MAPS AND MAPPING

TECHNIQUES
HAYELOM MENGESHA( MSc )

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO MAPS AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES

What is Map?
Map :- is the graphical representation of a portion of the earth's
surface at reduced scale. It is the way of representing any real world
location or object on a two dimensional surface .
Map:-is the abstraction model of any real world location or object .
Maps show the shape, size, and location of the natural and man-
made features and the relationships of these features to one another.
Mapping :- is the ability to observe and record field data
selectively and systematically.
When you look at a map, you don’t see real features like buildings,
rocks, geological structures, roads, stream, and lakes rather you see
symbols that represent these things. These symbols should be easily
understood by the map reader.

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Mapping Technique- is a practical method, skill or art of
mapping. It is to develop geological mapping skills including:
-Field application of geological principles
-Field measurement and interpretation of geological features
-Field compilation of data
-Construction and interpretation of geological maps
-Report and scientific paper writing

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Why we need to prepare maps ?
1) As a way of recording and storing information:
Scholars, Governments, businesses sectors, and society can Store
large quantities of information about the environment and the
location of natural resources, capital resources, and settlements.
2) As a means of analyzing locational distributions and spatial
patterns:
• Maps helps to recognize spatial distributions and relationships, and
make it possible for us to visualize and hence conceptualize patterns
and processes that operate through space.
3) As a method of presenting information and communicating
findings:
• Maps allow us to convey information and findings that are difficult
to express verbally.
In short
• They represent the real world on a much smaller scale
• They help you to figure out where you are
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 Classification of Map
Map can be classified in terms of:-
1) Purpose(physical vs cultural )
Physical map:- shows the distribution of natural features on the
earth surface like rivers, mountains, forests and lakes.
Cultural map:-shows the distribution of human activates on the
earth surface .
2) Information contain (general purpose vs specific purpose )
General purpose :- present multiple subjects and gives general
information about each of them.

- level of investigation is low.

- provides over view of each of them.
Specific purpose:- present single subjects in a detail.
- It focus on a single topic .
- Level of investigation is high.
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3) Map scale :-is the relationship(or ratio )b/n distance on a map and
the corresponding distance on the ground . Map scale= Map distance /
Ground distance.
 Large-scale: 1:10,000 and greater
 Medium-scale: less than 1:10,000 and greater than 1:100,000
 Small-scale: 1:100,000 and less
The scale of the map reflects :-
1) The amount of earth surface that is presented :small, medium,
large.
2) The level of detail in the information that is presented about that
area; small, medium, large.
Description of scale in terms of:-
1) Verbal form
2) Graphical form
3) Fractional form

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 Map scale enlargement & reduction
To enlarge the scale of map, multiply the original scale by the
required number of times.
Example: if the original scale of the map is 1:100,000 & degree of
enlargement is 4 time. What will be the new scale?
Map enlargement = original scale X enlargement
= 1:100,000 X 4
=1:25,000
To reduce the scale of map, divide the original scale by the required
number of times.
Example: if the original scale of the map is 1:100,000 & the scale is
reduced 4 time. What will be the new scale?
Map reduction = original scale / enlargement
= 1:100,000 / 4
=1:400,000
Large scale map:- gives high level of detail.
Medium scale map:- gives moderate level of detail.
Small scale map:- gives low level of detail.
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 1.1 Basic elements of map
Almost all maps must include certain basic elements that provide the
reader with critical information.
 Basic elements of map includes:
1) Title:-tells the basic information about the map such as the area
represented by that map. It helps to identify the purpose of the
map before some one goes deep into the map.
2) Scale - the ratio of the distance between two points on a map and
the actual distance between the two points on the ground. It shows
the ratio between a unit of length on the map and a unit of distance
on the earth.

3) Legend:-explains what symbols that are used on that particular

map represented such as symbols for major landmarks. It gives
any information that represent on the map.

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Geological Map

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4)North direction. Almost all maps include a line that shows the direction of
geographic north pole (a rotational pole) as a reference line. [NB. The needle in
a compass normally shows the direction of magnetic north pole which may be
slightly different from the geographic north pole- this angular difference is called
declination.]
Magnetic declination :- the angle difference b/n magnetic north and true north.
True north :- represent a line parallel to the line of longitude.
Magnetic north:- the direction of the needle the compass will point.

Example : of magnetic declination

showing a compass needle with a
"positive" (or "easterly") variation from
geographic north.
Where: Ng is geographic or true north,

Nm is magnetic north, and

δ is magnetic declination

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5) Grid Coordinates of Latitude and Longitude
Used to show absolute location of an area. Eg. ETHIOPIA.
Latitude
The set of line that runs from east- west direction
Measured both north- south direction around the world.
At any point on the earth ground distance covered by one degree
latitude is about 111km.
Longitude
The set of line runs from north – south direction
measured both east –west direction around the world.
At any point on the earth ground distance covered by one degree
longitude is about 110.5 km.
 Another system of grid coordinates, known as UTM Grid
(Universal Transverse Mercator Grid) is also used in maps. Grid
references are given using N-S and E-W numbered lines that are
spaced at 1000 m interval.
Easting (vertical) :-grid lines running from north –south direction.
Northing (horizontal) :- grid lines running from east –west direction.
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6) Inset location map. A small map of a well-known region or
country within which the location of the mapped area is indicated.
7)Date:- the time production of the map.
8) Projec­tion:- is the transformation of 3D(globe) in to 2D surface .
(A map gives a two dimensional presentation of certain regions in
the world, a globe gives a three dimensional presentation of the
entire world).
Projection can be :-
1) Geometrical
2) Mathematical
The main purpose of projection is to eliminate the draw back of
globe i.e.:
Expensive to make
They do not show all features at the same time
Difficult to trace
It difficult to demonstrate the whole world b/c it very small.
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9) Sources:- the data from which the map was derived.
10) Cross-section. A geological cross section is diagram showing a
side view of a block of the Earth’s crust as it would look if we could
lift it up to view.

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 Difference b/n map and globe

Globe
It cannot show all geographical
phenomena at a time.
 It is three-dimensional
It is difficult to measure distance on a
globe
Globes are always made on small scales
It is expensive
Map
It can show all geographical
phenomena at a time
 It is two-dimensional
It can measure distance on a map
Maps can be made on small,
medium and large scale
 It is less expensive
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1.2 Conventional symbols and representations
There is no universally accepted set of standard symbols, but some
that are widely used are described below.
o In topographic maps, in general, the common practices are
that:
Culture (man-made works) is shown in black
Water features, such as streams, swamps & glaciers are shown in
blue
Relief is shown by contours in brown
Highways and roads are indicated by red
Woods, orchards, vineyards, scrub etc. are represented by green

o In geologic maps, there are widely used symbols representing

superficial deposits, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks as well as structural elements .

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Symbol :- is the diagram, sign, letters or abbreviation. Symbols
are map languages. Their meaning can be obtained from key or
legend.
The characteristics of map symbols are:-
1) Each symbols should be through out the map
2) Symbols should be easy to understand and read.
3) The space, occupation, orientation and size of the symbol
should be constant.
Major group of symbol used on a map
1) Relief features
2) Vegetation features
3) Water features
4) Settlement features
5) Communication features
6) Lithological and structural features

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1.Communication and Transportation Features
Feature Name Symbol Feature Name Symbol
Road - hard surface, all
Railway - multiple track
season
Road - hard surface, all
Railway - single track
season
Road - loose surface, dry
Railway - rapid transit
weather
Railway - under
Road under construction construction

Vehicle track or winter road Railway on road

Trail or portage Railway station

Highway route number Airfield; Heliport

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 2. Hydrographic Features
Feature Name Symbol Feature Name Symbol

Dam; large, small Direction of flow arrow

Dam carrying road Dry river bed

Footbridge Stream - intermittent

Sand in Water or
Canal; navigable or irrigation
Foreshore Flats

Canal, abandoned Rocky ledge, reef

Flooded area

Marsh, muskeg

Swamp

Well, water or brine;

Spring

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Lithological features

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Structural features

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1.3 Measurements of Linear and planer features
Linear features
 Mineral lineation
 slickensides and grooves
 glacial striations
planar features
bedding planes
Contacts
Foliation
joint surfaces
fault planes
fold limbs and fold axial planes

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Fig 1a: planar features

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Attitude - a general term for the orientation of a plane or line in space, usually
related to geographic coordinates and the horizontal. Trend and Inclination are
components of attitude.
Trend - the direction of a line in a horizontal plane, commonly specified by its
bearing and azimuth.
Bearing - a horizontal angle measured E or W of true N or S;
 It uses a system of 4 quadrants, or sections of the compass: NW, NE, SW,
and SE.
 a quadrant direction is given in the form N340E or S300W.
 Azimuth – a horizontal angle measured clockwise from true N. Azimuths
range from 0 (North) to 360 (also North), in a clockwise fashion.
 Consequently, 090 is East, 1800 is South, and 2700 is West.
 Note that we use 3 digits (0020, 0870, 1200 etc.) to define an azimuth.
Note that
- N340E (bearing) is the same as 0340 (azimuth)
- N340W (bearing) is the same as 3260 (azimuth = 360 - 34)
- Similarly, S30W (bearing) is the same as 2100 (azimuth = 180 + 30).
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Strike – a trend of a horizontal line on an inclined plane.
Inclination – a vertical angle from the horizontal to a plane (=dip) or
line (=plunge)
Dip – the inclination of a plane. True dip is measured along a line of
greatest slope on the inclined plane; apparent dip is measured in a
direction different from the greatest slope. Dip and strike together
constitute a statement of the attitude of planar structure. Conventional
representation – e.g. N30E, 60SE = 60/120 or 60→120. Dip
amount ranges from 0 – 900.
Dip direction : is the direction of maximum downward tilting ,and it
varies from 0-3600
Angle of Plunge- a vertical angle between a line and the horizontal.
Conventional representation, e.g. 60→120.
Plunge Direction(Trend):is the direction towards which the line is
tilted.
Pitch (or Rake)-defined as the angle between a line and the strike
line of a plane in which it is found, measured on the plane. E.g. 30º in
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STRIKE, DIP, PLUNGE AND PITCH (RAKE)

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 Strike

Dip

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 Strike

Dip

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Instruments for field mapping
Base map (and/or aerial photo)
GPS (and/or altimeter)
Compass-clinometers
Geological hammer
Hand lens
Note book
Camera

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 Brunton 7DNL compass

Brunton Eclipse 8099

Brunton compass pro compass

Ranger 15TDCL compass Freiberg compass

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 Possible Strike/Dip quadrant combinations.
Northeast Strike Northwest Strike
Dip to north quadrant NW NE
Dip to south quadrant SE SW

 In linear features, a bearing/trend and plunge attitude is written

with the plunge angle first: 550, S350E (plunge angle first, then the
bearing compass direction)

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 Application of map
To show - location(relative vs absolute )
-distance , area , shape & direction (compass point vs
angular bearing)
-distribution of physical & human phenomena
-Surface configuration
-development planning etc.
To calculate -area of regular shape geographical features
-distance b/n two country
-time difference b/n two country
-area of irregular shape geographical features

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Q1.
A man flies due to east along the equator from a place on longitude
150 w to a place on longitude 150 E. What is the distance in
kilometer b/n 150 W and 150 E.
Solution: longitude difference= 150 W +150 E
= 300
10 = 110.5 km
300 = X
X=3315 km is the distance b/n 150 W and 150 E.
N.B
1) if the longitude direction is similar, the longitude difference
will be the difference b/n them.
2) if the longitude direction is different, the longitude difference
will be the sum of them.

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Q2. A man flies from Colombia (800 E) by air plane to Tokyo (1400 E)
, where he arrived at 10:30 P.M. what time was in Colombia when he
arrived in Tokyo?
Solution :longitude difference = 1400 E - 800 E
= 600
Time difference= longitude difference / 150
= 600 / 150
= 4 hour
Time difference = 10:30 P.M -4
= 6:30 P.M

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