Section D

Complex numbers
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 Chapter 22
Complex numbers
Why it is important to understand: Complex numbers
Complex numbers are used in many scientific fields, including engineering, electromagnetism, quantum
physics, and applied mathematics, such as chaos theory. Any physical motion which is periodic, such as an
oscillating beam, string, wire, pendulum, electronic signal, or electromagnetic wave can be represented
by a complex number function. This can make calculations with the various components simpler than
with real numbers and sines and cosines. In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time
domain to the frequency domain using the Laplace transform. In fluid dynamics, complex functions are
used to describe potential flow in two dimensions. In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is
used to analyse varying voltages and currents. Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other
fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals. This use is also extended into digital
signal processing and digital image processing, which utilise digital versions of Fourier analysis (and
wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still images,
and video signals. Knowledge of complex numbers is clearly absolutely essential for further studies in so
many engineering disciplines.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• define a complex number

• solve quadratic equations with imaginary roots
• use an Argand diagram to represent a complex number pictorially
• add, subtract, multiply and divide Cartesian complex numbers
• solve complex equations
• convert a Cartesian complex number into polar form, and vice-versa
• multiply and divide polar form complex numbers
• apply complex numbers to practical applications

Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66282-6, © 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 252 Higher Engineering Mathematics
Section D

22.1 Cartesian complex numbers Problem 1. Solve the quadratic equation

x2 + 4 = 0
There are several applications of complex numbers
in science and engineering, in particular in electrical √
alternating current theory and in mechanical vector Since x 2 + 4 = 0 then x 2 = −4 and x = −4
  √
analysis. i.e., x = [(−1)(4)] = (−1) 4 = j (±2)
There are two main forms of complex number – √
Cartesian form (named after Descartes∗ ) and polar = ± j2, (since j = −1)
form – and both are explained in this chapter.
(Note that ± j 2 may also be written ±2 j)
If we can add, subtract, multiply and divide complex
numbers in both forms and represent the numbers on
an Argand diagram then a.c. theory and vector analysis Problem 2. Solve the quadratic equation
become considerably easier. 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0
(i) If the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0 is
solved using the quadratic formula then,
Using the quadratic formula,
 
−2 ± [(2)2 − (4)(1)(5)] −3 ± [(3)2 − 4(2)(5)]
x = x =
2(1) 2(2)
√ √ √ √ √
−2 ± [−16] −2 ± [(16)(−1)] −3 ± −31 −3 ± (−1) 31
= = = =
2 2 4 4
√ √ √ √
−2 ± 16 −1 −2 ± 4 −1 −3 ± j 31
= = =
2 2 4
√ √
= −1 ± 2 −1 3 31
√ Hence x = − ± j or −0.750 ± j1.392,
It is not possible to evaluate −1 in real 4 4
terms. correct to 3 decimal places.
√ However, if an operator j is defined as
j = −1 then the solution may be expressed as (Note, a graph of y = 2x 2 + 3x + 5 does not cross
x = −1 ± j 2. the x-axis and hence 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 has no real
(ii) −1 + j 2 and −1 − j 2 are known as com- roots.)
plex numbers. Both solutions are of the form
a + jb, ‘a’ being termed the real part and jb Problem 3. Evaluate
the imaginary part. A complex number of
−4
the form a + jb is called Cartesian complex (a) j 3 (b) j 4 (c) j 23 (d)
number. j9

(iii) In pure √ mathematics the symbol i is used to (a) j 3 = j 2 × j = (−1) × j = − j, since j 2 = −1

indicate −1 (i being the first letter of the word
imaginary). However i is the symbol of electric (b) j 4 = j 2 × j 2 = (−1) × (−1) = 1
current in engineering, and to avoid possible con- (c) j 23 = j × j 22 = j × ( j 2 )11 = j × (−1)11
fusion the√next letter in the alphabet, j , is used to
represent −1 = j × (−1) = − j
(d) j 9 = j × j 8 = j × ( j 2 )4 = j × (−1)4
= j ×1 = j
∗ Who was Descartes? René Descartes (31 March 1596–11 −4 −4 −4 − j 4j
February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and Hence = = × =
writer. He wrote many influential texts including Meditations on j 9 j j −j − j2
First Philosophy. Descartes is best known for the philosophical 4j
statement ‘Cogito ergo sum’ (I think, therefore I am), found in = = 4 j or j4
−(−1)
part IV of Discourse on the Method. For image of Descartes, see
page 142. To find out more go to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Complex numbers 253

Now try the following Practice Exercise is used to represent the imaginary axis. Such a diagram

Section D
is called an Argand diagram∗. In Fig. 22.1, the point A
represents the complex number (3 + j 2) and is obtained
Practice Exercise 96 Introduction to
by plotting the co-ordinates (3, j 2) as in graphical work.
Cartesian complex numbers (Answers on
Fig. 22.1 also shows the Argand points B, C and D repre-
page 843)
senting the complex numbers (−2 + j 4), (−3 − j 5) and
In Problems 1 to 9, solve the quadratic equations. (1 − j 3) respectively.
1. x 2 + 25 =0
2. x 2 − 2x + 2 = 0 22.3 Addition and subtraction of
complex numbers
3. x 2 − 4x + 5 = 0
4. x 2 − 6x + 10 =0 Two complex numbers are added/subtracted by adding/
subtracting separately the two real parts and the two
5. 2x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0 imaginary parts.
6. x 2 − 4x + 8 = 0 For example, if Z 1 = a + jb and Z 2 = c + jd,

7. 25x 2 − 10x + 2 =0 then Z 1 + Z 2 = (a + jb) + (c + j d)

8. 2x 2 + 3x + 4 = 0 = (a + c) + j (b +d)
and Z 1 − Z 2 = (a + jb) − (c + j d)
9. 4t 2 − 5t + 7 = 0
1 4 = (a − c) + j (b −d)
10. Evaluate (a) j 8 (b) − (c) 13 Thus, for example,
j7 2j
(2 + j 3) +(3 − j 4)= 2 + j 3 +3 − j 4
= 5 − j1
22.2 The Argand diagram
A complex number may be represented pictorially on
rectangular or Cartesian axes. The horizontal (or x) axis
is used to represent the real axis and the vertical(or y) axis

Imaginary
axis
B
j4

j3
A
j2

23 22 21 0 1 2 3 Real axis
2j

2j2

2j3
D
2j4
∗ Who was Argand? Jean-Robert Argand (18 July 1768–13
C 2j5 August 1822) was a highly influential mathematician. He pri-
vately published a landmark essay on the representation of imag-
inary quantities which became known as the Argand diagram.
Figure 22.1 To find out more go to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 254 Higher Engineering Mathematics

and (2 + j 3) −(3 − j 4)= 2 + j 3 −3 + j 4 In Fig. 22.2(b), vector OQ is reversed (shown as OQ )

Section D

= −1 + j7 since it is being subtracted. (Note OQ = 3 − j 4 and

OQ = −(3 − j 4) =−3 + j 4)
The addition and subtraction of complex numbers may OP − OQ = OP + OQ  = OS is found to be the Argand
be achieved graphically as shown in the Argand diagram point (−1, j 7)
of Fig. 22.2. (2 + j 3) is represented by vector OP and Hence (2 + j 3) −(3 − j 4) =−1 + j 7
(3 − j 4) by vector OQ. In Fig. 22.2(a) by vectoraddition
(i.e. the diagonal of the parallelogram) OP + OQ = OR.
R is the point (5, − j 1) Problem 4. Given Z 1 = 2 + j 4 and Z 2 = 3 − j
determine (a) Z 1 + Z 2 , (b) Z 1 − Z 2 , (c) Z 2 − Z 1 and
Hence (2 + j 3) +(3 − j 4) =5 − j1 show the results on an Argand diagram.

(a) Z 1 + Z 2 = (2 + j 4) +(3 − j )
Imaginary
axis = (2 +3) + j (4 −1) = 5 + j 3
P (21j3) (b) Z 1 − Z 2 = (2 + j 4) −(3 − j )
j3
= (2 −3) + j (4 −(−1)) = −1 + j5
j2
(c) Z 2 − Z 1 = (3 − j ) −(2 + j 4)
j = (3 − 2) + j (−1 − 4) = 1 − j5
0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis Each result is shown in the Argand diagram of
2j R (5 2j ) Fig. 22.3.
2j 2
Imaginary
2j 3 axis

2j 4 (211 j 5) j5
Q (3 2j4)
j4
(a) ( 5 1j3)
j3
Imaginary
j2
axis
j
S (211j7) j7
j6 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
2j
j5
2j 2
Q9 j4
2j 3
j3 P (21j3)
2j 4
j2
2j 5 ( 12 j 5)
j

23 22 21 0 1 2 3 Real axis Figure 22.3

2j

2j2

2j3 22.4 Multiplication and division of

2j4 Q (32j 4) complex numbers

(b) (i) Multiplication of complex numbers is achieved

by assuming all quantities involved are real and
Figure 22.2 then using j 2 = −1 to simplify.
 Complex numbers 255

Hence (a + j b)(c + j d) (a) Z 1 Z 2 = (1 − j 3)(−2 + j 5)

Section D
= ac +a( j d) +( j b)c +( j b)( j d) = −2 + j 5 + j 6 − j 215

= ac + j ad + j bc + j 2 bd = (−2 + 15) + j (5 + 6), since j 2 = −1,

= (ac −bd) + j (ad + bc), = 13 + j11

since j 2 = −1 Z1 1 − j3 1 − j3 −3 + j 4
(b) = = ×
Thus (3 + j 2)(4 − j 5) Z 3 −3 − j 4 −3 − j 4 −3 + j 4

= 12 − j 15 + j 8 − j 2 10 −3 + j 4 + j 9 − j 212
=
3 2 + 42
= (12 −(−10)) + j (−15 +8)
9 + j 13 9 13
= 22 − j 7 = = + j
25 25 25
(ii) The complex conjugate of a complex num- or 0.36 + j0.52
ber is obtained by changing the sign of the
imaginary part. Hence the complex conjugate Z1 Z2 (1 − j 3)(−2 + j 5)
of a + j b is a − j b. The product of a complex (c) =
Z 1 + Z 2 (1 − j 3) + (−2 + j 5)
number and its complex conjugate is always a
real number. 13 + j 11
= , from part (a),
−1 + j 2
For example,
13 + j 11 −1 − j 2
(3 + j 4)(3 − j 4)= 9 − j 12 + j 12 − j 2 16 = ×
−1 + j 2 −1 − j 2
= 9 + 16 = 25 −13 − j 26 − j 11 − j 222
=
[(a + j b)(a − j b) may be evaluated ‘on sight’ as 12 + 2 2
a 2 + b2] 9 − j 37 9 37
= = −j or 1.8 − j 7.4
5 5 5
(iii) Division of complex numbers is achieved by
multiplying both numerator and denominator by
(d) Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 = (13 + j 11)(−3 − j 4), since
the complex conjugate of the denominator.
Z 1 Z 2 = 13 + j 11, from part (a)
For example,
2 − j5 2 − j 5 (3 − j 4) = −39 − j 52 − j 33 − j 244
= ×
3 + j4 3 + j 4 (3 − j 4) = (−39 + 44) − j (52 + 33)

6 − j 8 − j 15 + j 2 20 = 5 − j85
=
32 + 4 2
Problem 6. Evaluate:
−14 − j 23 −14 23
= = −j  
25 25 25 2 1+ j3 2
(a) (b) j
(1 + j )4 1− j2
or −0.56 − j0.92

Problem 5. If Z 1 = 1 − j 3, Z 2 = −2 + j 5 and (a) (1 + j )2 = (1 + j )(1 + j ) =1 + j + j + j 2

Z 3 = −3 − j 4, determine in a + j b form:
=1+ j + j −1= j2
Z1
(a) Z 1 Z 2 (b)
Z3 (1 + j )4 = [(1 + j )2 ]2 = ( j 2)2 = j 2 4 = −4
Z1 Z2
(c) (d) Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 2 2 1
Z1 + Z2 Hence = =−
(1 + j )4 −4 2
 256 Higher Engineering Mathematics

1 + j3 1 + j3 1 + j2
(b) = ×
Section D

1 − j2 1 − j2 1 + j2 22.5 Complex equations

1 + j 2 + j 3 + j 26 −5 + j 5 If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts
= =
1 2 + 22 5 are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. Hence if
a + j b =c + j d, then a = c and b =d
= −1 + j 1 = −1 + j
 2
1+ j3 Problem 7. Solve the complex equations:
= (−1 + j )2 = (−1 + j )(−1 + j )
1− j2 (a) 2(x + j y) =6 − j 3
= 1− j − j + j2 =− j2 (b) (1 + j 2)(−2 − j 3) =a + j b
 
1+ j3 2
Hence j = j (− j 2) =− j 2 2 =2,
1− j2 (a) 2(x + j y) =6 − j 3 hence 2x + j 2y = 6 − j 3
since j 2 = −1
Equating the real parts gives:
2x = 6, i.e. x = 3
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Equating the imaginary parts gives:

Practice Exercise 97 Operations involving 2y = −3, i.e. y = − 32

Cartesian complex numbers (Answers on (b) (1 + j 2)(−2 − j 3) =a + j b
page 843)
−2 − j 3 − j 4 − j 2 6 = a + j b
1. Evaluate (a) (3 + j 2) +(5 − j ) and Hence 4 − j 7 =a + j b
(b) (−2 + j 6) −(3 − j 2) and show the
Equating real and imaginary terms gives:
results on an Argand diagram.
a = 4 and b = −7
2. Write down the complex conjugates of
(a) 3 + j 4, (b) 2 − j Problem 8. Solve the equations:
3. If z = 2 + j and w = 3 − j evaluate √
(a) (2 − j 3) = (a + j b)
(a) z + w (b) w − z (c) 3z − 2w
(d) 5z + 2w (e) j (2w − 3z) (f ) 2 j w − j z (b) (x − j 2y) +( y − j 3x) =2 + j 3

In Problems 4 to 8 evaluate in a + j b form √

(a) (2 − j 3) = (a + j b)
given Z 1 = 1 + j 2, Z 2 = 4 − j 3, Z 3 = −2 + j 3
and Z 4 = −5 − j . Hence (2 − j 3)2 = a + j b,
4. (a) Z 1 + Z 2 − Z 3 (b) Z 2 − Z 1 + Z 4 i.e. (2 − j 3)(2 − j 3)= a + j b
5. (a) Z 1 Z 2 (b) Z 3 Z 4 Hence 4 − j 6 − j 6 + j 29 = a + j b
6. (a) Z 1 Z 3 + Z 4 (b) Z 1 Z 2 Z 3
and −5 − j 12= a + j b
Z1 Z1 + Z3
7. (a) (b) Thus a = −5 and b = −12
Z2 Z2 − Z4
Z1 Z3 Z1 (b) (x − j 2y) +( y − j 3x) =2 + j 3
8. (a) (b) Z 2 + + Z3
Z1 + Z3 Z4
Hence (x + y) + j (−2y − 3x) =2 + j 3
1− j 1
9. Evaluate (a) (b)
1+ j 1+ j Equating real and imaginary parts gives:
 
−25 1 + j 2 2 − j 5 x+y=2 (1)
10. Show that −
2 3+ j4 −j
and −3x − 2y = 3 (2)
= 57 + j 24
i.e. two simultaneous equations to solve.
 Complex numbers 257

Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives: Imaginary

Section D
axis
2x + 2y = 4 (3)
Z
Adding equations (2) and (3) gives:
−x = 7, i.e., x = −7 r
jy

From equation (1), y = 9, which may be checked ␪

O A Real axis
in equation (2). x

Figure 22.4
Now try the following Practice Exercise 
i.e. r = (x 2 + y2 )
Practice Exercise 98 Complex equations
(iii) θ is called the argument (or amplitude) of Z and
(Answers on page 845)
is written as arg Z
In Problems 1 to 4 solve the complex equations. By trigonometry on triangle OAZ,
1. (2 + j )(3 − j 2) =a + j b y
arg Z = θ = tan−1
2+ j x
2. = j (x + j y)
1− j (iv) Whenever changing from Cartesian form to polar
√ form, or vice-versa, a sketch is invaluable for
3. (2 − j 3) = (a + j b)
determining the quadrant in which the complex
4. (x − j 2y) −( y − j x) =2 + j number occurs.
5. If Z = R + j ωL + 1/j ωC, express Z in
(a + j b) form when R =10, L = 5, C = 0.04 Problem 9. Determine the modulus and argument
and ω = 4 of the complex number Z = 2 + j 3, and express Z
in polar form.

22.6 The polar form of a complex Z =2 + j 3 lies in the first quadrant as shown in
Fig. 22.5.
number
(i) Let a complex number z be x + j y as shown in Imaginary
the Argand diagram of Fig. 22.4. Let distance axis
OZ be r and the angle OZ makes with the positive
j3
real axis be θ
r
From trigonometry, x = r cos θ and
y = r sin θ ␪
0 2 Real axis
Hence Z = x + j y = r cos θ + jr sin θ
Figure 22.5
= r (cos θ + j sin θ )
 √
Z =r (cos θ + j sin θ ) is usually abbreviated to Modulus, |Z | =r = (22 + 32 ) = 13 or 3.606, correct
Z =r ∠θ which is known as the polar form of to 3 decimal places.
a complex number.
Argument, arg Z = θ = tan−1 3
2
(ii) r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of Z and ◦
= 56.31 or 56◦ 19
is written as mod Z or |Z |
r is determined using Pythagoras’ theorem on In polar form, 2 + j 3 is written as 3.606∠56.31◦
triangle OAZ in Fig. 22.4,
 258 Higher Engineering Mathematics

(By convention the principal value is normally

Section D

Problem 10. Express the following complex

used, i.e. the numerically least value, such that
numbers in polar form: −π < θ < π)
(a) 3 + j 4 (b) −3 + j 4 (d) 3 − j 4 is shown in Fig. 22.6 and lies in the fourth
quadrant.
(c) −3 − j 4 (d) 3 − j 4
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53.13◦ , as above.
(a) 3 + j 4 is shown in Fig. 22.6 and lies in the first Hence (3 − j4) = 5∠−53.13◦
quadrant.

Problem 11. Convert (a) 4∠30◦ (b) 7∠−145◦

Imaginary into a + j b form, correct to 4 significant figures.
axis

(23 1 j4) (3 1j 4)
j4 (a) 4∠30◦ is shown in Fig. 22.7(a) and lies in the first
j3 quadrant.
r j2 r Imaginary
axis
j
␣ ␪
23 22 21 ␣ ␣1 2 3 Real axis 4
jy
2j 308
0 x Real axis
2j 2
r r
(a)
2j 3

(23 2 j 4) 2j 4 (3 2 j 4) x
␣ Real axis
Figure 22.6
jy 1458
7

Modulus, r = (32 + 42 ) = 5 and argument (b)
θ = tan−1 34 = 53.13◦
Figure 22.7
Hence 3 + j4 = 5∠53.13◦
(b) −3 + j 4 is shown in Fig. 22.6 and lies in the Using trigonometric ratios, x = 4 cos 30◦ = 3.464
second quadrant. and y = 4 sin 30◦ = 2.000
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53.13◦, from Hence 4∠30◦ = 3.464 + j2.000
part (a).
(b) 7∠145◦ is shown in Fig. 22.7(b) and lies in the
Argument =180◦ − 53.13◦ = 126.87◦ (i.e. the third quadrant.
argument must be measured from the positive real Angle α = 180◦ − 145◦ = 35◦
axis).
Hence x = 7 cos 35◦ = 5.734
Hence −3 + j4 = 5∠126.87◦ and y = 7 sin 35◦ = 4.015
(c) −3 − j 4 is shown in Fig. 22.6 and lies in the third
quadrant. Hence 7∠−145◦ = −5.734 − j4.015

Modulus, r = 5 and α = 53.13◦ , as above. Alternatively

Hence the argument =180◦ + 53.13◦ = 233.13◦, 7∠−145◦ = 7 cos(−145◦ ) + j 7 sin(−145◦ )

which is the same as −126.87◦ = −5.734 − j4.015
Hence (−3 − j4) = 5∠233.13◦ or 5∠−126.87◦
 Complex numbers 259

Calculator Addition and subtraction in polar form is not possible

Section D
directly. Each complex number has to be converted into
Using the ‘Pol’ and ‘Rec’ functions on a calculator
Cartesian form first.
enables changing from Cartesian to polar and vice-versa
to be achieved more quickly. 2∠30◦ = 2(cos30◦ + j sin 30◦ )
Since complex numbers are used with vectors and
with electrical engineering a.c. theory, it is essen- = 2 cos 30◦ + j 2 sin 30◦ = 1.732 + j 1.000
tial that the calculator can be used quickly and
accurately. 5∠−45◦ = 5(cos(−45◦) + j sin(−45◦ ))

= 5 cos(−45◦ ) + j 5 sin(−45◦ )

= 3.536 − j 3.536
22.7 Multiplication and division in
polar form 4∠120◦ = 4( cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ )
If Z 1 =r1 ∠θ1 and Z 2 =r2 ∠θ2 then: = 4 cos 120◦ + j 4 sin 120◦
(i) Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ) and = −2.000 + j 3.464
Z1 r1
(ii) = ∠(θ1 − θ2 ) Hence 2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦
Z2 r2
= (1.732 + j 1.000) +(3.536 − j 3.536)
Problem 12. Determine, in polar form:
(a) 8∠25◦ × 4∠60◦ − (−2.000 + j 3.464)
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠−44◦ × 2∠80◦ = 7.268 − j 6.000, which lies in the fourth quadrant
 
 −6.000
= [(7.268) + (6.000) ]∠ tan
2 2 −1
(a) 8∠25◦ ×4∠60◦ = (8 ×4)∠(25◦+60◦) = 32∠85◦ 7.268
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠ −44◦ × 2∠80◦ = 9.425∠−39.54◦
= (3 ×5 ×2)∠[16◦ + (−44◦ )+ 80◦ ] = 30∠52◦
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Problem 13. Evaluate in polar form
π π Practice Exercise 99 Polar form (Answers
16∠75◦ 10∠ × 12∠
(a) (b) 4 2 on page 845)
2∠15◦ π
6∠− 1. Determine the modulus and argument of
3
(a) 2 + j 4 (b) −5 − j 2 (c) j (2 − j )
16∠75◦ 16 In Problems 2 and 3 express the given Cartesian
(a) = ∠(75◦ − 15◦ ) = 8∠60◦
2∠15◦ 2 complex numbers in polar form, leaving answers
in surd form.
π π
10∠ × 12∠   
(b) 4 2 = 10 ×12 ∠ π + π − − π 2. (a) 2 + j 3 (b) −4 (c) −6 + j
π 6 4 2 3
6∠− 3. (a) − j 3 (b) (−2 + j )3 (c) j 3 (1 − j )
3
13π 11π In Problems 4 and 5 convert the given polar com-
= 20∠ or 20∠− or plex numbers into (a + j b) form giving answers
12 12
correct to 4 significant figures.
20∠195◦ or 20∠−165◦ 4. (a) 5∠30◦ (b) 3∠60◦ (c) 7∠45◦
5. (a) 6∠125◦ (b) 4∠π (c) 3.5∠−120◦
Problem 14. Evaluate, in polar form
2∠30◦ +5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦ In Problems 6 to 8, evaluate in polar form.
 260 Higher Engineering Mathematics

V R − j VC = V , from which R − j X C = Z (where X C

Section D

6. (a) 3∠20◦ × 15∠45◦ 1

is the capacitive reactance ohms).
(b) 2.4∠65◦ × 4.4∠−21◦ 2π f C

7. (a) 6.4∠27◦ ÷ 2∠−15◦ Problem 15. Determine the resistance and

(b) 5∠30◦ × 4∠80◦ ÷ 10∠−40◦ series inductance (or capacitance) for each of the
π π following impedances, assuming a frequency of
8. (a) 4∠ + 3∠ 50 Hz:
6 8
(b) 2∠120◦ + 5.2∠58◦ − 1.6∠−40◦ (a) (4.0 + j 7.0)  (b) − j 20 
(c) 15∠−60◦ 

(a) Impedance, Z =(4.0 + j 7.0)  hence,

22.8 Applications of complex resistance = 4.0  and reactance =7.00 .
numbers Since the imaginary part is positive, the reactance
is inductive,
There are several applications of complex numbers
in science and engineering, in particular in electrical i.e. X L = 7.0 
alternating current theory and in mechanical vector Since X L = 2πf L then inductance,
analysis.
XL 7.0
The effect of multiplying a phasor by j is to rotate L= = = 0.0223 H or 22.3 mH
it in a positive direction (i.e. anticlockwise) on an 2π f 2π(50)
Argand diagram through 90◦ without altering its length. (b) Impedance, Z = j 20, i.e. Z = (0 − j 20)  hence
Similarly, multiplying a phasor by − j rotates the pha- resistance = 0 and reactance =20 . Since the
sor through −90◦ . These facts are used in a.c. the- imaginary part is negative, the reactance is cap-
ory since certain quantities in the phasor diagrams 1
acitive, i.e., X C = 20  and since X C =
lie at 90◦ to each other. For example, in the R−L 2πf C
series circuit shown in Fig. 22.8(a), V L leads I by then:
90◦ (i.e. I lags VL by 90◦ ) and may be written as 1 1
capacitance, C = = F
j VL , the vertical axis being regarded as the imagi- 2πf XC 2π(50)(20)
nary axis of an Argand diagram. Thus V R + j VL = V
106
and since V R = I R, V = I X L (where X L is the induc- = µF = 159.2 µF
tive reactance, 2π f L ohms) and V = IZ (where Z is 2π(50)(20)
the impedance) then R + j X L = Z (c) Impedance, Z

C = 15∠−60◦ = 15[ cos (−60◦ ) + j sin (−60◦ )]

R L R
= 7.50 − j 12.99 
VR VL VR VC
I I Hence resistance = 7.50  and capacitive reac-
V V tance, X C = 12.99 
Phasor diagram Phasor diagram 1
Since X C = then capacitance,
VR I 2πf C
VL V ␾
1 106
C = = µF
␪
2πf XC 2π(50)(12.99)
VC
VR I = 245 µF
V
(a) (b)
Problem 16. An alternating voltage of 240 V,
Figure 22.8 50 Hz is connected across an impedance of
(60 − j 100) . Determine (a) the resistance, (b) the
capacitance, (c) the magnitude of the impedance
Similarly, for the R−C circuit shown in Fig. 22.8(b), and its phase angle and (d) the current flowing.
VC lags I by 90◦ (i.e. I leads VC by 90◦ ) and
 Complex numbers 261

(a) Impedance Z =(60 − j 100) . 1 1 1 1

= + +

Section D
Z Z1 Z2 Z3
Hence resistance =60 
where Z 1 = 4 + j 3, Z 2 = 10 and Z 3 = 12 − j 5
(b) Capacitive reactance X C = 100  and since
1 1 1
XC = then Admittance, Y1 = =
2πf C Z1 4 + j3
1 1 1 4 − j3 4 − j3
capacitance, C = = = × = 2
2π f X C 2π(50)(100) 4 + j 3 4 − j 3 4 + 32
= 0.160 − j 0.120 siemens
106
= µF 1 1
2π(50)(100) Admittance, Y2 = = = 0.10 siemens
Z2 10
= 31.83 µF
1 1
Admittance, Y3 = =
(c) Magnitude of impedance, Z3 12 − j 5

|Z | = [(60)2 + (−100)2 ] = 116.6  1 12 + j 5 12 + j 5
= × = 2
  12 − j 5 12 + j 5 12 + 52
−100
Phase angle, arg Z = tan−1 = −59.04◦
60
= 0.0710 + j 0.0296 siemens
V 240∠0◦ Total admittance, Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
(d) Current flowing, I = =
Z 116.6∠−59.04◦
= (0.160 − j 0.120) + (0.10)
= 2.058 ∠59.04◦ A
+ (0.0710 + j 0.0296)

The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in = 0.331 − j 0.0904

Fig. 22.8(b).
= 0.343∠−15.28◦ siemens
V
Problem 17. For the parallel circuit shown in Current I = = VY
Z
Fig. 22.9, determine the value of current I and its
phase relative to the 240 V supply, using complex = (240∠0◦ )(0.343∠−15.28◦)
numbers. = 82.32 ∠−15.28◦ A
R1 5 4 V XL 5 3 V
Problem 18. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the three coplanar
R2 5 10 V forces given below, when they act at a point.
Force A, 10 N acting at 45◦ from the positive
horizontal axis.
R3 5 12 V XC 5 5 V Force B, 87 N acting at 120◦ from the positive
I
horizontal axis.
Force C, 15 N acting at 210◦ from the positive
240 V, 50 Hz
horizontal axis.
Figure 22.9
The space diagram is shown in Fig. 22.10. The forces
V may be written as complex numbers.
Current I = . Impedance Z for the three-branch Thus force A, f A = 10∠45◦ , force B, f B = 8∠120◦ and
Z
parallel circuit is given by: force C, fC = 15∠210◦
 262 Higher Engineering Mathematics

8N 10 N
Section D

210⬚
3. If the two impedances in Problem 2 are
connected in parallel determine the current
120⬚
flowing and its phase relative to the 120 V
supply voltage.
45⬚
4. A series circuit consists of a 12  resistor, a
coil of inductance 0.10 H and a capacitance
of 160 µF. Calculate the current flowing
15 N
and its phase relative to the supply voltage
Figure 22.10 of 240 V, 50 Hz. Determine also the power
factor of the circuit.
The resultant force 5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 22.11, deter-
mine the current I flowing and its phase
= f A + f B + fC relative to the applied voltage.
= 10∠45◦ + 8∠120◦ + 15∠210◦ 6. Determine, using complex numbers, the
◦ ◦ ◦ magnitude and direction of the resultant of
= 10(cos45 + j sin 45 ) + 8(cos120
the coplanar forces given below, which are
+ j sin 120◦ ) + 15(cos210◦ + j sin 210◦ ) acting at a point. Force A, 5 N acting hori-
zontally, Force B, 9 N acting at an angle of
= (7.071 + j 7.071) + (−4.00 + j 6.928)
135◦ to force A, Force C, 12 N acting at an
+(−12.99 − j 7.50) angle of 240◦ to force A.

= −9.919 + j 6.499 XC 5 20 V R1 5 30 V

Magnitude of resultant force


= [(−9.919)2 + (6.499)2] = 11.86 N R2 5 40 V XL 5 50 V

Direction of resultant force

 
6.499
= tan−1 = 146.77◦ R3 5 25 V
−9.919
(since −9.919 + j 6.499 lies in the second quadrant).
I

Now try the following Practice Exercise

V 5 200 V
Figure 22.11
Practice Exercise 100 Applications of
complex numbers (Answers on page 845) 7. A delta-connected impedance Z A is given
by:
1. Determine the resistance R and series induc-
Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
tance L (or capacitance C) for each of the ZA =
following impedances assuming the frequ- Z2
ency to be 50 Hz. Determine Z A in both Cartesian and polar
form given Z 1 = (10 + j 0) ,
(a) (3 + j 8)  (b) (2 − j 3)  Z 2 = (0 − j 10)  and Z 3 = (10 + j 10) .
(c) j 14  (d) 8∠−60◦ 
2. Two impedances, Z 1 = (3 + j 6)  and 8. In the hydrogen atom, the angular momen-
Z 2 = (4 − j 3)  are connected in series to tum p of the de Broglie wave is given
 
a supply voltage of 120 V. Determine the jh
by: pψ = − (±jmψ). Determine an
magnitude of the current and its phase angle 2π
relative to the voltage. expression for p.
 Complex numbers 263

Section D
9. An aircraft P flying at a constant height has a
At balance: (Z X )(Z 3 ) = (Z 2 )(Z 4 ).
velocity of (400 + j 300) km/h. Another air-
C 3 R4
craft Q at the same height has a velocity of Show that at balance R X = and
(200 − j 600) km/h. Determine (a) the veloc- C2
C 2 R3
ity of P relative to Q, and (b) the velocity of CX =
Q relative to P. Express the answers in polar R4
form, correct to the nearest km/h. 12. An amplifier has a transfer function T given
500
10. Three vectors are represented by P, 2∠30◦ , by: T = where ω is the
1 + j ω(5 × 10−4)
Q, 3∠90◦ and R, 4∠−60◦ . Determine in angular frequency. The gain of the amplifier
polar form the vectors represented by (a) is given by the modulus of T and the phase is
P + Q + R, (b) P − Q − R given by the argument of T . If ω = 2000 rad/s,
determine the gain and the phase (in degrees).
11. In a Schering bridge circuit,
Z X = (R X − j X C X ), Z 2 = − j X C2 , 13. The sending end current of a transmission
(R3 )(− j X C3 ) VS
Z3 = and Z 4 = R4 line is given by: I S = tanh PL. Calculate
(R3 − j X C3 ) Z0
the value of the sending current, in polar
1 form, given VS = 200V , Z 0 = 560 + j 420 ,
where X C =
2πf C P = 0.20 and L = 10

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 96 to 100 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Chapter 23
De Moivre’s theorem
Why it is important to understand: De Moivre’s theorem
There are many, many examples of the use of complex numbers in engineering and science. De Moivre’s
theorem has several uses, including finding powers and roots of complex numbers, solving polynomial
equations, calculating trigonometric identities, and for evaluating the sums of trigonometric series. The
theorem is also used to calculate exponential and logarithmic functions of complex numbers. De Moivre’s
theorem has applications in electrical engineering and physics.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• state de Moivre’s theorem

• calculate powers of complex numbers
• calculate roots of complex numbers
• state the exponential form of a complex number
• convert Cartesian/polar form into exponential form and vice-versa.
• determine loci in the complex plane

Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66282-6, © 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 De Moivre’s theorem 265

(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 = 25 ∠(5 × 35◦ ),

Section D
23.1 Introduction from de Moivre’s theorem
From multiplication of complex numbers in polar form, = 32∠175◦
 3
(r ∠θ ) × (r ∠θ ) = r 2 ∠2θ (b) (−2 + j 3)= [(−2)2 + (3)2 ]∠ tan−1
−2
√ ◦
Similarly, (r ∠θ )×(r ∠θ )× (r ∠θ ) =r 3∠3θ , and so on. = 13∠123.69 , since −2 + j 3
In general, de Moivre’s theorem∗ lies in the second quadrant
√
[r∠θ ]n = r n∠nθ (−2 + j 3)6 = [ 13∠123.69◦]6
The theorem is true for all positive, negative and √
= ( 13)6 ∠(6 × 123.69◦ ),
fractional values of n. The theorem is used to determine by de Moivre’s theorem
powers and roots of complex numbers.
= 2197∠742.14◦
23.2 Powers of complex numbers = 2197∠382.14◦(since 742.14

For example [3∠20◦ ]4 = 34 ∠(4 × 20◦ ) = 81∠80◦ by ≡ 742.14◦ − 360◦ = 382.14◦ )

de Moivre’s theorem. = 2197∠22.14◦ (since 382.14◦

Problem 1. Determine, in polar form ≡ 382.14◦ − 360◦ = 22.14◦ )

(a) [2∠35◦]5 (b) (−2 + j 3)6
or 2197∠22◦ 8

Problem 2. Determine the value of (−7 + j 5)4 ,

expressing the result in polar and rectangular forms.

 5
(−7 + j 5) =[(−7)2 + 52 ]∠ tan−1
−7
√ ◦
= 74∠144.46
(Note, by considering the Argand diagram, −7 + j 5
must represent an angle in the second quadrant and not
in the fourth quadrant.)
Applying de Moivre’s theorem:
√
(−7 + j 5)4 = [ 74∠144.46◦]4
√
= 744 ∠4 × 144.46◦
= 5476∠577.84◦
= 5476∠217.84◦
or 5476∠217◦50 in polar form
Since r ∠θ = r cos θ + jr sin θ ,
5476∠217.84◦ = 5476 cos217.84◦
∗ Who was de Moivre? Abraham de Moivre (26 May + j 5476 sin217.84◦
1667–27 November 1754) was a French mathematician famous
for de Moivre’s formula, which links complex numbers = −4325 − j 3359
and trigonometry, and for his work on the normal dis-
tribution and probability theory. To find out more go to i.e. (−7 +j5)4 = −4325 −j3359
www.routledge.com/cw/bird in rectangular form
 266 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following Practice Exercise Hence

Section D

  
(5 + j 12) = [13∠67.38◦] and [13∠427.38◦]
Practice Exercise 101 Powers of complex
numbers (Answers on page 845) 1 1
= [13∠67.38◦] 2 and [13∠427.38◦] 2
1. Determine in polar form (a) [1.5∠15◦]5  
(b) (1 + j 2)6 1 1
= 13 2 ∠ × 67.38◦ and
2
2. Determine in polar and Cartesian forms  
(a) [3∠41◦ ]4 (b) (−2 − j )5 1 1
13 2 ∠ × 427.38◦
2
3. Convert (3 − j ) into polar form and hence
√ √
evaluate (3 − j )7 , giving the answer in polar = 13∠33.69◦ and 13∠213.69◦
form.
In problems 4 to 7, express in both polar and = 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠213.69◦
rectangular forms.
Thus, in polar form, the two roots are
4. (6 + j 5)3 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠−146.31◦
√ √
5. (3 − j 8)5 13∠33.69◦ = 13(cos 33.69◦ + j sin 33.69◦ )

= 3.0 + j 2.0
6. (−2 + j 7)4 √ √
13∠213.69◦ = 13(cos 213.69◦ + j sin 213.69◦)
7. (−16 − j 9)6
= −3.0 − j 2.0

Thus, in cartesian form the two roots are

23.3 Roots of complex numbers ±(3.0 + j2.0)
From the Argand diagram shown in Fig. 23.1 the two
The square root of a complex number is determined by
roots are seen to be 180◦ apart, which is always true
letting n = 1/2 in de Moivre’s theorem,
when finding square roots of complex numbers.
 1 1 1 √ θ
i.e. [r ∠θ ] = [r ∠θ ] 2 = r 2 ∠ θ = r ∠ Imaginary axis
2 2
j2
There are two square roots of a real number, equal in 3.61
size but opposite in sign. 213.698
33. 698
23 3 Real axis
Problem 3. Determine the two square roots of the
3.61
complex number (5 + j 12) in polar and Cartesian
2j 2
forms and show the roots on an Argand diagram.

   Figure 23.1
12
(5 + j 12) = [52 + 122 ]∠ tan−1
5
= 13∠67.38◦ In general, when finding the nth root of a complex
number, there are n solutions. For example, there are
When determining square roots two solutions result. three solutions to a cube root, five solutions to a fifth
To obtain the second solution one way is to root, and so on. In the solutions to the roots of a complex
express 13∠67.38◦ also as 13∠(67.38◦ + 360◦ ), i.e. number, the modulus, r , is always the same, but the
13∠427.38◦. When the angle is divided by 2 an angle arguments, θ , are different. It is shown in Problem 3
less than 360◦ is obtained. that arguments are symmetrically spaced on an Argand
 De Moivre’s theorem 267

diagram and are (360/n)◦ apart, where n is the number √

(−14 + j 3) = 205∠167.905◦

Section D
of the roots required. Thus if one of the solutions to the
cube root of a complex number is, say, 5∠20◦ , the other    
two roots are symmetrically spaced (360/3)◦ , i.e. 120◦ −2 −2 2
× 167.905 ◦
(−14 + j 3) 5 = 205 5 ∠ −
from this root and the three roots are 5∠20◦ , 5∠140◦ 5
and 5∠260◦
= 0.3449∠−67.164◦
1
Problem 4. Find the roots of [(5 + j 3)] 2 in or 0.3449∠−67◦ 10
rectangular form, correct to 4 significant figures.
There are five roots to this complex number,
√ 
(5 + j 3) = 34∠30.96◦ −2 1 1
x 5 = 2
=√
5 2
x5 x
Applying de Moivre’s theorem:

 The roots are symmetrically displaced from one

1 1 another (360/5)◦ , i.e. 72◦ apart round an Argand
(5 + j 3) 2 = 34 2 ∠ 12 × 30.96◦ diagram.
= 2.415∠15.48◦ or 2.415∠15◦ 29 Thus the required roots are 0.3449∠−67◦ 10 ,
0.3449∠4◦ 50 , 0.3449∠76◦ 50 , 0.3449∠148◦ 50
and 0.3449∠220◦ 50
The second root may be obtained as shown above, i.e.
having the same modulus but displaced (360/2)◦ from
the first root. Now try the following Practice Exercise

1
Thus, (5 + j 3) 2 = 2.415∠(15.48◦ + 180◦ ) Practice Exercise 102 The roots of complex
numbers (Answers on page 845)
= 2.415∠195.48◦
In Problems 1 to 3 determine the two square roots
of the given complex numbers in Cartesian form
In rectangular form: and show the results on an Argand diagram.
1. (a) 1 + j (b) j
2.415∠15.48◦ = 2.415 cos15.48◦
+ j 2.415 sin 15.48◦ 2. (a) 3 − j 4 (b) −1 − j 2

= 2.327 + j0.6446 3π
3. (a) 7∠60◦ (b) 12∠
2
and 2.415∠195.48◦ = 2.415 cos195.48◦
In Problems 4 to 7, determine the moduli and
+ j 2.415 sin 195.48◦ arguments of the complex roots.
= −2.327 − j0.6446 1
4. (3 + j 4) 3
1
Hence [(5 + j 3)] 2 = 2.415∠15.48◦ and 1
5. (−2 + j ) 4
◦
2.415∠195.48 or 1
± (2.327 + j0.6446) 6. (−6 − j 5) 2
−2
7. (4 − j 3) 3

Problem 5. Express the roots of 8. For a transmission line, the characteristic

−2
(−14 + j 3) 5 in polar form. impedance Z 0 and the propagation coefficient
 268 Higher Engineering Mathematics

However, from equations (2) and (3):

Section D

γ are given by:  

 θ2 θ4
 1− + − · · · = cos θ
R + j ωL 2! 4!
Z0 = and 
G + j ωC θ3 θ5
 and θ− + − · · · = sin θ
3! 5!
γ= [(R + j ωL)(G + j ωC)]

Given R = 25 , L = 5 × 10−3 H, Thus e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ (4)

G = 80 ×10−6 siemens, C = 0.04 × 10−6 F
and ω = 2000 π rad/s, determine, in polar Writing −θ for θ in equation (4), gives:
form, Z 0 and γ e j (−θ) = cos(−θ ) + j sin(−θ )
However, cos(−θ ) = cos θ and sin(−θ ) = −sin θ
Thus e −jθ = cos θ − j sin θ (5)
23.4 The exponential form of a The polar form of a complex number z is:
complex number z =r (cos θ + j sin θ ). But, from equation (4),
cos θ + j sin θ = e jθ
Certain mathematical functions may be expressed as
power series (for example, by Maclaurin’s series – see Therefore z = re jθ
Chapter 8), three examples being: When a complex number is written in this way, it is said
to be expressed in exponential form.
x2 x3 x4 x5 There are therefore three ways of expressing a complex
(i) e x = 1 + x + + + + + ··· (1) number:
2! 3! 4! 5!
(i) z = (a + j b), called Cartesian or rectangu-
x3 x5 x7 lar form,
(ii) sin x = x − + − + ··· (2)
3! 5! 7!
(ii) z =r (cos θ + j sin θ ) or r ∠θ , called polar form,
x2 x4 x6 and
(iii) cos x = 1 − + − + ··· (3)
2! 4! 6! (iii) z =r e j θ called exponential form.
The exponential form is obtained from the polar form.
Replacing x in equation (1) by the imaginary number π
j θ gives: For example, 4∠30◦ becomes 4e j 6 in exponential
form. (Note that in r e j θ , θ must be in radians.)
( j θ )2 ( j θ )3 ( j θ )4 ( j θ )5
e j θ = 1+ j θ + + + + +· · · Problem 6. Change (3 − j 4) into (a) polar form,
2! 3! 4! 5!
(b) exponential form.
j 2θ 2 j 3θ 3 j 4θ 4 j 5θ 5
= 1 + jθ + + + + + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! (a) (3 − j 4) = 5∠−53.13◦ or 5∠−0.927
√ in polar form
By definition, j = (−1), hence j 2 = −1, j 3 = − j ,
(b) (3 − j 4) = 5∠−0.927= 5e−j0.927
j 4 = 1, j 5 = j , and so on.
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 in exponential form
Thus e j θ = 1 + j θ − − j + + j − · · ·
2! 3! 4! 5!
Grouping real and imaginary terms gives: Problem 7. Convert 7.2e j 1.5 into rectangular
form.
 
jθ θ2 θ4
e = 1− + − ··· 7.2e j 1.5 = 7.2∠1.5 rad(= 7.2∠85.94◦) in polar form
2! 4!
 = 7.2 cos1.5 + j 7.2 sin1.5
θ3 θ5
+ j θ− + − ··· = (0.509 + j 7.182) in rectangular form
3! 5!
 De Moivre’s theorem 269

π = 2.0986 − j 1.0000

Section D
1+ j
Problem 8. Express z = 2e 3 in Cartesian
form. = 2.325∠−25.48◦ or 2.325∠−0.445

 π
Problem 12. Determine, in polar form, ln (3 + j 4)
z = (2e1 ) e j 3 by the laws of indices
π ln(3 + j 4) = ln[5∠0.927] = ln[5e j 0.927 ]
= (2e1 )∠ (or 2e∠60◦ )in polar form
3
 = ln 5 + ln(e j 0.927)
π π
= 2e cos + j sin = ln 5 + j 0.927
3 3
= (2.718 + j4.708) in Cartesian form = 1.609 + j 0.927
= 1.857∠29.95◦ or 1.857∠0.523
Problem 9. Change 6e2− j 3 into (a + j b) form.

Now try the following Practice Exercise

6e2− j 3 = (6e2 )(e− j 3) by the laws of indices
= 6e2 ∠−3 rad (or 6e2 ∠−171.890 ) Practice Exercise 103 The exponential form
in polar form of complex numbers (Answers on page 845)
= 6e2 [cos(−3) + j sin (−3)] 1. Change (5 + j 3) into exponential form.

= (−43.89 − j6.26) in (a + jb) form 2. Convert (−2.5 + j 4.2) into exponential form.
3. Change 3.6e j 2 into Cartesian form.
π
Problem 10. If z = 4e j 1.3 , determine ln z (a) in 4. Express 2e3+ j 6 in (a + j b) form.
Cartesian form, and (b) in polar form.
5. Convert 1.7e1.2− j 2.5 into rectangular form.

If z = r e j θ then ln z = ln(r e j θ ) 6. If z = 7e j 2.1 , determine ln z (a) in Cartesian

form, and (b) in polar form.
= ln r + ln e j θ
ln z = ln r + j θ, 7. Given z = 4e1.5− j 2 , determine ln z in polar
i.e.
form.
by the laws of logarithms 8. Determine in polar form (a) ln (2 + j 5)
(a) Thus if z = 4e j 1.3 then ln z = ln(4e j1.3 ) (b) ln (−4 − j 3)
= ln 4 + j1.3 9. When displaced electrons oscillate about an
(or 1.386 + j1.300) in Cartesian form. equilibrium position the displacement x is
(b) (1.386 + j 1.300) =1.90∠43.17◦ or 1.90∠0.753 given by the equation:
in polar form. √ 
ht (4m f −h 2 )
− 2m + j 2m−a t

Problem 11. Given z = 3e1− j , find ln z in polar x = Ae

form. Determine the real part of x in terms of t,
assuming (4m f − h 2 ) is positive.
If z = 3e1− j , then
ln z = ln(3e1− j )

= ln 3 + ln e1− j 23.5 Introduction to locus problems

= ln 3 + 1 − j The locus is a set of points that satisfy a certain con-
= (1 + ln 3) − j dition. For example, the locus of points that are, say, 2
units from point C, refers to the set of all points that are
 270 Higher Engineering Mathematics

2 units from C; this would be a circle with centre C as y

locus |z| = 4
Section D

shown in Fig. 23.2. ie x 2 + y 2 = 42

4 z
2
C 0 x
This circle is the
locus of points 2 units
from C

Figure 23.2
Figure 23.4
It is sometimes needed to find the locus of a point
which moves in the Argand diagram according to some
stated condition. Loci (the plural of locus) are illustrated Hence, in this example,
y π y π
by the following worked problems. tan−1 = i.e. = tan = tan 45◦ = 1
x 4 x 4
Problem 13. Determine the locus defined by y
Thus, if = 1, then y = x
|z| = 4, given that z = x + j y x

If z = x + j y, then on an Argand diagram as shown in y

Figure 23.3, the modulus z,

|z| = x 2 + y2 ␲
arg z = —
4
ie y = x

Imaginary
axis ␲
—
4

jy 0 x

z y
Figure 23.5
␪
Real
0 axis π
x Hence, the locus (or path) of arg z = is a straight
4
line y = x (with y > 0) as shown in Fig. 23.5.
Figure 23.3
 Problem 15. If z = x + j y, determine the locus
In this case, x 2 + y 2 = 4 from which, x 2 + y 2 = 42 π
defined by arg (z − 1) =
From Chapter 28, x2 + y2 = 42 is a circle, with centre 6
at the origin and with radius 4 π π
If arg (z − 1) = , then arg (x + j y − 1) =
The locus (or path) of |z| = 4 is shown in Fig. 23.4. 6 6
i.e. π
arg[(x − 1) + j y] =
Problem 14. Determine the locus defined by arg 6
π
z = , given that z = x + j y In Fig. 25.3,
4 y y
 y θ = tan−1 i.e. arg z = tan−1
In Fig. 23.3 above, θ = tan−1 x x
x Hence, in this example,
where θ is called  
 y  the argument and is written as y π y π 1
−1 = i.e. = tan = tan 30◦ = √
arg z = tan−1 tan
x −1 6 x −1 6
x 3
 De Moivre’s theorem 271

y 1 1 from which,
Thus, if = √ , then y = √ (x − 1)

Section D
x −1 3 3
π (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 9[(x + 1)2 + y 2 ]
Hence, the locus of arg (z −1) = is a straight line
6 x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 = 9[x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 ]
1 1
y = √ x− √
3 3 x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 = 9x 2 + 18x + 9 + 9y 2
0 = 8x 2 + 20x + 8 + 8y 2
Problem 16. Determine the locus defined by
| z − 2 | = 3, given that z = x + j y i.e.

If z = x + j y, then |z − 2| = |x + jy − 2| 8x 2 + 20x + 8 + 8y 2 = 0
= | (x − 2) + j y | = 3 and dividing by 4 gives:
On the  Argand diagram shown in Figure 23.3, 2x 2 + 5x + 2 + 2 y2 = 0 which is the equation of
| z | = x 2 + y2
 the locus.
Hence, in this case, | z − 2 | = (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 3 from 5
which, (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 32 Rearranging gives: x 2 + x + y 2 = −1
2
From Chapter 28, (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2 is a circle, Completing the square gives:
with centre (a, b) and radius r .  
5 2 25
Hence, (x − 2)2 + y2 = 32 is a circle, with centre (2, 0) x+ − + y 2 = −1
4 16
and radius 3
 
The locus of | z − 2 | = 3 is shown in Figure 23.6. 5 2 25
i.e. x+ + y 2 = −1 +
4 16
y  
3 5 2 9
i.e. x+ + y2 =
locus |z – 2| = 3 4 16
ie (x – 2)2 + y 2 = 32  2  2
5 3
i.e. x+ + y2 = which is the equa-
–1 0 2 5 4 4
x
tion of a circle.
 
 z−1 
Hence the locus defined by    = 3 is a circle of
z + 1 
–3  
5 3
centre − , 0 and radius
4 4
Figure 23.6

Problem 17.  If z = x + j y, determine the locus Problem 18. If z = 

x + j y, determine the locus
 z −1 z+1 π
defined by  =3 defined by arg =
z +1 z 4

z − 1 = x + j y − 1 = (x − 1) + j y    
z +1 (x + 1) + j y
z + 1 = x + j y + 1 = (x + 1) + j y =
    z x + jy
 z − 1   (x − 1) + j y 
Hence,  =  [(x + 1) + j y](x − j y)
 z + 1   (x + 1) + j y  =
 (x + j y)(x − j y)
(x − 1)2 + y 2
= =3 x(x + 1) − j (x + 1)y + j x y + y 2
(x + 1)2 + y 2 =
x 2 + y2
and squaring both sides gives:
x 2 + x − j x y − j y + j x y + y2
(x − 1)2 + y 2 =
=9 x 2 + y2
(x + 1)2 + y 2
 272 Higher Engineering Mathematics

x 2 + x − j y + y2 i.e. x 2 + y 2 − 2y + 1 = x 2 − 6x + 9 + y 2
=
Section D

x 2 + y2
 2  from which, −2y + 1 = −6x + 9
x + x + y2 − j y
= i.e. 6x − 8 = 2y
x 2 + y2
or y = 3x − 4
x 2 + x + y2 jy
= − 2 Hence, the locus defined by | z − j | = | z − 3 | is a
x 2 + y2 x + y2
⎛ ⎞ straight line: y = 3x − 4
−y
 
z +1 π ⎜ x 2 + y2 ⎟ π
Since arg = then tan−1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝x 2 + x + y 2 ⎠ = 4 Now try the following Practice Exercise
z 4
x 2 + y2 Practice Exercise 104 Locus problems
i.e.
  (Answers on page 846)
−y π
tan−1 = For each of the following, if z = x + j y, (a) deter-
x 2 + x + y2 4
mine the equation of the locus, (b) sketch the
from which, locus.
−y π 1. |z | = 2
= tan = 1
x 2 + x + y2 4
2. |z | = 5
Hence, π
3. arg(z − 2) =
−y = x + x + y
2 2 3
  π
z+1 π 4. arg(z + 1) =
Hence, the locus defined by arg = is: 6
z 4
5. |z − 2| = 4
x 2 + x + y + y2 = 0
|z + 3| = 5
6.
Completing the square gives:  
     z +1 
1 2 1 2 1 
7.  =3
x+ + y+ = z −1
2 2 2  
   z −1 √

8.  = 2
1
which is a circle, centre − , −
1 1
and radius √ z 
2 2 2  
 z−1  π

9. arg  =
Problem 19. Determine the locus defined by z  4
| z − j | = | z − 3 |, given that z = x + j y  
 z+2  π

10. arg  =
z  4
Since | z − j | = | z − 3 |
11. |z + j | = |z + 2|
then | x + j (y − 1) | = | (x − 3) + j y |
  12. |z − 4| = |z − 2 j |
and x 2 + (y − 1)2 = (x − 3)2 + y 2
13. |z − 1| = |z |
Squaring both sides gives:
x 2 + (y − 1)2 = (x − 3)2 + y 2

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 101 to 104 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird