Chapter 3 Notes

CHEM 1411 General Chemistry Chemistry: A Molecular Approach by Nivaldo J. Tro

Molecules, Compounds,
3 and Chemical Equations
Chapter Objectives:
• Learn the basic concepts behind chemical bonds.
• Learn how to write formulas and name chemical
compounds.
• Learn how to use percent compositions to find
empirical and molecular formulas.
• Learn how to balance chemical equations.
Mr. Kevin A. Boudreaux
Angelo State University 1
www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea

Chemical Compounds
• Most substances that we encounter are compounds,
not elements.
• A chemical compound is a pure substance formed
from the combination of two or more different
elements. The properties of the compound may be
completely unlike those of the elements that form it.
• The formula for a compound lists the symbols of
the individual elements followed by subscripts
which indicate the number of atoms of that element.
(If no subscript is given, it is understood to be “1.”)
E.g., NaCl, H2O, C12H22O11.

2
Chapter 3 Notes

Ionic and Molecular

Compounds

Elements and Compounds

• Elements and compounds can be further subdivided,
as shown below:

4
Chapter 3 Notes

Types of Bonding
• When two atoms collide during a reaction, it is the
electrons that make the actual contact, since they
occupy a much greater volume than the nucleus.
• Thus, it is the electrons that form the connections, or
chemical bonds, that join atoms together to form
compounds.
• Elements combine to form compounds in two
different ways:
– transferring electrons from atoms of one
element to another results in ionic bonds.
– sharing electrons between atoms of different
elements results in covalent bonds.

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds

• Ionic bonds form when one atoms transfers one or
more electrons to another atom, producing ions.
• Ionic compounds are compounds that are held
together by ionic bonds between positively-charged
cations and negatively-charged anions.
• Ionic compounds generally result when a metal
combines with a nonmetal:
– Metal + Nonmetal → ionic compound
– Metal + Polyatomic ion → ionic compound
– In general, metals tend to give up electrons, while
nonmetals accept electrons.

6
Chapter 3 Notes

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds

7
Figure 3.1

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds

• The ionic bond is the strong attraction between the
cations and the anions. Unlike molecules, the cation
and anion are not physically joined together.
• Thus, there is no molecule of NaCl; ionic
compounds instead form ionic solids, which contain
equal amounts of positive and negative charge
surrounding each other in a regular array called a
crystal.

8
Chapter 3 Notes

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds

• The smallest unit of an ionic compound is the
formula unit, the smallest electrically neutral
collection of ions.
• Monatomic ions are cations or anions derived from
a single atom, such as Cl-, O2-, Na+, and Mg2+.
• Polyatomic ions are combinations of atoms that
possess an overall charge, such as CO32-, SO42-,
NO3-, CN-, NH4+, C2H3O2-, etc.
• Ionic compounds are electrically neutral — there
must be the same amount of positive charge as there
is negative charge.

Examples: Writing Ionic Formulas

1. Write the formula for the ionic compound formed
between the following pairs of elements and
provide a name for the compound.

a. Al and F

b. Na and S

c. Ba and S

d. Mg and P

e. Ca and Cl

f. Na and P
10
Chapter 3 Notes

Covalent Bonds and Molecules

• Covalent bonds form when two or more nonmetals
share their electrons. The electrons are at their
lowest potential energy when they are between the
two nuclei that are being joined:

Figure 3.2

11

Covalent Bonds and Molecules

• Each atom in the bond “holds on” to the shared
electrons, and the atoms are thus physically tied
together.
• When two or more atoms are joined by covalent
bonds, the resulting structure is called a molecule.
• Molecular compounds are usually formed from
combinations of nonmetals:
– Nonmetal + Nonmetal → molecular compound
– Hydrogen + Nonmetal → molecular compound

12
Chapter 3 Notes

Types of Chemical Formulas

• An empirical formula gives the relative number of
atoms of each element in a compound; i.e., the
smallest whole number ratio that is possible.
• A molecular formula gives the actual number of
atoms of each element in a molecule of a compound.
Molecular Empirical
formula formula
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO
Water H2O H2O
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
• A structural formula uses lines to represent
covalent bonds, and shows how the atoms in a
molecule are joined together:
H—O—O—H H—O—H O=C=O
13

Molecular Models
• A ball-and-stick model represents atoms as balls
and covalent bonds as sticks; they are normally
color-coded to specific elements, and show the
three-dimensional relationships between atoms in a
molecule.
• A space-filling molecular model shows the room
taken up by the electron clouds in the molecule, and
shows how the molecule might appear if it were
scaled to a visible size.

14
Chapter 3 Notes

Representing Molecules

15

Atomic and Molecular Elements

• Atomic elements are found in nature in units of
single atoms. Most elements are atomic elements.
• Molecular elements are found as molecules with
two or more of the same atom joined together.
– Many nonmetals are found in their elemental
form as diatomic molecules (H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2,
Br2, I2); some as polyatomic molecules (P4, As4,
S8, Se8)

Memorize!
16
Chapter 3 Notes

Naming Chemical
Compounds

17

Main-Group Metals
• Group 1A, 2A, and 3A metals tend to form cations
by losing all of their outermost (valence) electrons.
• The charge on the cation is the same as the group
number.
• The cation is given the same name as the neutral
metal atom, with the word “ion” added to the end.
Group Ion Ion name Group Ion Ion name
1A H+ hydrogen ion 2A Mg2+ magnesium ion
Li+ lithium ion Ca2+ calcium ion
Na+ sodium ion Sr2+ strontium ion
K+ potassium ion Ba2+ barium ion
Cs+ cesium ion 3A Al3+ aluminum ion
18
Chapter 3 Notes

Transition and Post-Transition Metals

• These elements usually form ionic compounds;
many of them can form more than one cation.
• The charges of the transition metals must be
memorized; Group 4A and 5A metal cations tend to
be either the group number, or the group number
minus two.)
• Common or trivial names: -ic endings go with the
higher charge, -ous endings go with the lower charge
[Fe2+ ferrous ion, Fe3+ ferric ion].
• Systematic names (Stock system): name the metal
first, followed in parentheses by the charge in
Roman numerals [Fe2+ iron(II) ion, Fe3+ iron(III)
ion].

19

Transition and Post-Transition Metals

Ion Systematic name Common name
Cr2+ chromium(II) ion chromous ion
Cr3+ chromium(III) ion chromic ion
Mn2+ manganese(II) ion manganous ion
Mn3+ manganese(III) ion manganic ion
Fe2+ iron(II) ion ferrous ion
Fe3+ iron(III) ion ferric ion
Co2+ cobalt(II) ion cobaltous ion
Co3+ cobalt(III) ion cobaltic ion
Ni2+ nickel(II) ion
Cu+ copper(I) ion cuprous ion
Cu2+ copper(II) ion cupric ion
Zn2+ zinc ion
Ag+ silver ion
Cd2+ cadmium ion
20
Chapter 3 Notes

Transition and Post-Transition Metals

Ion Systematic name Common name
Au3+ gold(III) ion
Hg22+ mercury(I) ion mercurous ion
Hg2+ mercury(II) ion mercuric ion
Sn2+ tin(II) ion stannous ion
Sn4+ tin(IV) ion stannic ion
Pb2+ lead(II) ion plumbous ion
Pb4+ lead(IV) ion plumbic ion
Bi3+ bismuth(III) ion
Bi5+ bismuth(V) ion

21

Main-Group Nonmetals
• Group 4A - 7A nonmetals form anions by gaining
enough electrons to fill their valence shell (eight
electrons). The charge on the anion is the group
number minus eight.
• The anion is named by taking the element stem and
adding the ending -ide.
Group Ion Ion name Group Ion Ion name
4A C 4– carbide ion 6A Se2– selenide ion
Si4– silicide ion Te2– telluride ion
5A N3– nitride ion 7A F– fluoride ion
P3– phosphide ion Cl– chloride ion
As3– arsenide ion Br– bromide ion
6A O2– oxide ion I– iodide ion
S2– sulfide ion 1A H– hydride ion 22
Chapter 3 Notes

Common Cations and Anions

IA VIIIA
1 2
1 H Elements To Memorize He
Hydrogen Helium
1+, 1- IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA —
3 4 6 Atomic Number 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be C Symbol B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Carbon Name Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
1+ 2+ 4- Charges 3+ 4- 3- 2- 1- —
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium VIII Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
1+ 2+ IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 644444474444448 IB IIB 3+ 4- 3- 2- 1- —
19 20 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
1+ 2+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+ 1+, 2+ 2+ 3- 2- 1- —
37 38 47 48 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Ag Cd Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Silver Cadmium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
1+ 2+ 1+ 2+ 2+, 4+ 3+, 5+ 2- 1- —
55 56 57 79 80 82 83 86
6 Cs Ba La Au Hg Pb Bi Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Gold Mercury Lead Bismuth Radon
1+ 2+ 3+ 1+, 2+ 2+, 4+ 3+, 5+ —
88 89
7 Ra Ac
Radium Actinium

Lanthanides

92
Actinides U
Uranium

23

Polyatomic Ions
• Polyatomic ions are ions composed of groups of
covalently bonded atoms which have an overall
charge.
NH4+ ammonium MnO4– permanganate
H3O+ hydronium C2H3O2– acetate (OAc–, CH3CO2–)
OH– hydroxide CO32– carbonate
CN– cyanide HCO3– hydrogen carbonate, bicarbonate
OCN– cyanate SO42– sulfate
NO3– nitrate SO32– sulfite
NO2– nitrite S2O32– thiosulfate
ClO3– chlorate C2O42– oxalate
ClO2– chlorite CrO42– chromate
ClO– hypochlorite Cr2O72– dichromate
ClO4– perchlorate PO43– phosphate 24
Chapter 3 Notes

Polyatomic Ions — Regularities in Names

• There are some regularities in the names of these
polyatomic ions:
• Thio- implies replacing an oxygen with a sulfur:
SO42– sulfate OCN– cyanate
S2O32– thiosulfate SCN– thiocyanate

• Replacing the first element with another element

from the same group gives a polyatomic ion with the
same charge, and a similar name:
Group 7A Group 6A Group 5A Group 4A
ClO3 chlorate SO4 sulfate PO4 phosphate CO32– carbonate
– 2– 3–

BrO3– bromate SeO42– selenate AsO43– arsenate SiO32– silicate

IO3– iodate TeO42– tellurate
25

Polyatomic Ions — Oxoanions

• Some nonmetals form a series of oxoanions having
different numbers of oxygens (all with the same
charge). The general rule for such series is shown
below. (Note that in some cases, the -ate form has
three oxygens, and in some cases four oxygens.
These forms must be memorized.)
XOny– stem + ate ClO3– chlorate
XOn-1y– stem + ite ClO2– chlorite
XOn-2y– hypo + stem + ite ClO– hypochlorite
XOn+1y– per + stem + ate ClO4– perchlorate
Xy– stem + ide Cl– chloride
(the monatomic ion)

26
Chapter 3 Notes

Polyatomic Ions — Ions Containing Hydrogens

• Acid salts are ionic compounds that still contain an
acidic hydrogen, such as NaHSO4. In naming these
salts, specify the number of acidic hydrogens still in
the salt.
• The prefix bi- implies an acidic hydrogen.
CO32– carbonate
HCO3– hydrogen carbonate, bicarbonate
SO42– sulfate
HSO4– hydrogen sulfate, bisulfate
PO43– phosphate
HPO42– monohydrogen phosphate
H2PO4– dihydrogen phosphate
27

Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

• The positive ion is given first, followed by the
monatomic or polyatomic anion.
• The subscripts in the formula must produce an
electrically neutral formula unit.
• The subscripts should be the smallest set of whole
numbers possible.
• If there is only one of a polyatomic ion in the
formula, do not place parentheses around it. If there
is more than one of a polyatomic ion, put the ion in
parentheses, and place the subscript after the
parentheses.
• Remember the Prime Directive in writing formulas:
Ca(OH)2 ≠ CaOH2!
28
Chapter 3 Notes

Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds:

Metal + Nonmetal
• A binary compound is a compound formed from two
different elements. A diatomic compound (or
diatomic molecule) contains two atoms, which may
or may not be the same.
• Metals combine with nonmetals to form ionic
compounds. Name the cation first (specify the
charge, if necessary), then the nonmetal anion
(element stem + -ide).
• Do NOT use counting prefixes! This information is
implied in the name of the compound.
name of charge of metal cation element stem of
metal in Roman numerals in nonmetal anion
cation parenthesis (if necessary) + -ide
^ 29

Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds:

Metal + Polyatomic Ion
• Metals combine with polyatomic ions to give ionic
compounds. Name the cation first (specify the
charge, if necessary), then the polyatomic ion as
listed in the previous table.
• Once again, do NOT use counting prefixes!

name of charge of metal cation name of

metal in Roman numerals in polyatomic
cation parenthesis (if necessary) ion
^

30
Chapter 3 Notes

Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds: Examples

Na+ Cl- Æ NaCl sodium chloride
Na+ S2- Æ Na2S sodium sulfide
Na+ P3- Æ Na3P sodium phosphide
Ca2+ Cl- Æ
Ca2+ S2- Æ
Fe2+ Cl- Æ
Fe3+ Cl- Æ
Na+ SO42- Æ
Ca2+ CO32- Æ
Cr2+ NO3- Æ
31

Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds:

Hydrates
• Hydrates are ionic compounds which also contain a
specific number of water molecules associated with
each formula unit. The water molecules are called
waters of hydration.
• The formula for the ionic compound is followed by a
raised dot and #H2O — e.g., MgSO4·7H2O.
• They are named as ionic compounds, followed by a
counting prefix and the word “hydrate”
MgSO4·7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom salts)
CaSO4·½H2O calcium sulfate hemihydrate
BaCl2·6H2O barium chloride hexahydrate
CuSO4·5H2O copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
32
Chapter 3 Notes

Nomenclature of Binary Molecular Compounds

• Two nonmetals combine to form a molecular or
covalent compound (i.e., one that is held together by
covalent bonds, not ionic bonds).
• In many cases, two elements can combine in several
ways to make completely different compounds (e.g.,
CO and CO2). It is necessary to specify how many
of each element is present within the compound.
• In writing formulas, the more cation-like element
(the one further to the left on the periodic table) is
placed first, then the more anion-like element (the
one further to the right on the periodic table).
• Important exception: halogens are written before
oxygen. For two elements in the same group, the
one with the higher period number is placed first.
33

Nomenclature of Binary Molecular Compounds

• The first element in the formula is given the element
name, and the second one is named by replacing the
ending of the element name with -ide.
• A numerical prefix is used in front of each element
name to indicate how many of that element is
present. (If there is only one of the first element in
the formula, the mono- prefix is dropped.)
1 mono- 4 tetra- 7 hepta- 10 deca-
2 di- 5 penta- 8 octa-
3 tri- 6 hexa- 9 nona-

name of stem of 2nd

prefix first prefix element
(omit mono)
element + -ide
^
34
Chapter 3 Notes

Nomenclature of Binary Molecular Compounds

NO nitrogen monoxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O dinitrogen monoxide
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide

• Some molecular compounds are known by common

or trivial names:
H2O water
NH3 ammonia
35

Nomenclature of Acids
• Acids are compounds in which the “cation” is H+.
These are often given special “acid names” derived
by omitting the word “hydrogen,” adding the word
“acid” at the end, and changing the compound suffix
as shown below:
Compound name Acid name
stem + ate stem + ic acid
oxyacids
stem + ite stem + ous acid
binary acids stem + ide hydro + stem + ic acid

HClO3 hydrogen chlorate chloric acid

H2SO4 hydrogen sulfate sulfuric acid
HClO2 hydrogen chlorite chlorous acid
HCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid 36
Chapter 3 Notes

Summary of Chemical Nomenclature

37

38
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Formulas and Nomenclature

2. Write the formula for the ionic compound formed
between the following pairs of species and provide
a name for the compound.
a. Na and sulfate
b. Ammonium and nitrate
c. Ammonium and sulfate
d. Zn and Cl
e. Mercury(I) and nitrite
f. Mercury(II) and sulfite
g. Chromium and S
39

Examples: Formulas and Nomenclature

3. Name the following compounds.

a. Ca(NO3)2

b. BaCO3

c. SO3

d. SnCl4

e. Fe2(CO3)3

f. AlPO4

g. N2O
40
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Formulas and Nomenclature

4. Name the following compounds.

a. CrO

b. Mn2O3

c. KHSO4

d. H2SO3

e. PBr3

f. HCl

g. HClO2
41

Examples: Formulas and Nomenclature

5. Write formulas for the following compounds.

a. sodium nitrite

b. lithium hydroxide

c. barium chlorate

d. potassium perchlorate

e. chloric acid

f. magnesium phosphate

g. iron(II) carbonate
42
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Formulas and Nomenclature

6. Write formulas for the following compounds.

a. calcium bicarbonate

b. periodic acid

c. silver chromate

d. diphosphorus pentoxide

e. manganese(III) carbonate

f. potassium hypochlorite

g. hydrofluoric acid
43

Examples: Formulas and Nomenclature

7. Which of the following formulas and/or names is
written incorrectly?

a. NaSO4

b. Na2Cl

c. MgNO3

d. magnesium dichloride

e. iron(III) phosphate, Fe3(PO4)2

f. tin(IV) sulfate, Sn(SO4)2

g. nitrogen chloride, NCl3 44

Chapter 3 Notes

Percent
Composition,
Empirical Formulas,
and
Elemental Analysis
45

Percent Composition and Mass Percentage

• The percent composition of a compound is a list of
the elements present in a substance listed by mass
percent. Knowing the percent composition is often a
first step to determining the formula of an unknown
compound.
• The mass percentage (mass %) of an element in
the compound is the portion of the compound’s mass
contributed by that element, expressed as a
percentage:

atoms of X in formula × molar mass of X

Mass % of element X = × 100
molar mass of compound

46
Chapter 3 Notes

Percent Composition and Mass Percentage

• What is the mass percentage of Cl in the chloro-
fluorocarbon CCl2F2 (Freon-12)?
2 × atomic mass of Cl
Mass % of Cl = × 100
molar mass of CCl2F2
2 × 35.453 g/mol
= × 100
120.91 g/mol
= 58.64%
• The mass percentage can be used as a conversion
factor between the mass of the element and the mass
of the compound.
58.64 g Cl : 100 g CCl2F2
58.64 g Cl 100 g CCl 2 F2
100 g CCl 2 F2 58.64 g Cl 47

Examples: Mass Percentage

8. Glucose, or blood sugar, has the molecular formula
C6H12O6.
a. What is the percent composition of glucose?
b. How many grams of carbon are in 39.0 g of
glucose (the amount of sugar in a typical soft
drink)?

Answer: a) 40.00% C, 6.714% H, 53.29% O

b) 15.6 g C
48
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Mass Percentage

9. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
recommends that you consume less than 2.4 g of
sodium per day. What mass of sodium chloride in
grams can you consume and still be within the FDA
guidelines? (similar to Example 3.14)

Answer: 6.1 g NaCl

49

Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas

• Another way to approach a problem like the
previous two is to use the atom ratios in the formulas
as mole ratios:
58.64 g Cl : 100 g CCl2F2
1 mol CCl2F2 : 2 mol Cl
• Using conversion factors like this, it is possible to
convert from grams of CCl2F2 to moles of CCl2F2,
then use the ratio of atoms of Cl in CCl2F2 to
convert to moles of Cl, and finally use the molar
mass of Cl to convert to grams of Cl.

50
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Chemical Conversion Factors

8b. Glucose, or blood sugar, has the molecular
formula C6H12O6. How many grams of carbon are
in 39.0 g of glucose (the amount of sugar in a
typical soft drink)?

1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol C

39.0 g C6H12O6 × ×
180.16 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6

12.01115 g C
× = 15.6 g C
1 mol C

51

Examples: Mass Percentage

10. What mass of hydrogen (in grams) is contained in
1.00 gallons of water? (The density of water is
1.00 g/mL) (Example 3.14)

52
Answer: 423 g H
Chapter 3 Notes

Empirical Formula from Mass Percentage

• We can also go the other way around, and use the
percent composition of a substance to find first its
empirical formula, and then its molecular formula.
• If by some process we determine the percent
composition of an unknown compound, we can
convert this into a gram ratio by assuming that we
have 100 g of the compound, and then to a mole
ratio by using the atomic weights:
Sample: 84.1% C, 15.9% H
Assume 100 g of sample:
1 mol C
84.1 g C × = 7.00 mol C
12.01115 g C
1 mol H
15.9 g H × = 15.8 mol H
1.00797 g H 53

Empirical Formula from Mass Percentage

• Since atoms combine in the same ratio that moles
do, we divide all of the numbers of moles by the
smallest number to put everything into lowest terms:

C7.00 H15.8 ⎯divide

⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→ C 7.00 H 15.8 → C1.00 H 2.26
by smallest number

7.00 7.00

• If the mole ratio is not all whole numbers, we

multiply through by the smallest integer which will
turn all of the numbers into integers. These numbers
are the subscripts of the elements in the empirical
formula.

(C1.00 H 2.26 )4 → C4.00 H 9.04 → C4 H 9 (empirical formula)

54
Chapter 3 Notes

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

• If we know the molar mass of the compound, we can
obtain the molecular formula by dividing the
weight of the empirical formula into the molar mass;
this will determine the number of empirical formula
units in the molecule.
Suppose the molecular weight of the
substance is found to be 228.48 g/mol:

molecular weight 228.48 g/mol

→ = 4.000
empirical formula weight 57.12 g/mol

(C 4 H 9 )4 → C16 H 36 (molecular formula)

55

Examples: Empirical & Molecular Formulas

11. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% C,
4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the
empirical formula of ascorbic acid? (sim. to
Example 3.17)

Answer: C3H4O3
56
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Empirical & Molecular Formulas

12. Black iron oxide is an ore containing iron and
oxygen that occurs in magnetite. A 2.4480 g
sample of the ore is found to contain 1.7714 g of
iron. Calculate the empirical formula of black iron
oxide.

Answer: Fe3O4
57

Examples: Empirical & Molecular Formulas

13. Styrofoam is a polymer made from the monomer
styrene. Elemental analysis of styrene shows its
percent composition to be 92.26 % C and 7.75%
H. Its molecular mass is found to be 104.15 g/mol.
What are the empirical and molecular formulas of
styrene?

Answer: empirical = CH, molecular = C8H8

58
Chapter 3 Notes

Examples: Empirical & Molecular Formulas

14. Butanedione is a main component in the smell and
taste of butter and cheese. The empirical formula
of butanedione is C2H3O and its molar mass is
86.09 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
(Example 3.18)

Answer: C4H6O2
59

Elemental / Combustion Analysis

• One common way of obtaining a chemical formula
is by performing a combustion analysis (a specific
type of elemental analysis).
• In this technique, an unknown sample is burned in
pure O2 (a combustion reaction), which converts all
of the carbon atoms in the sample into CO2 and all
of the hydrogen atoms into H2O.
C, H, O + O2 → CO2 + H2O

60
Figure 3.9
Chapter 3 Notes

Elemental / Combustion Analysis

• The masses of CO2 and H2O are measured after the
process is complete, and from this data, the amount
of carbon and hydrogen in the original sample can
be determined.
• Elements besides C and H must be determined by
other methods; O is usually found by difference.

g CO 2 → mol CO 2 → mol C → g C in sample → % C

g H 2O → mol H 2O → mol H → g H in sample → % H

% O = 100% - (% C + % H)

61

Examples: Combustion Analysis

15. A sample of an unknown compound with a mass of
0.5438 g is burned in a combustion analysis. The
mass of CO2 produced was 1.039 g and the mass of
H2O was 0.6369 g. What is the empirical formula
of the compound? (sim. to Examples 3.19 & 3.20)

Answer: C2H6O
62
Chapter 3 Notes

Molecules and Isomers

• Even knowing the empirical or molecular formulas
of a compound does not necessarily tell us what that
compound actually is.
• We’ve already seen that the empirical formula only
tells us about the relative numbers of atoms present
within the formula unit or molecule.
• Many different compounds can have the same
empirical formula. For instance, there are dozens of
different compounds that have the empirical formula
CH2O.
– Notice that in on the following slide, there is no
relationship between the structure and how many
‘CH2O’ units the molecule contains.

63

Some Compounds with Empirical Formula CH2O

• Composition by mass 40.0% C, 6.71% H, 53.3% O
No. of Molar
Molecular ‘CH2O’ Mass
Name Formula Units (g/mol) Function
Formaldehyde CH2O 1 30.03 Disinfectant; biological preservative
Acetic acid C2H4O2 2 60.05 Vinegar (5% solution); acetate polymers

Lactic acid C3H6O3 3 90.08 Found in sour milk and sourdough

bread; forms in muscles during exercise
Erythrose C4H8O4 4 120.10 Forms during sugar metabolism

Ribose C5H10O5 5 150.13 Component of ribonucleic acid (RNA);

found in vitamin B2
Glucose C6H12O6 6 180.16 Major nutrient for energy in cells

64
Chapter 3 Notes

Structural Isomers
• Even compounds that have the same molecular
formula can have the atoms connected in a different
order — these are structural isomers.
Ethanol Dimethyl ether
Molecular Formula C2H6O C2H6O
Molar Mass (g/mol) 46.07 46.07
Appearance Colorless liquid Colorless gas
Melting point -117°C -139°C
Boiling point 78.5°C -25°C
Density (at 20°C) 0.789 g/mL 0.00195 g/mL
Function Intoxicant Refrigerant

H H H H
H C C O H H C O C H
H H H H
65

Mass Spectroscopy
• A mass spectrometer is a device which is often
used to obtain atomic and molecular masses. A
sample is vaporized in an evacuated chamber,
ionized, accelerated by an electrical field, and passed
through the poles of a strong magnet, which deflects
the ionized particles towards a detector.
• Lighter ions are deflected more than heavier ions,
and the detector measures the mass of the particles,
and counts the number of particles with that mass.
• The resulting mass spectrum is a graph of ion mass
vs. relative number of ions produced.
• Modern mass spectrometers can measure molecular
masses and even percent compositions to very high
precisions, and the fragmentation pattern of the ions
can reveal a great deal about molecular structure.
66
Chapter 3 Notes

Mass Spectroscopy

Mass spectrometer

Mass spectrum of naphthalene (C10H8)

67

68
Chapter 3 Notes

Chemical Reactions

69

Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

• A chemical reaction occurs when atoms of different
elements combine and create a new chemical
compound, with properties which may be
completely unlike those of its constituent elements.
• A chemical reaction is written in a standard format
called a chemical equation. The reactants (starting
materials) are written on the left, and the products
on the right, with an arrow in between to indicate a
transformation.
• Equations are the “sentences” of chemistry, just as
formulas are the “words” and atomic symbols are
the “letters.”
Zn + S ⎯⎯→ ZnS
reactants products
70
Chapter 3 Notes

A Chemical Reaction Illustrated

Sodium (Na) + Chlorine (Cl2) ⎯→ Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

solid gas solid
mp 97.8°C mp -101°C mp 801°C
bp 881.4°C bp -34°C bp 1413°C
silvery metallic surface pale, yellow-green gas white crystals or powder
soft, easily cut poisonous; causes lung damage pleasant taste
conducts electricity does not conduct electricity conducts electricity when
reacts violently with water dissolves slightly in water dissolved in water
dissolves freely in water

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

71

Balancing Chemical Reactions

• A chemical equation must be balanced: the kinds
and numbers of atoms must be the same on both
sides of the reaction arrow (conservation of mass).
unbalanced: H2 + O2 → H2O
wrong equation: H2 + O2 → H2O2
balanced: H2 + ½O2 → H2O
balanced: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

72
Chapter 3 Notes

Balancing Chemical Reactions

• Equations are balanced by placing a stoichiometric
coefficient in front of each species, indicating how
many units of each compound participate in the
reaction.
– If no coefficient is present, it is assumed to be 1.
– Usually, we use the smallest whole-number ratios
for the coefficients.
– Never balance equations by changing subscripts!
This changes the identity of the species involved
in the reaction!
– In general, it’s a good idea to balance the atoms in
the most complex substances first, and the atoms
in the simpler substances last.
73

Examples: Balancing Equations

16.
__ C4H10 + __ O2 → __ CO2 + __ H2O

__ C(s) + __ O2(g) → __ CO2(g)

__ Fe2O3(s) + __ C(s) → __ Fe(s) + __ CO2(g)

__ HCl(aq) + __ CaCO3(s) → __ CaCl2(aq) + __ H2O(l) + __ CO2(g)

__ Al(NO3)3 + __ CaSO4 → __ Al2(SO4)3 + __ Ca(NO3)2

__KClO3 + __C12H22O11 → __KCl + __CO2 + __H2O

74
Chapter 3 Notes

What Do Coefficients Mean?

• On the microscopic level, the coefficients and
chemical symbols in a balanced equation represent
the behavior of individual atoms and molecules:

2 molecules H2 + 1 molecule O2 → 2 molecules H2O

• On the macroscopic level, since moles combine in

the same ratios that atoms do, the coefficient can
also be interpreted as 2 moles of H2 reacting with 1
mole of O2 to form 2 moles of H2O.
75

76
Chapter 3 Notes

Organic Compounds

77

Organic Compounds and Organic Chemistry

• Originally, “organic compounds” were compounds
that were obtained only from living organisms (like
sugar), in contrast to “inorganic compounds,” which
came from the earth (like salt). It was believed that
only living organisms possessed the “vital force”
necessary to create organic compounds (“vitalism”).
• Eventually, it was realized that organic substances
followed the same rules of chemistry that inorganic
substances did, and could be synthesized in the lab
and manipulated just like inorganic compounds.
• Now, organic compounds are defined as
compounds that contain the element carbon, and
organic chemistry is the study of compounds of
carbon.
78
Chapter 3 Notes

What’s So Great About Carbon?

• Carbons atoms can be linked by strong, stable
covalent bonds.

neutral carbon, C

H H
C C
H C H H C H

H H
carbon cation, C4+

carbide anion, C4- 79

What’s So Great About Carbon?

• Carbon atoms can form stable bonds to many other
elements (H, F, Cl, Br, I, O, N, S, P, etc.). Most
organic compounds contain a few hydrogens, and
sometimes oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, etc.
• Carbon atoms can form complex structures, such as
long chains, branched chains, rings, chiral
compounds (having a particular “handedness”),
complex 3D shapes, etc.
• Because of this variety in bonding and complexity,
carbon atoms can form a tremendous variety of
compounds. More than 16,000,000 organic
compounds are known, as opposed to about 600,000
inorganic compounds.

80
Chapter 3 Notes

What’s So Great About Carbon?

• Complex organic compounds can perform a number
of useful biological functions (vitamins,
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes, ATP, DNA,
RNA are all organic compounds) which are studied
in biochemistry.
• Complex organic compounds are present in the foods
we eat (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc.)
• Most medicines, whether they come from a chemical
plant or a green plant, are organic compounds.
• Most fuels are organic compounds (wood, coal,
natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, oil, and
other petroleum-based products).
• Complex organic compounds are also useful in
technology (paints, plastics, rubber, textiles, etc.).
81

Hydrocarbons
• Organic compounds can be classified by regular
groupings of atoms called functional groups.
• Hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen.
They are derived primarily from petroleum sources,
and are frequently burned as fuel (gasoline, diesel):
– Alkanes contain carbon-carbon single bonds.
– Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds.
– Alkynes contain carbon-carbon triple bonds.
H

H H H H H H H H H C H
H H
H C H H C C C H H C C C C H
H C C C H
H H H H H H H H
methane propane butane
used in outdoor
H H H
the major component of used in lighter fluids
natural gas cooking fuels 2-methylpropane
(isobutane)
82
Chapter 3 Notes

Hydrocarbons
H2 H H
H H H H H H H H C C C
H2C CH2
H C C C C C C C C H H H
H2C CH2 ethene
H H H H H H H H C (ethylene)
octane H2 a ripening agent in some
a component of gasoline fruits; used in the
cyclohexane manufacture of plastics

H
Cl
H C H
F C F C C
H C C H
ethyne Cl C C
(acetylene) dichlorodifluoromethane H C H
used in welding torches (Freon-12)
a chlorofluorocarbon formerly H
used as an aerosol propellant and benzene
refrigerant a common
industrial solvent

83

Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen

• Other organic compounds contain oxygen atoms:
– Alcohols contain an —OH group bonded to a
carbon atom.
– Aldehydes and ketones contain carbon-oxygen
double bonds.
– Carboxylic acids and esters contain carbons that
are double-bonded to one oxygen and single-
bonded to another.
O
OH O
H3C CH2 O H H3 C C H
H3C C CH3 H C H
ethanol H ethanal
(ethyl alcohol) methanal (acetaldehyde)
alcohol found in 2-propanol (formaldehyde) an aldehyde
fermented beverages (isopropyl alcohol) an aldehyde found in perfumes and
found in rubbing a preservative; found flavors; metabolic product of
alcohol in wood smoke alcohol consumption

84
Chapter 3 Notes

Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen

O
H
C C O
O
HC C H
H3C C OH
H3C C CH3
HC CH ethanoic acid
2-propanone
C (acetic acid)
(acetone)
H a carboxylic acid
a ketone
produced in the oxidation of
benzaldehyde common organic solvent;
ethanol; active ingredient in
an aldehyde used in paint thinners and
vinegar (French, vin aigre,
causes the odor of almonds fingernail polishes
"sour wine")
and cherries; also found in
apricots and peaches

O O
O
CH3CH2CH2 C OH CH3O C
H3C C O CH2CH3
butanoic acid H
ethyl ethanoate
(butyric acid, from Latin butyrum, butter) (ethyl acetate)
a carboxylic acid an ester
produced from the breakdown of soft found in glues and fingernail HO
triglycerides in butter; has a foul, rancid polish removers Vanillin
odor flavoring in Vanilla beans

85

Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen

• Other organic compounds contain nitrogen atoms:
– Amines contain carbon-nitrogen single bonds.
– Amides contain nitrogen atoms connected to
carbon-oxygen double bonds.
– Amino acids contain both amine and carboxylic
acid groups, and are linked together by amide
bonds to form proteins.
H CH3 O H O

H N CH2CH3 H3C N CH3 H2N C NH2 H2N C C OH

ethylamine trimethylamine urea
an amine an amine an amide CH3
smell of rotten fish smell of rotten fish the major organic alanine
component of urine; an amino acid
about 25 g are excreted used in the synthesis
every day of proteins

86
Chapter 3 Notes

Other Organic Molecules

H O
C
H OH HO OH
H O C C
H C OH H
HO
C C CHCH2OH
HO C H HO OH O
H OH O
OH
H C OH
H H Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Glucose a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus fruits;
H C OH a carbohydrate prevents scurvy; essential for healthy blood
the metabolism of glucose is a major vessels, bones, and teeth; helps form collagen,
CH2OH source of energy for living organisms a protein that holds tissues together

O
CH3
CH3 C N
N C O
CH
C CH3O
O N N
N
Capsaicin
CH3 H responsible for the hot taste of red
HO and green chili peppers
Caffeine
a mild stimulant found in the
seeds of Coffea arabica,
roasted coffee beans

87

Other Organic Molecules HO

CH3 CH3 CH3

OH
CH3 Vitamin A
O
3,7-Dimethyl-9-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohex-1-enyl) N
CH3 -2,4,6,8-nonatetraen-1-ol
A fat-soluble vitamin; a metabolic product of CH3
carotene, found in liver, egg yolks, butter, and milk;
combines with the protein opsin to form rhodopsin, HO
the primary light-gathering pigment in vertebrate
retinas; also involved in cell growth and Morphine
maintenance of healthy skin tissue. found in the opium poppy; a CNS
depressant; very effective painkiller

O O
H N
C C
OH OH
O H H

OH O C N
H
Salicylic acid CH3
found in the bark of the willow Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
tree (Salix); reduces fever and
O O
produced by reacting salicylic acid H
relives pain and inflammation, with acetic anhydride, giving a
but causes irritation of the Strychnine
compound which does not cause as
mucous membranes, ulcers, and a poison from strychnos plant
much irritation, but retains all of
stomach bleeding (Nux vomica); used as a rat and
the beneficial medical properties
mouse poison 88
Chapter 3 Notes

Families of Organic Compounds

89

Organic chemistry nowadays

almost drives me mad. To me it
appears like a primeval tropical
forest full of the most
remarkable things, a dreadful
endless jungle into which one
does not dare enter, for there
seems to be no way out.
Friedrich Wöhler

90