive pleistocene
sedimentation. The Sabarmati, Mahi, Tapi and numerous tiny parallel consequent streams carried in
the recent past enough load to advance their alluvial prows in the Gulf of Cambay. This process of
deposition is still in progress.
Rronts and rears of mountains lying beyond the precincts of Gujarat appear as hills on its border. The
Arasur mountain stretching for over 160 kilometre terminates in the eastern part of Gujarat.
Pavavardh rises to 329 metre high. The Rajpipla hills (Satpura hills) are famous for agate quarries.
The Parnera Mountain in Bulsar districet lies in the eastern side whereas the hills of sahyadri span
over 160 kilometre in its southern extremity. The igneous complex of Girnar Hill rises to an
elevation of 1,117 metre at its Gorakhanath Peak. Various rocks like gabbros, diorites, seyenites
etc., probably emanting from the same magmatic reservoir seem to have been ejected through the
Deccan Lavas. The Saurashtra peninsular highlands have slender zigzag backbone terminating in two
extensive hill masses in its north and south.
To the north of Gujarat the morphology presents a unique terrain of the Rann of Kutch, an
extensive country of naked tidal mudflats transected by dead and live creeks. A fault scarp, 3.5-6.3
metre high and 8 kilometre long popularly known as the Allah Bund (God‘s Dyke) on account of
an earhtquake in 1819 punctuated the old indus distributaries into the Rann. The Rann of Kutch and
the Little Rann, spanning over an area of 73,600 suuare kilometre , is a micro region in itself. A
bird‘s eye view briefly recapitulates its mud terrains, tiny alluvial basins, dead creeks with whitish
vertebrae of salts or scums, numerous marshes of verteing dimension and aquatic kingdom dotted
with blue dots and defined lakes. Islets and islands project over the bare and broken ribs of the
ancient anticline here and there. To its south lies the Kutch. Kutch, formerly an island, is almost
surrounded by the Rann except in the southwest. It has a brokenbackbone of Jurassic-Miocene rocks.
The sandstones, capped with basalts, rise to an elevation between 315-385 metre Pachcham Island
lying further north records maximum elevation of 534 metre. O te outskirts of Kutch, alluvium and
aeolin deposits occur thus the physiographic divisions may be distinguished as
1. Rann
2. The Kutch Peninsula
3 The Peninsular Gujarat or Saurashtra and
4. The Gujarat Alluvial Plain.

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24.3.2 Drainage
The present drainage acts like a key to the past and portays almost connected evolution of the
drainage at least in the recent past. The drainage divide is formed by the discontinuous hilly
backbone in Kutch. Rising from its southern slope, numerous streams abound from Kori Creek in the
west to the eastern terminus of the Gulf of Kutch. They carve out their valleys for a few kilometres
before uniting with the Gulf of Kutch. Pachcham Island in the north reveals a radial pattern of
drainage within its narrow compass from its central summit. In the mud flats of the Rann, live creeks,
lakes, marshes and tarces of dendritic drainage do not lack even when they been modified by recent
earthquakes.

The radial drainage pattern of Kathiawar is guided by two hill masses of Rajkot (389 m) and
Gir Range (728 m) which are linked by tortuous narrow neck of highland. North-flowing streams
unite with Gulf of Kutch and Little Rann, while south-flowing streams merge in the Arabian sea.
Carving out their valleys in the Sorat seacoast, the Bhabar and Ojat rivers together with other west-
flowing streams terminate in the Arabian Sea whereas the eastward drainage lines like the shatrunji
and others discharge their waters in the Gulf of Cambay. A detailed study of the drainage also
reveals annular pattern flanking the Girnar hills another drainage source lies on the southwestern
slope of the Aravallis. The Sabarmati and the Mahi with their feeders form the drainage net.

The eastern highland face registers the source of various streams south of the Tapi. The
Narmada and the Tapi running form east to west align along the rift valleys. They enter the western
coast of peninsular India to unite with the Gulf of Cambay but the currents generated in the Cambay
wast away the silts of the Narmada and Tapi. The free movements of their silt is arrested by the
Cambay currents on their respective mouths. The streams south of the Tapi are short, swift and
young. They are engaged in notching the scarps of the western Ghats. The Mahi, the Narmada and
the Tapi form the main arteries of the Gujarat Plain whereas the Banas, the saraswati , the
Vashwamitri, the Dhadhar, the Kim, the purna, the Ambika, the Auranga, the Damanganga, the
shatrunji, the Bhadar, the Aji and a host of other feeders either merge in the Rann of Kutch or fall
into Gulf of Cambay and the Arabian sea (Refer Figure 52)

447
24.3.3 Climate, Vegetation and Soils
The Region bounded by desert fringe in the north and Arabian
Sea with major tongues of Kutch and Cambay in the south registers higher temperature in the
northern segment and lower in the southern districts. The maximum temperature varies from 36.7º ct
to 43.3º during summer, while the minimum, between 2 ºC and 18.3 º from November to February.
In January greater parts of Kutch, Kathiawar and the country south of Cambay record temperatures
over 20 ºC where as the remaining north parts register between 17.5 º and 20 ºC. In April the
isothermal lines of 27.5C and 30 ºC trend north to south. The isobars of 1016 and 1017 mb bend
northward in Gujarat. The low pressure bars indicate pressure between 1002 to 999 mb in July and
the winds are westerly. The northern limit of the summer monsoon is marked by a line running from
west to east passing through the tip of Gulf of Cambay. The climate of Gujarat in the south and
southwest is mostly moist with an average rainfall of 150 centimetre , while the northeastern portion
is dry verging to towards southern Rajasthan with a rainfall of 50 centimetre Topography and
direction of winds the seasonal distribution of rain fall which is uneven and irregular in several
segments of the Region.
448
 The rain is intense in south Gujarat and decreases in the north and west. The isohyet of 40
centimetre demarcates the Rann whereas that of 80 centimetre defines the eastern and southern rain
belt. The central part, except the hills, receives 40-80 centimetre rain. The average rainfall varies
between 33 to 152 centimetre. South Gujarat receives rainfall between 76-152 centimetre except in
favorable parts of Dange where it is as high as 190 centimetre coefficient of variability of annual rain
is between 30-35%. The north Gujarat records rain between 51 to 102centimetre , and the variability
ranges between 35to 50%. The south Central highlands of the Saurashtra Peninsula and Cambay
Gulf coast region receive over 63 centimetre rain. Jamnagar and Junagadh coastal lands record less
than 63 centimetre with 40-60% a variability. The coastal arcas near Dwarka, and kutch are semi-
arid recording very low rain and high variability (over 60%).

Vegetation: the natural vegetal cover in the region is dry thorny forest. Small trees or upon scrub
characterise the dry segment. The dry scrub terminates into poor grass and bush in the northern cost
of Kathiawar and Kutch. Day deciduous, thorn and littoral types are also found to some extent. The
Dang district leads in forest acreage sharing over 30% of its total area. The reserve forest areas lie in
Amreli, Junagadh, Ahmedabad, Mehsana, Surat and other eastern district.
Soils: The soil map of Gujarat (Refer Figure 53) shows 6 soil – types: Deep Black Soils or Regur, 2.
Medium Black ,3. Coastal alluvium Alluvium- Sandy loam, Sandy Alluvium and Desert (Saline)
soil. In addition, red and yellow soils appear on the highland cores of Kutch and northern Kathiawar.
Pedagogical studies show that the basic complex of Gujarat comprises the volcanic rocks except the
alluvial plains of the western periphery of Saurashtra peninsula and North Gujarat.

There are two basic soil regions i.e., plains and peninsulas. The Gujarat plain further exhibits deep
black soil in south Gujarat and sandy loam soil having local nomenclature as Goradu in central
449
Gujarat. This is an amazingly fertile unit, popularly known as the Garden of Gujarat. The
Panchmahals and south-eastern segment of Sabarkantha contain medium black soil. The alluvial
sandy soils derived from granites occur in the western part of Mehsana and Banaskantha. The
Saurashtra and Kutch Peninsulas, with defined configuration, in general contain soils derived from
the Deccan Lava, but each on of them has its special traits. The northern parts of Jamnagar, Rajkot
and Surendranagar districts are covered with alluvium sandy soils derived from sandstones, cherts
and conglomerates. Black cotton soil or Regur forms two defined locations. The elongated Regur
tract running from west to east on the basaltic surface of the broken backbone of Kutch forms the
first section while the second segment spans over central Kathiawar with a northeast projection.
Medium Black soils occur in central Kathiwar and are basaltic in origin. The Saurashtra coast, north
Cambay and western coastal strip of Gujarat are clad with coastal alluvium and miliolites.

24.3.4 The Physical Resource Base

The forest supplies timber, firewood, bamboos, pasture, non-edible oilseeds, Bidi leaves, gums and
resins. The Gujarat Wild life comprises of several species of wild animals and wild birds. The Gir
Forest contains about 177 Asian lions which attract many tourists.
The perennial rivers like the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have proved to be great
asset for domestic , irrigational projects reflect proper multi-purpose use of water. Marine water has
promoted fishing and coastal of over 1600 kilometer, broken up by bays, inlets, cstuaries, creeks and
marshes, provides admirable facilities for fishing. Species like pomfrets, Indian salmons, bilsa, jew
fishers, prawns, perches, Bombay ducks and tuna are found in large quantities in region‘s oceanic
span of over 120,000 km2. the Halar-Okha coast is noted for shell chank fisheries. Porbandar,
Veraval and Bulsar are service stations for fishermen. Development of several ports as fishing
harbours is in progress. Refrigeration, marketing, ancillary industries like fish manure, extraction of
shark liver oil etc., fishery schools and training centres and other measures have promoted this
resource development. Though the Gulf of Cambay ports ,some of which like Broach controlled the
overseas trade during ancient India, have declined due to silting ancient, yet there are some
admirable sites for establishing harbours; Kandla creek which has helped in developing the port of
Kandla to replace to replace Karachi is case in point.

24.4 THE CULTURAL SETTING

Culture is determined and saped historically and socially, it in turn influences the social,
economic and geo-political development of the people or nation. It also deal with the complex
interaction of various factors which has influenced our culture over the few decades.
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24.4.1 The Economy
Agriculture forms the crucial sector of the regional economy but is hampered by many
difficulties and has not yet reached the desired efficiency. Unfavorable climatic conditions in some
parts, rocks and hilly terrain with thin or no soils elsewhere, ill drained coastal areas and the two
Ranns are the physical disabilities obstructing agricultural expansion and productivity cultural lags in
some areas are also responsible for poor yieds in most cases do not even attain the average of the
country. Drought and famine prevail in some parts alternated by floods.
Over 50% of the total area is under cultivation though the range is very wide, from 15.5% in
Kutch to over 77% in Mehsana, and most of the districts range between 60 to 75%. Kutch and Dange
(24.3%) have relative very low proportions. About 12% of the area is under forests and grazing ,
about 4% each under cultivable and barren, current and other fallows (Refer figure 54)

24.4.2 Irrigation
The regions has very limited irrigation facilities; only less than 10% of the Cultivated area is
irrigated though the potentials exist for extending the facilities to about 1/3rd of the cultivated
acreage. There is wide regional variation in irrigation facilities, being notable in Mechsana (21.8%),
kaira(16.2%), Junagarh (16.6%) and Sabarkantha (13.0%). There are several large and medium and
small irrigation projects. Some of the notable ones are the Ukai, Narmada, Kadana (Mahi stageI),
Sabarmati Reservoir (Dharoi), Damanganga, Sipu, Panam, Watrak etc. The Narmada river projects,
the hope of south Gujarat, has yet to be developed, mainly because of inter-State disputes. The
project could irrigate about one million acres when completed. The four main river systems the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati hold out a big promise with over 2/3 rds of the
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Region‘s irrigation potential. Minor irrigation programme incorporates surface irrigation wells,
pumping sets, tanks and bandbaras 83 % of the net irrigated area is irrigated by wells whereas
share of private and government canals is only 14% .

24.4.3 Cropping Pattern

About 60% of the cropped area is devoted to food crops processing about 2/3 rds of the food
requirements of the State Jower, bajra, rice and wheat are the important food crops in order. As
compared to most other regions, the cropping pattern here shows a striing dominace of cash crops:
the region produce about a quarter of the country‘s cotton, 1/7 th ground nuts cover stands second
and accounts for over 1/3rd of the area under non-food crops. The production of oilseeds has
quadrupled and that of cotton has doubled during the last 15 years. While groundnuts and 1/6th of
tobacco. While groundnuts cover the maximum acreage among all crops; cotton, 1/7th of groundnuts
and 1/6th of tobacco. While groundnuts cover the maximum acreage among all crops; cotton stands
second and accounts for over 1/3 rd of the area under non-food crops. The production of oilseeds has
quadrupled and that of cotton has doubled during the last 15 years. While most of the crops are
widely diffused, tobacco is concentrated in Kaira (over 2/3rd acreage) and Vadodara (about ¼ of
acreage). Over 2/3 rds of the cotton acreage is found in the Gujarat Plain, mainly in Surendrangar,
Ahmedabad, Vadodara and Broach districts, with 60-100centimetre rainfall regime; it is mostly a
Jirayat (dry) crop except in parts of Kaira where it is irrigated. The crop is usually rotated often with
bajra in light and jowar in heavy soils, and recently high yielding and staple varieties as if Deviraj,
Devitji and Gujarat 67 have replaced the short-staple deshi varieties. Groundnut is mostly
concentrated in the peninsular Gujarat (78% of the acreage) with light and friable soil; about half the
cultivated area in Junagadh and Rajkot districts are under this crop Jowar occupies the first place
amongst the cereals, followed by bajra, rice and wheat. The crop is widely diffused , with most of the
districts devting over 10% of their cultivated acreages. It is also widely grown as fodder crop. Over
1/4th of the area under food crops is devoted to it with maximum acreage in Mehsana and least in
Dangs. Bajra has maximum concentration in arid and semi-arid parts of Sabarkantha, Mehsana,
Surendranagar, Bhanagar and Amreli. Rice and wheat together cover about 1/10 of the cultivated
area. Both in acreage and production, rice gets priority over wheat and its maximum concentration is
in Surat, Pancmahals and adjoining parts of Kaira and Vadodara. About 1/4th of the total area under
wheat is concentrated in Ahmedabad and 1/10th in Mehsana. Maize assumes importance in
Panchmahals and Sabarkantha.
Crop Association: considering the crop rankings upto fourth place, seven crop associations everge:

452
(i) wheat- cotton jowar rice, (ii) Bajra oilseeds- wheat jowar/ cotton, (iii) cotton- rice/ jowar maize/
jowar/bajra –jowar/ wheat / oilseeds, (iv) Rice wheat/ jowar- bajra/cotton oilseeds- wheat/
groundnut bajra-jowar, (vi)maize rice/cotton groundnut wheat, and (vii) Ground –nut-jowar/
oilseeds/ wheat bajra/ cotton wheat/ bajra/ jowar (Refer Figure 55).

24.5 INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY

Gujarat stands prominently on the industrial map of India being next to W. Bengal and Maharashtra
considering the number of registered factores and workers; it comprises over 8% of the industrial
employment in the country. It is the largest producer of salt and second largest of textiles among the
states and figures in general and electrical engineering, vegetable oil, heavy chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, cement, ceramics, fertilizers and petro-chemicals. It is the only region next to
Assam in the development of oil fields. It is remarkable that Gujarat has a rich tradition for its
industrial and commercial enterprises since ancient times. The Jari works of Surat and the inlay
work of Kutch are widely known. The traditional skill combined with modern technology,
particularly since Independence, has provided grate stimulus for the remarkable industrial
development using, to a large measure, the local material.
Being away from the coal-belt of India, power development in Gujarat has been limited and till 1950,
it was development mostly under private enterprise with scattered distribution mainly confined to the
urban centres. With the formation mainly confined to the urban centres. With the formation of the
Gujarat Electricity Board (1950), the power production and distribution was organized into regional
grid systems. The thermal power is the most important, and among the generating station Dhuvaran
(capacity 254 MW) in the south and Shahpur (16MW) and Ahmedabad (217.5MW) in the north,
Uttan (67.5MW) in the south and the Shahpur (16MW), porbandar (15MW), Sikka (16MW) and
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Rajkot in Saurashtra, and some notable. Dhuvaran power station now uses waste products of the
Gujarat refinery. Tarapore Atomic Power station, though located in Maharashtra will provide
190MW to the region. Among the several hydel schemes, associated with the multi- purpose
projects, the Uskai project (300 MW) will be the largest. Dhuvaran (second stage 280MW) will also
be significant supplier. Gasturbines (54MW) will also be used for power generation. Thus, the total
installed generating capacity in various powerhouses is 618 MW and almost equal amount is likely
to be supplied in near future.
About 20% of the registered factories are large scale units employing over 4/5ths of the
industrial manpower. Of these industries, over 25% are located in Ahmedabad, employing more than
50% of large scale industrial workers of the Region; Surat with about 1/6 th of such units employs
only 1/10th of the workers, thus marking a poor second; Kaira and Vadodara follow in order. These
four industrial nodes together form a narrow belt in the Gujarat plain. A moderate industrial
development has also taken place in the four districts of Saurashtra with a semblance of a belt
formed by Bhavnagar, Surendranagar, Rajkot and Jamnagar. These industrial belts together employ
about 75% of the industrial workers in the State, Ahmedabad alone accounting for about one-half.
Surat, a traditional centre of small scale and cottage industries employs about 1/5th of the small-scale
factory workers of the state. Unlike Ahmedabad and Surat, Vadodara present a balanced picture in
industries, while the Kaira area, like Surat, bears relatively heavily on small scale industrial
development.
The industrial structure of the region is dominated by textiles, using practically all varieties of
fibres including synthetics, though cotton is by far the most important. The engineering industry is
next to textiles. In spite of non-Availability of iron and steel locally, the industry has gained
momentum in several lines such as diesel and oil engines, pumpas, spare of textile machinery, and
several diversified produce including electrical equipment. The Region also leads in the production
of chemicals and pharmaceuticals in the country, and Saurashtra has the maximum concentration
with salt works at Okha including thr Tata chemicals at Mithapur. Heavy chemicals, particularly
caustic soda at Porbandar and Dharangadhra, fertilizers at Vaodara and Bhachau, soda ash (of which
3 out of 4 units in the country are located in Gujarat) etc., are the main lines. Next to Mathapur,
Ahmedabad is the biggest centre of the basic chemicals in response to the demand from the textiles
and other Industries located here. In non-basic chemicals fertilizers, dye stuffs and pharmaceuticals
are taken together, Baroda easily becomes the largest centre of chemical industry in Gujarat with
over a dozen industrial units.
The royal patronage of the Gaekwars has been of definite advantage. For structural clay
products, such as bricks, tiles and pipes, Ahmedabad, Surat and Vaodara are most important centres
454
. The ceramics industry with major units in Jamnagar, Rajkot, Srendranagar and Bhavnagar
districts, mainly oriented to raw materials. There are 5 cement factories with an annual capacity of
1.6 million tons; the main centres being Sikka, Porbandar, Sewalia(Kaira) and Dwarka. All the raw
materials, except coal, are locally available.
Edible oil, sugar and tobacoo are important agro-industries next to textiles. Hydrogenated
groundnut oil is manufactures by Vanaspati factories, which are mostly located in Saurashtra. There
are few Sugar factories, the largest being at Kodinar. Tobacco industry, though not well organized on
large scale, is important. Petroleum refinery and petro-chemicals, particularly developed in
Vadodara have added to the resources developed in Vaodara and prestige of the region.. The
petroleum refinery at Koyali, 8 kilometre from Vadodara , has been set up with an ultimate capacity
of 3 million tons, and first 1 million ton unit was commissioned in October, 1965. Many towns like
Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Gandhidham, Mehsana, Godhra and Amreli have drawn an outline of industrial
estates whereas Junagadh, Himatnagar, Palanpur, Rajpipla, Khambhalia, Limbdi and Modhapur have
acquired land for erecting industrial estates.

24.6 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

The Region comprises over 5,000 kilometres of railways ad 24,000 kilometre of roads. On
the whole , it is presents a better picture; its development is not commensurate with the industrial
growth, particularly in roads. Rail and road kilometer rage works out to respectively 3 and 14
kilometre per 100 km².
Railways: Transport map (Refer Figure 56) portrays the rail nets on either side of the
Mumbai- vadodara Line and Ahmedabad-viramgam Little Rann Line. The Mumbai- vadodara broad
gauge line radiate from this man stem to the piedmont section of the eastern highland tract. The only
rail line that crosses the State‘s border in the east branches off from Surat to unite with Mumbai-
Nagpur line at Jalgaon. Another closed rail-net is around Mehsana from where five rail lines radiate.
The Saurashtra Peninsula is traversed by rail ways engulfing wide spaces as the configuration
is not favourbale. No railways follows the coast but few of them terminate at sea ports like Diu,
Veraval, Porbandar and Oha. Morvi junction has a few branch lines. Kandla port has linked by
branch lines. The rail development in Kutch is limited to the Palanpur- Bhuj line. Rail lines from
palanpur and Dessa cross the state boundary to Rajasthan. The railways have not been extend to the
Bastern Highlands, Aravallis, Deserts and Ranns.
Road Transport: the state road transport operates the nationalized services. There has been
great progress since the formation of the state. Luxury bus services join Ahmedabad with varodara,
Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Jamnagar, Bhuj, Cambay and Ambaji, National Highways passing through the
455
Region are Delhi-Ahmedabad Road, NH 8 ( 512 kilometre in Gujarat) AAhmedabad –Kandla road-
Porbandar NH 8B (218 kilometre) . There are bottlenecks like the narrow bridge across the Narmada
near Broach, single line carriageways etc. which require immediate tackling.

The long coastal strip is poor in road net as also in railways, and naturally the only
convenient means of transport for through traffic from port to port can be a continuous road. It will
enable the utilization of the Coastal Highway will further serve the needs of the speedy
transportation of industrial goods from the industrial centres –Vaodara , Ahmedabad, Dwarka,
Porbandar, Verabal etc. it will also provide direct communication from Dhuvaran Thermal Power
Project to Mumbai and Kandla. Salt works at Port Bedi, Bherai and Victor together with sugar
factory at Kodinar will also be benefited. Besides linking religious centres like Dwarka, Prabhas
Patan (Veraval), the coastal Highway will help keep an eye upon the coastal smugglers.
Ports and Harbours: Gujarat is a maritime state of great significance. Apart from the major free
port of Kandla, it contains 46 ports well distributed along its coastal stretch of 1,650 kilometre. There
456
are 10 intermediate ports and 36 minor ports which together handle 40% of the country‘s traffic
handled by such ports. Kandla, even with the creation of a free trade zone, has not triggered the
regional development as desired it handles over 2 million tons, mostly consisting of imports. The
other ports handle about 305 million tons. Okha will have dry cargo berth. Kandla has placed Gujarat
on the world‘s ocean routes., the coastal sea routes will act as feeders.
Air Transport: Recently air transport has made headway, and internal air net is formed by
linking Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Bhuj, etc as also with Mumbai, Delhi, etc.,

24.7 THE REGION

The Gujarat region is an area in which accordant areal relations bring abouth cohesion of a certain
order. The maritime make up of Gujarat endows it with a geographical personality of distinct
character. Its morphology, drainage, climate, natural vegetation, deserts and Ranns, in harmony with
human activities, lead to design regions of various orders. This order, not unlike inother regions, is a
compromise between nomogeneity of natural and cultural landscapes and the functional integration
of the two. The Region is divided into two first order, five second order and 12 third order regions as
per following scheme (Refer Figure 57).

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58. Gujarat Region West
(a) Bhuj Region
1. Rann Region
2. Kutch Peninsula
(b) Kathiawar Region
1. Kathiawar North
2. Kathiawar Peninsula
3. Kathiawar Southern Coastal Region
59. Gujarat Region East
3. Ahmedabad Region
a. Ahmedabad Region East
b. Ahmedabad Region West
4. Khambad (Cambay) Region or Vadodara- Surat Region.
a. Khambhat region North (Vadodara Region)
b. Khambhat Region south (Surat Region)
5. Eastern hilly Region
a. The Parchmahals
b. The Narmada- Tapi Tract
c. The Dangs Region

24.7.1 The Gujarat Region West

Consists of Kutch and Kathiawar Peninsulas, both of them stand a part with their contrasting
environs and emerges as two second order regions. Bhuj Region and Kathiawar Region respectively.
The Kutch has extended its northern bounds by engulting the Ranns. The gulf of kutch separetes the
two peninsulas from it. The highland core are engirdled with coastal alluvium and millionlites. The
Bhuj Region: is composed of distintegrated sandstones with intrusive and interbedded basalts skirted
with fluvial and aeolian deposits. The relief attains greatest elevation in the northern part of attains
of Pachham Island: the hill patches appear in Rann indicating dissection of the discontious
anticline. The Rann forms a gigantic terrain composed of muds forming monotonous flats broken by
dead creeks. Irregular salt skeletons stud the mud flats. Dendrite rills although modified by
earthquakes run as patchy veins of the Rann. The little Rann is united with rivers drawning the
north- eastern part of the state and northern part of Kathiawar. Bajra takes the prime place among the
agricultural crops, other important crops being oilseeds, Jower, cotton, groundnuts and wheat all
these crops grow in the southern and western segments of the region. Anjar has a textile industry.
458
Bricks and files and other structural products industries are located at Adipur and New Kandla.
Assembling of moter vehicles is central is centred at Bhuj. Gandhidham has petrochemical
industries. The important parts for fishing industry are Lakhpat, Mandvi and Kandla.

24.7.2 Kathiawar Region

Includes the district of Jamnagar, Junagadh, Amrel, Bhavnagar, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Diu the
region has irregular highland core. The hill masses covered with Deccan Lavas are surrounded by
the Oligocene and Pleistocene deposit the Dharangadhra. Wadhwan sandstone plateau distinguishes
its physical personality. Girnar Hills conspicuously mark the relief where the streams exhibits an
annular pattern of drainage. The annual raw in the region except the central part is between-
centimetres. Girnar retards rain over 80 centimetres. Where as the central part receives 60-80
centimetre. The Variability of rain increases from east to west (35%to 60%).
Dry deciduous vegetation is found in Amreli, Junagadh and Bhavnagar but thorny scrub
appears in patches in drier parts of Kathiawar. Littoral vegetation, though discontinuous, forms a
significant segment in Junagadh. The dry deciduous forests preserve the animal‘s kingdom,
particularly the Gir Lions. The region is primarily agricultural (Net sown area 62.7%). Piedmont fans
and broad interfluves constitute favorable agricultural tracts. Old systems of irrigation such as tanks,
valley bunds and wells still safeguard the agriculture. Dykes as the base of aquifers keep the water
table high. Groundnut takes first place in Jamnagar, Rajkot, Amreli and Junagadh whereas cotton in
Surendranagar. Rice, occupying seventh place, are grown only in Amreli and Junagadh. Dwarka has
marginal agriculture.
Mineral resources are considerable limestone quarries are located at Jamnagar and Junagadh. Salt
pans are found along the southern margin of the Little Rann and the southern coast of the peninsular
in Junagadh, Amreli and Bhavnagar districts. The western part of Jamnagar has most of the bauxite
working of Kathiawar. The bauxite mines are at Virpur, Rann, Mahadevia, Nan Dana, Bhatia, Lol,
Kenedi, Bankodi, Lamba and Gandv. Fire clay occurs at hasanpur and roti-devli (Rajkot) while
calcite is found at Govana, Lakhasar and Normana (Jamnagar)
Textile constitute the main industries of the region. Cotton units are located at Bhavnagar , Jetpur,
and Rajkot, Limbdi, Surendranagar, Morvi, Wankaner, Gondel, Porbandar, Junagadh, Amreli,
Sabarkundla and Maguva are other centres. Woolen textile centre is at Jamnagar whereas silk textiles
have developed at Jamnagar, Amreli and Bhavnagar, Bhavnagar has also units of other textile
works. Bhavnagar has two paper and pulp units. Ferro-me- tallurgical industries are located at
Bhavnagar manufacture iron and steel furniture at Rajkot, Bhavnagar nagar, Sihor, Palitana. Cement

459
works have developed at Dwrka, Sika and Porbandar. Kathiawar region is next to Ahmedabad
Vadodara region in chemical industrial contred at Rajkot, Bhavnagar and Jamnagar, etc.
It is well served by roads, rail airways and also by sea. Porbandar (75,081) has municipal and
port area whereas Junagadh (74,298) is the distict headquaters of Junagadh. Veraval Town group
comprises Veraval municipal area Port area and Patan municipal area . Ports lying along the coast
have developed their own coastal routes. Roads and railways ling their restricted hinterlands.
Thus the Kathiawar region may be divided into three distinct third order regions Kathiawar
North, Kathiawar Core Region and Kathiawar Son thern Coastal Region. The Kathiawar North is
sparsely poplated with the exception of Jamnagar, Rajkot and Surendrangar taluks, while the
southern Coastal region is most densely populated in Katuhiawar. The core region is on the whole
moderately populated except the Junagadh taluk which is comparable to Jamnagar in density.
Gujarat Region East
Gujarat Region East consists of plain and high land rim. The Deccan lavas limit it towards
the southwest. To the east, highlands project in the region from the district of Panchmahals to the
Dangs describing the eastern Hilly region of the second order. The depositional plain emerging from
Banaskantha terminates in Surat drained by serverl rivers. The plain forms homogencous natural
landscape, but its cultural landscape varies to some extent form north to south to define two second
order region: Ahmedabad region and Khambbat region based on functional differentiation. The
uneven terrain of the eastern to the level and developed regions of Ahmedabad and Khambhat.

24.7.3 Ahmedabad Region

The metropolis of Ahmedabad as the core of the region covers most of Kaira, Banaslantha and
Sabarkantha and whole of Medabad regionk, divides it into two unequal parts. The Banas, the
Sabarmati levee forms a linear alluvial enclave. The soil is sandy loam except in northern part of
Sabarkanth where medium black soils occur. Except in Banaskantha, the annual rainfall ranges
between 60-80 cm, while eastern part of Kaira records 80-100 centimetre. the variability of rainfall
exceeds 50% in Banaskantha, while elsewhere it ranges between 35 and 50%. Wells are common
whereas tanks also attain significance is Ahmedabad, Kaira and Panchmahals as sources of
irrigation. The irrigational projects in the Ahmedabad region include Mahi Right Bank Canal Project,
Meshwa irrigation Project, Hathmati Reservoir project and Sabmati Project.
About 70% of the area is under cultivation. Cotton takes second place in Ahemedabad and
Sabarkantha, whereas rice is the premier in Ahmedabad and second place in Kaira and Mehsana.
Sabarkantha leads in maize whereas Mehsana lends in oilseeds. Ahmedabad region is density

460
populated village are large and nucleated but their size. diminishes in marginal areas. Its urban linear
Kernel projects up to vadodara city.
In this traditionally textile-oriented region, petro-chemicla and allied industries and engineering
groups have also emerged. . Other important towns are Nadiad Patan and Anand. The Ahmedabad
region can be sub-divided into two third order regions. Ahmedabad Region East an Ahmedaba
Region West, roughly defined by the Samarbati and in parts by Ahmedabad distinct boundary. The
Western part is rier and less urbanised than the Eastern counter part with Ahmedabad metropolis.

24.7.4 Khambad Region

Lying South of the Ahmedabad region also a flourishing region and covers most parts of Vaodara ,
Broach and Surat and some parts of Ahmedabad and Kaira together with Dadra-Nagar Haveli and
Daman. It is depositional plains drained by the Narmada, Tapi, Ambika etc. which form estuaries
and cause heavy floods. Deep black soil occurs in the west, while coastal alluvium is confined to the
eastern section. Sandy loam prevails in Vadodara area.
Moist deciduous forest occurs in the eastern part of Surat and Vadodara districts.
Agriculture attains a great significance in the alluvial tract of Surat, Broach and Vadodara where
about 60% of the land is devoted to it. Cotton takes first place in Baroda and Broach and is followed
by rice and other crop in Surat followed by jower and cotton. The Khambhat region can be divided in
two third order regions – Khambhat Region North and Khambhat Region South; Vadodara , and
Surat forming their hubs respectively. Broach, Ankleshwar and cambay are other important centers
in the north,while Bulsar, Navasari and Daman are important in the south.

24.7.5 Eastern Hilly Region

Region is composed of Panchmahals, eastern parts of Vadodara , Broach and Surat and the Dangs.
The eastern margin obtains greater altitude, particularly in Dangs where the hills attain an altitude of
600 metre both population and economy are mostly tribal. The bhils and Bhilalas dominate in the
region. Thus, the region can be divided into three third order units the Panchmahals, the Narmada-
Tapi Tract and the Dangs Region. Godhra is the district headquarters and flourishing of locomotives
and assembly of motor vehicles. Waghar is small rural service centre in the Dangs where the
Bilimora- Waghar narrow gauge line terminates. In the Narmada- Tapi tract, which enjoys
transitional character between the rather developed Pnachmahals and the tribal Dangs region, are
Chhota Udaipur and Dediabada.

461
24.8 SUMMARY
The Gujarat Region, particularly since the formation of the new state, has achieved a considerable
progress in deferent sectors of the economy, yet there are both sectoral and regional imbalances.
Though there is relatively low pressure of population on land, the per capita arable land being about
an acre, the agricultural yields, particularly of food crops, are much lower, and there is shortage of
food and inadequate production of industrial crops. Natural calamities like floods and droughts
which often hamper the agricultural sector, could be mitigated by providing better irrigation facilities
and power supply in the rural areas through tapping surface as well ground water resources. The
industrial development needs more dispersal and diversification, away from the Ahmedabad-
Vadodara axis. It is needless to emphasize the adjustment of various landuses for food and non-food
(mainly industrial) crops. Some of the stupendous problems con-fronting the region are the
reclamation of Rann lands, modernization of the tribal culture and economy and adjustment in the
use of river valley resources with neighboring region.

24.9 ACTIVITY
Find out the following things about agriculture in Gujarat Region. Write about inferences you would
draw
1.Total area
2. Net sown area
3.Area under irrigation
4.Average size of holding
5.Production of Cotton, Groundnut, Jower, Bajara, in 2010-11.

24.10 QUESTIONS
- Discuss how the modernization of agriculture is accelerated by growth and diversification of
industry
- Average the major cereals of Gujarat Region in order of their production. Describe.
- Mention briefly the various factors, which compel us to provide irrigation facilities
- In what different ways do industries help to remove poverty in Gujarat Region.

24.11 REFERENCE
Cunnningham, A. 1959 ―The Ancient Geography of India‖,Varanasi, Indologicalv Book House,
Motilal Banarasidass, 275.
462
Dikshit, K.R. 1970, ― Geography of Gujarat‖, Delhi, National Book Trust, Introduction. Often
Quoted Text. p.162

Imperial Gazetter of India, VIII Oxford, the Clarendon Press,1908, 278,289,281,282

Janaki, V.A., 1967 ―Functional classification of Towns in Gujarat‖, Geography Research Paper
Series, No. 2, Univesity Publication (Vadodara , 1996) and Idem: ―Some Aspects of the Population
Patterns in the Different Function Groups of Towns in Gujarat‖, Geography Research Paper Series,
No.3 (Baroda, University Publication).
The Indian Express, Monday, June 8, 1970 4-5.

Village Ambay, Village Survey Monographs, Census of India, 1961, V No. VI, New Delhi.

Village Ghadvi, Village Survey Monographs, Census of India, 1961, V No. 7, New Delhi.

Village Magdalla, Village Survey Monographs, Census of India, 1961 No. 2, New Delhi.

463
UNIT-25 EAST COASTAL PLAINS A PHYSICAL SETTING

STRUCTURE
25.0 Objectives
25.1 Introduction
25.2 East Coastal Plains
25.3 Geology
25.4 Physiography
25.4.1 Drainage
25.4.2 Soils
25.4.3 Climate
25.4.4 Vegatation
25.4.4.1 Tropical moist Deciduous
25.4.4.2 Thorny Thickets
25.5 The Region
25.5.1 Balasore Plain
25.5.2 Mahanadi Delta
25.5.3 The Southern Coastal Plain or Chilka region
25.5.4 Andhra Coastal Plains
25.5.4.1 Srikakulam Vishakhapatnam.
25.5.5 The Srikakulam Region
25.5.6 Nellore Coastal Plain
25.5.7 Tamilnadu Coastal Plains
25.5.8 The Palar Ponnaiyar Basin
25.5.9 The Central Region
25.5.10 The Vaigai Tambraparani Regional
25.6 Summary
25.7 Activity
25.8 Questions
25.9 References

464
25.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand physical setting of the East Coastal Plain
To understand about climate, vegetation and geology
To know about the Region of East Coastal plains
To know about the Central Region and Basin.

25.1 INTRODUCTION
The East Coastal Plains have been inhabited by man since pre-historic times. Archaeological
excavations in the Kabit aliyar basin show evidences of human settlement dating back to abberillian
period, the earliest mention of the Anhra settlement dates back to 2000 B.C. the several part on the
east coasts in ―the Maisolin-the region‖ between the deltas of Godaveri, Krishna and states that one
of them was the starting point of ship bound for‖ Golden Chryse‖ the region now comprising malay
peninsula and the eastern archipelago.

25.2 EAST COASTAL PLAINS

The East Coastal Plains (8˚22˚ 13' 30"N and 77˚30'30"-87˚20'E) cover about 102,882 square
kilometre of area with about 35 million people. The boundary is defined by the State boundary
between Bengal and Orissa in the north; towards inland by the discontinuous line of hills forming the
Festern Ghats, more precisely by the contours 75 metre in Orissa, 100 metre in Andhra Pradesh
and 150 metre in Tamilnadu. Politically, the region includes parts of three State- Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamilnadu. The Orissa (Utkal) coastal plain includes small portion of Mayurbhanj
major portion of Balasore and parts of Mayurbhanj, major portion of Balasore and parts of Cuttack,
Puri and Ganjam districts; in AndraPradesh the coastal areas of Srikakulam, Vishakhapaatnam, E.
and W. Godavaries, Krishna and Nellore districts while in Tamilnadu the whole of Chingleput and
Chennai small part of N. Arcot, most of S. Arcot (except the hilly tracts of Kalaurichich) the whole
of Thanjavur, Tiruchchirappalli ( excluding parts of Kakur, Kuttittalai and Musiri taluks), Madurai,
Terumangalm and Melur taluks of maurai, Ramanathapuram (excluding thehilly tracts of
Srivillputtur taluks), Tirunelveli (excluding the hilly tracts of Nanguneri, Ambasamudram Tenkasi,
Shencottah and Sankarnayinarkovil tlauks, and Pondicdherry and Karikal areas (Refer Figure 58) In
contrast to the West Coast, these are extensive coastal plains being generally formed by the alluvial
fillings of the littoral zone comprising some of the largest deltas. Along with the Ganga delta, these
plains have served as active sea- boards not only for the major political units within which they lie,
but also for most of the country since ancient times, even though there is naturally restricted

465
development of large there is naturally restricted development of large harbours. The people of this
region have vigorously participated in coastal as well as overseas trade, particularly with S.E. Assam
Realm and have succeeded in putting the stamp of Indian culture on far- off lands.

25.3 GEOLOGY
The East coastal plains predominantly consist of Recent and Tertiary alluvium. Patches of
Archaean gneisses and sandstones etc. also found along the coast.
In the Orissa Plains, a group of lime stones Plains, a groups of limestones, sandstones and clays
occur in the beds of Burabalong river south of Baripada towns. Similar beds were also encountered
several kilometre south ward along the river in well borings. Water- worn specimens of a Lamelli
branch referable to the genus Papbia have been found on the fore shore at Puri.
Pleistocene alluvium occurs at several places along the coastal tract. Large deposits of laterite
occur as capping over Khondalite hills. Such laterite is of in situ origin, while the laterite occur ring
at lower levels is of detrital origin.

466
The coastal tracts of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri are covered with deltaic sediments of the Mahanadi,
Brahmani and other rivers, formed in recent times. The narrow strip of coastal alluvium in Ganjam
also belongs to this age.
In Andhra Pradesh, tertiary formation are found in East and West Godavari districts and in
small areas in Nuzvia taluk of Krishna districts. Parts of Rajahmundry and Peddapuram taluks in
East Godavari and Eluru, Tadapalligudam and fovour in West Godavari contain Tertiary formations
of clays useful for the ceramics developed near Rajahmundari.
The recent deposits occupy the entire coastal plains of Andhrapradesh except in portions
between Sri- kakulam in the north and Vishakapatnam in the south, more in the mainland in Guntur,
Krishna, East and West Godavaris.
In the Tamilnadu coastal plains strong earth movement followed by intrusions of basic dykes
gave rise to Charnockites in Pallavaram. These rocks contain a high percentage of silica.
The archaean era was follwed by the Palaco-zoic era when limestones and dolomites and thin
beds of shales were deposits on the edge of the Dharwarian rocks – Cuddapah system during the
palaeozoic period numerous dykes intrusions were formed in the Cuddapah system in Tiruch-
chirapplli, S. Arcot, Tirunelveli and Chingleput. Sandstones of the Gondwana system (Upper) occur
at Satyavedu near Chingleput and shales in Sriperumbadur.
The Mesozoic period is marked by marine transgression, submerging Pondicherry and the
Cauvery valley during early Cretaceous. In Tiru chchirappalli also excellent of Cretaceous
formations have been found. Marine regressions started since mid-Tertiary. Eocene formation have
been found in Pondicherry and Miocene and Pliocene formations away from coast in thanjavur and
karaikal. Upper Pliocene and lower Pleistocene formations are located north of Kanchipuram,
consisting of gravels, shingles and grit known as Conjeevaram gravels.
The beginning of the Quaternary era witnessed the emergence of the present coastline several
parts of SE Coast of Tamilnadu are covered with acolian formations, sands and sand dunes,
particularly in Ramanathapuram and Tirunelveli. Riverain alluvia cover the deltas.

25.4 PHYSIOGRAPHY
The eastern littoral is wide coastal plain comprising the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna, and the Cauvery and the intervening tracts of Tertiary marine sediments, and forms and
emergent unintended coast. Between the Subarnarekha in the north and the Kanyakumari in the
south the plains rise gradually from the Bay of Bengal to merge with the irregular alignment of the
eastern Ghats where roughly, the 150 metre contour in the south (Tamilnadu) and 75 metre contour
in the northern parts separate the region from the Peninsular Uplands. The coastal plains are wider in
467
the deltaic region and narrow down in between the deltas and thus the region can be grouped into
three sub-regions, the Tamilnadu Coastal Plain, the AndhraCoastal Plain and the Utkal Coastal
plains, being coterminous with state boundaries corresponding with the deltas of the Cauvery, the
Krishna-Godavari and the Mahanadi respectively. The plains also have well defined morphological
units parallel to the shore line.
The region has a remarkably straight shoreline with well defined bcaches of sand and shingles. The
most famous beach is the Marina Beach in Chennai which is expending southwards since the
construction of Chennai harbour. The beach ridges on the utkal Coast indicate the emergence of the
coast. In the continuous stretch of this emergent coast there are archacological evidences of
submergence of Royapuram, Mahabalipuram and parts of the Thanjanvur coast where the coast of
Kaurippumattinam was buried.
All along the coast, there are several sandbars generally athwart the river mouths as shown by the
Adyar, the Godavari and the Mahandi. Another classic example of long persevered sandbar is
Rameswaram Island. Between the main land and the Gulf of Mannar and the PalkStrait, there are
tiny coral island which form flourishing fishing centres. This chain of coral islands forming fishing
centres. This chain of coral islands forming fishing reefs are made up of corothie limestone on a
sandstone platform.
Along the strand, the plain of marine and aeolian deposits found up to 10 kilometre inland is
zone of sand dunes. These are found at several places throughout the coastal plain and arecaused
mainly by the action of wind at low water tide. In the Orissa plains, parallel sand dune ridges
composed of decomposed granites, zircon etc., brought by ocean currents and winds from southwest,
rise 16 to 27 metre high and are 1-4 kilometre long. In Puri, the maximum height reached is 9 m in
some isolated patches near about Puri, but genrally they are 4.5 to 6 metre high and extend inland.
Each of these hills marks an old seacoast indicating the recession of the sea. Further south, sand
dunes rise 10-16 metre in the Krishna- Godavari delta region. In Tamilnadu sand dunes form a
conspicuous feature along the coast of Tirunelveli and are scattered elsewhere as in Mahabalipuram.
They rise 30 to 65 metre high and are locally called Tberis. They are composed of quartz limenite
and magnetite sands with a typical red colour induced due to diffusion of iron grains. The dunes
carry a thin vegetation of Palmyra palms and thorny scrub which bind the soil.
Adjoining the line of sand dunes all along the coast are found lagoons formed lagoons formed
recently in association with coastal uplift. The Chilka lake and Pulicat lake areas are the largest and
most important. The Samang and Sur located north and north- east of Puri are sweet water lakes
which have come into existence between the 7th and 8th stage of delta development. The Chilka lake
is located in the southwest edge of the Mahanadi delta. It is 65kilometre long from northeast to
468
southwest and is wider in the northeast and narrowed only to 8kilometre in the SW. it is the biggest
lake in the country and its are varies between 780 square kilometre and 1,114 square kilometre from
the winter to monsoon months. The salinity declines to minimum during the monsoon but in winter,
due to the overflow of the tidal water through the narrow opening from the Bay of Bengal, it is
minimum. The lake is shallow in the NE due to heavy silting by detrital matter brought by the Deya
and the Bhargavi. It is deep in the SW where the spurs of the eastern Ghats enter the lake. The tides
have free entrance and the water through constantly changing is brackish. Salinity is less in
November and greater in summer. This lake, 80 kilometre long NS and 3-18 kilometre across,
comprises several small Islands within in. Further south along the coast are other small backwater
lakes like Ennore and Mahabalipuram which are mostly silted up. The backwaters of the sea have
also given rise to Marakaran, Veakaranyam, the Mangreni Swamp in Orissa and a few other in the
Krishna- Godavari deltra. Thus, in general three types of shorelines have development along the
East Coastal Plains the rocky shore lines appear between the deltas the prominent stretches being in
Ganjam and Vishakhapatnam transverse to the grain of the Ghat ranges; upon Tertiary gravels have
developed the sandy shorelines, while the alluvial and silty deltaic shorelines are found at the mouths
of Mahanadi, the Godavari the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
The coast forms a monotonous plain rising gently west wards to the foot of the eastern Ghats with
wide variations in width. The plains are marked by the deltas and lower courses of mature rivers
forming broad shallow valleys. The monotony of the topography is broken by the presence of
numerous hills, being more conspicuous in Tamilnadu, especially between the adyar and Palar rivers.
The hills have a distinct NNE to SSW trend forming 3 ridges tending to converge towards the SW
where the highest peak is found in Ketchimalai (240 metre). They are considered insel-bergs left
standing on the flat plain as the result of differential erosion over a low peneplain. The hillocks in
the Mahanadi deltaic region are considered to be outer flanks of the Eastern Ghats. The spurs have
extended from Kharao and Delang as isolated dome- shaped hillocks which suggest volcanic origin.
The low hills of Baradihi (280 metre), Udayagir(188 metre) and Kalasiri(216 metre ) have deflected
the drainage of the Birupa and the Kirmiria Mai eastwards.

25.4.1 Drainage
The main rivers of the region rise from the Western Ghats and owing to long denudation
though geological times have almost reached the base level with broad and shallow valleys. Being
rain-fed, they remain mostly unsuitable for navigation ( Refer Figure 59)

469
The Mahanadi in combination with the Brahmani and Baitarani forms extensive alluvial tract
stretching from Lake Chilka in the south to Bhadrak in the north, 172 kilometre long and over 80
kkilometre wide. The Mahanadi is one of the most vigorous rivers of India though erratic in its
discharge. Most probably the Mahanadi delta developed in 8 successive stages. There was an
isostatic change in the coast line which resulted in the emergence of 3 sets of parallel dunes along the
coast which disturbed the old pattern of drainage considerably. A distinctive feature in the growth of
the delta is that it has its maximum growth not in the centre but in the northern part. Prior to the
formational of the delta, the original shoreline was concave owing to the hard bed rocks in the
eastern Ghats. But this character was very aptly maintained up to the sixth stage of the deltaic stages
of the delta building due to:
(a) The Brahmani joining the Baragenguti and the Birupa (the wxtreme NE boundary) and
(b) The khara- suan joining the brahmani further down in the lover reaches. The combined action of
the rivers has pushed the delta head to its northernmost limit.
Godavari is the largest perennial river in penin-sular India. After crossing the eastern ghats
through picturesque gorge (papi hills gouge) it emerges at polavaram into the coastal plain. The

470
width of the river is over 3 kilometre at Rajahmundry and about 6 kilometre at Dowleshwaram.
Below Rajah-mundry it splits into the Gautami, Vasishta and Vainataya beaches which form the
delta. The 3 branches join the sea near Yanam, Narasapur and Razole respectively.
The Krishna is the second important river. It is superimposed across northern end of the
Cuddapah ranges where the gradient is 0.7 metre per kilometre. Near the sea the gradient is 0.7metre
per kilometre. Near the sea the gradient is 0.15metre per kilometre. the river carries silt enough ―to
cover during high floods. It flows into 2 branches near Paugadda in drishna district enclosing the
island of Diwij, and 16 dm downstream splits into 3 branches. The Vamsdhara and Nagawati are
other notable streams of the Srikakulam district.
Cauvery is the largest and most important river of Tamilnadu. It splits into two branches west
of Tirruchchirapplli. The northern branch is called the Coleroon and southern the Cauvery; 27
kilometre below the bifurcation point, the streams units to form between them the island of
Srirangam, but thereafter the Coleroon takes a north-easterly direction skirting Thanjavur district
along its entire length on the north and enters the sea at Devikottai with its water practically
undiminished; while the Cauvery takes a southerly direction splitting into numerous branches and
covers the whole delta with a vast net-work of irrigation channels. Some of the branches of the
Cauvery find their way into the sea carrying of rice fields. The Cauvery, now reduced to an
insignificant channel, debouches into the sea at kavaripatnam; the main branches of the Cauvery are
the Vena, Kedanurtiyat and Asasalai. The Addapar, Uppanan and Korriyar are navigable in the lower
reaches.
The Ponnaiyar flowing through Tamilnadu for over 300 kilometre carries a highly variable
discharge being dependent on local rains. The only significant tributary is the Pamban which joins it
on the left bank in Salem. The Palar along with its tributaries, the Ponnai and the Cheyyar, drains the
North Arcot and Chingleput districts. The Vaigai is an important river of Madurai district, and joins
the Bay at Attangari east of Ramanathpuram. Srivankuntam and Tiruchendur covering a distance of
120 kilometre and empties itself in the Gulf of Manaar near Pannaikayal.
The Vellar is formed by the junction of 2 streams, the Vasistanadi and Swata Nadi. The
Kortalaiyar flows from an overflow of the surplus waters of the Kavaipatnam tank in N. Arocot
district; eastwards it flows into the backwater of the Ennore, north of Chennai. The Arnl enters
Chingleput district in Tiruvallur taluk and joins the sea at Pulicat. The coovam is formed by the
surplus water from the Kuvam tank in Kanchipuram taluk. It flows eastwards through Chennai and
joins the sea at Fort St. George. The Gingee known as Vasistanadi rises in Tindicanam taluk and
enters the sea at Pondicherry. The Gadilam rises in Kalakurichi taluk in S. Arcot, 96 kilometre west
of Malattai; a natural channel connects connects it with the Ponnaiyar and the river flows into the sea
471
near Fort St. David, 2 kilometre to the north of Cuddalore. The Vaippar rises on the eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats in Srivilliputtrur taluk and flows through Tirunelveli district and empties itself
into the Gulf of Mannar near Vaippar village.

25.4.2 Soils
The region abounds in alluvium. Red soils black soils and laterities are also found as transported
soils. Alluvial soils are mostly are mostly found in river valleys, deltaic tracts and along the coastal
area; their composition and textures vary with the geological nature of the catchments area. These
soils are of 2 types- coastal alluvium and riverine alluvium. Coastal alluvium occurs all along the
coast from Balasore to Kanyakumari occupying the littoral tracts varying in width from 10 to
20kilometre. Riverine alluvium is found in lower courses of the valleys of most rivers and in the
deltaic regions. These soils are exceptionally fertile and highly and highly valuable for agriculture,
especially paddy. The degree of fertility decreases gradually according to the distance from the river.
The soils are generally rich in lime, poor in nitrogen and phosphoric acids. The alluvial soils of the
Tambraparani are black loams, well- suited to irrigation.
Laterites are tropical and sub-tropical soils tormed by the decomposition of gneiss. The most
important components fer lateritic formation are iron. Alumina and silicic acid as primary materials
for the parent rock.
Red soils occupy a large part of Tamilnadu and considerable parts of Srikakulam, Vishakha –
patnam, and E. Godavari districts and small areas of Krishna, Guntur and Nellore of Andhra pradesh.
They are derived mainly from Achaean gneisses. The red brown colour is attributed to the diffusion
of iron content. The soils are poor in lime and magnesium but rich in iron. According to texture they
may be subdivided into clayey, loamy; ferruginous soils (Lower palar Valley), sandy loamy soils
(Chingleput and sandy loamy ferrugious soils (adjoining coastal alluvial tracts).
Black soils are tropical black clays or regur rich in lime, magnesium and and alumunium but
poor in phosphorous nitrogen and organic matter. They are found in depressions or in plains without
notable relief, contain a high proportion of fine element, and shrink considerably in the dry season.
They originate from either decomposition of basic basalt or certain sedimentary clays an
decomposition of calcium and magnesium. Scanty rainfall plays a part in their formation. Its fertility
is due to self- ploughing character. Black soils occur in patch near Chilka lake, parts of west
Godavari Guntur and Krishna districts adjoining coastal alluvium limited areas in Nellore and in
parts of Tirumangalm (Madurai), sattur and Srivilipttur (Ramnathapuram) and greater part of
Kovilpatti (Tirunelveli) taluks. Cotton is generally grown on these soils.

472
25.4.3 Climate
The region exhibits a hot tropical climate characterized by oppressive summer, low daily range
of temperature, high humidity and moderate annual rainfall. The coastal tract from Orissa to the
Krishna delta experiences a tropical Savanna climate (Aw); from the Krishna delta to the Vaippar it
is a tropical wet and dry climate with distinct dry summer (As). Parts of the southern districts
experience a tropical monsoon climate with a short dry winter season (Amw); and the interior
districts have a tropical arid steppe cli-narrow strip of coast experiences a tropical climate with some
local variations (Refer Figure 60)

Temperature continuously increases from the end of February to May, the hottest month with 31˚c at
Puri, 35˚c at Maslipatam and Chennai and over 37˚to 40˚C in the interior (Gannavaram,
Palayamkottai and Guttack). The coldest months (January)records a temperature of 22 c in the
coastal regions and 19 to 20 c in the interior. It is obvious, therefore, that there mainly because of
low relief and moderating influence of the sea.

The diurnal tange of temperature is lower. Than in the interior. It is of the order of 2 to 3 c
during june to December and 4 to 6 c from January to may.

Rainfall decreases from the shore (140-170centimetre ) to interior (70-80centimetre ). Balasore

on the coast gets 168.6 centimetre, Puri 148.2 centimetrte, Kakinada 117.9 centimetre, Chennai

473
121.6 centimetre, while in the interior Cuttack gets 144.2centimetre Gannavaram 103.1centimetre
and Pala-yamkottai 92.8 centimetre , showing wide variations in distribution from north to south as
well. Rain fall in Balasore is highest decreasing in amount till it reaches the Krishna-Godavari delta
as shown by Kakinada and Gannavaram. Further south it increases up to Nagapattinam (136.7
centimetre). south of it the rainfall again decreases to 60.2 centimetre (Tuticorin) and 92.8 centimetre
(Palayamkottai). This variation in rainfall distribution is largely due to the fact that Orissa and
northern Andhra Pradesh get rainfall from the SW monsoon (78%) southward up to the Krishna delta
the decrease in rain fall is mainly because the region lies off the main track of the monsoon and the
associated depressions. But further south most of the rain-fall is caused by retreating monsoon (44-
60%) which is mainly associated with the storms and depressions originating in the Bay giving
copious rainfall while striking the coast. The decrease in rainfall further south at Tuticorin (60.2
centimetre) is due to the barrier- like effect that Ceylon exerts by preventing the rain-bearing winds
from reaching this region. One contrast observed in this region is that Palayamkottai in the interior
gets more rainfall from the S.W. monsoon which comes through gaps and river valleys, depicting
two maxima for the region. The winter rainfall for the northern region and summer rainfall for the
southern region show a similar distribution giving a distinct transitional rainfall zone between the
two regions.

Rainfall Reliability: moderate rainfall reliability (25-30% coefficient of variability) is found in

most parts. The region of low reliability correspond with areas of high inconsistency of rainfall . the
moderately high variability is due to the fact that rainfall is associated with depressions from the bay
of Bengal which themselves are erratic. High variability is noticed in the Chidambaram- Karur area
of Tamilnadu.

In general, high humidities prevail throughout the year I coastal areas. In Tamilnadu it varies
from 60% (June) to 80% (November- December). In Orissa it remains 60%from December to April
an over 80% in July-August. In both the regions September records slightly lower humidity further
inland, 40-60% in the rainy seasons and 40% or less in summer.

Winds are of moderate strength throughout the yeas becoming stronger in the monsoon season
(15 kilometre per hour) and weaker in October (5-10kilometre ). From October to January winds
blow from north east and from south west during the summer monsoon. In the Tamilnadu coast
gusty east south easterly to south –south –easterly winds of an average speed of 16 kilometre per
hour in April set in at mid-day and at a later hour in October at 2 P.M. From November to March the
prevailing wind is from northeast and east without showing any change during the day.

474
 Special weather Phenomena : During the post monsoon and early part of the N.E. monsoon
storms and depressions origination in the Bay affect the weather of the region. Some of these
depressions intensify into severe storms with strong winds (80-140 kilometre per hour) and squalls
giving heavy rainf1all to the coastal regions and causing considerable dislocation to communication
and loss to properly. Some of these storms something cross over to the west coast.

25.4.4 Vegetation
The coastal plains have a very small percentage of the area under forest cover. Most of the flat
lowlying area is devoted to agriculture Natural vegetation is in the form of littoral forests, continuous
thorny thickets. Often these scrubs are removed and plantations of casuarina or co-conut are
introduced.

25.4.4.1 Tropical Moist Deciduous

Forests are found in a haphazard manner throughout Ganjam, Puri and Cuttack. In Andhra
Pradesh they are found mainly in Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, East and West Godavari districts;
these forests dominate in the districts where the rainfall is high. How-ever, these are almost absent in
the Tamilnadu Plains.

Scrub-woodlands have a thorny growth (70 to 10 metre) with a clear canopy and open
undergrowth and ground cover. Sometimes Acacia is associated with the undergrowth of thorny
shrubs which are negligible in the Utkal Plains. In the Andhra plain it is found most in Nellore
districts except in Darsi and Podilli taluks, while in Tamilnadu, in Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram
districts. Acacia colonizers the coastal dunes near Pamban and Remeswaram.

Littoral forests occur in a narrow strip along the sea coasts of Cuttack and Balasore districts. In
Andhra Pradesh these are found in parts of Krishna, Guntur and Nellow districts. A small coastal
area in Kandukar and Kavali taluks is also covered with Rbizophosa species.

25.4.4.2 Thorny Thickets

Are found scattered throughout the Tamilnadu coastal plains. These are non-spiny species which
grow in the middle of protective bushes. Some scattered trees emerge from place to places. Some
climbers and grasses are also found.

475
25.5 THE REGION
The East Coastal Plains are delimited from the adjoining Eastern Ghats, primarily on the basis of
physiographic and structure. The boundary of the foot-hill zone roughly coincides with 75 metre
contour in Orissa 100 metre in Andhra Pradesh and 150 metre in Tamilnadu. The region is divided
into three first order, nine second order and 22 third order regions (Refer Figure 61) :

63. Tamilnadu Coastal Plains

(a) the Palar-Ponnaiyar Basin or northern Coastal Plain Chennai
(i) Chennai Metropolitan Region
(ii) Lower Palar Valley
(iii) Lower Ponnaiyar Valley
(iv) Interfluvial Tracts
(b) The Cauvery Valley and Delta or Central Coastal Plain
(i) The Cauvery Valley
(ii) The Cauvery Delta Region
(c) The Vaigai Tambrapatrani Basin or Southern Coastal Plain
476
 (i) East Ramanathapuram Lowlands
(ii) West Ramnathapuram Lowlands
(iii)The Tambraparani Basin
64. Andhra Coastal Plains
(d) Srikakulam Vishakhapatnam Lowlands or Northern Plain
(i) Srikakulam Region
(ii) Vishakhapatnam
(e)The Krishna-Godavari Delta or Middle Coastal Plain
(i) Godavari Delta
(ii) The Elluru Region
(iii) Krishna Delta
(f) Nellore or southern Coastal Plain
(i) Nellore Region North
(ii) Nellore Region South
65. Orissa or Ultkal Coastal Plain
(g) The Northern Coastal or Balasore Plain
(i) The Subarnarekha Lower Valley
(ii) The Budhabalanga Lower Valley
(h) The Middle Coastal Plain or Mahanadi Delta Region
(i) The Salandi- Baitarani-Brahmani Delta
(ii) The Mahanadi Delta.
(iii) The Southern Coastal Plain or Chilka Region
(iv) Chilka Plain
(v) Berhampur Plain.
The first order region coinciding with the administrative boundaries of each State from north
to south are the Orissa or Utkal coastal Plains, the Andhra Coastal Plains and the Tamilnadu Coastal
Plains. These boundaries also correspond with the linguistic and cultural boundaries of the Oriya,
Telgu and Tamil

The Utkal coastal Plains are further divided into three second order regions on the basis of
morphological peculiarities and climate and edaphic conditions. The boundaries are adjusted to the
differential patterns in economic activities, like agricultural development or land use pattern,
pressure of population, occupation of the people and transport and communication facilities; these

477
sub-regions are : (i) The Northern Coastal Plain or Balasore Plain; (ii) the Middle coastal Plain or
Mahanadi Delta, and (iii) the southern Coastal Plain or Chilka Region.

25.5.1 The Balasore Plain

Comprises of the flood plains and deltas of the Subarnarekha and Budhabalanga rivers and
roughly covers and whole of Balasore district. This is narrow in extent and bears evidence of marine
transgression as shown by marine deposits. Lack of active development and absence of fan-shaped
deltas on the river mouths differentiate it from the rest of the costal Plains of Orissa. Economically
the area is under developed as compared to the other coastal areas; it not only lacks irrigation
facilities, but it has also been a region of depopulation during the last half century (1901-51). Low
per hectare agricultural out turn lack of double cropping and crop failure are some of its
distinguishing characteristics. The economics activity of the area is controlled by Balasore which has
a very slow rate of population growth. This region is, however, a surplus paddy area and has now
majority of rice mills of Orissa. The region can be further subdivided into : (a) Subarnaekha Lower
Valley, and (b) Budhvbalanga Lower Valley.

25.5.2 Mahanadi Delta

Is composed of the combined deltas of the Salandi Baitarani and Brahmani in the north and
Mahanadi in the south. Here the plain is widest. The actual delta growth, the presence of backbay at
Aul and Kenrapara and thelacks like Sai an Sonang in the puri coast are some of the peculiarities
which differentiate it from other portion of the coast. Extensive areas are not only double cropped,
but instances of triple cropping are also not lacking. Cultivation of jute is extensive. The presence of
tidal forests, known as ―Little Sundarbans‖ in the river estuaries, recent fluviatile deposits in the
lower reaches and the older alluvium are notable. Some of oldest towns of Orissa like Cuttack, puri,
Kendrapara and Jaipur are also located here. The agricultural prosperity of the area will be further
accentuated after the Salandi and delta irrigation projects are completed. The port of Paradeep will
boost the economy of the region. The newly constructed express highway from Daitrani mines to the
port and the proposed rail link from Cuttack will open up new hinterland area for the port.
Bhubaneswar the State Capital, is a modern planned town Cuttack and paradeep will continue to be
the commercia hubs if the region. Cuttack is the largest city of the State, while puri is one of themost
important religious centres of India. Chowduar is an industrial suburb of Cuttack. The region can be
further subdivided into:
(i) The Salandi-Baitarani-Brahmani delta and

478
(ii) The Mahanadi delta.

25.5.3 The Southern Coastal Plain or Chilka Region

Is completely cut off from the Middle coastal plain by the Chilka lake and the spurs of the
Eastern Ghats. It is built up by the fluviatile deposits of the Rushikulya . unlike the Mahanadi delta
there is absence of a well developed fan shaped delta, dead level flat plains and back bays or well
developed lagoons. The undulating topography has limited the irrigation to favoured tracts. The
higher frequency of failure of rainfall ad rainy deys often leads to crop failures here. Relatively it is
better served by roads. Berhampur controls the economic activity of the region and is the third
largest town of the Utkal Coast. The region may be subdivided into two third order units : the Chilka
Plain and the Berhampur Plain.

25.5.4 Andhra Coastal Plains

Based on physical factors and economic activities, Andhra Coastal plains, like the Utkal
plains, can be divided into second order regions: the Srikakulam-Vishakhapatnam Lowlands or
Northern Coastal Plain, the Krishna-Godavari Delta or Middle Coastal Plain and Nellore or southern
Coastal Plain.

25.5.4.1 Srikakulam-Vishakhapatnam
Lowlands cover Srikakulam (excluding sallur and Paratipuram) and Vishakhapatnam
(exluding Chintapalli and Paderu taluks)districts. The lowland narrows down to 19 kilometre under
Mahendragiri, but on either side of this gate are embayments of the Rushikulya and the Vamsadhara.
The black soil of the valley floors grades upwards to red soils. There are numberous gneissic
outcrops. Vishakhapatnam lies between the Kalina ridge and Yaroda (335metre) , the letter running
into the Dolphin‘s Nose which shelters the harbour. Rice covers third of the cultivated area, followed
by ragi, oilseeds, millets and pulses. Mineral resources are few,limited and pulses. Mineral resources
are few, limited only to graphite, kaolin, and mica. Industrial development is confined mainly to jute
and rice mills, and ship building. Vishakhapatnam is the only city and port of importance. The
hinterland of the port extends to Nagpur and Raipur and serves the highly mineralized belt of
Madhya Pradesh and nearby areas. A steel plant for Vishakhapatnam is being seriously considered.

479
25.5.5 The Srikakulam Region
Is more agricultural and less developed than the Vishakhapatnam region which is fairly
urbanized and industrialized. The Krishna-Godavari Delta includes the lowlands below
Vijayawada and Pollavaram forming the twin-delta. These lowlands are Vulnerable to floods and
cyclones but form a vast expanse of rice fields and are reputed as the ―Granary of the south‖.
Between the two deltas lies the Elluru Region where the Koleru Lake occupies a depression cut off
from the sea by siltation and serves as a good fishing ground; this region is transitional in character
with Elluru (108,311) as the regional hub. The twin delta region is essentially agricultural with 80%
of the sea under paddy. In places jowar, sesamum and groundnuts are cultivated. Rajahmundry
andKakinada are notable in the Godavari delta, while Vijayawada, Guntur and Masulipatam (Bandar
: are regional centers in the Krishna delta.

25.5.6 Nellore Coastal Plain

Is a transitional belt between the Andhra and Tamilnadu plains. It is physically dominated by
tank irrigation except for canal irrigation in the Penner valley. Most of the plain is cultivated mainly
for jowar, followed by rice, cotton and grounduts. The most important coastal feature is the great salt
water lagoon of Pulicat. Gypsum is an important mineral, and laterite an important building stone.
Nellore is mainly administrative and commercial and has developed pottery and ceramic industry. Its
Northern region is thus distinct from the southern which is greatly influenced by Nellore city.

25.5.7 Tamilnadu Coastal Plains

Can also be divided into three second order region on the basis of coastal morphology and
economic attributes : the Vaigai-Tambraparani Basin or Southern Coastal Plain, the Canvery Valley
and Delta and the Palar-Ponnaiyar Basin.

25.5.8 The Palar- Ponnaiyar Basin

Includes the districts of Chingleput, S.Arcot and part of N. Arcot and Tiruchchirappalli. This
Northern plain s traversed by the lower courses of several rivers such as the Arni, Kortalaiyar,
Adyar, Cooum, Palar, Ponnaiyar and Vellar, are important because of their agricultural significance
for rice, sugarcane, betel-vine and flowers . Tank and river-channels are the main source of
irrigation. groundnut is grown in the irrigated tracts and North Arcot is most important district for its
production. The region is also important industrially

480
 On the basis of resource development this region can be further subdivided into: Madras
Metropolitan region which is distinguishable by its industrial and market garden landscape and (ii)
Lower Palar Valley including the valleys of the Palar and Cheyyar, which has intensive agricultural
development based on canal and well irrigation. industries like silk and handloom are also important.
(iii) Lower Pomaiyar Valley comprising the narrow coastal tract from Pondicherry to ht coleroon
with alluvial soils has emerged as paddy and sugarcane region, mostly based on tank irrigation.
Groundnut is grown in the irrigated tracts. A number of urban centres like Pondicherry, Cuddalore
and Chidambaram are located here. (iv) Interfluvial Tracts are located between the Palar and the
Vellar. These tracts are subjects to widespread soil erosion. A number of medium sized towns like
chingleput, ponneri, Arni, Tiruttani, Vriddhachalam, Villupuram etc., are notable.

25.5.9 The Central Region

Includes the lower Cauvery valley from the confluence of the Amravati with the Cauvery up to
Tiruchchirappalli; the valley is narrow and well defined by gradually rising interfluvial tracts to the
north and south. The Cauvery splits up into distributaries east of Tiruchchirappalli forming an
extensive delta which is largely agricultural due canal irrigation. most of the cultivated area is double
cropped being dominated by paddy. Density of population is high and three are several urban
centres. The region has rice, sugar and other agro processing industries. The region can be sub-
divided into the Cauvery valley between karar and Tiruchchirappalli and the Cauvery delta with
Thanjavur as the regional focus.

25.5.10 The Vaigai Tambraparani Regional

Covers all the area south of the Cauvery Valley and Delta. Though a number of rivers such as
the Vaigai, the Vaipur, etc., drain the region , the Valleys are not well defined topographically. The
region has an undulating surface with a network of interconnected tanks. It may further be divided
into the Tambraparai Basin, East Ramanathapuram Lowlands and West Ranamathapuram Lowlands.
The Tambraparani Basin is the most fertile agricultural region in the south. The basin receives
rainfall from both the monsoons and has good network of irrigational facilities from canals and tanks
fed from anicuts across the river. The region has high density of population having large and small
scale industries. Tirunelveli is the regional centre, while Tuticourin is the main port. East
Rananathapuram lowlands include the southern parts of the Thanjavur and Tiruchchirappalli
districts. The regional has poor rainfall and generally infertile soils, but has a close network of
rainfed tanks and is studded with villages. It carries a low population density and has poor transport
481
facilities. The area is frequently affected by drought. West Anmathapuram Region includes the
northwestern portion of Tirunelveli, eastern part of Madurai and western part of Ramanathapuram
lowlands. There are a number of large urban centres such as Madurai, Virudhunagar, Aruppukkottai,
Sattur, Sivakasi, Srivilliputtur, etc., which he variey of large and small scale industries like textiles,
cement, matches and fireworks, etc. the region receives more rainfall than the eastern part and cotton
is an important crop. It also enjoys better transport facilities by road and rail.

25.6 SUMMARY
The region is a surplus food area and is characterized by intensive agriculture. It is also an
area of high pressure of population with a fairly high degree of urbanization. The Region, though
well served with transportation facilities, needs better inter-connection through constructing a trunk
marine drive from kolkotta to Kanya Kumari, and providing links to the ports.

Though well developed industrially is some parts, there is still good scope for rapid economic
development and marketing and storage facilities be made available. Port development is a sine qua
non for augmenting coastal and overseas trade. There is congestion transshipment of bulky goods
from bound to meter gauge railways, especially for goods bound for the southern districts. In order to
avoid these problems the existing harbour facilities for madras, Vishakhapatnam andParadeep need
be improved and enlarged. Characteristic port industries could develop to boost the regional as well
as the hinterland economy.
To provide for more extensive trade facilities, other ports like Kakinada, Masulipatam,
Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Nagapattinam and Tuticorin could further developed to activise the
respective hinterlands. Paradeep, apart from handling the existing traffic, could also server Rouukela
industrial complex. The obstacles presented by the tidal marsh at paradeep are no doubt challenging.

25.7 ACTIVITY
Record for a year the daily maximum temperatures of the year, place and workout (1) the daily mean
temperature (2) the daily range of temperature (3) the mean temperature for the month (4) the range
of temperature for the month.

25.8 QUESTIONS
- Give an acount of the marked climateic variations in East Coastal Plain,with suitable examples and
explanation.

482
- Discuss the physical setting of East Coastal Plains.
- Describe the Region of East Coastal Plains in detail.Discuss with te help of concrete examples.
- Explain briefly the drainage feature of East Coastal Plains.
- Each vegetation has its characteristics life cycle, which represents its delicate balance with its
enviornment. Elobrate the statement giving suitable examples.

25.9 REFERENCE
Anantapadmanabhan, N, 1957, ―Density of Rural Population in Relation to Terrain Types in
Tamilnad‖ Bombay (Mumbai) Geographical Magazine, V (December), 33-35.

Chari, C.S.S., 1927 ― Stages In The Growth of the City of Madras (Chennai)‖ . The Journal of the
Madras ( Chennai) Geographical Association, II (october),79-10.

Dalua,1960 ―Ashwini Kumar : ― Plea For a Port of Paradip‖ National Geographical Journal of
India, VI 47.

Jagadesan T.d. ― Andhra Pradesh – States of Our Union Series‖, Publication Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New Delhi .9-10.
Madras Gazetteer, I ,1908, 167.

Mahalinagam, T.V. 1968, ―Tamilnad in History‖ This is Tamilland, A.R. Irrawarthy (ed.) X XI
International Congress , 1-5.

Prabhu.1964-1966, ― Uttara: Village Survey Report- Madavi-lagam‖ (unpublished), Chennai

(Madras) University, 27-28.
Ramesh , A.1965, ―Tamilnad Decan – A Study in Urban Settlements‖, Ph. D. thesis (unpublished)
B.H.U, Varanasi, 132-167.

Rao, B.P. 1960 ―Evolution of Visakhapatnam‖, National Geographical Journal of India, VI,
December, 4, 1960, 242-259

Rao, Leelananda, M. M., 1964, ― Some Aspects of the Agricultural Geography of South India‖, The
Indian Geographical Jounal, XXXIX, 3 and 4, July-December, 102-119.

483
Sinha, B.N. 1968 ―The Mahanadi Delta‖ R.I, Singh (Ed.) India : Regional Studies, Kolkata , I.G.U.
Publication, 1968, 307-308

Sita, A., 1954 ― Erosion in a Gneissic Region South of Madras‖ Indian Geographical Journal XXIX,
2and 3,

484
UNIT-26 WEST COAST REGION A PHYSICAL SETTING

STRUCTURE
26.0 Objectives
26.1 Introduction
26.2 West Coast Region
26.3 Physiography
26.4 Drainage
26.5 Climate
26.5.1 Seasonal Variation
26.6 Soils
26.7 Vegetation
26.8 The Region
26.9 Summary
26.10 Activity
26.11 Questions
26.12 References

26.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the physiography of wesr coast region
To know about drainage pattern, seasonal variations of climate
To know about the soila of a region
To understand the natural and physical regions.of west coast region.

26.1 INTRODUCTION
Historically the West Coast of India enowe as it is with numerous havens creeks and a narrow but
fertile hinterland with coveted products has always been a zone of contact between India and West.
Its location has confronting the Sea-lane from Western Asia and Europe to the Far-East, has not only
attracted genuine traders in search of previous marchandise to its coast from the earliest times but has
been the cause of many a humiliation at the hands of the deceitful ones so much so that in medieval
times, the nation last its sovereignty bit by bit to trading intrests with headquarters at Amsterdam,
Paris, Libson or London. For the Indian heardland with seats of power mostly at Patliputra or Kanauj

485
in ancient times and at Delhi in medieval times. The region has been a peripheral one; local rulers
have mostly controlled it since pre-historic to modern age.

26.2 WEST COAST REGION

Between the Sahyadris and the Arabian Sea
lies the west Coastal Plain Region of India. The
region, 1,400 kilometre long and 10-80 kilometre
broad, has an area of 64,284 square kilometre.
Extending between 8˚15'N to 20˚22'N and 73˚40'E
to 77˚30'E, the coastal lowland falls into three first
order regions: the Konkan, the Karnataka or Kanara
and the Kerala or Malabar. Of these, the Karnataka
forms a distinct transitional zone between the
Konkan and the Kerala. In the north, region merges
almost imperceptibly into the much wider Gujarat
plains; its eastern limit is approximately marked by
150metren contour. Included in this region are the
coastal lowlands of Maharashtra. Mysore, Kerala
and Kanyakumari district of Tamilnadu (Refer
Figure 62); the language spoken in the respective
parts are Marathi, Kanarese, Malyalam andTamil.
Mumbai is ecommercial hub with secondary
nodes at Ratnagiri, Panjim, Karwar, Mangallore,
Cochin, Quilon andTrivn drum.

26.3 PHYSIOGRAPHIC
Physiographically the region is a distinct
strip of lowland, interspersed by hills,rising in
elevation from the sea level to 150 metre and, at
place, to more than 300 metre it is composed of one
or more of the following elements of the landscape:
snady beach, Coastal sand dunes or mud flats,
alluvial tracts along rivers or lagoons or estuary,
latrite platforms, erosional surface in the hard basement rock or the residual hills. The Sahyadris,
486
rising in elevation between 760 metre and 1,120 metre, run almost continuously parallel and present
their steep fact to the lowland. Its continuity is interrupted by the presence of a few ghats or gaps,
like the That and Bhor, which have been used by the railways to connect the port and city of Mumbai
with the Pal Ghats gap to connect the Malabar coast with the Tamilnadu country. Other gaps of
lesser importance have been used by motorable roads to link the Western Coast region with the
interior of the Peninsula. The steep west-facing scarp of the Sahyadris, accounting to some
geologists, is the product of faulting which preceded the subsidence of the Arabian sea block
between India and Africa at the close of the Eocene period. If we accept this view, the Western
Coastal it, are of very recent origin, ranging in age from Pliocene to Recent times. An examination
of the coastline from north to south reveals recent submergence in the Konkan and Karnataka and
emergence in the Malabar (from Mangalore to Kanyakumari). Mention may be made here of the
discovery of submerged forests on the eastern coast of the Island of Mumbai, besides the drowned
nature of the streams (with wide estuaries) both here and on the Karnataka coast.

Raised beaches and planes of marine crosion of earlier times are found at altitudes varying
from 30 to 91 metre all along the Western Coast of India. ―A common type of raised beach is the
littoral concrete composed of an agglutinated mass of garvel, sand with shells and coral fragments‖
a occurrence of bevelled surface in Deccan lava, surmounded by isolated hills that look like off
shore Island, has been noted in the Konkan. Platforms of marine erosion are also found in the
Karnataka at an elevation of 60metre. Besides, presence of a series of laterite-capped residual
plateaus have been observed at 76metre in southern Ratnairi district of southern Konkon, as also
extensively on the Karnataka and Malabar coasts. The undulating lowlands of the Konkan are 530
kilometre long and 30 to 50 kilometre broad. These are widest near Mumbai, in the amphitheatre like
basin of the ulhas which which has forced the Sahyadris in this part to recede inwards away from the
coast. Numerous hills and detached ridges dominate the lowlands in the area. Flat shores, with long
sandy spits running into muddy shallows, are found north of the Vaitarni river. Thus, two aspects
characterize the landscape in the northern Konkan. These are : (i) the sandy spits intruding into
muddy shallows close to the sea ; and (ii) low coastal ranges alternating with longitudinal valleys
farther inland.

The southern Konkan, in contrast ,is a rocky and rugged country. Lofty hills and elevated
plateaus, intersected by numerous creeks and navigable streams, are found close to the coast. The sea
board from Bankot of for Victoria to Reddi Fort is rocky. Farther inland, trap rocks form rugged
hills, 60 to 100 metre high; these hills rest on peneplaned Klaladgi quartzites which before
peneplantion formed symmanticlines. Rocky projections from the Sahyadris almost reach the sea
487
board both north and south of Goa. But, the coast around Goa is more deltaic than anywhere else in
this part; it is characterized by wide estuaries and is of the ria type.

In northern Karnataka, the lowland becomes so narrow that it is confined to small pockets
along the lower courses of the streams. Conical hills, composed of gneiss and about 610metre high,
again reach the coast south of Karwar. Farther south, the lowland is somewhat width is about 70 km.
near the port town of Mangalore in the Netravati Valley.

Occurrence of three roughly parallel belts of landforms has been noted in the Karnataka
coastal plain region. Immediately behind the coast is a relatively narrow belt of very recent deposits,
forming sand dunes, Lagunar or estuarine mudflats or mashes and valley plains. It is generally flat or
marshes and valley plains. It is generally flat or gently slopping has an average elevation of 30 metre.
this belt is succeeded by a 61 metre high erosion platforms farther inland. The erosion platforms is
25 kilometre wide in the south; it is well dissected by steep sided valleys. Associated with this
surface are the laterite deposits of Pliocene age. Often a cliff marks the break in slope between the
belt of very recent deposits and the 61 metre high erosion platform. Farther inland lies the third belt
of isolated hills, 91-305 metre high. These residual hills of Archaean gneiss constitute a conspicuous
aspect of the landscape southeast of Hanover and near Karwar.
The Malabar coast is 550 kilometre long and 20 to 100 kilometre wide. It is narrower in the
north and south and wider in the middle section. Its maximum extension is found in the valleys of the
Beypore, the Ponnani (which drains the Plaghatgap), the Periyar and Pamba-Achankovil rivers. In
the south, it terminates near the rocky projection at Kanyakumari. The prograding aspect of the
Malabar coast is also very obvious. Sand dunes of a peculiar form, locally known as Teris, are found
almost all along the Kerala coast, except south of Kovalum (14 kilometre south of Trivandrum)
where the rocks projects right up to the sea. These dunes of Pleistocene and Recent times have
helped to from a large number of shallow lagoons and backwaters which are locally known as
Kayals. The backwaters constitute an important physical feature of the Malayar coast. Low literate
plateaus and foothills occur east of the alluvial coastland. The laterites are associated with the
Waralli beds of Pliocene period. Two erosion surfaces, probably representing former planes of
marine erosion at 76metre and 183 metre are found in the laterites. Occurrences of laterite cliffs
have been also noted at 40 46 metre in Kozhikode district. The gneissic hill country lies farther
inland.

488
26.4 DRAINAGE
The drainage of the region is carried by numerous short and swift flowing streams which
have carved deep valleys on the west-facing slope of the Sahyadris (Refer Figure 63) . They
generally run parallel to one another and flow in a westerly direction unit they drain into the Arabian
sea. Several of these have tortous courses with steep gradients right up to the sea. Their initial
development seems to have taken place as consequent streams on the western fault-face of the
Sahyadris; these were later extended over the lowlands which are geologically much younger.

The most important streams of the northern Konkan are the Vaitarni, the Ulhas and the
Amba. The Ulhas, with a
course of 130 kilometre
is the largest river of the
Konkan coast. It rises in
the ravines of Bhor Ghat
and forms an
amphitheatre like basin
near Mumbai, before
discharging into the sea
north of Salsette Island
(Bassein Creek). The
lowland, in this part, is
95 kilometre wide south
of Mumbai, the coastal
plain narrows and with it,
the streams become shorter. The larger ones among them the Savitri and the Vashshthi, have also
formed amphitheatre like basins under the Ghats. Farther south, in Goa and on the north Karnataka
coast, the streams, Kalinadi, Gangavati-Bedti, Tadri and Sharavati (or Gerosappa River), have
encroached upon the Krishna- Tungabhadra drainage, thus, pushing the watershed some 130
kilometre back from the coast instead of the usual 40-55 Kilometre. But the streams have carved
out narrow valleys with steep gradients in this part, being confined to strips along the lower reaches
of the rivers. Small port settlements such as Karwar on the kalinadi and Hanover on the Sharavati,
are sited at the mouth of these streams. The most important stream in south Karnataka is the
Netravati at whose mouth is located the port town of Mangalore. These streams, being turbulent,

489
permit navigation for short distances near their mouths. However, floating of logs is a common
practice.
The Malabar coast has a large number of streams; the Periyar, having a length of 230
kilometre , is the longest. But most of the streams are very short; their average length is only 60
kilometre . Only 4 rivers the Beypore, Bharatpuzha, Peryar and Pamba, are more than 160 kilometre
long. The rivers of Kerala region have a total run off of 2,500 thousand million cubic feet, i.e., 5% of
India‘s water potential. They serve as important arteries of inland communication and provide a vast
potential for hydroelectric generation and irrigation and irrigation. Lakes and backwaters
characterize the greater part of the Malabar coast. These backwaters are connected with man-made
canals. Thus, an uninterrupted system or inland communication has been developed for a distance of
450 kilometre Trivandrum and Badgara in the north. The Vembanad Lake, stretching from Alleppey
to Cochin and having an area of 205 square kilometre is the largest water basin of the area. In all,
the Malabar has more than 2,000 kilometre of navigable waterways which is about 20% of India‘s
total length of waterways.

26.5 CLIMATE
The Region enjoys an equable climate with high temperatures almost throughout the year. Its
mean monthly temperature ranges between 24˚C and 31˚C and the minimum rarely falls bellow
21˚C. The highest temperature recorded on any one day in the last 80 years is 40˚C in the Konkan.
The daily range in temperature is about 10˚-14˚C in the winter and summer months and about 3˚-
6˚C in the rainy season. The annual range decreases southwards from 5.7˚C at Mumbai to 5˚C at
Karwar, 4˚C at Mangalore and 3.3˚C at Cochin. April and may are the hottest months of the year.
High humidities and refreshing on-shore breezes, particularly in the afternoon and evening, are
typical of the region (Refer Figure. 27.3) the rainfall is uniformly high, being 280 centimetre in the
Konkan, 310 centimetre in Karnataka and 240 centimetre in Kerla. About 80 % of the annual
rainfall in the Konkan and north Karnataka s received during 4 months from june to September. A
double maxima of rainfall a primary maximum in June- July and secondary one in October –
November is therefore typical of Kerala coast.

26.5.1 Seasonal Variation

The cool seasons extends from December to February. It is a period of low humidities, bright
sunshine and little precipitation. In December, there is a fall in temperature in the north, but there is
little change in the south. The mean temperature in January ranges between 24˚C in the north and

490
28˚C in the south. With an appreciable decreases in night temperature, the daily range in January is
at its maximum (13˚-14˚C). The mean temperature decreases in February. This decrease is largely
due to fall in the mean maximum daily temperature decreases in February. This decrease is largely
due to fall in the mean maximum daily temperature. As the night temperature in March indicates the
approach of the hot season. Light sea-breezes characterize the period between March and May. The
―Mango Showers‖ or the premonsoon rains of April-May are particularly important in Kerala and
south Karnataka. It results in a decrease in the daily range in temperature towards the south.

The onset of the southwest monsoon in the first week of June in Karnataka and Konkan is
associated with the development of cyclonic storm in the Arbian sea. A fall in the mean monthly
temperature, by 3˚C to 4˚C, takes place with the outbreak of the monsoon. July and August, with a
rainfall of over 60centimetre each, are the rainest months. There are at least 15 to 20 rainy days in
each of the months from June to September. At Mumbai, a maximum rainfall of 55cetmetre has been
recorded on one single day (10-09-30); its hourly intensity has been as high as 13centimetre. But,
inspite of the heavy rainfall, the coefficient of the variability of rainfall in the region is as great as in
the interior of the peninsular.
The mean temperature in the southwest monsoon period is about 25˚C -26˚C. In October,
with withdrawal of the monsoon from Konkan and Karnataka and its slackening in Kerala, the mean
temperature rises again to 27˚C-28˚C.

2.6 SOILS
There are 6 major types of soils in the region. They occur in belts parallel to one another
along the coast and are closely associated with both the physiographic units and the geological
formations. The soils are:
(i) Sandy soil,
(ii) Alluvial soil,
(iii) Coarse sandy soil
(iv) Lateite or Red soil,
(v) Forest soils. Of these the alluvial and black soil, and
(vi) Forest soils. Of these, the alluvial and black soils are most fertile (Refer Figure 64)
The snady soil is found close to the sea beach throughout the region. The soil, in Karnataka is often
associated with alluvial and outwash materials from the parent laterite. In Kerala it is associated
with the sand dunes along the sea-beach and sandy islands of the backwaters. The sand , in this part,

491
is mostly marine in origin content and extremely deficient in nitrogen, posphous, potash an calcium.
It is, therefore, of poor fertility status.

The alluvial soil,, besides river alluvial, also includes lagunar or estuarine mud and silts, particularly
in the Konkan. The it is one of the most fertile soils of the region, forming a wide belt in the North
Konkan. The belt becomes narrower towards the south in the south Konkan until it almost
disappears in North Karnataka where its occurrence is localized to the lower sections of a few
streams. In Kerala, it occurs in the valleys of Pamba-Achankovil rivers, forming a pocket between
the sandy soils of the coast and laterites of the midlands. Mention may be made here also of the

492
Kole soils in Trichur and Mukundapuram taluks which are fertile alluvial soils, formed mostly in
situ from micaceous and granitic rocks.

The coarse sandy soil of the Varkas of higher ground occurs east of the coastal alluvium in
the north Konkan. It is also a saline soil associated with low hills and plateau in the area. The
laterites sandy soil of the Varkas of higher ground occurs east of the coastal alluvium in the North
Konkan. It is also a saline soil associated with low hills and plateau in the area.

The laterites or red soils are found east of the sandy and alluvial tracts throughout Kerala and
Karnataka and as far north as Khod (a little north of Vashishthi river) in the south Konkon. The
laterite soilis often gravelly and sandy, containing only a very low proportion of clay. It is, therefore,
free draining and thirsty. Both the laterite and red soils are highly acidic, rich in iron, aluminum,
titanium and manganese oxides but poor in lime and organic content. Consequently these are either
sterile or of poor fertility status. Only crops like cashew, mango and tapioca can grow on them.

Peaty or Kari soil is found in pockets, east of the backwaters, in the taluks of Ambalapuzha,
Kuttanad, Vaikom and Shertallai in Kerala. It occurs at the junction f the sandy and laterite soils. A
small patch is also marked in similar disposition in the middle course of the Ponnani. The soil is
black and heavy and rich in organic matter (10%-40%) and potash. But its high acidity, besides
presence of iron and aluminum salts, makes its reclamation difficult.

The black soil or the regur is associated with Trap rocks in the North Konkan. It occurs as far
south as Mahad in the region. The soil is very rich in iron, magnesium and calcium but poor in
nitrogen. It is a very fertile soil with a high moisture retaining capacity. The forest soil is found in
patches on the slopes of the Ghats in Palghat, Kozhikode and Cannanore districts.

26.7 VEGETATION
The vegetation of the Region consists of coconuts or casuarina on the saline sandy beaches
and in the backwater zone, mangrove and swamp vegetation in marshes, creeks and estuaries, scrubs
and bamboo on the low laterite platforms or hills, and moist deciduous or tropical evergreen forest
on higher slopes of the Sahyadris. Though the palms grow almost all along the coast, these are most
prolific in Kerala and south Karnataka. The highest density of palms on the coast is found in the
Kozhikode district. Mangrove and swamp vegetation is typical of the marshes, tidal creeks and
estuaries of the Konkan and North Karnataka coasts.

493
 Much of the natural vegetation of forms, moist deciduous and tropical evergreen, has been
removed a long time back; it has been either reclaimed for agricultural or replaced by plantation.
Nevertheless, patches of dense forest are found, at present, in North Karnataka, and on the transverse
ridges and isolated hills of the South Konkan, and on the eastern slopes of the Ghats in Kerala.
Some of the best teaks are obtained from the forests of the North Karnataka coast. The laterite-
capped hills or plateaus in the south Konkan, Karnataka and Kerala are mostly sterile and, inspite of
heavy rainfall, provide a vegetation of scrubs, bushes and bamboo only.

26.8 THE REGION

The three first order regions of the west Coast are quite distinct from north to south: the
konkan Coast, the Karnataka Coast and the
Malabar Coast, corresponding mostly with the
respective State boundaries of Maharashtra,
Mysore and Kerala; however,Goa is included
in the Konkan while the Kanyakumari coast.
On the basis of physical and cultural
characteristics the three first order regions
have been divided into 6 second order and 11
third order regions(Refer Figure 65).

59. Konkan Coast

(a) North Konkan
(i) Mahim Region
(ii) Mumbai –Kalyan Region
(b) South Konkan
(i) Mahad Region
(ii) Ratnagiri Region
(iii) Goa
60. Karnataka Coast
(e) North Kanara
(d) South Kanara
(i) Udipi Region
(ii) Netravati or Mangalore Region
61. Malabar Coast
494
 (e) North Malabar
(i) Cannanore Region
(ii) Palghat- Kozhikode Region
(f) South Malabar
(i) Kottayam-Alwaye Region
(ii) Trivandrum-Nagercoil Region
In the konkan Coast, the north with metropolitan Mumbai and its most natural harbour is
rather the most developed region of the West Coast. The coastal lowlands are wide in the North than
the southern counterpart, the widest being near Mumbai. The North Konkan is characterized by
sandy spits intruding into mudflats and wider creeks close to sea and by low coastal ranges separated
by longitudinal valleys away from the coast, while the south Konkan presents a rocky and rugged
country with lofty hills and elevated plateau dissected by narrow creeks and streams close to the
coast. Moreover, with the Thalghat and Bhorghat gaps in the Sahyadri, the N. Konkan is actively
linked with the vast hinterlands which have made Mumbai the real Western Gateway of India. North
Konkan may be divided into two third order regions the Mahim Region in the north and Mumbai-
Kalyan Region in the south. Greater Mumbai is no doubt the largest and most cosmopolitan city of
India; its superb position with the large natural harbour has also made it a giant industrial complex.
The Mahim Region looks as tail like extension of Mumbai Kalyan region; most of the secondary and
tertiary activities here are confined along the coast and the railways line while in the sparsely
populated Sahyadri slopes Vada is a focal point is a focal point. The south Konkan has 3 district sub
regions, the Mahad Region in the north ,the Ratnagiri Region in the centre and the Goa western flank
of the Sahyadri on the Savitri is the regional centre in its region and looks more to Mumbai.
Ratnagiri on the coast is the regional focus in the central part of the region with road links to
Kolhapur on the plateau; it is an undeveloped region and food has to be imported. Goa region
becomes district because of its deltaic conditions in the whole of the West Coast as also its rather
prolonged historico –political association with Portugal. Lowlands are prominent for rice while
cashewnuts as cash crops are grown extensively on slopes

The Karnataka Coast is distinguishable into second order region: the North Kanara and south
Kanara. South Kanara may be further subdivided into two third order units: the Udipi Region and
Mangalore Region, mainly on the basis of the pattern of economic development. The Udipi region is
more agricultural with paddy and pulses (black gram) as main crops, while the Mangalore region has
sizeable proportion of non agricultural population with coconut plantation and casuarina along the
sandy sea-shore and two to three corps of rice on loamy soils based on lift irrigation from rivers.

495
Udipi is the regional centre and coffee port of India functioning as it does as the sea gateway of
Karnataka region; its port function are likely to be highly boosted up in the near future with
improved inland transport linkages. Puttur in the inland is sub-regional centre.

The Malabar Coast is a distinct physical ad cultural entity being somewhat isolated from the rest of
the peninsular India, but with better over seas contact since ancient times. The coast is narrower in
the north of Kozhikode and the south of Trivandrum and wider in the middle (up to 1000 kilometre
in the Palghat area). The tripartite belted arrangement of the landforms in form of Kayals, alluvial
lowlands and the laterite platforms with gneissic foothill is more distinguishable here. Through
paddy is the most intensively cultivated crop of the lower part and tapioca of higher parts, the region
is deficit food zone as most of the other lands are devoted to plantation crops like coconut, rubber,
coffee, cardamom and tea. There is a greater tendency of lineation of rural settlements, mainly due to
the belted arrangement of landforms and the corresponding alignment of transport arteries (Refer
Figure 66).

The region may be further sub-divided into two second order regions: North Malabar and South
boundary of Palghat district demarcating the two. North Malabar is narrower except in the Palghat
gap area and is conspicuous by the absence of Kayals which are pronounced in the southern
counterpart. In the north rice and coconuts form the first and second ranking crops throughout, the
third ranking crop being spices tapioca or betel nuts in different region, while in the south coconut
and tapioca take first position displacing rice in Kottayam and Quilon lowlands to second position

496
and in Trivandrum to third position. The south is further distinguishable by the concentration of
large and small size service and industrial centres dotting North being formerly the part of Chennai
presidency was rather isolated being away from the main centre of development, while the South
roughly coinciding with the princely State of Travancore Cochin is better developed though sharing
several social and economics problems.
North and south Malabar can be further subdivided into two third order units each, the former
into Cannanore and Palghat-Kozhikode regions and the letter into Kottayam Alwaye created
Vivekanand Memorial looms large above the horizon at Kanyakumari, the southern tip of India.

26.9 SUMMARY
The integration of the West Coast Region is challenged by the difficulty of through-trans
portation within the region as well as with the hinterland. The coastal shipping services, no doubt
provide limited accessibility mainly through country boats whose activity is almost suspended
during the monsoon season. Though the coast has some of the finest need be improved at several
economy of the coast, particularly in respect to organized fisheries (deep sea) with modern
equipment, office good scope for development.
The provision of a West drive from Kanyakumari to Mumbai and onwards, appears to be a
potent solution to improve negotiability amongst its various parts. Moreover, Karwar, etc.) along the
Drive radiating highways towards the interior, particularly in the Karnataka region, deserve priority.
With a view to removing sub regional disparity, the growth of Mumbai metropolis need be
controlled through dispersal of industries in future all along the coast. The Malabar coast is
confronted with socio economic problems, particularly in relation to imbalanced production of food
and plantation crops. Food deficit in Kerala need be attacked though developing seafood resources
and intensive agriculture.

26.10 ACTIVITY
Draw selected Isotherms for summer in red colour and for winter in blue colour on two
different maps. Study carefully the alignment of the Isotherm of 200 in tne two maps and write a
note explaining its seasonal shifts.

26.11 QUESTIONS
- Why the rivers on the west coast have no deltas, even though they transport lot of sediments with
them.
497
- What are the various natural characteristics, which are generally taken into consideration while
dividing a west coastal region into different sub-regions.
- Each vegetation has its characteristic life cycle, which represents its delicate balance with its
enviornment.Elobrate the statement giving concrete examples.
- Give an account of distribution of annual rainfall in west coast region. How is it related to the
relief of the country.

26.12 REFERENCES
Agarsure,1966., ― Village Survey Monograph‖, Vol. X Pt. VI (2), Maharashtra (Mumbai), 4.

Agnes, (Miss), 1968., ―Mangalore: A Study in Urban Geography‖, Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis
Patna.

Development Plan for Trivandrum City, Town Planning and Architecture, 1969, 34.

Honaro, M.S., 1953 ― Halge: a Study in Landuse in North Kanara Coast lands‖ , Mumbai (Bombay)
Geographical Magazine, Vol. 76.

Imperial Gazetteer of India ,1908, Vol. XV, 357.

Imperial Gazetteer of India,1908, Vol. XII, 251.

Leatmonths, A.T.A.,1960., ― Mysore State, A Regional synthesis‖, Vol. II ,17.

Mumbai (Bombay ) Physical Plate, N. Artlas of India.

Spate, O.H.K.,1952, ― India and Pakistan‖, London, Methuen and Co., Ltd., 665.

Techino Economic Survey of Kerala, 1952, NCAER New Delhi, 2.

Wadia, D.N., 1966 ― Geology of India‖, London, MicMillan and Company, 46.

498
BLOCK-9 URBAN METROPOLITAN REGIONS

INTROUCTION
The metropolitan regions provide a meaningful and comprehensive study based on the stages
of growth, morphology technology being used with social signifance. The urban relationship with
physical, economic and social enviorment, urbanization process, city and its social and regional
development, Metropolis the large city with a cosmopolitan population and specialised occupations
which have a wide sphere of influence and megapolos the bloated city where material wealth
dominates life.
This block consists of four unit. Unit 27 introdeces the Delhi metropolitan region is a post
independence planned city have been designed by leading architect such as Le Corbusier Lutyen
aimed at creating pollution free metropolis and green belt.
Unit 28 discussed Mumbai metropolis city is a worldwide managerial and entrenuerial class city with
modern administrations.
Unit 29 discussed that the British created Kolkata the major metropolis of to-day and they also
created smaller administrative centres public building and other features of European architecture.
Unit 30 introduces the regional development of Bundelkhand region and other related aspects.
We hope that the Block will help you in enhancing your knowledge about the fields.

Unit 27. Delhi Metropolitan Region

Unit 28. Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Unit 29. Kolkata Conuration: A Functional Region
Unit 30. Bundelkhand ( Regions)

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UNIT-27 DELHI METROPOLITAN REGION

STRUCTURE
27.0 Objectives
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Delhi Region
27.3 Physical Exten of NCR
27.4 The Objectives of NCR regional Plan
27.5 Population Distribution
27.6 Dispersal of economic Activities
27.7 Landuse in NCR
27.8 Regional Transport System
27.9 Planning the Physical Infrastructure
27.10 Summary
27.11 Activity
27.12 Questions
27.13 References

27.0 OBJECTIVES
To undererstand physical extent of NCR
To know objective of Regional Plan
To understand Economic activities and transport system.
To understand urban land use in NCR

27.1 INTRODUCTION
It is the process of becoming urban. In other words, it is a demographic process whereby an
increasing proportion of the population of a region or a country live in urban areas. It is a
characteristic of economically advance nations where it is occurring at much faster rate than it did
historical in the developed Western World. In usul usage it is associated with concentration of
population in town and cities. Urbannization is interpreted as a process in volving the absolute and
relative growth of towns and cities within a defined areas usually a country. Linked with the
demographic process is the structural change in the society in the society consequent upon the
500
development of industrial development. Cities are represented in the foci of the exchange processes
that are cultural to this made of production with latter. The search for increases in productivity led to
the development of urban factories to reap the economic of scale and advantage to be gained from
the process of concentration and concentration.

27.2 DELHI METROPOLITAN REGION

Delhi is a national Capital Territory. It has witnessed a very high growth rate of its population
in the decades after independerice. It offers vast economic opportunities, and thus create very strong
attractive forces pulling migrants not only from the immediate neighborhood but also from the far off
place in the country. The population of Delhi has grown at the rate of 64.2, 54.6,57.1 and 50.6 %
during 1951-61,1961-71,1971-81 and 1981-91 and 16753235 million in 2011 respectively. Delhi
registered the third largest decadal growth rate amongst the metropolitan centres during 1971-81
after Bangalore and Jaipur. The phenomenal growth rate of the city has disturbed the government as
well as the planners. It has to be contained in order to keep the city of Delhi a healthy city. Any
strategy of containing the growth of Delhi within limits will have to be taken within the regional
frame in which Delhi exists. The region in the immediate hinterland of Delhi within which the
development had to be planned in order to release pressure from Delhi is known as ―National Capital
Region‖. The genesis of the concept may be traced from the Master Plan of Delhi which was
prepared in 1959 and finally approved by the Government of India in 1962. The Master Plan
contained amongst others a recommendation of setting a statutory NCR Planning Board Initially, this
board was constituted as an advisory body, which was reconstituted in 1973. It task was to
coordinate the development of urban and rural areas in the National Capital Region under a
comprehensive regional Plan and to secure the collaboration of the concerned state governments the
implementing the plan.

27.3 THE PHYSICAL EXTENT OF NCR

The national Capital Region extends over the National Capital Territory of Delhi and
adjoining parts of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The administrative units constitution the
NCR are as under
(a) National Capital Territory of Delhi (1483 Square Kilometre)
(b) Haryana sub-region comprising Faridabad, Gurgaon, Rohtak, Sonipat district, Rewari and
Bawal tehsils of Mahendragarh district and Panipat tehsil of Karal district (13,413square
kilometre)

501
(c) Uttar Pradesh sub-regional
with districts of Merrut,
Ghaziabad and Bulandshahar
(10,853square kilometre)
(d) Rajasthan sub-region
comprising Alwar, Ramgarh,
Behrod, Mandawar,
Kishangarh and Tijara tehsils
of Alwar district (4,493squre
kilometer) Thus, the NCR
covers an area of 30,242
Square kilometre ( Refer
Figure 67) shows the physical
extent of the NCR.

27.4 THE OBJECTIVES OF NCR REGIONAL PLAN

The basic objective of the NCR Regional Plan is to regulate the population and the urban area
and keep it within manageable limits so that the quality of life in the city does not deteriorate. It was,
therefore, envisaged that a chain of ring towns is identified and the population is diverted to these
ring towns according to their potential. The plan also advocated decentralisation of economic
activities away from the metropolis of Delhi towns within the National Capital Region. This was to
be accomplished through checks on the location of large industries in Delhi and encourage the
dispersal of industries and other job opportunities elsewhere in the NCR. It was also suggested to
decentralize the selected government offices which have concentrated in Delhi over time. The
regional plan also aimed at an integrated development of infrastructures like transport network, water
supply, power, housing, and other social amenities and facilities. Integrated urban developments in
priority towns were also envisaged.
These objectives have to be realized by evolving a coordinated administrative structure
mutually agreed upon by the States of Haryana. Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and the national Capital
Territory of Delhi. The National Capital Region Planning Act was passed by the Parliament in
January 1985. it is a statutory coordinating board responsible for planning, monitoring and
development of the National Capital Region at the regional level. The board is entrusted with the

502
duties of monitoring the regional plan and to evolve policy for regulating land use and development
of infrastructure in the NCR.

27.5 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

In order to achieve the major objectives of the NCR and to arrest the growth of Delhi in terms
of its population size, it is necessary to induce developmental processes in some selected nodal
points in the region. Some such centres have been identified which have already shown significant
trends of growth and have the potential to absorb the increase in population by offering economic
opportunities. These centres are Meerut, Hapur, Bulandshahar Complex, Rothak, Panipat and Alwar.
These centres have been selected for providing more employment opportunities to attract the
migrants. The population policy of the NCR is geared to control the population in the towns of Delhi
Metropolitan Area (DMA). The interim Development Plan 2001 of NCR envisages to restrict the
population of the towns of Delhi Metropolitan Area to 37 lakh by 2001 distributed in Ghaziabad
including Loni (11 Lakh), NOIDA (5.5Lakh. Faridabad (10Lakh), Gurgaon (7Lakh), Bahadurgarh
(2Lakh)and Kundli (1.5Lakh). The priority towns will accommodate about 50Lakh people by 2001
according to the NCR Planning Board, Interin Plan. The distribution as envisaged is as under Merrut
(13Lakh), Hapur (6Lah), Bulandshahar 1987 Khurja (10Lakh), Palwal (3Lakh), Alwar
(5Lakh),Rewari-Bhiwadi Dharuhera Complex (3Lakh), Rohtak (5Lakh), and Panipat (5Lakh). The
Plan also suggests the evolution of a four-tier settlement system comprising the regional centres, sub-
regional centres, services centres and villages.

27.6 DISPERSAL OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

As a strategy for reducing the population pressure on Delhi and for inducing growth of population in
the NCR, the adjustment of employment generating activities are location of industries, dispersal of
Central Government and public sector offices and dispersal of wholesale and distributive trade and
commerce. The location of medium and large scale industries has to be restricted in Delhi and a
policy of incentives and facilities has to be adopted for locating the industries outside the Delhi
Metropolitan Area and within the National Capital Region. The towns selected for priority
development should be provided for with industrial estates to attract the large, medium and small
scale industries. It is proposed to shift those officers, which do not perform ministerial function,
protocol function and liaison function, outside Delhi. Any office of public enterprises which does
not perform the above mentioned function should also be shifted outside Delhi. If the offices

503
performing the above-mentioned functions want to expand, they should be encouraged to locate the
expanded offices in the Delhi Metropolitan area rather than in the National Capital Territory.
The wholesale trade which does not serve the consumers in Delhi should also be shifted elsewhere in
the NCR. The wholesale trade, at least 60 % of which is consumed in Delhi, and which are not
hazardous and which do not require large space for their operation be allowed to remain in Delhi.
The wholesale trade of plastics, chemicals, timber and other volatile materials which are hazardous
or those materials which require extensive space, e.g. iron and steel and building materials may be
encouraged to locate in the DMA. The regional towns in the NCR should be provided with
infrastructural facilities in order to attract the wholesale trade.

27.7 LAND USE IN THE NCR

Agricultural is and will remain to continue as the major economic activity in the NCR. About 80 %
of the total area of the NCR is used for agriculture and about 50 % of the work force is engaged in
the primary sector for their sustenance. The NCR concept of development envisages the generation
of employment in the non-agricultural sector leading to the population concentration in selected
settlement. The extension of urban areas is further going to eat up the agricultural land. Wherever
possible , the settlement be permitted to expand on less fertile, barren or wastelands. In any case the
reduction in agricultural land will take the place with non agricultural uses expanding in the NCR.
Intensification of agricultural will be the only alternative to keep up the quanturn of food production.
The land will be allowed to be brought under plough wherever it does not come in conflict with
conservation of forest area will be encouraged. The social forestry has to be encouraged for
enhancing the production of fodder and fuel. The land requirement for urban development in priority
towns and DMA towns in 2001 as allocated by the NCR Board is given in ( Refer Table 75) the
increasing urban population will be accommodated by extending the urban areas but adjustment to
certain extent are possible by redensification of the urban population. It is also realized that the
development should proceed along with environment protection and conservation sites, parks,
national parks,bird sanctuaries within the region will be developed and strengthened in order to
provide recreational avenues. A buffer zone of green between Delhi Urban Area and Delhi
Metropolitan Area has been proposed to be created. The Aravalli hills extending from Delhi to
Alwar provides ideal extent for development a natural forest through conservation.

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Table 75 :Lan Requirement for Urban evelopment by 2001 in NCR
Town/Urban Complex Existing Area Population Population Assigned Additional Total Land Additional
in Hectare (in lakh) 1981 Density per Population-2001 Population to be Required in Land
Ha. 1981 (in lakh) Acconumodated Ha. Required
(in lakh) in Ha.
1. Priority Towns/Urban Complex
(i) Meerut 8082 5.37 66 13.00 7.63 10400 2313
(ii) Hapur 583 1.03 176 6.00 4.97 4800 4217
(iii) Bulandshahar-Khurja 1975 1.70 86 10.00 8.30 8000 6025
Complex 552 0.47 85 3.00 2.53 2400 1843
(iv) Palwal 2082 1.38 66 5.00 3.62 4000 1913
(v) Panipat 2203 1.67 76 5.00 3.33 4000 1797
(vi) Rohtak 606 0.52 85 3.00 2.48 2400 1997
(vii) Rewari-Dharuhera-Bhiwadi
Complex 8000 1.46 18 5.00 2.54 4000 Nill
(viii) Alwar
Sub-Total 24083 13.60 56 50.00 35.40 40000 20620
2. DMA Towns
(i) Ghaziabad including Loni 6840 3.00 44 11.00 8.00 8800 1960
(ii) NOIDA 600 0.75 125 5.50 4.75 4400 3800
(iii) Faridabad 17824 3.31 18 10.00 6.69 8000 Nill
(iv) Gurgaon 2413 1.00 41 7.00 6.00 5600 3200
(v) Bahaurgarh 900 0.37 41 2.00 1.63 1600 700
(vi) Kundli 200 0.25 125 1.50 1.25 1200 1000
3. Sub Total 28777 8.63 30 37.00 28.32 29600 10660
4. Grand Total 52860 22.28 42 87.00 64.72 69600 30577
Source: Interim Development Plan 2001, NCR Planning Board, P. 45.
Note: Density assumed: 125 persons per hectare

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27. 8 REGIONAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Transportation network increases the efficiency of flows. An integrated road and rail network
is essential to regulate flows within the NCR. It is proposed to have one inner grid of roads
connecting Sonepat Bagpat- Meerut- Hapur- Bulandshahar- Sikandarbad- Faridabad- Rohtak-
Gurgaon- Jhajjar- Gohana- Sonipat. The outer grid is envisaged to link Panipat Muzaffarnagar-
Merrut- Hapur- Bulandshahar Kuurja- Palwal- Rewari –Jhajjar-Gohana- Rohtak Panipat. The
transport system will evolve to adjust itself to the four-tier of settlements planned by the NCR Board.
It is proposed to develop regional rail bypass connecting Merrut Hapur Bulandshahar Khurja Palwal-
Sohna- Rewari –Jhajjar Rohtak. The metre gauge railway line in Rajasthan and Haryana sectors,
particularly between Delhi and Alwar, will have to be converted into high capacity system. The
EMU services on the ring system of rail tracks may increase the flow of commuters and materials. In
order to achieve the highest level of coordination, the formation of a single Unified Metropolitan
Transport Authority has also been planned.

27.9 PLANNING THE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

If the National Capital Region is to function as one integrated region, the deficiencies in
infrastructural facilities will have to be reduced. Uninterrupted supply of power is pre-requisite for
economic development. It should be available in adequate quantity for industrial development. The
atomic power at Narora is likely to augment the power supply. The power tariff will have to be
adjusted in a way that Delhi becomes a less favoured area for industrial and commercial power.
Around the clock power supply in all the urban and rural areas of the NCR should be ensured for
rapid economic transformation.
Supply of drinking water to urban and rural areas is becoming difficult in view of the
increasing demands for water. An integrated water supply scheme consisting of surface flow and
ground water in the priority centre in the first phase and to other towns and rural areas in the second
phase will have to be undertaken. The strict enforcement of water pollution Control Act, 1974 and
Environmental Protection Act, 1986 may go a long way restrict the wastage of this cyclic resource.
The problem of sanitation, sewerage disposal and rain water drainage will have to be tackled
in the urban areas as a first priority. Congestion always leads to the deterioration of sanitation. The
congestion in the urban and rural settlements has to be reduced and corrected, if it is there. The urban
areas where sewerage disposal schemes are absent, low cost sanitation systems may be introduced.
The NCR Planning Board may consider the feasibility of introducing the model of Sulabh
International of the disposal of sewerage and provide faicilities to the community as a whole.

506
 The NCR will be an experience in metropolitan and regional development Planning. It will
witness high growth of urbanization in an agriculture based economy. It will result in an integrated
urban system reducing the pressure of population of Delhi. The process has already started with land
prices sky rocking in the whole NCR. The NCR as a concept will have to be implemented swiftly
least the haphazard development takes over the planned development.

27.10 SUMMARY
The NCR will be an experience in metropolitan and regional development planning. It will witness
high growth of urbanisation in an agriculture-based economy. It will result in an integrated urban
system reducing the pressure of population of Delhi.

27.11 ACTIVITY
Draw a map of Delhi NCR and locate the satellite towns.

27.12 QUESTIONS
- Discuss the salient features of NCR Delhi.
- Explain urban land use in NCR.
- Comment on dispersal of economic activities.
- Define Regional Transport System.

27.13 REFERENCES
NCR Planning Board, Interim Development Plan, 2001, Ministyry of Urban evelopment, GOI, 1987.

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UNIT-28 MUMBAI METROPOLITAN REGION

STRUCTURE
28.0 Objectives
28.1. Introduction
28.2 Mumbai Metropolitan Region
28.3 The Geographical Personality
28.4 Industrial Development
28.5 Port
28.6 Planning the Metropolitan Mumbai
28.7 Summary
28.8 Activity
28.9 Questions
28.10 References

28.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand Mumbai Metropolitan Region
To know its Geographical development
To understand its industrial development

28.1 INTRODUCTION
Metropolis ‗Literally means the mother city, any city having a population size of 1 million is
referred to as metropolis and it is a phenomenon of a present day.

28.2 MUMBAI METROPOLITAN REGION

‗Metropolis‘ Literally means the mother city, any city having in a population size of 1
million is referred to as ‗metropolis‘. The metropolitisation in India is a phenomenon of the present
century. While the urban population of the present century. While the urban population in India
increased from 25.85 million in 1901to 217.18 million in 1991 and 14,350,000 million in 2011 the
increase in the population during 1901-2011, the increase in the population of metropolitan cities
has been forty seven fold.

508
 Mumbai has been one of themajor ports amongst the three ports developed by the British, i.e.,
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. A port has a locational advantage of being on the coast. Mumbai
has the additional advantage of being on the coast. Mumbai has the additional advantage of being
located on the coast of the Arabian sea and is closer to the Suez canal linking Western Europe.
Mumbai has rich hinterland growing cotton and oilseeds. It served as a suction point for a siphoning
the resource from the inland markets. The establishment of cotton textile industries with the help of
the imported machinery through Mumbai port and linking it with railways to the interior gave
impetus to the growth of Mumbai as a urban centre. As it became a focal point offering economic
opportunities, people started migrating to Mumbai from different parts of country.
The economy advantage has led to the rapid growth of Mumbai. The concentration of
industries, commerce, trade and other economic activities have accelerated the process of
metropolisation of Mumbai. The pull factors generated by the economic opportunities attract great
influx of people, which becomes a major problem of metropolitan centres. It puts great pressure on
space, civic amenities, housing, and transport and on the employment avenues. The great demand for
housing pushes up the land prices not only in the city limits but also in its immediate hinterland.
Congestion and competition lead to social tensions and disparities become glaring.
Mumbai starting as a port city on a small island known as ‗Salsette‘ separated from the
mainland by Thane and Bassien creeks, grew in a large city and expanded further to become a
metropolis. The Island could not accommodate metropolis. The Island could not accommodate the
growing population increasing industrial activity and influx of people. The shortage of space, high
land prices, higher costs of living and due to increased connectivity provided by road and rail
network resulted in outward growth of the city. The railways and roads provided corridors of
development and growth of settlements. The city fringe started expanding. Industrial activity got
dispersed to the towns in the hinterland. The city of Mumbai thus expanded to become Greater
Mumbai‘s metropolitan region. It covered an area of 603 square kilometre in 1981, which was about
10 times of area of the old city of Mumbai. In 1991, five urban areas from Thane have been added to
Greater Mumbai. While in 1981 its population was 8.2 million in 1991, it rose to 12.6 million if the
present trend continues, the metropolitan area may further be extended engulfing more rural areas. It
size calls for scientific planning as in case of the metropolitan area.

28.3 THE GEOGRAPHICAL PERSONALITY

Mumbai city was initially established as a port town in 1774 on one of the Island out of
seven island formed of Deccan Lava. The entire seven Islands have since been joined together by
reclamation. The Mahim River separated the Salsette Island from the Mumbai Island. As the Port of
509
Mumbai Island was established on this Island, it was known as Mumbai Island. The Thane creek
separated the group of island from the mainland.
The Island site of the metropolis is protected by a distant mountain wall of Western Ghats.
The Island itself has three hills lying in the form of local eminences. These are Malabar hills, Pali
hills and Antop hills. The Island is elongated but its harbour with 192 square kilometre of protected
deep water makes it an unique harbour in India. Greater Mumbai extends over a wedge shaped area
of land and extends towards Thane district. The whole area is a continuous built up area along the
rail road corridors.

28.4 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

After independence, Greater Mumbai witnessed a fast industrial growth. A number of
industrial units have emerged in the industrial areas of Thane-Belapur strip and Taloja (Refer Figure
68) during the last 15 years. The Nhava-Sheva port on the mainland across the Thane creek will be
serving the industrial area developed in its immediate hinterland. The new bridge across Thane creek
has provided accessibility with the south and south –eastern part and linked Greater Mumbai, with
New Mumbai. Thus, Greater Mumbai, Thane, and New Mumbai areas have developed into a large
urban agglomeration.

Mumbai port has a

large hinterland, almost
extending up to Delhi,
Jabalpur, Nagpur and
Hyderabad but as the distance
increases, its influence
decreases. It, however, exerts
great influence up to
Matheran in the east. It is a
hill station located on the
Western Ghats at a height of
760 metres above the mean
sea level. The Western sides
of the Ghats are linked with
Mumbai as the hydro electric

510
power is transmitted from these areas. Panvel, on the Mumbai Pune route marks the south eastern
limit of the metropolitan area.
There is great diversification of industry in this metropolitan region. Textile is the most
dominant and the oldest industry. A large number of cotton textile factories are located in Parel
where the land was cheaper in the olden days. The engineering industry occupies the second place.
These are located closer to Mazagaon. Many engineering industry manufactures textile machinery
and printing machinery. Chemical, drugs, and industries also dot the industrial landscape. Away
from the city, the metals, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, drirying and leather industries extend almost
up to Kalyan. The film industry is located in the northern suburb of Mumbai.
The major advantage to this industrial development has been the availability of hydro
electric power, in an otherwise coal deficient region. Hydro electrical schemes were developed in
1927 in order to meet the power needs of the industry and the railways. There are three very old
power projects of Lonavala, Nila Mula, and Andhra Valley. The water of east flowing small stream
has been stored in reservoirs and has been lead through tunnels on reverse slopes of the Ghats to the
western foot of the hill ranges at three power stations at Khopoli, Bhivpuri, and Bhira. Some new
project like Koyna project in Ratnagiri district, have also been started.

28.5 THE PORT

Mumbai still remains the most important port of country on the West Coast. A number of
docks are located on the eastern side of the island. An eight kilometre long stretch has series of
docks. The port handles a variety of items like oil tankers, cotton, cotton goods,oilseeds and
manganese, grains, machinery, and constructional goods. There are important and busy docks are:
prince. Victoria and Alexandria. They have sufficient depth of water, a long water front various
infrastructures and installations and are served by 193 kilometre of port trust railways. This port also
provides docks for the namal ships of Indian Navy.

28.6 PLANNING THE METROPOLITAN MUMBAI

Metropolitan planning in India is a recent practice, though Master Plans of some cities were
prepared by the planners. Metropolitan planning have attempted in the four major cities of India.
viz. Delhi, kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai. It has been necessitated due to the problems faced by the
large cities. The problems of absorbed growing population, providing infrastructural facilities,
generating employment, reducing congestion, providing housing and preserving planning strategy for
these cities. The concept of the NCR with which you are already familiar Kolkata Metropolitan

511
Organization (CMO), etc, were introduced in responses to this need of planning the metropolitan
regions.
Mumbai city has witnessed unchecked industrial and urban growth leading in the great
increases in numbers from 8 Lakh persons in 1901 to 126 lakh (12.6million) persons in 1991. The
first Greater Mumbai plan in 1948 proposed a gradual removal of factories from the central part of
the city outside along the Agra road and along the railway track of the western railways. In 1948, the
limit on population was put at 3.7 million which was exceeded in 1958 itself. The other plan fixed a
population size of 8 million people in 1964 for Greater Mumbai which has already been surpassed in
1981. Putting a ceiling on the population size metropolitan area throughout the world has been a
futile exercise except in some socialist countries. The population of Mumbai exceeded 12 million in
1991 making it the largest city of the country.
The industrial agglomeration which developed near Mumbai due to certain initial advantages
cannot be dismantled. New industries will have to be planned outside the metropolitan area. Bandra,
Kurla area may not accommodate large number of industries due to lack of space and difficulty in
reclaiming more land for the sea.
A new satellite metropolitan city is developing on the mainland known as New Mumbai. It is
not far away from the old city and is connected with it by road and rail links. A comprehensive
transport plan has been drawn up to provide inter-city and intra-city services. This plan has to be
implemented in a phased manner. It was started in 1972 and the bus services at present link New
Mumbai with Thane in the north Mumbai and Dadar in Central Mumbai. A ferry service operates
between ferry wharf at Mumbai and Urban in New Mumbai. The plans to introduce service to other
areas in New Mumbai are under preparation. Fast ferry services are also being considered to link up
the commercial parts in Fort area in old Mumbai and the commercial area of Belapur in New
Mumbai. Thane creek separates two. It has two natural harbour sites and a port has been proposed at
Nhava and Sheva. The industries have already taken route in the Thane-Belapur belt and Taloja area.
It is also proposed that some of the Government officers of Maharashtra Government should be
shifted. It will help in decongesting the old city and give prestige to New Mumbai. The development
of New Mumbai may call for a new adjustment in the land use pattern. It is also necessary for the
conservation and control of pollution. Besides planning the city region, dispersal of industries other
regions of Maharashtra and development of rural area are also essential. This will create more jobs in
other parts of the state and the development of the rural areas will reduce the push factor and check
the migration of rural population to urban areas. Besides, steady and continuous rebuilding is an
absolute necessary for all metropolitan cities. According to La Corbusier (the planner architect of

512
Chandigarh) ―cities that do not rebuild themselves continuously die‖. Therefore, redevelopment is
are requisite along with the development.

28.7 SUMMARY
Mumbai city is usually established as a port town in 1774 on one of the Islans out of seven Islands
formed of eccan lava. The economic advantages have le to the rapi growth, concentration of
inustries, commerce trade and other economic activities have accelerated the progress of
metropolisation.

28.9 ACTIVITY
Draw a map of Mumbai Metropolitan area an mark the new industrial estates.

28.10 QUESTIONS
- Discuss the salient features of Mumbai Metropolitan Area.
- What are the main objectives of industrial evelopment in Mumbai.
- Planning the Metropolitan Mumbai. Comment.

28.11REFERENCES
Government of India,1975 ― The Gazetteer of India‖, Volume III., Ministry of Education, New
Delhi.

Parekh, B.S., 1976 ― India On The Move‖ NCERT, New Delhi

Patel, B., Shirish, 1974., ― Metropolitan Bombay ( Mumbai)‖, Quest, Mumbai, No.88, May-June.

Sinha, B.N.,1972, ― Industrial Geography of India‖ The World Press Pvt. Ltd Kolkata ( Calcutta)

513
UNIT-29 KOLKATA CONURATION: A FUNCTIONAL REGION

STRUCTURE
29.0 Objectives
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Kolkata Conuration
29.3 Industrial Activities in Kolata Conuration
29.4 Problem and Prospect
29.4.1 Problem City
29.5 Summary
29.6 Activity
29.7 Questions
29.8 References

29.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand geographical factors of a region
To understand the basic problems of the city
To know about the industrial activities in a region
To know about Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Organization (CMPO)

29.1 INTRODUCTION
It is appreantly a homogeneous geographical entity exhibits significant variations in
geographical phenomena, both physical and a regional development which render feasible the
elineations of some what more uniform lower order units, depending on different attributes.

29.2 THE KOLKATA CONURBATION: A FUNCTIONAL REGION

For the first time mention has been made of Kolkata conurbation in the 1951, Census of West
Bengal , when the Census Superintendent, in his pioneering zeal delineated the Kolkata Industrial
Region on the Hooghly side in recognition of ‗a certain demographic, economic, industrial and
geographical unity a fact surmised and hinted at since 1921 , but not avowedly expressed by any
government agency. The total area covered by the conurbation is about 531 square kilometre and
about of which the core cities of Kolkata and Howarh occupied 92 square kilometre of area

514
respectively. The overall population density of the industrial region was 10,085 per km²
(1941:8,620) with a density of 19,011 in the city tracts and 4,070 in the town areas. The density
varied from the maximum of 30,033 in kolkata in North Dum Dum, a residential suburb of kolkata,
with 10 other urban centres falling between 23,000- 7,000 figure and 23 towns between 7,700 and
1,540 persons per square kilometre and at present 23,900 people per square kilometre in 2011.
Within the last inter-censal decade (1961-2011) the Kolkata industrial conurbation has
expanded tremendously in spatial, demographic and socio economic dimensions. This has been
achieved through the process of (a) accretion of peri-urban settlements, industrial and residential
suburbs gaining urban status due to rapid change in proportion of the non agricultural workers; (b)
municipal annexation of urbanized tracts, settled areas etc., lying adjacent to existing urban nodes;
(c) constant expansion of transport network, especially of bus services from the central cities and the
industrial towns into the peripheral areas, bringing in large volume of commuters and (d) rapid
growth of population and steady rise in density both in urban tracts and in adjacent areas due to
heavy influx of migrants, industrial labourers and displaced persons from beyond borders of West
Bengal. In view of the enlarged and expanded industries conurbation, the Registrar General, India
attempted to delineate the region taking the criterion of high incidence of non-agricultural working
force of the smallest administrative areas (Police Stations) as units. This conurbation area of 1961
encompassed 67 cities and towns (Tollygunge being merged with Kolkata) and other peripheral
towns , urban settlements, townships having close economic and social link with Kolkata brought
under the purview of the new industrial conurbation, raising the total urban centres to 81. The
kolkata Metropolitan Planning Organization (CMPO), the new planning agency, embarked upon the
task of delimiting a conurbation core and a metropolitan district as planning units of comprehensive
urban and regional planning. The kolkata metropolitan District (CMD), thus evolved, had an area of
about 1,040 square kilometre along the Hooghly encompassing 2 corporations, 33 municipalities
and 42 non municipal urban units extending from Baruipur-Budge Budge in south to Bansberia
Kalyani in the north in additions to 475 approximately densely settled and semi-urbanised outlying
rural communities around the urbanized zone. This area is little more than 1 % of the total area of
West Bengal, and contains 17 % of the total populations and 75 % of urban population of the State.
The outer boundary was defined not only in terms of extent of highly urbanized heavily built up
existing areas of highly urbanized heavily built up existing areas, but also on the basis of densely
settled rural tracts , having high incidence of non-agricultural working force, suitability of future
settlements growth and their potentiality for future urban expansion in planned way.

515
29.3 INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES IN KOLKATA CONURBATION
The industrial structure of kolkata conurbation in mid 20th century was dominated by manufacturing
activities connected with jute products, textile , hosiery, engineering goods, machinery, transport
equipments, chemicals, paper , printing, food, agricultural industries etc., with as may as 13 towns
having predominant manufacturing activities to the exclusion of other activities to any significant
level (with zonal average as significant level). They are Titagarh (a paper mill town) Naihati,
Halisahar, Uttarpara, Bally, Champdani, Kotrung, Bhadreswar, Uluberia, Bauria, Kamarhati, Budge
, all Jute mill towns par excellence. The percentage of manufacturing employment was maximum at
73.81 in Halisahar (specializing in Jute, Paper, Hosiery), and the minimum of 54.55 in Batanagar,
(an exclusively shoe manufacturing activity was above the significant zonal level, being associated
with heavy transport activates in Howrah (a great railways terminus), Garden Reach (adjoining the
Kolkata port), Kanchrapara (a railways workshop town); with services in Chinsura, (a sub-divisional
administrative town) and Ishapore (a gun- factory town).
The rest were associated with utilities. Thus, manufacturing activities was found to be the single
dominating activity in the industrial landscape of the Hooghly valley. Of the non- manufacturing
towns, only one was purely commercial town (Chandranagar, an old French administrative
settlement),while commerce associated with services was found in Tollygunge (a residential suburb
of kolkata). Sevice activities of various kinds were found associated with transport and utilities in
another 4 towns of Barrackpore Cantonment (a military town), and Dum Dum, North Dum Dum and
south Dum Dum, all residential appendages of kolkata.
In 2011 also the urban industrial structure of the C.M.D. was found to be overwhelmingly
dominated by manufacturing activity including household industries in as much urban units,
industry was the single dominant function in towns, industry along with services, commerce and
transport was found in towns while the remaining 10 urban centres were either predominantly
service or service or services-cum-commercial or transport towns. Thus the city of kolkata is an
industrial-cum-service centre while all the other 7 cities with more than 100,000 approximate
population are industrial. Services activity is singularly predominant in dormitory township
(Kalyani), administrative headquarters (Barrackpore), peripheral rural service centres (Barrackpur),
newer refugee settlements (Nabapally) and residential suburbs of kolkata (Jadavpur, Bansdroni,
purba Putiary etc.). services-cum-commerce is dominant at Gayeshpur Government Colony, a
planned refugee settlement, and in Rajapur, a rural service centre. All other service activities are
associated with industry, there being no other town with commerce as single dominant function.

516
29.4 PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
The region, though endowed with rich alluvial soil, abundant basic raw materials, numerous
perennial streams and a sea face which together could attract large number of people in now
confronted with certain acute problems, both physical and socio-economic. The factors which
induced the rapid economic development of the Hooghly side have themselves generated a chain of
complex problems in the very wake of vigour of development which on the regional level was so
much lop sided or uncontrolled that even the exceptionally developed areas could not resolve the
attendant problems, while the undeveloped areas (e.g., North Bengal Plain) lagged far behind in
economic development and even remained subject to centrifugal rather than to centripetal forces.
This state of affairs calls for Haldia o relieve Kolkata of its overburdens.
As a frontier zone of the Great Plains, the region was ‗prized land‘ in the past, now as a maritime
base; also the Hooghly side has attained developments par-excellence. But the Partition has caused
disintegration of the marine face and is hampering the integrated development of the entire backyard.
While we have a real need to re-enrgize our decaying rivers owing to physical changes in river
regimes, Pakistan show her zeal to check our efforts by fostering aloud her claims to the Ganga
waters though the Brahmaputra more than compensates her requirements.

29.4.1 Kolkata: The Problems City

Kolkata, a typical example of a ‗chance directed city‘ has grown haphazardly not only in its
physical plan but also in terms of the provision of economic opportunities commensurate with the
needs of a metropolis of its size. The world Bank Mission has rightly remarked ―overcrowding,
degradation of housing, health hazards, primitive water supplies, lack of space for new industries,
traffic bottlenecks, power shortages, a still unsolved (rather growing) refugee problems these
conditions nature feelings of unrest and malaise in the population which are likely to boil over from
time to time to in ways that are both destructive and inimical to orderly economic development‖
The picture is too dismal as ―1/4 of population is living in Bustees (Shanty towns) which cover 1/7 th
of Kolkata‘s area; 34% of the families cannot use, 33% have only one room for their exclusive use,
33% have only one room, 30% have no water tap attached to their houses 61%‖ have no bathroom,
78% have no separate kitchen 45% have no electric connections (and) 60% of kolkata has no
sewerage‖. The city provides only 016 hectare per 1,000 persons for recreation as against the
minimum standard of 1.6 hectares for the developing counties. Even the lanes and streets are too
narrow to cope with the traffic as only 8.3% of total area is in transport use as against 30% in modern
cities.

517
However, Kolkata as a dynamic metropolis has the essential vitality to meet the challenge of the
situation. Various national and international efforts are being made to relieve the metropolis of its
ills. Under the auspices of the state irrigation and Waterways Department, efforts are being made to
reclaim a vast marshy tract to the northeast and east of the city by dumping the dredged out silt and
sands of the Hooghly. Further a new salt lake City is envisaged on a reclaimed ground on the eastern
fringes of Kolkata by a Yugoslavian Firm ,initially to accommodate about a quarter million people in
about 10 square kilometre of area and further to be expanded to house another three million people
in two other suburban townships to the NW and SE of the city.
Last but not the least in importance is the improvement of Kolkata Port which serves a hinterland
covering more than 1/4th of country‘s area with 150 million inhabitants. Hopes hang on the Farakka
Barrage to revitalize the Bhagirathi while the auxiliary port at Haldia (Refer Figure 69) about 95
kilometre downstream,
would serve the double
purpose of releasing the
pressure of the port as
well as of the city.
Around Haldia, at
present, about 1.8
million persons are
scattered in 262 village
over 400 square
kilometre of area; it is
justly being developed
into a viable port-com
industrial city. Haldia is
expected to handle
―practically all bulk
cargo for the Eastern
zone‖ amounting to 10
million cones, apart
from some general
cargo. Industrially, it
will soon have an oil
refinery with an annual
518
capacity of 2.5 million tons and will develop a petro-chemical-cum-fertilizer complex, apart from
various port engineering activities.

Need for a Balanced Regional Development: the problems of Kolkata and the Hooghly-side call for
the development of not only the different sub-regions of the Lower Ganga Plain but also need rather
more immediately the planned and integrated development of several counter magenets in its vast
hinterland as well as to arrest the Kolkata ward of people and opportunities.
The remodeling of the existing transport links and lying down of the new ones will facilitate the
movement of bulky goods like jute, tea, coal and other minerals alongwith the fish. Fisheries have
the problems of their own; these need be organized on co-operative basis with adequate arrangement
for canning, warchousing and transportation. The reviving of water transport may release the extra
burden on railways and roads. The swampy chunks in the S.E. and theS.W. Rarh lack adequate road
and railway facilities. The laying down of additional lines wiil help improving the conditions and
developing agro-industries there. The seasonal roads in the Duarhamper the movement of tea. The
modernnisation and through connection will maintain regular flow of tea. Being a perishable item,
tea requires quick transit and adequate warechousing.
The Naxalbari type of civil agitation thrives on regional and sectoral imbalances, which can be
resolved by stimulating capital formation and investment to the advantages of all as to the different
regions. An attempt to establish Finance Corporations at regional levels with regional disparities in
the vast hinterland is an urgent necessary.

29.5 SUMMARY
The regional treatment of the lower Ganga plain will hardly be complete if ue attention is not paid to
the Kolkata conuration. The pivot of the economic activities of a region as a whole and forming a
function of supreme importance.

29.6 ACTIVITY
Visit the nearest mandi in your town or near your place and note down the goods arriving by trucks.

29.7 QUESTIONS
- Describe the salient features of Kolkata Functional Region.
- What are the objectives of industrial activities of a Kolkata region.
- Explain problems and prospects of Kolkata region.
519
29.8 REFERENCE
Aitareya Brahman, VIII,14.

Aparna Ray.,1958., ―A Geographical Study of Bidyadhari Peali Region‖, M.A. Thesis

(unpublished), Department of Geography, Kolkata University.

Basu, S.R. and S.C. Chakraborty,1970., ―Some Considerations on the Decay of the Bhagirathi
Drainage System‖ (Abstr. Unpublished ), Symposium on the Bhagirathi- Hooghly Basin ,
Department Of Geography, Kolkata University, May.

Bhattacharya, J.M., 1968., ―Increasing Population and Cereal Production in West Bengal‖
Geographical Review of India, XXX, 1. 42.

Bhattacharya, N.D.,1956., ―Evolution of Settlement In The District of Muslimabad, West Bengal‖

Ph.D. Tesis (Unpublished) Department Of Geography, B.H.U.

Das, R.K., 1968., ―Four Types of Agricultural Lands in Bankura‖, Geographical Review of India,
XX-3 , 2.

Kar, N.R.,1968., ―Kolkata Conurbation‖ India-Regional Studies,(ed) R. L. Singh Indian National

Committee for Geography, Kolkata, 331.

Mukherjee, R.K., 1938., ― The Changing Face Bengal‖, Kolkata University Press, 239.

Niyogi, D. and A. Chakravarti 1967, ―Applied Geomorphology Along Digh Beach, Midnapur
District, West Bengal‖, Proc Geomorphological Studies in India Sagar University, Sagar, 205.
Satyakam Sen, 1970., ―The Importance of Drainage in Agriculture of West Bengal‖, West Bengal
(ed). A.B. Chatterjee and others, Geographical Institute Presidency College, Kolkata, 79.

Saxena, D.P.,1962., ―Regional Divisions of Vedic India‖, N.G.J.I., VIII, 3and4, 231.

Sengupta, P.1959., ―The Indian Jute Belt‖, Orient Longmans, Kolkata, 42.

520
Spate, O.H.K. and A.T.A., Learmonth. 1967., ―India and Pakistan: A General and Regional
Geography‖ Methuen and Company Ltd., 571.

Techno Economic Survey of West Bengal, 1962., NCAER, New Delhi, 80.

Van Suylichem, A.P.G.N., 1968., ―Kolkata New Harbour as a Magnet in the Urbanization Process
in Eastern India‖, Tijdsbrift Voor Economic Socale Geografie, LIX, 6, 330

521
UNIT -30 BUNDELKHAND (REGIONS) A PHYSICAL STUDY

STRUCTURE
30.0 Objectives
30.1 Introduction
30.2 The Regions
30.2.1 Regional Secheme
30.3 Bundelkhand Plain
30.4.Bundelkhand Upland
30.5 Regional Sythensis
30.6 Problem and Prospect
30.7 Summary
30.8 Activity
30.9 Questions
30.10 References

30.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand physical Setting of Bundelkhand Region.
To know about activities in a regions
To understand Settlement of a region
To know about Transport and communication

30.1 INTRODUCTION
The region (24º.00´- 26 º30´ NN and 78 º 10´, 81 º30´E) bounded by the Yamuna in the north ,
escarped ranges of the vindhyan plateau in the south . the Chambal in the north west and Panna-
Afaigarh ranges in the south east is known as Bundelhand. It comprises of four district of Uttar
Pradesh (Jalaun, Jhansi, Hamirpur, and Bunda) and four district of Madhya Pradesh, (Datia,
Tikamgarh, Chatterpur and Panna.) together with Lahar (Bhind district and Bhander (Gwalior
district) tehsils in north-west with total area of about. 54.560 square kilometrer and a population of
about 5.3 million (1961) .

522
30.2 THE REGIONS
By and large, Bundelkhand is a distinct geographical region of India. It has its basis not only in the
structural unity, geomorphic homogeneity and climatic uniformity, but also in the common history,
economy and society of the people. However, this overall homogeneity, when subjected to more
through scrutiny permits further sub-divisions into several units on the basis of their physical, social
and economic distinctiveness. In no case does the variety of sub-units impair the fundamental unity
of the region.
In the scheme that follows, Bundelkhand has been divided into two regions of first order, Six regions
of second order and 14 third order regions (Refer Figure 70). The fundamental principle on which
the regions of the first order are determined is that of general relief, while the regions of the second
order, considered based on principal of interfluves and relief. In the regions of third order, factors of
local significance, such as characteristics of soil and vegetation, cropping-intensity and socio cultural
aspects have been associated.

523
30.2.1 Regional Scheme
29. Bundelkhand Plain
(a) Ravine Belt:
(i) Yamuna Ravine Tract-West
(ii)Yamuna Ravine Tract-West
(iii)Betwa Ravine Tract
(b) Jalaun Plain:
(i) Sind-Pahuj Tract
(ii) Pahuj-Betwa Tract
(c) Hamirpur Plain :
(i) Turi Basin
(ii) Rath Tract
(iii) Maudaha-Maundi Tract
(d) Banda Plain
(i) Banda Plain-West
(ii) Banda Plain-East
30. Bundelkhand Upland
(e) Bundelkhand Gneissic Region
(i) Bundelkhand Gneissic Peneplain
(ii) Bundelkhand Gneissic Plateau
(f) Bundelkhand-Vindayan Plateau
(i) Vindhayan Hill Ranges
(ii) Banda (Chitrakut) Plateau

Bundelkhand Plain
The Bundelkhand Plain, often termed as TransYamuna plan, is low-lying elongated tract, the
Yamuna marking its northern base. The region, suffers from imperfect drainage in the central part,
which is often inundated during the rainy season.
The region is divided into four units of second order and 10 of the third order. The northern most
region is that of the Ravine Belt, about 2 to 3 kilometre broad, developed along the main streams,
especially along their lower reaches near their confluences with the Yamuna. This is a narrow belt of
bad-land topography, dissected by innumerable gullies cutting into soft and erosive deposits. The
revines are notable for poor means of transportation and serve as ideal hide outs for dacoits who
strike terror and endanger social security. As a consequence, the ravine zone is dotted with a large
524
number of deserted villages and fields. Thus, the physical disability has caused social instability and
insecurity. These ravines are more fully developed along the Chambal, the Kunwari, the Sind and the
Pahuj in the north-western part of the region. They are also found along the Betwa and the Ken.
Based on their intensity we may designate them as the Yamuna Ravine Tract West, the Yamuna
Ravine Tract East and the Betwa Ravines Tract. The Yamuna Ravine Tract west extends southward
to incorporate the ravins of Sind and Pahuj and the Yamuna Ravine Tract East includes the ravines
of the Ken. The ravines of the Betwa have been singled out for their distinctive character (Refer
Figure 71).

As a regards the land use pattern in the ravines, it is exemplified from the village Uncho situated to
the east of the Pahuj (Jalaun
district). The cropping pattern
of the village includes chiefly
the cereals, pulses and a few
vegetables. The village enjoys
the facility of canal irrigation
from the Kuthond branch of
the Betwa canal system
(Refer Figure 72).

The Jalaun plain covers the

western tract between the
Sind and the Betwa. It is

525
relatively a dry region with an average annual rainfall of 80 ccntimetre. Its soils (Kabar, Mar and
Parua) are fertile and respond well to irrigation. It is predominantly a gram-wheat-bajara region.
The western part of this region i.e. Sindh Pahuj Tract is not only sandy but is also drier with
meager facilities for irrigation. As a result, it is a dry-farming tract. In the Jalaun plain proper,
namely the Pahuj-Betwa Tract, development of Kuthond and Hamirpur branches of Betwa canal has
brought about considerable improvement in agricultural leading to dense population and even fairly
distribution of settlement. Kanpur-Jhansi branch of the Central Railway has also ushered in
economic development.
The Hamirpur plain is neither as dry as the Jalaun plain nor as wet as the Banda plain; it is
intermediate in situation as in climate. It is also one where black soils, which do not require much
irrigation, are dominant. This region may be divided into three sub-units. The Turi Basin is the
northernmost area. It is an oblong depression subject to the annual inundation waters of the Yamuna
when in spate. In fact, it represents an abandoned course of river Ken itself, noe occupied by Turi
stream. Annual silting of this entire area marks it highly fertile for rabi crops.
Rest of the Hamirpur plain my be divided ito Rath Tract (western) and Maudaha Laundi Tract
(eastern). In a large measure both are similar soils are similar in both the regions as also the crop
association of gram, wheat and jowar. However, the surface relief and historico cultural factors tend
to cause defferentiation. The surface relief of the eastern tract is hummocky being dotted with large
numbers of hills crowned by forts and fortresses. It has indeed been traditional territory of the
Bundelas with Mahaba as its regional capital. It is from this core area that the Bundelas extended
their territory. The presence of a large number of tanks facilitates cash cropping , i.e., betel culture
especially around Maboba. The Rath Tact, on the other hand, is more of less a plain country with
grain farming as the dominant irrigation (Dhasan canal system). Besides, the Laundi tehsil of
Chhatarpur district is well known for jowar cropping on black soils within the Maudaha-Laundi Tact.
The Banda plain is roughly a triangular area bounded by the Ken in the west, the Yamuna Ravine
Belt in north and Chitrakut Plateau (Patha) in the southeast. River Baghain divides it into two parts,
namely, the Banda plain west is in fact, the so-called Ken- Baghain tract comprising most of the
Baberu and Banda tehsils and the northern half of the Naraini Tehsil. It is covered by Mar, Kabar and
other mixed kabar and Parua soils. It is one of the most fertile tracts of Bundelkhand aided by
regular supplies of water from the Ken canal with the result that the cropping intensity of this area is
the highest (over 130%) in the whole region. Rice is the first ranking crop with its predominance in
Kharif while wheat and gram dominate the agricultural scene in the rabi seasons. The sub region is
generally marked by absence of fallow lands during the two main seasons as double cropped is
practiced almost everywhere.
526
 The Banda plain east is marked by sucession of narrow interfluves formed by numerous deep
channelled streams draining the Vindhyam tableland (Banda or Chitrakut plateau) to the Yamuna. In
the over drained and impoverished soils of the region rice does not form a part of the general
cropping scheme as is the case of its western counterpart. Instead, bajra and gram assume greater
significance.

30.4 BUNDELKHAND UPLAND

Bundelkhand Upland stands in strong contrast to the plain. On the basis of varied surface, to the
plain. On the basis of varied surface, presence or absence of waterbodies and variation in depth and
texture of soils, the upland is broadly divided into two regions of second order, namely the
Bundelkhand Gneissic Region and the Bundelkhand Vindhyan Plateau, being further divisible into
two regions of third order each.
The Bundelkhand Gneissic Region, comprising much of Datia, Jhansi, Tikamgarh and
Chhatrapur districts, represents the geological nucleus of the relief. In the west, southwest and
southeast is overlain by Vindhyan and Bijawar sediments. With its intermediate locations between
the plain in the north and the Gneissic Plateau in the south, the Bundelkhand Gneissic Peneplain
partakes the characteristics of both. One may notice here and there crumbling dykes and isolated
groups of granite and gneissic boulders half-buried under the alluvium. Most of the area covered by
light black soils is devoted to grain farming, specially jowar, wheat and gram. In the eastern part,
namely in Chhatarpur tehsil, the agricultural landsape changes and a high degree of crop
diversification is introduced owing to diversified relief and abailability or otherwise of irrigation by
tanks. This is not the case with western parts as the Betwa canal has given the farmers an opportunity
to concentrate on wheat and rice as on jowar which is mostly dependent on rain.
The village Bijoli located to the south of Jhansi city along the Jhansi Itarsi railway, presents
land use pattern characterized by the cropping of wheat, barley, rice, maize, small millets, gram, urd,
mung, vegetables, etc. it is also marked by cultivable waste and fallow lands.
The Bundelkhand Gneissic Plateau is an area where massive granites an gneisses have been
exposed at the surface with small patches of black soils formed in situ. These soils are generally deep
in the deprsions. Excessive soil moisture during the wet season causes the growth of pernicious
weed, the Kans. The landscape of this area is generally characterised by large chunks of rocky
wastelands and undulating surface with a number of shallow waterbodies. Tikamgarh tehsil is an
exception in this agricultully poor regions because it has a good supply of water from a large number
or tanks which makes it an area of high cropping intensity (120%) with rice as the first ranking crop.
In the eastern part of the region wheat and oil seeds (til) become more important than rice or wheat
527
or jowar. As a whole the region presents a picture of social and economic diversity, depending on
various local factors. Villages are generally perched on rocky prominences around around a small
fort which stands nearby a tank or lake natural or artificial, viz., village Delwara and Jakhaura in
Lalitpur tehsil. The latter has developed as a service centre where recently the Block Development
Office has been added to its cultural landscape.
The Bundelkhand Vindhyan Plateau is physiographically different from other regions. It is
divided into two sub-regions (i) the regions of Vindhyan Hill Ranges forms the southern and
southeastern margin of the Bundelkhand region. It is a narrow belt of flat topped hill ranges known
as Panna, Ajaigarh and Vindhyachal in different parts. The region terminates in steep scarps, both
toward north and south. Although much of the area is overgrown with inferior jungles, yet there are
also patches of reserved forests, specially in Lalitpur, Mehroni and Ajaigarh tehsils. Tendu tree is
quite common throughout the Panna and Ajaigarh forests and its leaves are used for bidi marking. As
a whole, the region lacks in agricultural resources and economy of the people is partially
supplemented by the forest produce.
(ii) The Banda or Chitrakut Plateau, lying south of the Banda Plain is a continuation of the
Vindhyan hill ranges. This plateau is locally called as Patha and includes within it the tableland north
and south of the Vindhayachal range. The ascent from the plain to the plateau is very sharp through
an imposing scarp though an imposing scarp termed as ari. The plateau rises from the plain in two or
three escarpments, one over the other, separated by narrow summit plains. The Banda plateau is a
highly dissected upland incised by deep valleys of seasonal torrents. It is, therefore, largely
inaccessible and is covered by forests mostly reserved. The regions as a whole is sparsely populated.
It is of great significant to every righteous Hindu owning to the presence of the holy temples at
Chitrakut dham a place of striking beauty and scenic attraction. However , wide exparises of patha
soils, developed on sandstones in situ, permit poor agricultural with inferior millets (kodon and
Kutki) grown after long intervals of fallowing. Of considerable economic significance are the
sandstones and glass sands which are quarried in sizeable quantities.

30.5 REGIONAL SYNTHESIS

It may be emphasized once again that many fold subdivision of Bundelkhand as out lined
above, in order to highlight the sub-regional variations, is not intended to give an exagerated picture
of regional diversity and to impair the long preserved overall unity . In fact, there exists a real
social, economic and emotional oneness in the whole of the Bundelkhand. Agriculture, the common
vehicle of social and economic life of the people, is the real backbone of regional economy.

528
Quarrying, lumbering, etc., are the only activities of some economic significance in much of the
plateau region.
The backwardness of the region may be partly at ributed to its (northern Plain in Uttarpradesh and
southern plateau in Madhyapradesh) since the medieval times. This has brought about an economic
imbalance in the region. This was not the state of affairs when the Bundelas in 14 th and 15th
centuries maintained their hegemony over the whole tract lying between the Yamuna in the north and
the Vindhyan plateau in the south. The northern plain of Bundelkhand provided the food and the
plateau region supplied minerals (diamond, building stones and iron ore) as well as timber from the
forests. No wonder, therefore, that Bundelkhand remained for long a bulwark for the Moghuls, who
later on succeeded in cap turing the plain area, comprising much of Jalaun, Jhansi, Hamirpur and
Banda districts in the then Northern-West Provinces. They allowed the feudal chiefs to continue to
grovern their petty states, which satisfied their ego. Even after independence, the region has
remained mostly neglected.

30.6 PROBLEM AND PROSPECT

The main problems of Bundelkhand is connected with the improvement of agricultural which
suffers from vagaries of rain, pests, diseases and incidence of large scale erosion of soils. More over,
the extensive waste lands in the form of ravine tracts, rocky wastes and scrub lands with extremes of
temperature are other liming factors.
A part from the above, the index of gross value of agricultural production per acre of net sown area
in Bundelkhand happens to be 77, as compared to 105 in eastern Uttarpraesh and 100 in
Uttarpradesh as a whole.
In order to overhaul the above picture, the efforts made so far the improvement of agricultural
through various land reform measure the Uttarpradesh Soil Conservation and Raving Development
Scheme, the Uttarpradesh Zamindari Abolition and Land Reform Act have not yet been able to
induce any considerable changes in the regional economy. The provision of extending minor
irrigation facilities, on the other hand, has been helpful in cultivation during adverse conditions.
With a view to checking the weeds, the Uttarpradesh government instituted a Kans Eradication
Scheme which involved generally the construction of high fences around the fields and repeated deep
ploughing of the soils. The ravines are expanding at a phenomenal rate of about 82 hectares in
Uttarpradesh Bundelkhand and about 125 hectares in Madhyapradesh and Bundelkhand per year
over the neighbouring fertile tract. Although the reclamation of ravines of more than 5 metre depth
is prohibitive in terms of cost involved, it is necessary to undertake prompt measures almost on a war
footing to check further encroachment and to reclaim the exsting ones. Keeping the situation in view,
529
it is quite imperative to survey and map the affected areas according to the type and intensity of
ravine formations.
The animal diseases particularly the foot and mouth anthrax, H.S. and B.O. and small pox
are taking heavy toll of bovine life (20% to 40%) modern veterinary services are still confined
suffers from ill feeding and ill breeding.
The industrial economy of the region paints a gloomy picture; hence, the agro-industries as
well as forestry require requisite encouragement from the government. For the development of
handloom industry, a centre for supplying raw materials is necessity. Besides, the construction of
motorable roads connecting different parts of the region is also essential for facilitating traffic all the
year round. It is in the fitness of things that the Jhansi district was selected this year under a centrally
sponsored scheme for an intergrated dry land agricultural development with the object of cultivating
drought resistant, short term crops though practical application of available know how on soil and
moisture conservation practices and adoption of new techniques of fertilization.

30.7 SUMMARY
In the end, it is quite surprising to note that Bundelkhand remains to be a surplus region
(except during prolonged periods of droughts) only because of distress sale and lower pressure of
population on land. Of course, by the end of A.D. 2000 when the present population would be
doubled more resources would be doubled more resources would be essential to meet the situations.
On the whole for administrative and development purposes Madhyapradesh and Uttarpradesh
government would have to form a joint board.

30.8 ACTIVITY
Visit a Block Development Office in your district and discuss the activities performed by the
office with the BDO.

30.9 QUESTIONS
- What do you understand by development. Why have the development programme not brought
desired results inthe regions.
- Explain the salient physiographic features of Bundelkhand Regions.

530
30.10 REFERENCES
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531
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532
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