1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

1.1 Roman Roads

 Romans are classified to be the pioneers in ancient road construction

 The main features of roman roads
1. They were built strength regardless of gradients.
2. The soft soil is excavated and removed till hard strata was reached
3. The total thickness of construction was as high as 0.75 to 1.2metres at same place.

 The main drawbacks

1. No cross – slope
2. No drainage system
3. Large Foundation stones even though the magnitude of wheel loads of animal drawn vehicles
was very low.

1.2 Tresaguet construction:

 Pierre Tresaguet developed and improved method of construction in France by the year 1764 A.D.
 The main features of the proposal was thickness of construction need only in the order of 30 cm further
due consideration was given by him to subgrade moisture condition and drainage of surface water

1.3 Metcalf Method

 Metcalf method is based on the recommendation of Robert Philips whose paper was presented in Royal
Society
 As Metcalf was blind, much of his work is not recorded.
1.4 Telford construction
 Thomas Telford was the founder of Institution of Civil Engineers at London.
 The main features of Telford’s construction
 1. A level subgrade was prepared to a width of about 9m.
2. Large foundation stones of 17 cm were place towards edges and stones of increasing thickness up
to 22cm were now laid towards the center. So as to provide cross slope.

1.5 Macadam construction

 John Macadam put forward an entirely new method of road construction as compared to all previous
methods
 Macadam was first engineer suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at all necessary to be placed
at the bottom layer of construction.
 Macadam suggested that instead of placing large foundations, small size broken stones shall be spread
over the prepared soil subgrade and compacted.
 Importance to subgrade drainage and compaction was given. So, the subgrade was compacted and
prepared with cross slope of 1 in 36.
 The size of broken stones for the top layer was decided based on the stability under animal drawn
vehicles.

1 2. HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

 After the First World War the motor vehicles using the roads in India also increased and this demanded
better roads.
 Due to the combined effect of the mixed traffic movement, the roads deteriorated fast during the post
war period.
 Hence, in 1927 in Indian legislature passed a resolution for appointment of a committee to examine and
report on Road development in India. A road development committee was appointed with M.R. Jayakar
as the chairman.

2.1 Jayakar committee recommendation:

 The road development in in the country should be considered as national interest.
 An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road development fund called
“Central Road fund” (CRF).
 A semiofficial technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how from various part of
country and to act as an advisory body.
 A research organization should be instituted to carry out the research and development work pertaining
to roads and to be available for consultations.

2.1.1 Central Road fund (CRF)

 The central Road fund was formed on 1st March 1929.
  Extra levy on petrol at 2.64 paisa per liter in 1929.
 The levy is revised in 1988, the rate of duty on Petrol and High Speed Diesel (HSD) was then 1 rupee
per liter.
 At present the revised cess collected on petrol and HSD towards CRF is 6/-per liter (as of 2016)
 20 percent of the annual revenue is to be retained as a central reserve for meeting expenses on
Administration of road fund and R & D on road and bridges projects of special importance. Balance
80% is to be allotted to various state based on the levy collected on petrol or consumption.

2.1.2 Indian Road Congress (IRC)

 As per Jayakar’s Committee recommendation, the semiofficial technical body the Indian Road
Congress was formed in 1934.
 The IRC has played important role in the formulation at all road development plans in India.
 The IRC publishes journals, standards, specifications, research publications, guidance on various
aspects of Highway Engineering.
2.1.3 Motor Vehicle Act - 1939
 Motor Vehicles Act was brought into effect by the Government of India in 1939 to regulate the road
traffic in the form of traffic laws, ordinance and regulation.
 The Motor Vehicles Act - 1939 was consolidated and revised in 1988, which came into effect from
July 1989.
2.2 Nagpur road conference and plan.
 After the Second World War, there was revolution in respect of automobiles using the roads in our
country.
 A conference of the Chief Engineers of all states and provinces was convened in 1943 by the
Government of India at Nagpur, at the initiative of the IRC.
 It was first attempt to prepare a coordinated road development program in the planned manner.
 Thus, the “First 20 year Road Development Plan” in India was finalized for the period of 1943 – 1963,
popularly known as “Nagpur Road Plan”.
 The total target length for Nagpur road plan was 16 km per 100sq.km area of country.
 Features of Nagpur road plan <or> 1st – 20 year road development plan.
 All the roads in the country were classified into five categories.
1. National highways (NH)
2. State highways (SH)
3. Major district roads (MDR)
4. Other district roads (ODR)
5. Village roads (VR)
 Nagpur road plan assumes “Star and Grid pattern” of network.
 The following formulae are helpful estimating the length of different categories of roads.
 The total length of surfaced roads for National and State Highways and MDR in km in is
given by

Length of (NH+SH+MDR) km = ( A8 + 32B +1.6 N +8 T )+ D−R

A = Agricultural area,km 2
 B = Non agriculture area,km 2
N - Number of towns and villages population range 2001 - 5000
T= Number of towns and villages with population > 5000
D = Development allowance for agriculture and industrial development in next 20
years (about 15%)
R = Existing length of railway track, km
 The total length of ODR and VR in km is given by
Length [ODR+VR] in km = [ 0.32V + 0.8 Q+ 1.6 P+3.25 ] + D
V = No. of village with population 500 or less
Q = No. of village with population 501 to 1000
P = No. of village with population 1000 to 2000
S = No. of village with population – 2001 to 5000
D= Development allowance of 15% for next 20 years
2.3 Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)
 In 1950, the Central Road Research Institute started in New Delhi for carrying out research pertaining
to road technology.
 It is the one of recommendation of Jayakar committee report, was to setup for central organization for
research.
2.4 National Highway act:
 In 1956, the National Highway Act was passed in the country.
 The main features are
1. To declare certain highways as “National Highways”
2. To enter into any land for carrying out surveys.
3. To acquire land and take position for the development of national highways.
2.5 Second 20 years road development plan (Bombay plan)
 Nagpur road plan target of total length of road was achieved about two years ahead i.e., in 1961.
 The 2nd 20 years road development plan for period of 1961 - 81 was initiated by IRC and was finalized
in 1959 at the meeting of the chief engineers held at Mumbai (Bombay then)

 The target Road length was almost doubled Nagpur road plan i.e. 32km per 100km2 area including
construction of 1600 km of expressways.
2.6 Highway Research Board
 The Highway Research Board of IRC was set up in 1973, to carryout technical activities of IRC
 This Highway research board objectives are:
1. To ascertain the nature and extent of research required.
2. Coordinates and correction services.
3. Channelize consultative service.
4. Collect and disseminate result of research.
5. Correlate research information from various organization in India and abroad with a view of
exchange publication and information on roads.
2.7 3rd 20 years Road development plan (Lucknow plan) (1981 - 2001)
 The 3rd 20 years road development plan 1981 - 2001 was prepared by roads wing of the MoRTH.
 This plan has been prepared keeping in view the growth pattern envisaged in various field by the turn
of the century.
 Due to consideration of improvement of transportation facilities in villages, towns and small cities,
conservation of energy, preservation of environmental quality and improvement in road safety.
 The road classification system was modified in this plan into 3 classes, for the purpose of transport,
planning, functional identification, embarking administrative jurisdictions and assigning priorities to
road network.
1. Primary system
a. Expressways
b. National Highways (NH)
2. Secondary system
a. State Highways (SH)
b. Major District Roads (MDR)
3. Tertiary system
a. Other District Roads (ODR)
b. Village Roads (VR)
 The 3rd - 20 Years road development plan aimed at increasing the total road length to27,02,000 km by
the year 2001 from 15,00,000 km in 1981.
 The road density from 46km to 82 km per 100sq.km by 2001. the corresponding values of planned to
densities are 40 for hill are as up to 2100 m above MSL and 15 km per sq. km area for altitude above
2100 m
 The NH network should be expanded to form square grids of 100 km sides.
 Expressways should be constructed along major traffic corridors to provide fast travel.
 All the towns and villages with population over 1500 should be connected by MDR and villages with
population 1000 to 1500 by ODR .there should be a road within distance of 3 km in plains and 5.0 km
in hilly terrains connecting all villages or group of villages, population less than 500.
 All the village with population over 500 should be connected by all-weather roads.
 There should be improvement in environmental quality and road safety.
 The existing road should be improved by rectifying the defects in the road geometrics, widening of the
pavements improvement of riding quality of pavement surface and strengthening of the pavements to
save vehicles operation cost and thus conserve energy.
 Road lengths by Lucknow plan (1981 - 2001)
1. Expressways of total length of 2000km to be developed for fast travel based on traffic
requirements.
2. National Highways are to be based on the concept of 100 km square grids.
Area (sq . km)
Length of NH (in km) ¿
50
3. State Highways may be determined by following two relations.
Area ( sq . km)
Length of SH (in km)¿
25
Area( sq . km)
(Or) 62.5 × No . of towns−
50
4. Major district roads (MDR)
Area ( sq . km)
Length of MDR (in km) ¿
12.5
Or
Length of MDR (in km) = 90 × no . of towns
 5. Total length of roads (in km) = 4.74 × No .of towns∧villages
6. Tertiary system road or ODR and VR length is determined by subtracting total length of NH, SH
and MDR in total length of roads.
National Highways Authority of India (NHAI):
 Established in 1988, become operational only in1995
 Responsible for development, maintain and operate the national highways.
 Under the control of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH).
 National Highway development program (NHDP)
 Realizing deficiencies National Highway system in India, the NHAI took up NHDP by the year 2000 in
different phases.
 Phase-I: Golden Quadrilateral of length 5846 km connecting Delhi - Kolkata - Chennai -
Mumbai - Delhi.
 Phase-II: North - South Corridor connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari and East - West
corridor connecting Silchar to Porbandar of total length 7300 km and additional spurs
connecting some of major industrial cities and ports were also taken up.
 Further development of selected National Highways was planned in subsequent phases III, IV,
and V.
 Expressways planed in phase VI and improvement of urban road network as phase VII.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY):
 This program is under National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA) under the Ministry of
Rural Development.
 This program is aimed to connect villages with population over 1000 with all-weather roads by 2003
and to connect village with 500 population by 2007. The program is cost above 60, 000 crore.

Classification of roads:
Generally roads are classified into two categories based on whether they can be used in different seasons.
1. All weather roads: which are negotiable during all season of year.
2. Fair weather roads: roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at causeways etc.
Based on type of carriage way for pavement
1. Paved roads: which hard pavement surface.
2. Unpaved roads: without hard pavement surface.
Based on type of surfacing provided:
1. Surfaced roads: roads with any type of bituminous surface or cement concrete surface.
2. Unsurfaced Road: roads which are not provided with any type of surface course.

Method of classification of roads

Roads are broadly classified based on following:
1. Traffic volume
2. Load transported <or> Tonnage
3. Location and function
 The classification of roads based on traffic volume or tonnage have been arbitrary fixed by different
Agencies and there is no common agreement regarding limits.
 The classification based on location and function should therefore be a more acceptable classification.
Classification of road based on location and function.
As per Nagpur road plan
a. National highways: are Highways transverse several state, connecting ports, capital of states and required for
strategic moment and connecting foreign highway.
b. State highways: are arterial roads of state connecting the National Highways of adjacent state, district
headquarters and main cities.
c. Major cities Road (MDR): MDR ‘are important roads within a district serving areas of production and
market and connecting with main highways.
d: Other district roads: (ODR) are roads serving rural areas of production and outlet to market Centre, taluk
headquarters or other main road.
e: Village roads (VR): are roads connecting village or group of village with each other to nearest road of higher
category.
Modified classification of road as per third 20 years road development plan.
1. Primary system
a. National highways (NH)
b. Expressways: separate class of highways superior facilities and meant for routes having very high
volume of traffic.
2. Secondary system
a. State highways (SH)
b. Major district roads (MDR)
3. Tertiary system
a. Other district roads (ODR)
b. Village roads (VR)
Classification of urban roads:
a. Arterial roads:
b. Sub arterial roads
c. Collector streets
d. Local streets
 Arterial roads & sub arterial roads are urban roads primarily for through traffic
 Collector state provide access of arterial Road and they collect traffic and distribute from a local street
which provide access to abutting properly.

Road patterns

a. Rectangular or block pattern b. Hexagonal pattern

c. Star and block pattern d. Radial or star and circular pattern

 e. Radial or star and grid pattern

Planning surveys:
Planning based on the actual data and analysis considered scientific and sound. The planning surveys consist of
the following studies.
1. Economic study: this studies include following data for economic justification of highway.
a. Classify the distribution of population and groups based on income, occupation etc. in each locality.
b. Trend of population growth
c. Agricultural and Industrial Products
d. Agriculture and industrial growth rate
e. Existing facilities
f. Per capita income
2. Financial studies:
a. Source of income from different types of taxation.
b. Future trends of financial aspects
c. Standard of living of population
d. Anticipated development
e. Resources at local level
3. Traffic studies:
a. Classified traffic volume in vertical per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design hourly
traffic volumes.
b. Origin destination studies
c. Traffic flow patterns
d. Mass transportation facilities
e. Accident, their causes and cost analysis.
f. Future trend and growth
4. Engineering Surveys:
a. Topographic surveys
 b. Soil surveys
c. Location and classification of existing roads
d. Assessment of development due to proposed Highway development.
e. Road life studies
f. Special problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads
Preparation of master plan:
 Master plan is the final road development plan for the study area which may be a block, taluk, district,
state or whole country.
Determination of optimal road length
 It is quite difficult to select one which maybe best under the plan period from various alternate proposal
of roads system in hand decision has to be balanced.one
Saturation system:
In the system of optimum road length is calculated for area, based on concept of obtaining maximum utility per
unit length of road.
The factor considered for obtaining the utility per unit length.
a. Population served by the road network.
b. Productivity served by the network
1. Agriculture product
2. Industrial product
2 Highway Alignment and project preparation
Alignment:
The position or the layout of the center line of the highway ground is called the alignment.
Horizontal alignment it includes the straight path and horizontal curves.
Change in gradient and vertical curves are covered in vertical alignment.
Requirements
Basic requirements of alignment are
Short: (between two terminals)
Easy: (to construct)
Safe: (for traffic operation and maintenance)
Economical: (life cycle cost is lower)
Factor controlling alignment
The various factor which control contract the highway line
1. Obligatory points
:
These are control point governing the alignment of Highway.
Point through which the alignment is to pass some of examples include location mountain pass suitable
location of bridge across a river, presence of quarry or intermediate town to be connected.
AB being shortest path due to heavy cutting or tunnel construction so to avoid should pass along a hill side
cib possible.

Road Bridge across river cannot located on bends. It should Cross River where river has straight path.

Points through which the alignment should not pass

There are obligatory points through which the road should not pass and these locations main make it
necessary to deviate from the proposed shortest alignment.
Some of examples are religious place, very costly structures, unsuitable land etc.

2. Traffic: the road alignment should be decided loaded on requirements of road traffic. Origin and
destination study should be carried out in in the area and the Desire lines be MI Drone showing trend of
traffic.
3. Geometric design: Geometric design factor such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also
would govern the final alignment.
4. Economics: The alignment finalized based on power factor should be economical while considering
factors initial cost of construction, maintenance cost and vehicle operating cost in future.
It is essential to workout “life cycle cost” of project not only initial cost.
Other consideration:
Drainage consideration, hydrological political consideration and monitory of alignment being straight.
Hilly Road:
During the alignment the hill road, special care should be taken
Stability of hill side slope: align the road along the side of hill which is stable.
Drainage of surface and subsurface water from hill side: number of drains should be provided for adequate
drainage acidity across the road.
Special geometric standard for hill roads: the alignment should be enable the ruling gradient to be attained
in most of length, minimizing steep gradients, hair pin Benz and needless raise and fall.
Resisting length:
The resisting length of alignment should kept as low as possible. Thus the in effective rise and effective
fall should be minimum.
Reconnaissance:
During reconnaissance, the engineer visit the site examine the general characteristics of the area with a
view to select possible alternate alignment for detained studies.
Only very simple instrument such as abney level, tangent chinometer, Barometer etc. are used.

Some of search details are:

Valley, hill, permanent structure lake, ponds etc.
Approximate values of gradient, radius of curve of
2.1 Engineering survey for Highway Alignment
Engineering surveys are to be carried out before finalizing highway alignment in a new highway project.
Engineering survey may be completed in four stages
a. Map study
b. Reconnaissance survey
c. preliminary survey
d. final location and detained survey
Map study
Be study careful of a maps, It is possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes so that further
details on map.
a. alignment avoiding lakes and ponds, valleys etc.
b. possibility of cross through a mountain pass. In
c. Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of river if any.
d. in case of two points at different elevation (for e.g. on top and foot of hill)then alternate route can be
suggested keeping in view ruling gradient and the maximum permissible gradient.
Map study gives the guidance of the roots to further study in the field.
Reconnaissance:
During reconnaissance, the engineer visit the site to examine general characteristics of the area with a view
to select possible alternate alignments for detailed studies
Only very simple instrument such as Abney level, tangent clinometer, barometer etc. are used.
Relevant details which are not available in the map are collected and noted down.
Some of such details are:
Valley, Hills, permanent structure lakes, ponds etc.
Approximate values of gradient, radius of curves of alternate alignments.
Number of cross drainage structure maximum flood level.
Soil type along routes
Source of construction material.
Preliminary survey
The main objective of preliminary survey are:
Survey various alternate proposed after reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical
information and details of topography, drainage and soil.
Compare different proposals
Estimate quantity of Earth work materials and other construction aspects and to work out the cost of
alternate proposals.
The procedure of the conventional method of preliminary survey is given in the following steps.
1. Primary transverse
2. Topographic features
3. Levelling work
4. Drainage studies and hydrological data
5. Soil survey
6. Traffic survey
7. Determination of final Central Line
If the distance and the area to be covered are more and vast aerial topographic surveys and
photogrammetric methods are very much suited for preliminary survey.
Final location and detailed survey
The alignment finalized at the design office after primary survey is to be first located on the field by
establishing the central line.
The centreline location: the centre line of the road finalized in the drawings is to be transferred on the
ground during location survey.
Detailed survey: temporary Benchmarks at every 250 e m are fixed including drainage and underpass
structure.
Levels along Centre line should be taken for vertical alignment Earth work Calculation and Drainage
details.
Cross section level are taken up to desired width at intervals of 50 - 100 m in plain, 50 - 75 in rolling and
20 m in hilly areas
All topographical detail or not down and also plotted adequate hydrological details are also collected.
A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing soil profile. the depth up to which soil sampling is to
be done maybe 1.5 to 3.0 e below ground Line or finished grade line of road whichever is lower.
CBR values of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pavement.
The data during detail survey should we celebrate and complete for preparing detailed plans, design and
estimates of the project.

QUESTIONS
1. Chronological order of road construction development
Telford
Tresaquet
Macadam
CBR
A 2 1 3 4
B 1 2 4 3
C 4 3 1 2
D 3 4 2 1

2. Macadam construction is scientific method of construction because

Due to importance of subgrade drainage
Materially are used such that superior materials in lower layers keeping in view stress distribution
Both (A) and (B)
None of these

3. Nagpur road plan was based on

Rectangular or block pattern
Star and Block pattern
Star and hexagonal pattern

4. As per Jayakar recommendations certain institutes were set up which of following is set up for
controlling standardization of roads and bridges
Highway research board
Central road research institute
Indian road congress
Central road fund

5. Saturation system is based on________ used for development of optimum road length
Population
Population and agriculture productivity
Population and both agriculture and industrial productivities.
Industrial and agriculture productivities.

6. Four new road links A, B, C and D to be constructed suggest the order of priority of phasing the road
construction. Assume utility units 0.5, 1.0, 2 and 4 for the four population ranges and 2, 2 and 5 units per
1000 t agricultural raw material and industrial products.
Road Length No. of village served with population
link (km) <500 501 – 1000 – >2000 Agr. Raw Industrial
1000 2000 material product
A 75 30 15 10 3 8000 3000 1000
B 35 20 8 6 3 5000 1000 1600
C 40 15 6 5 5 6000 2000 3200
D 50 40 4 3 2 3000 7000 5000

DCBA
ACBD
CBDA
BCAD

7. Length of national highway as per 3rd – 20 years RDP is given by

Area of country/75
Area of country/50
Area of country/40
Area of country/25

8. No. of village and town with population range served productivity

Proposal Length <2000 2001 – 5000 – 10000 – >20000 Agriculture Industrial
5000 10000 20000
P 500 100 150 40 20 3 150 20
Q 600 200 250 68 28 3 220 25
R 700 270 350 82 36 4 300 35
S 900 290 430 96 44 4 430 45
Best proposal of above roads (Assume utility units of 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 for population 1.0 and 5.0 for 1000
t agricultural & industrial respectively)
S
Q
R
P
 Highway Materials

Pavement materials:

1. Subgrade soil:

 Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived from disintegration of rocks.

 Subgrade is the natural foundation which directly receives the loads from the pavement.
 The desirable properties of subgrade soil as a highway material are
a. Stability.
b. Incompressibility.
c. Good drainage.
d. Ease of compaction.
e. Permanency of Strength.
f. Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather.
The following tests are used to evaluate the strength properties of soils. They are

Shear test:

 Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in laboratory.
 In order to find out the strength properties of soil in number of representatives samples from
different locations are tested.
 Some of the commonly known shear test are direct shear test, triaxial compression test and
unconfined compression test. Vane shear test may be carried out in case of clayey soils.
Bearing Tests:

 Bearing Tests are loading tests carried out on soil subgrade or at foundation level in-situ with
loading plate of relatively large bearing area.
 The results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the
stressed soil mass.
Penetration Tests:

 These are considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded area is
relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much
greater than the ratios in bearing tests.
 The penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the laboratory. CBR test & Cone
penetration tests are commonly known as penetration tests
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test (IS-2720: Part-16) :

 CBR test is an empirical test, used to evaluate the strength of subgrade soil and base course
materials for flexible pavements.
 CBR test denotes a measure of resistance to penetration of a soil or flexible pavement
material to a standard plunger under controlled test conditions.
 It is the penetration test where in a standard plunger having an area of 19.62cm 2 (or 50mm
dia.) is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25mm/min.
 In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases.
 The specimens may be compacted to maximum dry density at the Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) or specimen is compacted to a dry density corresponding to minimum state of
compaction likely to be achieved in practicalzs.
  The standard load values have been established based on a large number of tests on standard
crushed stone aggregates at the respective penetration level of 2.5mm & 5.0mm.
 IS heavy compaction as per IS: 2720 part VIII is preferred for high trafficked roads Like
Expressways, National and State highways. IS light compaction as per IS: 2720 part VII may
be adopted for low volume roads.
Test apparatus:
 Cylindrical mould (150mm dia.) with Base plate and collar, cylindrical plunger (50mm dia.),
Compression testing machine, surcharge weight (147mm dia.)

Test Procedure:

 The specimen is subjected to four days soaking and the swelling water absorption values are
noted, load is applied by the cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate is 1.25
mm/min.
 The loads corresponding 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0, 10.0 and 12.5mm penetrations
are recorded.
 The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg (70kg/cm 2) and 2055 kg (105 kg/cm2)
at 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetrations respectively.
 CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetration of 2.5mm
or 5.0mm to the standard loads mentioned above.
 Load carried by specimen
∴ CBR= ×100
Load carried by standard speci men

 Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5mm is greater than that of 5.0mm
penetration, the former is adopted.
 If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0mm penetration is higher than that at 2.5mm, then
the test is to be repeated for checking. If the check test again gives similar results then higher
value obtained at 5.0mm penetration is reported as the CBR value.
 The average CBR value of three test specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.
 If the specimen has surface irregularities and softness, the initial portion of the curve may
have concavity upwards. In that case a tangent is drawn to the curve at the steepest point on
the curve, this tangent plus the convex portion of the original curve is the corrected curve with
the origin moved to the point where tangent cuts the x-axis.

Plate Load Test: (IS-9214)

 This test is used to evaluate

a. Modulus of subgrade reaction of soils (k).

b. Modulus of elasticity of soil (E)

 The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade reaction in the
Westergaard's analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavements.
 Plate bearing test evaluates the support capability of subgrades, bases etc.,
 Data from the tests are applicable for the design of both flexible and rigid pavements.
Apparatus:

 Plates of diameter 750, 600, 450 and 300mm.

 A loading device consisting of jack and proving ring arrangement.
  A reaction frame against which the jack can give thrust to the plate.

Test Setup:

 Seating pressure = 0.07kg/cm2 (320kg for 750mm dia.)

 Standard plate size for finding ‘k’= 750mm dia.
 Commonly used size for Highway pavements = 300mm dia.

Test Procedure–I:

 The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 750mm diameter plate rests
horizontally in full contact with the soil subgrade.
 A seating pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320kg for 75cm diameter plate) is applied and released
after a few seconds. The three settlement dial gauges are now set corresponding to zero load.
 A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an average settlement of about
0.25mm. When there is no perceptible increase in settlement or when rate of settlement is less
than 0.025mm/min, the dial gauge readings are taken and average settlement is found.
 The load is then increased till settlement increases to a further amount of about 0.25mm and
the average settlement and load values are noted.
 The procedure is repeated till the settlement reaches 1.75mm
 Average of three or four settlement dial gauge readings is taken as the settlement of the plate
corresponding to the applied load.
 A graph is plotted with mean settlement versus mean bearing pressure.
  The load settlement curve should theoretically be a straight line and its slope should give the
value of ‘k’. But it is usual to get a curved relationship in which case ‘k’ is determined by
drawing a straight line through the origin and a point on the curve corresponding to a
settlement of 1.25mm.

 To minimize bending, a series of stacked plates should be used.

Modulus of subgrade reaction (k):

Modulus of subgrade reaction may be defined as the pressure sustained per unit deformation of
subgrade at specified deformation or pressure level, using specified plate size

The pressure “p” corresponding to a settlement of “0.125cm” is read and “k” is calculated as,

p
k= kg /c m2 / cm
0.125

Where,

k =¿Modulus of subgrade reaction.

p=¿Pressure required to produce 0.125cm settlement.

 The allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small plate size should be dealt
properly. For worst moisture condition of subgrade an un-soaked & other soaked sample of
soil is taken and pressure required to cause settlement of 0.125cm is noted.
k unsoaked
∴ k soaked = × p soaked
p unsoaked

Note: If a 300mm diameter plate is used a rough correlation between the ‘k’ value obtained using
750mm diameter plate and that ‘k’ value of obtained using a 300mm diameter plate is given by

k 750=0.5 k 300

 A theoretical relationship is developed when a rigid circular plate is loaded on a soil of elastic
property, the settlement is given by
1.18 P . a
∆=
E
Where,

E = Modulus of elasticity of the Soil.

a = Diameter of the plate.

E
k 1 a1 =k 2 a2= =Constant
1.18

30
⇒ k 15=k 30
75

⇒ k 15=0.4 k 30

Test Procedure –II:

 Standard pressure¿ 0.7 kg /c m2

0.7
k= kg/c m2 /cm
δ

2. Aggregates:

 Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel and crushed stone that
are used with a binding medium to form compound materials.
 Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally extracted from
larger rock formations through an open excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to
usable sizes by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is often a bye product of other
manufacturing industries.
Desirable Properties:

a) Strength.
b) Hardness.
c) Toughness.
d) Resistance from getting polished or smooth/slippery.
e) Shape of aggregates.
f) Durability or resistance to weathering
g) Good adhesion with bitumen.
Tests on Aggregate - (IS 2386):

1. Crushing Test:

 It is used to measure Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) which provides a relative measure of
resistance to crushing under gradually applied load.
 Dry aggregates passing through 12.5mm sieves and retained on 10mm sieves are selected and
heated at 100 to 110°C for 4 hours and cooled to room temperature and are filled in a
cylindrical vessel of 11.5cm diameter and 18cm height in 3 layers and each layer is tempered
25 times with a standard tamping rod.
 Level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger (15cm diameter) so that it rests
horizontally on the surface.
  Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the compression testing machine.
 The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40tonnes gradually applied at the rate of
4tonnes per minute.
 The crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36mm sieve and weight of passing material
(W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W 1) which is the aggregate
crushing value.
W2
Aggregate Crushing Value ( ACV )= ×100
W1
Standards:

 ACV for good quality aggregate to be used in base course shall not exceed 45%, for surface
course shall be less than 30%
 For cement concrete pavement surface shall not exceed 30%
2. Abrasion test

 Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates i.e., wear and tear.
 There are three apparatus to determine the aggregate abrasion value.
a. Los Angeles testing machine
b. Dorry’s testing machine
c. Deval testing machine
 Indian standards cover only Los Angeles and Deval testing machine
 Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has
been standardized in India.
 The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative
rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
 The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in an oven at 105° – 110°C.
 Take 5 kg of sample for gradings A, B, C & D and 10 kg for gradings E, F & G.(Refer IS
2386 Part V:1963 to know about samples)
 The abrasive charge shall consist of cast iron spheres or steel spheres approximately 48 mm
in. diameter and each weight between 390 and 445g are placed in the cylinder along with the
aggregates.
 The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample.
 The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-
10 kg (W1).
 Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520
mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated.
  The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 20-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000
revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
 After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction
(W2) is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample.
W2
AbrasionValue ( AV )= × 100
W1
Where,
W1= Weight of aggregate
W2= Weight of aggregate passing through 1.7mm sieve

Standards:
S.No Use Abrasion Value

Granular Base Course (like WMM and WBM) and

1 Bituminous layers such as BM, Bituminous carpet and 40% (Max.)
surface dressing.

Bituminous concrete and other high quality pavement

2 30% (Max.)
materials

3 DBM and cement concrete pavements 35% (Max.)

WMM = Water Mix Macadam; WBM=Water Bound Macadam; DBM =Dense Bituminous Macadam; BM =Bituminous
Macadam
3. Impact Test:

 It is used to test the toughness of aggregate.

 The testing setup is filled in 3 layers of aggregate the whole of which passes a 12.5-mm IS Sieve
and is retained on a 10-mm IS Sieve, where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows.
 A metal hammer of weight 14kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38cm by vertical guides and
the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows.
 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) is measured % of aggregates passing sieve of 2.36mm (W 2) to the
total weight of sample (W1).
w2
∴ AIV = ×100
w1
Where,
W2 = Weight of fraction passing 2.36mm sieve
W1= Weight of aggregate taken.

Standards:

 Aggregates to be used for wearing course of pavement, the impact value should not exceed 30%.
 The maximum permissible value for Bituminous Macadam is 35% and for WBM base course
40%
 DBM Binder Course, SDBC Surfacing AIV shall not exceed 27% (SDBC = Semi dense bituminous
concrete)
 For Bituminous concrete surface course AIV shall not exceed 24%
4. Polished stone value test.

This test gives measure of resistance of aggregate to the polishing action of vehicle tyres under
condition similar to those occurring on a road surface.

Therefore, the aggregates used in pavement surface courses of high speed highways should have
resistance from getting polished or smooth rapidly under traffic movements in order to prevent the
pavement surface becoming to slippery resulting in accidents due to skidding of high speed vehicles
under wet weather condition
This test on aggregates is conducted in two stages:
1. Accelerated polishing action
2. Friction coefficient test
Accelerated polishing action:

 The test specimens are clamped/fixed around the rim of road wheel which are subjected to
accelerated polishing test
 The pneumatic tyred test wheel is lowered until it rests on the surface of test specimen.
 The weight of 40kg is added at the end of the lever and road wheel is rotated at a speed of 320
to 325 rpm.
 Abrading materials, usually sand and water are released at 12g/min and 20gm/min
respectively over the surface of test specimen and tyre of the test wheel where they are in
contact.
 The sand to be used should comply following.
A supply of clean, hard siliceous sand, graded within the following limits; about 2.5 kg will
be required for each test run:

Passing IS Sieve Percentage by Weight

425-micron 100
300-micron 85-100
212-micron 20-50
150-micron 0-5

 As the road wheel is rotated the test specimens are subjected to abrading action or polishing
for 3hours ± 5min.
 The machine is stopped and test specimens are thoroughly cleaned by washing with to
remove sand and other fine particles of stone. The polished set of specimens (14) are taken for
determination of friction coefficient/skid number/polished stone value.
Friction coefficient test

 Co-efficient of friction or skid resistance value of the polished specimen is determined by

using pendulum type friction tester.

 The sample of polished specimen is fixed under the sliding portion of the rubber shoe of the
pendulum head. The height of pendulum hinge is adjusted and fixed such that the sliding
length of the rubber shoe is 75mm.
 The surface of the specimen and the rubber shoe are wetted with the water.
 The pendulum and the pointer are released from the horizontal position and pointer reading is
noted as skid number or polished stone value.
 The mean of the two values of skid number are coefficient of friction expressed as a
percentage is reported as the polished stone value, to the nearest whole number.
Standards:

The polished stone value of coarse aggregates used in bituminous concrete and SDBC surfacing of
the roads should not be less than 55.

5. Shape test:

 The evaluation of the shape of the particles is made in terms of flakiness index, elongation index
and angularity number.
 The Shape of aggregate particles is determined by percentage of flaky and elongated particles
contained in it.
 In case of gravel the shape may be expressed in terms of angularity number.
 Presence of flaky and elongated particles in coarse aggregate used for construction of base and
surface courses of road pavements is considered undesirable.
 Angular shapes of particles are undesirable for granular base course and also for using bituminous
mixes.
 The sample is sieved through IS sieves of 63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm,
12.5mm,10mm and 6.3mm. Mean dimension of aggregate pieces is determined.
Mean dimension= (Last passing sieve size+ Retained sieve size)/2
Ex: if aggregate is retained on 40mm its mean dimension = (40+50)/2= 45mm.
 A minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction is taken and weighed.
a. Flakiness test:
 This test is conducted using a thickness gauge.
 This test is applicable to size larger than size 6.3mm
 Thickness gauge consists of small openings of width equal to 0.6 times of mean dimension of each
size range.

Thickness Gauge
 Aggregate is passed through the specified opening with respective to its least dimension.
 If aggregate is able to pass through opening it is known to be flaky aggregate, otherwise it is non-
flaky aggregate.
 Flakiness Index (FI) = 100*weight of flaky aggregate/ weight of total aggregate. In other words FI
is the percentage of flaky materials, the widths of which are less than 0.6 of mean dimension
Standards:

 FI of aggregates used in bituminous concrete and surface dressing should not exceed 25% and
in WBM and Bituminous macadam should not exceed 15%.
b. Elongation test:

 This test is conducted only for non-flaky aggregate using length gauge.
 The test is not applicable for sizes smaller than 6.3 mm
 Length gauge consists of small openings of width equal to 1.8 times of mean dimension of each
size range.
 Fig. Length Gauge

 Aggregate is passed through the specified opening with respective to its greater dimension.
 If aggregate is not able to pass through opening it is known to be elongated aggregate, otherwise it
is non-elongated aggregate.
 Elongation Index (EI) = 100*weight of elongated aggregate/ weight of non-flaky aggregate.
Note: Aggregate whose greater dimension is more than 1.8 times of mean dimension is known as
“elongated aggregate”.

 Elongated and flaky aggregates are less workable and also likely to break under smaller loads than
the aggregates which are spherical or cubical.
Standards:

 FI and EI (Combined Index - CI) values in excess of 15% are generally considered undesirable.
 No recognised limits have been laid down for EI
 Maximum permissible value of CI for coarse aggregate for WMM Base course, DBM binder
course and bituminous concrete surface course is 30%.

c. Angularity number:
 It represents the degree of packing.
 Angularity number = 67 - %Solid Volume
 67 represents the volume of solids (%) most rounded gravels in a well compacted state, which
would have 33% voids. Thus, the angularity number measures the voids in excess of 33%. Hence,
higher the angular number, more angular is the aggregate.
 The angularity number for aggregates used in construction generally range from ‘0 to 11’.
100 W
∴ A . N =67−
C × Ga

Where,

W =¿Weight of aggregate in a cylinder.

C=¿Weight of water in same cylinder.

Ga=¿Specific Gravity of aggregate.

6. Soundness test:

 Soundness test is conducted to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action by

conducting accelerated weathering test cycles.
 Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting and drying by using a
saturated solution of either Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then
dried in oven at 105⁰ ~ 110⁰C to a constant weight
Standards:

IRC has specified that, “After 5 cycles the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out
all undersized particles and weighing and the loss weight should not exceed 12% when tested with
Sodium Sulphate and 18% with Magnesium Sulphate solution for aggregates to be used in
Bituminous binder course and surface course of flexible pavements.

7. Specific Gravity and Water absorption test:

 The specific gravity of stone aggregates is considered to be a measure of strength and also helps in
identification of stone.
 Specific gravity value of aggregate is made use of for making weight volume conversions and for
calculating void content in compacted bituminous mixes.
 Lower the value of specific gravity weaker is the material and vice-versa.
 Water absorption is an indicator for strength of rock
 Stones having higher water absorption are more porous in nature and are generally considered
unsuitable.
Wire basket:

1. About 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and placed in
wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22- 32º C and a cover of
at least 5cm of water above the top of the basket.

Fig. Wire Basket

2. The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water at a temperature of 22° –
32°C.(W1)

3. The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain for a few minutes,
after which the aggregates are transferred to the dry absorbent clothes. The empty basket is
then returned to the tank of water jolted 25 times and weighed in water(W 2)
 4. The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture could
be removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth spread in
single layer and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely
surface dry. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed(W 3)

5. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature of
110° C for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an airtight container and
weighted (W4).

Specific Gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2))

Apparent specific gravity = W4/ (W4– (W1– W2))

Water Absorption = ((W3 – W4) / W4) X 100

Where,

W1= Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket

W2= Weight of basket suspended in water

W3= Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air

W4= Weight of oven dry aggregate in air

Standards:

For aggregate used in road construction water absorption should not be more than 0.6%.

Specific gravity of aggregate usually varies from 2.6 to 2.9

8. Bitumen Adhesion Test: (IS 6241)

 Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates, provided that they are dry & free
from dust.
 In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold.
 To determine adhering capacity of bitumen with aggregate STATIC IMMERSION TEST is
conducted.
 200gm of dry and clean stone aggregate passing 20mm and retained on 12.5mm IS sieve is
heated up to 150⁰C
 The heated aggregate is mixed with 5% by weight of bitumen binder heated to 160 ⁰C.
 The aggregate and binder are mixed thoroughly till they are completely coated and mixer is
transferred to a 500ml beaker and allowed to cool at room temperature for about 2hours.
 Distilled water is then added to immerse the coated aggregate.
 The beaker is covered and kept in a water bath maintained at 40 ⁰C taking care that level of
water in water bath comes up to at least half the height of beaker.
 After 24hrs the beaker is taken out cooled at room temperature and extent of stripping from
individual aggregate is estimated visually.
 Stripping value shall be the ratio of uncovered area observed visually to the total area of
aggregate in each test expressed as percentage.
 The mean of 3 results is reported as stripping value of tested aggregates and is expressed as
nearest whole number.
Standards:

 As per IRC the maximum stripping value of aggregates to be used in bituminous

construction like surface dressing, bituminous macadam and bitumen mastic is 25%
 Maximum stripping value for aggregate used in open graded premix carpet is 10%.

3. Bituminous Binders:

IS 1201 to 1220 : Methods for Testing Tar And Bituminous Materials

IS 73 : Paving Bitumen Specification
IS 217 : Specification for Cutback Bitumen
 Bituminous materials are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of
their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing properties and relatively low cost.
 Bitumen is a hydrocarbon of natural or artificially obtained during fractional distillation of
Petroleum.
 Bitumen which is a black or dark coloured solid or viscous cementitious substances consists
hydrocarbons derived from distillation of petroleum or natural asphalt, and is soluble in
Carbon Di-Sulphide or Tri - Chloro Ethylene and in Carbon Tetrachloride
 Asphalt is a natural or artificial mixture in which Bitumen is associated with inert mineral
matter. The word “Asphalt should always be qualified by indication of its origin or nature.
 Cutback Bitumen is the Bitumen, the viscosity of which is reduced with a suitable volatile
diluent usually a petroleum distillate.
 Bitumen Emulsion is a liquid product in which a substantial amount of bitumen is dispersed
in a finely divided droplets in an aqueous medium containing an emulsifier and a stabilizer.
 Different grades of bitumen used for pavement construction work are called Paving Grade
Bitumen and those used for water proofing of structure and industrial floors etc., are called
Industrial Grade Bitumen.
 At normal atmospheric temperature, bitumen is in semi solid state and remains highly viscous
and sticky.
 For constructions of bituminous pavements, the paving grade bitumen should attain fluid
consistency hence it is heated to a temperature of 130 ⁰C to 175 ⁰C or even higher upon which
it softens at rapid rate and viscosity decreases.
Therefore, mixing of the bitumen with aggregate is done in hot mix plant to obtain hot
bituminous mix.
 Cutback bitumen as developed to achieve fluid consistency of bitumen at relatively low
temperatures with nominal heating.
 In bitumen emulsion fluid consistency of bitumen for use in road works is achieved without
the need to heat the binder.
 Tars are residues from the destructive distillation of organic substances such as coal, wood,
or petroleum and are temperature sensitive than bitumen.
Note: Tar is no longer used for paving applications because it’s undesirable characteristics
including high temperature susceptibility and it harmful effects of fumes during heating.

Desirable Properties of Bitumen.

 The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible.

 The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
  The bitumen should have sufficient ductility
 There should be sufficient affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates.
Tests: The following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous
materials.

1) Penetration test
2) Viscosity test
3) Ductility test
4) Softening point test
5) Specific gravity test
6) Flash and Fire point test
7) Solubility Test
8) Loss on heating test
1. Penetration Tests:

 A measure of the hardness or softness i.e., consistency of paving grade bitumen is indirectly
obtained by the penetration test.
 It can be measured by the depth in tenths of a millimetre (0.1mm) to which a standard loaded
needle will penetrate vertically in 5sec.
 The test should be conducted at a temperature of 250C and total weight of needle assembly is
100gm.

 Penetration limits are enable bitumen to be classified on the basis of consistency. Common
grades are 30/40, 60/70 & 80/100.
 Penetration test is most commonly adopted to determine the grade of bitumen in terms its
hardness due to its simplicity. But, some of the limitations of penetration tests for grading of
bitumen binder are
1. It is an empirical test (No relation with fundamental properties)
2. The test temperature is 25⁰C, which is not service temperature (60 ⁰C) of general
pavement.
3. Bitumen having same penetration values may have different performance while in
service.
 In view of above drawbacks grading of bituminous binder is done based on viscosity test
results i.e., VISCOSITY GRADING as recommended by the IS 73:2006 (Third Rev.)

2. Viscosity:
  Viscosity is the property of bitumen which resists flow of bitumen due to internal friction and
it is the general term for consistency.
 Absolute Viscosity of bituminous material are determined by direct methods like vacuum
capillary viscometer and by indirect methods like orifice type viscometers.
Determination of absolute viscosity and kinematic viscosity by Vacuum Capillary Viscometer:

 IS 1206: Part-II has covered three types of viscometers namely “Cannon-Manning”,

“Asphalt-Institute” and “Modified Coppers” vacuum capillary viscometers and any of them
can be used for determination of viscosity.
3. Ductility:

 Ductility test is carried out on bitumen to test the adhesive properties of bitumen and its
ability to stretch.
 It is measured as a distance in centimetre by stretching a standard briquette (1cm 2 ) of
bitumen before the thread breaks at a temperature of 27 0C, the rate of pull being 5cm/min.

 The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature, test temperature, rate
of pulling etc.

 Its value generally varies from 5 to 100cm.

4. Softening Point:

 The softening point is measured by the Ring and Ball test.

 It is the temperature at which bitumen attains a particular degree of softness under
standardized test conditions.
 A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerine
at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium
is heated at a rate of 5⁰C per minute.
  Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a
specified distance below
 Hard grade bitumen higher softening point. Soft grade bitumen lower softening point.
 Higher the softening point the lower will be temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot
climates.

5. Flash & fire point:

Flash Point - The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapours from the material momentarily catch fire in
the form of a flash under specified conditions of test.

Fire Point - The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test
flame causes the material to ignite and burn at least for 5s under specified conditions of
test.

 Pensky - Martens closed cup or Open cup are used for conducting the tests.
 At Higher temperature bitumen becomes volatile and thus catches fire which is very
hazardous.
 The safe limit of heating bitumen is normally 500C below the flash point.
6. Specific gravity tests:

 Specific gravity of bitumen is determined by the pycnometer method at 27° c.

Mass of given volume of bitumen
Specific gravity¿
Mass of equal volume of water

 Specific gravity is used in classifying bitumen, bituminous mix design.

 Pure bitumen has the values 1.02 to 0.97 cut backs will have lower value depending on
proportion. Tars have specific gravity of 1.10 to 1.25.
7. Solubility test:

 The solubility of bitumen in Trichloroethylene is a measure of its purity.

  Pure bitumen is completely soluble in solvents like Carbon Disulphide (CS 2) and Carbon
Tetrachloride (CCl4).
 A minimum value of 99% is generally desired.
8. Loss on heating:

 When a bituminous material is heated it loses its volatility and get hardened.
 50gm of bitumen is placed in a container or in one of the recesses (if recommended shelf is
used) of revolving shelf.
 The shelf rotates at 5 to 6 revolutions per minute. The test is carried out for 5hrs in an oven at
163⁰c
 For bitumen used in pavement mixes loss on heating ≤1%, but for bitumen having penetration
values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
 More loss on heat indicates more temperature unstable material in the bitumen
9. Water content test:

 It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of
bitumen when, it is heated above the boiling point of water
 The water in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of specimen in a pure
petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the water. The weight of the
water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample
 The maximum water content in bitumen should not exceed 0.2% by weight.
Viscosity Grading of Bitumen:

Bitumen shall be classified into four types, based on viscosity, as given below:

 VG-10 BITUMEN: VG-10 is widely used in spraying applications such as surface-dressing

and paving in very cold climate in lieu of old 80/100 Penetration grade. It is also used to
manufacture Bitumen Emulsion and Modified Bitumen products.
 VG-20 BITUMEN: VG-20 is used for paving in cold climate & high altitude regions
 VG-30 BITUMEN: VG-30 is primarily used to construct extra heavy duty Bitumen
pavements that need to endure substantial traffic loads. It can be used in lieu of 60/70
Penetration grade.
 VG-40 BITUMEN: VG-40 is used in highly stressed areas such as intersections, near toll
booths and truck parking lots in lieu of old 30/40 Penetration grade. Due to its higher
viscosity, stiffer Bitumen mixes can be produced to improve resistance to shoving and other
problems associated with higher temperature and heavy traffic loads.

Characteristics VG – 10 VG – 20 VG – 30 VG – 40

Absolute Viscosity, 60⁰ C, poise (Min.) 800 – 1200 1600 – 2400 2400 – 3600 3200 – 4800

Kinematic Viscosity, 135⁰ C, (Min.) 250 300 350 400

Flash point, ⁰C, (Min.) (As per IS 1448-P69) 220 220 220 220

Solubility in Trichloroethylene, %, 99 99 99 99

Penetration at 25⁰ C 100g, 5s, 0.1mm (Min.) 80-100 60-80 50-70 40-60
 Characteristics VG – 10 VG – 20 VG – 30 VG – 40

Softening point, ⁰C, (Min.) 40 45 47 50

Ductility at 25⁰ C, cm, (Min.) 75 50 40 25

Cutback Bitumen:

 Bitumen, the viscosity of which is reduced with a suitable volatile diluent usually a petroleum
distillate
i.e., Bitumen + Diluent = Cutback

 The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen are Naphtha, Kerosene, Diesel oil, and
Furnace oil.
 From the environmental point of view also cutback bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the
bituminous material will evaporate and the bitumen will bind the aggregate.
 Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction and maintenance
Types:

The classification is based on rate of curing hardening after the application

1. Rapid curing (RC):

 Bitumen, which is blended with a naphtha type distillate.

 These are used for surface dressing & patch work
2. Medium curing (MC):

 Bitumen, which is blended with a kerosene type distillate.

 Used for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates
3. Slow curing (SC):

 Bitumen, which is blended with high boiling oils or containing a higher viscous oil than in
medium or rapid curing cutback.
 Used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregate
Bitumen Emulsion:

 A liquid product in which a substantial amount of bitumen is dispersed in a finely divided

droplets in an aqueous medium containing an emulsifier and a stabilizer is called Bitumen
Emulsion
 Emulsions are used in bituminous road constructions, especially in maintenance and patch
repair works
 These can be used in wet weather even when it is raining and for stabilization of sands in
desert areas
Bituminous Mix design.
The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler, fine aggregates, and
coarse aggregates so as to have
1. Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,
2. Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher temperature,
3. Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional compaction by traffic,
4. Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,
5. Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by traffic, and
6. Sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.
Types of mix

1. Well-graded mix : Dense mix, bituminous concrete has good proportion of all constituents
offers good compressive strength and some tensile strength
2. Gap-graded mix: Some large coarse aggregates are missing and has good fatigue and tensile
strength
3. Open-graded mix: Fine aggregate and filler are missing, it is porous and offers good friction,
low strength and for high speed.
4. Unbounded: Binder is absent and behaves under loads as if its components were not linked
together, though good interlocking exists. Very low tensile strength and needs kerb
protection.
Marshall Mix Design:

 The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure for the
Marshall mix design method
 To evaluate the performance of bituminous mixes flow test & stability tests are to be
performed
 Stability portion of the test measures the maximum load supported by the test specimen at a
loading rate of 50.8mm/min
 The maximum load that specimen can bear till failure is designated as stability.
 The deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow
value of the specimen.
Properties of Mix:

1. Theoretical specific gravity:

It is the specific gravity without considering air voids and is given by

W total
Gt =
V Solid × γ W

W 1 +W 2 +W 3 +W b
Gt =
W1 W 2 W 3 Wb
+ + +
G1 G2 G3 G b
Where ,

G1= Apparent Sp . Gravity of Coarse Aggregate ;

G2= Apparent Sp . Gravity of fine Aggregate ;

G3= Apparent Sp . Gravity of Filler ;

Gb= Apparent Sp . Gravity of Bitumen

2. Bulk specific gravity of Mix (Gm):

It is actual special gravity by considering air voids & is given by

Wm W total
G m= =
W m−W w ( V solid +V air ) γ w

∴ Gt >Gm always

Where,

W m =Weight of mix ∈air

W w =Weight of mix ∈water

W w =W m−γ w ×V =Buoyant weight

W m−W w Wm
V= =
γw Gm . γ w

Wm
Gm=
W m−W w

3. % of air voids: (Vv)

It is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by

 ()
M
V −v s νs V Gm
VV= =1− =1− =1−
V V M Gt
vs

Gt −Gm V( )
VV= × 100= voids air × 100
Gt V

4. Percent volume of Bitumen: (Vb)

It is the volume of bitumen to the total volume and is given by

V b=
( )
Wb
Gb
×100

( W 1+W 2+ W 3 +W b
Gm )
ν bitumen
¿ × 100
ν total

5. Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA):

It is the % voids in mineral aggregate and is the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen and is given
by

VMA=V V +V b

v air v bitumen v air + v bitumen

¿ + =
v total v total v total

Where,

V V =% air voids∈Mix

V b =% Bitumen content ∈mix

v air =Volume of air

v bitumen=Volume of bitumen

v total=Total Volume

6. Volume Filled with Bitumen: (VFB)

It is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with the bitumen & is given by
 v bitumen
×100
Vb v total v bitumen
VFB= ×100= = ×100
V MA v air v bitumen v air + v bitumen
+
vtotal vtotal

Determination of Marshall Stability & flow:

 Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure when
the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head & the load
is applied at a constant strain (5cm/min)
 While stability test in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the
specimen
 The deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25mm is called the marshal flow
value of the specimen
 The optimum binder content for the aggregate mixture and anticipated traffic conditions is a
compromise value which meets specified required for stability flow value & voids content
Marshall Test graphs:

Determination of optimum bitumen content:

 Optimum bitumen content is obtained by taking average value of the following three bitumen
contents found from Marshall graphs
a. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability

b. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity

c. Binder content corresponding to the designed limits of percent air void (V V ) in the total
mix (4%)

 The stability value flow and VFB are checked with marshal mix design specification chart
given in table below
 Mixed with vary high stability value & low flow value are not desirable as the pavements
constructed with such mixes are likely to developed cracks due to heavy moving loads

Test Property Specified Value

Marshall stability (kg) 340 (minimum)

Flow value, 0.25mm units 8 - 17

 Percent air voids in mix (Vv %) 3-5

Voids filled with bitumen (%VFB) 75 - 85

QUESTIONS
1. Transportation bearing test was carried out on a subgrade using a 76cm diameter rigid plate. A
deflection of 1.25mm was caused by a pressure of 0.88 kg /c m 2. The modulus of subgrade reaction
( kg /c m2 ) is
7.04
7.13
7.24
7.32

1. Answer: B
The modulus of subgrade reaction for diameter 76cm.
P 0.88
K 1= = =7.04 kg /c m2
∆ 0.125
For 75cm (Stand plate) rigid plate
K 1 a1 7.04 ×76 2
K= = =7.13 kg /c m
a 75

2. In the marshall method of mix design, the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, filler & bitumen, having
respective specific gravities of 2.56, 2.65, 2.70 and 1.10 are mixed in the ratio of 50, 38.2, 4.7 & 7.1
respectively. The theoretical specific gravity of the mix would be ______.

2. Answer:
100
Gt = =2.37
50 38.2 4.7 7.1
+ + +
2.56 2.65 2.70 1.10

3. In which of the following solvents bitumen dissolves?

Carbon disulphide
Carbon tetrachloride
Benzene
Neptha
1&2
2&3
3&4
1&4

3. Answer: A

4. In a compacted cylindrical bituminous mix

Bulk specific gravity( G m ) =2.40
Theoritical specific gravity ( G t )=2.65
Then % voids in sample is _____________.

4. Answer:
Vv
V
G
[
%= 1− m ×100
G ]
[
¿ 1−
2.4
2.65 ]
×100=9.43 %

5. In a heavy rainfall area, a state highway of bituminous concrete pavement, 7M wide is to be constructed.
The height of crown with respect to the edges is
0.07M
0.087M
0.105M
0.140M

5. Answer: A
For bituminous concrete pavement, cross slope¿ 2 % then, rise of crown with respect to edges
7 1
¿ × =0.07 M
2 50

6. A bitumen specimen contain 70% coarse aggregate, 24%fine aggregate and 6% bitumen by weight of
the mixture. The air voids after compaction are 8%. The specific gravity of the material are
Sp. Gravity (C. A.) = 280
Sp. Gravity of FA = 1.00
The unit weight of of mix is _______ gm/cc.

6. Answer:
Volume of specimen (V) ¿ V CA +V FA +V b+ V a
0.7 W 0.24 W 0.06W
V= + + +0.08 V
2.8 2.66 1
0.92 V =0.25 W + 0.0902W +0.06 W
W
=2.298 gm /c . c
V

7. The specific gravity of aggregate and bitumen are 2.65 & 1.01 respectively. If the bituminous concrete is
having 6%bitumen and 3% air voids then the density of bituminous concrete will _____ be kg /m 3.

Answer:
The bitumen content is given in weight percentage and air voids are volumetric percentage
Let total weight of mix = 100 kg
Weight of bitumen ( W b )=6 kg
6 3
Volume of bitumen ( Vb )= m
1010
Weight of aggregate ( Wa )=94 kg
94
Volume of aggregate (V a ) ¿ m3
2650
Let the total volume is ‘V’
So, V a +V b +V v =V
V af +V b=V −0.03V
97 3
¿ =2342.3 kg /m
6 94
+
1010 2650

8. Modulus of subgrade reaction using 45 m diameter plate is obtained as 250 N /c m 3.The value of the
same using the standard plate will be ________ N /c m 3

8. Answer:
Here, for plate load test
k 1 d 1 ¿ k 2 d2
45
k 2=250 × =150 N /c m3
75
Since, saturated plate has a diameter of 75 cm.

9.The CBR value of a soil sub grade is 5%, wheel load per medium light traffic of 250 commercial
vehicles per day is 4100 kg and tyre pressure is 6.5 kg /c m2. The total thickness of the pavement required
is
35.13 cm
46.83 cm
30.69 cm
39.67 cm

1.75 P
Pavement thickness, t=
√
CBR % Pπ
kg
−
P

Here P=4100 kg , P=6.5 2

, CBR=5 %
cm

t=
√ 1.75 × 4100 4100
5
¿ 35.13 cm
−
6.5 π

7. The marshall sample, the bulk specific gravity of mix & aggregate are 2.454 & and 2.632 respectively.
The theoretical maximum specific gravity of mix is 2.542. the sample includes 5% of bitumen (by total
weight of mix) of specific gravity 1.08, the void filled with bitumen (VFB) in the marshall sample is
______ %
7. Answer:
G t −G m
VV= × 100
Gt
2.542−2.454
¿ ×100=3.462%
2.542
Voids filled with bitumen
Gm
(V b)= ×W f (%)
Gt
2.454
¿ × 5=11.361 %
1.08
VMA=V V +V b
¿ 3.461+11.361=14.822 %
V b ( %)
VFB= × 100
VMA
11.361
¿ ×100=76.65 %
14.822

9. In a compacted cylindrical bituminous mix, VMA = 16% (Voids filled with mineral aggregate),
V V =4.2 % (Air void) the magnitude of VFB (Voids filled with bitumen) is _______ %

9. Answer:
V B 16−42
VFB= = ×100=73.75 %
VV 16
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Introduction
 The art of design of the visible dimensions, both in horizontal & vertical plane of a
highway is known as “Geometric Design”.
 The objective of geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in traffic
operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost.
Functional Classification of Roads:

Roads

Urban Non-Urban
Roads Roads

National
Expressways Arterial Roads Expressways
Highways

Collector State Major District

Sub Arterial
Streets Highways Roads

Other District
Local Streets Village Roads
Roads

1. Non - Urban roads

Expressways:

 These are superior type facilities, generally with a divided carriage way, grade
separations at cross roads and fencing. They permit only fast moving vehicles.
National Highways (NH):

 These are the main highways connecting major parts, foreign highways and
capitals of States/Union territories of the country.
State Highways (SH):

 These are arterial roads of a state linking district headquarters and important
cities within the state and connecting them with National Highways.
Major District Roads (MDR):

 These are important roads within a district serving areas of production and
markets & connecting these areas of production and markets & connection
these with each other or with the main highways.
Other District Roads (ODR):
  These are roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with
outlet to market centers, taluka (tehsil) headquarters, block development etc.,
Village Roads (VR):

 These are roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other and to
the nearest road of a higher category.
2. Urban Roads
Express ways:

 These are divided arterial high ways with full (or) partial control of access and
provided generally with grade separation at intersections.
 These are high-speed and high volume facilities.
Arterial Streets:

 Generally, these are spaced at about 1.5 km in highly developed areas and
around 8 km in sparsely developed fringes.
Sub-arterial Streets:

 These are streets of lower order of mobility than arterial streets and are spaced
at 0.5 km in highly developed areas and 3-5 km in urban fringes.
Collector streets:

 These are intended for collection and distribution traffic to and from local and
feeding the arterial streets.
Local streets:

 These are primarily intended for access to residence business (or) abutting
property.
Road user characteristics
 A driver takes a certain amount of time to respond to a particular traffic situation. This
can be called as “Reaction time”.
 Based on the psychological process, reaction time is a time –consuming process.
 We call these processes as perception intellection, emotion and volition (PIEV)
Perception time:

 It is the time required for transmission of the sensations received through eyes,
ears & body to the brain and the spinal cord by nervous system.
Intellection:

 The process of, the formation of new thoughts, ideas and recalling old
memories of similar occasion.
Emotion:
  It is an interlinked phenomenon between perception time & intellection time
and based on situation like fear (or) anger.
Volition:

 It is the final message (or) decision sent by the brain to the muscle.
 This actual act of taking a decision to produce action is done through
“Volition time”.
 The reaction time may vary from 0.5 second for simple situations to 3-4 seconds for
complex situation.
 Driver characteristics that influence safety are vision and hearing.
 Pedestrian characteristics that influence the design of pedestrian facilities are speed and
space occupied. A speed of 1.2m/sec is commonly taken for design (AASHTO).
Vehicle characteristics
 The width of a vehicle determines the pavement lane width.
 The length of a vehicle along with its wheel-base governs the turning path.
 The height of a vehicle affects the vertical clearance.
 The weight and axle configuration of a vehicle are vital inputs for structural design of
pavements
Design speed

 The maximum speed at which vehicles can continuously travel safety under favorable
conditions is known as a “Design Seed”
 The choice of design speed has to be mode carefully, so as to match the terrain
condition and also to be acceptable to most road users.
 The design speed should preferably be uniform along a given highway.
 The design speed is varied from Rural to Urban highways.
Design speed in Rural Highways

Design Speed (kmph)

S.NO Classification of Roads
Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

1. National & State Highways 100 80 50 40

Major District Roads

2. 80 65 40 30
(MDR)

Other District Roads

3. 65 50 30 25
(ODR)

4. Village Roads (VR) 50 40 25 25

Design speed in Urban Roads

Classification of
S.NO Design Speed (kmph)
Roads

1. Arterial Road 80

2. Sub-arterial Road 60

3. Collector Road 50

4. Local Road 30

VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF A GEOMETRICAL DESIGN

 Cross sectional Elements
 Sight distances
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment

CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

 The features of the cross-section of the pavement influences the life of the pavement
as well as the riding comfort and safety.
 Various cross sectional elements are camber, kerbs and their geometry.

PAVEMENT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

For safe and comfortable driving, four aspects of the pavement surface are important.

 The friction between wheels & pavement surface.

 Smoothness of road surface
 The light reflection characteristics of top surface of pavement.
 Drainage of water
Friction

 Friction affects acceleration & deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate

friction can cause skidding (or) slipping of vehicles.
 Skidding happens when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of wheels due to friction (or) slip occurs when the wheel
revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the road.
Factors that affect friction

i. Type of the pavement i. e. Bituminous, Concrete etc.

 ii. Condition of the pavement i. e. Dry, wet, hot, cold etc.

iii. Condition of the tire i.e. new, old etc.

iv. Speed & load of the vehicle.

Let f = the frictional coefficient, that developed between the wheel & the pavement.

IRC suggests,

 Coefficient of longitudinal friction f = 0.35 to 0.40 which depends on speed, which is

useful in sight distance calculation
 Coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15 which is useful in horizontal curve design.
Unevenness

 Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear & tear of tires.
 It is measured by Unevenness index (U.I), which is the cumulative measure of vertical
undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road
(mm/km), it should be low.
 For good pavement, (U.I) = 1500 mm/km. Satisfactory U.I for design Speed of 100
kmph = 2500 mm/km.
 The values greater than 3200 mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 50
kmph.
 The Bump Integrator values can be calculated from International Roughness Index
(IRI) using following relation.
1.12
BI=630 IRI
 Light reflection Characteristics
 White roads have good visibility at night, but cause glare during day time.
 Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night when the surface
is wet.
 Concrete roads has better visibility & less glare.
 Drainage
 The pavement surface should be absolute impermeable to prevent seepage of water in
to the pavement layers.
 Both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in draining out the
water from the surface in less time

 Camber (or) Cross Slope

It is the cross slope provide to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse direction, to
drain off the rain water from the road surface.

Objectives of providing cross slope.

 i. To prevent the entry of water into sub surface layers and subgrade soil through
pavement.
ii. Subgrade protection by proper drainage
iii. To remove rain water from pavement surface as quickly as possible and to allow the
pavement surface to get dry soon, so that skid resistance does not reduce.
Too steep cross slope is undesirable, because;

i. Traverse tilt of vehicles

ii. Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing crown during overtaking
iii. Possible toppling over of highly laden trucks and bullock carts
iv. Tendency of most o vehicles along the centerline
Designation:

Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (E.g. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of
pavement surface and the amount of rainfall.

Types of Camber:

a) Parabolic (or) Elliptic shape

b) Straight line camber
c) Combination of straight & parabolic shape
a. Parabolic

2 x2
Equation of parabolic camber is y=
nW

Where,

W = width of pavement.

 Parabolic shape is given so, that the profile is flat at the middle & steeper towards the
edges, which is preferred by fast moving vehicle
Drawback

 Since steeper at edges slow moving vehicles have a tendency to overturn inside and
hence try to occupy the central portion of the road way, resulting in reduction of
traffic capacities.
b. Straight line camber

 When very flat cross slope is provide as in cement concrete pavements, straight line
shape of camber may be provided.
 Uniform cross slope on either side of center, which is comfortable for slow moving
vehicles.

Drawback

 Discomfort for fast moving vehicles which have a tendency to overtake slow moving
vehicles by crossing the center line, which is a sharp point resulting in jerk.
c. Combination of straight & parabolic shape

 Particularly, it is useful to increase the area of contact of the wheel and thus decrease
the contact straight pressure in case of animal drawn vehicles with steel tires.
 It is comfortable for both slow & fast moving vehicles and less damage to the road.

Relation b/w longitudinal gradient (G) and Camber (C)

 For better drainage and smooth flow of traffic, the camber (C) of the road should be
approximately equal to half of longitudinal gradient (G) i.e., G = 2C
Recommended value of camber for different types of road surfaces:

Range of Camber in areas of rain fall

range
S.NO Type of road surface
Heavy Light

1. Concrete/High Bituminous Surfaces 2.0 % 1.7 %

 Range of Camber in areas of rain fall
range
S.NO Type of road surface
Heavy Light

2. Thin Bituminous 2.5 % 2.0 %

3. Gravel/WBM 3.0 % 2.5 %

4. Earthen Road 4.0 % 3.0 %

Note: The cross slope for shoulder should be 0.5 % steeper than the cross slope of adjoining
pavement, subject to a minimum of 3.0 %

Width of the carriage way

 Width of the carriageway depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of
lanes.
 Again, width of traffic lane depends on width of the vehicle & the clearance between
vehicles
 The maximum width of the vehicle as per IRC is 2.44m

 The width of the pavement will increase on horizontal curves, to take care of off
tracking and psychological effects called “Extra Widening”

S.NO Classification Width of carriage way

1. Single lane 3.75 m for all roads

2. Two lanes without raised kerbs 7.0 m

3. Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5 m

S.NO Classification Width of carriage way

4. Intermediate carriageway 5.5 m

5. Multi-lane pavements 3.5 m per lane

 Intermediate carriage way is more than one lane but less than two lane. This is
provided to give maneuvering.
 The transition takes places where the carriage way width changes will be affected
through a taper of 1 in 15 to 1 in 20
Median/ Traffic Separators

 In divided carriageways, a median is provided between two sets of traffic lanes

intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions
 The main function of median is to prevent the head-on collision between vehicles
moving in opposite directions on adjacent lanes.
 Median is also called as traffic separators.
 The medians/ traffic separators also serve following functions
i. To channelize traffic into streams at intersection
ii. To shadow the crossing and turning traffic
iii. To segregate traffic flow
iv. To protect pedestrians
 IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5.0m for Highways in rural areas,
which may be reduced to 3.0m where land width is restricted.
 The absolute minimum width of median in urban areas is 1.2m and desirable is 5.0m.
 The median should be uniform width on particular road, but where change in width is
inevitable, a transition of 1 in 15 to 1 in 20 must be provided.
Kerbs:

Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or
footpaths.

 Low or mountable kerbs: or Mountable kerb, this type of kerbs are provided such
that they encourage the traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the
driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about
10 cm above the pavement edge.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are
provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents
encroachment of parking vehicles
  Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic.
They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement
edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement
and stability to the pavement.

Road Margins

i. Shoulders

 These serves as emergency lane and act as service lanes for vehicles that have broken
down. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck
even in wet conditions.
 Shoulders provide structural stability and support to the edges of flexible pavements,
particularly granular pavements
 The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped
vehicle.
 A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.
 The surface of shoulders should be rougher than the traffic lanes, so that vehicles are
discouraged to use the shoulder as a regular traffic lane.
ii. Guard rails

 Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder, to prevent the vehicles from
running off the embankment. These are provided, when embankment height is more
than ‘3m’
 Guard stones are installed at suitable intervals along the outer edge on formation of
Horizontal curves of roads running on embankments so as to give better visibility of
curves at night under head lights of vehicles in rural areas.
iii. Service roads

 These are also known as “Frontage roads”, which give access to access controlled
highways like freeways & express ways.
 These are provided to avoid congestion in the express ways.

iv. Parking lanes

  These are provided in urban roads to allow kerb parking
 Parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in case of parallel parking.
v. Footpath

 Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas.

 Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the traffic.
vi. Cycle Track

 Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every
additional track.
vii. Bus-Bays

 Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that
they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way.
 They should be at least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near
the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
Right of way (ROW)

 It is the area of land required for road, along its alignment.

 ROW should be adequate to accommodate all the cross sectional elements of the
highway and may reasonably provide for future development
 The width of this acquired land is known as “Land width”.
 Right of way = Formation width + Road margins.
 Normal land width required for NH & SH is 45m
 Maximum land width required for NH & SH is 60m
 The corresponding distance between building lines is 80m & between control lines is
150m
Typical cross Section of Road
SIGHT DISTANCE

The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road length could be visible to the driver
from some distance a head. This distance is said to be the “sight distance”.

Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Intermediate

Overtaking Sight Head Light Sight
Distance Sight Distance
Distance (OSD) Distance (HSD)
(SSD) (ISD)

The computing of sight distance depends on following factors:

a. Reaction time of driver

 It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant
when the brakes are applied.
 IRC suggests a total reaction time of 2.5 sec, which is the 90th percentile reaction time.
b. Efficiency of brakes
 Efficiency of the brakes depends up on the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics
etc.
 Practically, 100% brake efficiency is not possible.
 Therefore, the sight distance required will be more,
 When the efficiency of brakes are less.
 For safe geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake
efficiency.
c. Gradient of the road
 While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore, sight
distance required is less.
 While descending a gradient, gravity also comes in to action and more time will be
required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required will more in this case.
d. Frictional resistance between the tire & the road
 When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately
 No, separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight
distance.
 IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in bee=tween 0.35 to 0.40
e. Speed of the vehicle
 Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident
that, as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)

  SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway. At any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle travelling at design, safely
without collision with any other obstruction.
 Length of road visible a head of driver at any instance it depends on
i. Features of road a head such as horizontal alignment and vertical profile of
road, traffic etc.
ii. Height of driver’s eye above road surface.
iii. Height of object above read surface.
 IRC has suggested the height of driver’s eye as 1.2m and the height of the object as
0.15m above the road surface.
Note: The above value are at summit curves.

 The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and breaking distance.
 SSD = Lag distance (L) + Braking distance (B)
 Lag distance is the distance the vehicle travelled during the reaction time (t sec) and is
given by
Lag Distance = v x t
Where,
v= design speed in, m/sec.
t = reaction time in sec.

 Braking distance is the distance travelled by the vehicle during breaking operation.
On a level ground, it is obtained by equating work done & kinetic energy lost.
Let, F = Frictional force developed = fw

f = coefficient of friction

w = Total weight of vehicle

∴ Work done aganist friction ( F l )=f ×w × l

1w 2
∴ Kinetic energy at the design speed= v
2 g

Work done = Kinetic Energy

1w 2
v =f × w ×l
2 g

v2
l=
2 gf

∴ Stopping Sight Distance ( SSD ) =Lag Distance+ Braking Distance

 2
v
¿ vt +
2 gf

v= design speed in, m/sec.

Coefficient of longitudinal friction

Speed (Kmph) <30 40 50 60 >80

f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

Equations for SSD:

i. Level surface with friction,

2
v
SSD=vt+
2 gf

ii. Level surface with braking efficiency “η”

2
v
SSD=vt +
2 gfη

Where η=¿braking efficiency as a ratio.

iii. Road with gradient(N)

2
v
SSD=vt+
(2 gf ± N )

Where

N = gradient as a ratio

'+' ve for upward gradient

'−' ve for downward gradient

iv. Road with gradient & braking efficiency

2
v
SSD=vt+
2 g (fη ± N )

Note:

 Safe SSD is also called “Minimum SSD” (OR) “Absolute minimum SSD”
 For single lane two way roads, Safe SSD = 2 ×SSD
 For any other road, Safe SSD = SSD
OVERTALKING SIGHT DISTANCE: (OSD)
  It is the minimum distance open to the vision of a driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is
known as “Minimum overtaking sight distance”
 OSD or passing sight distance is measured along the centerline of the road over which
a driver with his eye level 1.2m above the road surface can see the top of an object
1.2m above the road surface
Factors that affect the OSD are:

i. Velocities of the over talking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming
in the opposite direction
ii. Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
iii. Skill & reaction time of the driver
iv. Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
v. Gradient of the road
Formulation of OSD:

Where

d1 = Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle “A” during reaction time ‘t’ from position A 1 to
A2

d 1=V b × t

Where,

t = reaction time of driver in OSD = ‘2’ sec

m
V b =speed of slow vehicle ,
sec

d2 = Distance travelled by vehicle “A” during actual overtaking operation

d 2=b+2 S

¿ V b T +2 S
Where,

T=
√ 4S
a
; a=average acceleration during overtaking ,
m
sec
2

d3= Distance travelled by oncoming vehicle “C” from “C 1” to “C2” during the overtaking
operation of “A”

d 3=V × T

∴ OSD=d 1+ d 2+ d 2

¿ V b t + ( V b T +2 S ) +V .T

Where

S = spacing between vehicles = (0.7 V b +l ¿ ,meters

l=lenght of wheel base (6.1 mas per IRC)

T = Time of overtaking operation, sec

m
V b =( V −16 ) Kmph ( ¿ ) ( V −4.5 )
sec

Minimum Length of overtaking zone:

¿ 3 ×OSD

¿ 3 ( d 1 +d 2 ) ⟹ for one way roads

¿ 3 ( d 1 +d 2 +d 3 ) ⟹ for two way roads

The desirable overtaking zone length = 5 ×O . S . D

Note:

 For two way traffic,OSD=d 1 +d 2 +d 3

 For one way traffic, O S D=d 1+ d 2
 The average rate of acceleration during overtaking maneuver may be taken
corresponding to the design speed.
 On divided highway with four (or) more lane, IRC suggests that it is not necessary to
provide the usual OSD; however the sight distance on any highway should be more
than the SSD (Which is the absolute minimum sight distance)

Effect of grade in overtaking sight distance
  On upgrades, the sight distance required would be more due to reduced acceleration
of the overtaking vehicle and the likely speeding up of the vehicle from opposite
direction.
INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE (ISD)

 When OSD cannot provide, ISD is provided to given limited overtaking opportunities
to fast vehicles.
 It is twice the stopping sight distance i.e., ISD = 2×SSD
HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE (HSD)

 Distance visible to driver during night driving under the illumination of vehicle head
lights. This is critical at up gradients and at the descending stretch of the valley curves
 Valley curves are designed based on head light sight distance.
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Horizontal alignment influence the efficiency & safety of a highway.
 Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the design aspects such as
design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles.
 Also, it may increase the cost of vehicle operations and lower the highway capacity
 It includes, elements like radius of circular curves, design of Superelevation, extra
widening at horizontal curves, design of transition curve, and set back distance
 Design speed plays key role in the design of horizontal alignment.
Horizontal curve

 It imparts centrifugal force which is a reactive force acting outward on a vehicle

negotiating it.
 Centrifugal force depends on speed & radius of the horizontal curve.

Where,

P = Centrifugal force

W = weight of the vehicle

RA, RB = Reaction of the ground on the wheels

The centrifugal force & the weight is assumed to be from the center of gravity which is at ‘h’
units above the ground.

b = wheel base
2
WV
Centrifugal force on a vehicle ( P )=
gR
2
P V
⇒ =
W gR
Where,

P
is the centrifugal ratio (OR) Impact factor
W

W = Weight of vehicle, kg

R = Radius of circular curve, m

V = Speed of vehicle, m/sec

g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2

Conditions for overturning & lateral skid

Case a: With friction & Superelevation.

The general equation should be used when frictional & Superelevation are considered over
the curved read
2
V
∴ e+ f =
gR

Where,

e = Superelevation

f = coefficient of lateral friction

Case (b): Without Superelevation:

2
P V b
For equilibrium, = =
W gR 2 h

b P
i. If > ⇒ safe against overturning
2h W

P
ii. If f > ⇒ safe against lateral skid
W

b
iii. If f < ⇒ the vehicle skids prior ¿ overtaking
2h

b
iv. If < f ,⇒ the vehicle overturns prior ¿ skidding
2h

Note:

P b
For no sliding & no overturning ≤ ≤f
W 2h

Analysis of Superelevation (e)

  Superelevation (or) cant (or) banking is the transverse slope provide at horizontal
curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement
with respect to the inner edge.

E
e=tan θ=sin θ=
B

Where,

e = rate of Superelevation

E = raised outer edge with respect to inner edge

B = Width of the road

Here

P = centrifugal force acting horizontally outwards through the center of gravity

W = weight of the vehicle acting downwards

F = frictional force between wheel & pavement.

At equilibrium,

P cos θ=W sinθ + F A + F B

¿ W sin θ+ f ( R A + R B )

P cos θ=W sin θ +f ¿

Dividing the above equation with W cos θ , we get

P cos θ W sin θ
=
W cos θ W cos θ
+f + (
W cos θ P sin θ
W cos θ W cos θ )
P
W
P
(
=tan θ+ f 1+ tan θ
W )
P
¿
W
P f + tanθ
=
W 1−f tanθ
2
V tan θ+f
=
gR 1−f tanθ

But for f =0.15 ,& θ< 4 ⇒ 1−f tan θ ≈ 1

E
Also for small sin θ=tan θ ≈ =e , thus
B
2
V
e +f =
gR

Design of Superelevation

 While designing the road for Superelevation. We design it for a particular vehicle
called “design vehicle”, which has same standard weight & dimensions.
 But in actual case, road has to cater for mixed traffic.
 “e” for fast moving vehicles, provide higher Superelevation without considering
coefficient of friction is safe.
 For slow moving vehicles, provides lower Superelevation by considering coefficient
of friction is safe.
IRC suggest following design procedure.

Step 1.

Calculate ‘e’ for mixed traffic i. e for 75% of design speed by neglecting ‘ f ’

( 0.75 V )2 V
2
e= (¿)
gR 225 R

Step 2.

( 0.75 V )2
If e ≤ e Max (0.07), the value so obtained is provided i. e.e= , Otherwise
gR

If e >e Max (0.07), then provide e Max as per IRC and proceed with the following steps

Step 3.

Calculate friction from general equation

V2
e +f =
gR

If f ≤ 0.15 ,Superelevation provide is O.K, otherwise

Reduce the design speed as follows

Step 4: Find the allowable speed ‘V’ for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,

V2
e Max +f =
gR

V2
e Max +0.15=
gR

Maximum Superelevation,

 For plain & rolling terrain = 7%

 For hilly terrain (without snow) = 10%
 For urban road = 4%
The minimum Superelevation is 2% to 4% for drainage purpose

Attainment of Superelevation:
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
i. Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slope is rotated
about the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner
half
.

ii. Shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal crown
method. Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus
increasing the width of the inner half of cross section progressively.

2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full Superelevation by: There are two
methods of attaining Superelevation by rotating the pavement
 i. Rotation about the centre line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is
depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of Superelevation, i.e., by
E=2 with respect to the centre.

ii. Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as
well as the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of Superelevation with
respect to the inner edge

Radius of horizontal curve:

 Although, it is possible to design the curve with maximum Superelevation and
coefficient of friction, it is not desirable because re-alignment would be required, if
the design speed is increased in future
 Therefore, a ruling minimum radius [R ¿¿ ruling]¿ can be derived by assuming
maximum Superelevation & coefficient of friction with design speed.
V2
∴ R ruling =
g (e+ f )

 IRC code gives the value of ruling minimum & absolute minimum value of radius of
horizontal curve based on the ruling design speed & minimum design speed.
R (V min )2
|¿| min= ¿
g (e+μ )

 Absolute minimum radius (R¿¿ Min)¿can be derived by assuming maximum

Superelevation and maximum coefficient of friction with minimum speed on the road.
Extra widening

 It refers to additional width of carriage way that is required on a curved section of a

road over & above that required on a straight alignment and it is given by
W e =W M +W P S

Where,

W M =Mechanical widening
W P =Psychological widening
S

i. Mechanical widening(W ¿¿ M )¿ :

 It works on off-tracking phenomenon and is defined as when a vehicle negotiates a

horizontal curves, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front
wheels.
 It has the effect of increasing the effective width of a road space required by the
vehicle.
 In addition, speeds higher than the design speed causes transverse skidding which
requires additional width for safety purpose.

R22=R 21+l 2
2 2
(R ¿ ¿ 2−W M ) +l ¿
2 2 2 2
R2=R 2+W M =l
2 2
2 R2 W M −W M =l

 It is note that, for large radius, R2 is almost equal to ‘R’, which is the mean radius of
the curve, then the widening needed for a single lane road is
2
l
W M=
2R

 If the road has ‘n’ lanes, the extra widening should be provided on each lane.
∴The extra widening of a road with ‘n’ lanes is given by
2
nl
W M= Where,
2R

l = Length of wheel base of longest vehicle m (Generally 6.1m for commercial

vehicles as per IRC)
 n = no .of lanes

ii. Psychological widening(W ¿ ¿ P S) ¿

 There is a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the outer edges of the pavement
on curves.
 IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening at horizontal
curves is
V
WP= S
9.5 √ R

Where

V =Design speed , kmph.

∴ The total widening needed at a horizontal curve ( W e ) is

n l2 V
W e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R

The above formula is applicable for two lane (or) more.

Note:

 For radius (R) > 300 m, no extra widening is required.

 For sharp curves of radius (R) < 30 m, the extra widening shall be provided on inner
side of curve.
 For curves of radius (R)>50 m, widening shall be equally distributed on both sides of
the curves.
 For multi-lane roods, the pavement widening may be calculated by adding half the
widening for two-lane roads to each lane.
Curve Resistance

 The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve, whereas the rear
wheels seldom turn, as shown in the figure.
 If the vehicle is driven by rear wheel, it exerts a tractive force (T) in the PQ direction.
 Tractive force (T) on front wheel is ' T cos α ' in PS direction
 This is less than the actual tractive face, ‘T’ applied hence, the loss of tractive face for
a vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve is
Curve Resistance (CR)=T – Tcos α
  Most of the commercial vehicles are rear wheel driven. Here additional tractive force
is required to negotiate the curve.
Setback distance

 Setback distance (or) clearance distance is the distance required from the centerline of
a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of curve to provide adequate
sight distance of a horizontal curve.
It depends on

i. Sight distance (SSD, ISD & OSD)

ii. Radius of the curve
iii. Length of the curve
There are two cases to calculate set back distance.

Case 1: When length of curve is greater than the sight distance i.e. LC >S

a. For single lane road:

Setback distance is measured along the centerline.

α S
= ( α ∈degree )
360° 2 πR

360 °× S
α=
2 πR

α 360 °× S α 180 ° × S
= → =
2 2× 2 πR 2 2 πR

α
∴ Set back distance=R−Rcos
2

Hence ‘S’ should correspond to stopping sight distance to find out minimum set back
distance.

b. For Multilane Road

Hence d=distance b/w centerline of road center
Line of inner lane, then

α S
= [' α ' degrees]
360° 2 π (R−d )

α 180 ° × S
=
2 2 π (R−d )

α
∴ S e t back distance=R−( R−d )cos
2

Case 2. Lc < S

For single lane road

M 1=R−Rcos ( α2 )
M 1= ( S−L2 )sin ( α2 )
c

The set back is the sum of m1 & m2 given by

α S−Lc
M =R−Rcos +
2 2 (
sin
α
2 )
α 180 ° Lc
=
2 2 πR

b. For Multilane Road

 α
M 1=R−( R−d)cos
2

M 2= ( B−2 L ) sin α2
c

Set back distance=M 1 + M 2=R−( R−d ) cos +

2 2 (
α B−Lc
sin
α
2)
Where;

α 180 ° Lc
=
2 2 π (R−d )

Note: Clearance of obstruction up to setback distance is important.

Horizontal Transition Curves

 Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to
circular curve gradually.
 It has a radius which decreases from infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the
desired radius of the circular at the other end (curve point)
Objective

 It introduces Superelevation and extra widening on curves gradually.

 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and beginning
of circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle.
 To enable the driver tum the steering gradually for comfort & security.

Type of transition curves

Spiral (or) clothoid (or) Glover’s spiral:

 This is the ideal transition curve.

 Radius of curvature at every point is inversely proportion to the distance from point of
tangency
 The rate of change of acceleration is uniform
1
i .e l∝ → lr=costant
r

Bernoulli’s Lemniscate:

 It is mostly used in modern roads where deflection angle in the curve is large.
 Radius of curve decreases more rapidly with the length
 It is an outage news curve (Follows a path which is actually traced by a vehicle when
turning freely)
 The curve can be set by polar coordinates.
Cubic parabola

 It is used for valley curves.

 It can be set by simple Cartesian coordinates.
l3
 It follows on equation: y=
6 R ls
 Condition is x=l ( ¿ ) cosθ=1
Calculation of Length of transition curves (Ls)

Case: 1. Rate of change of radial acceleration

V3
Ls = ;
CR

Where,

V=velocity, m/sec

R=radius of curve, m

C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (without producing any discomfort or

undesirable oscillation)

80
As per IRC,C=
75+V

V= velocity, kmph;

The maximum and minimum values of ‘C ‘are limited to 0.5 to 0.8 i.e., 0.5 < C < 0.8

Case ii. Rate of introduction of Superelevation

  The rate of change of Superelevation (1 in N) should not be more than;
i. 1 in 150 for road in plain & rolling terrain,
ii. 1 in 100 in Urban Areas and
iii. 1 in 60 for mountainous & steep terrains.
a. If the pavement is rotated outer edge,
Ls =eN (W + W e )

b. If the pavement is rotated about centerline,

eN (W +W e )
Ls =
2

Where

W=Normal width of pavement

W e =¿ Extra widening on circular curve

e= Superelevation

1 in N = Rate of change of Superelevation.

As per IRC:

N=150 in plain & rolling terrain

N=60 in hill roads.

By Empirical formulae,

 The formula for min length of transition on this basis are

2.7 v 2
Ls = , for Plain∧Rolling terrain .
R

v2
Ls = , for Steep∧Hilly terrain
R

Here v in km/hr. & R is in ‘m’

Note: However the length of transition curve shall be the highest of above cases.

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

 The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients and vertical curves.

 It is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road vertical curves connect two
gradients.
 When two curves meet, they form either convers (or) concave
Gradients

 It is the rate of rise (or) fall along the length of the road with respect to horizontal.
Representation:

 The positive (or) ascending gradient is denoted as ‘+n’ & negative (or) descending as
‘-n’
 The deviation angle (N) is defined as when two grades meet, the angle which
measures the change of direction and is given by algebraic difference between the two
grades
i .e N =n1 −(−n2)

¿ n1 +n2

Types of gradients

 Ruling Gradient (Design Gradient)

 Limiting Gradient (Maximum Gradient)
 Exceptional Gradient
 Minimum Gradient
Ruling Gradient:

 The gradient is fixed in such a way that speed of the vehicle should not
decrease while moving on the gradient.
 The gradient is also fixed in such a way that maximum power developed by
the engine is equal to the power required to overcome the resistance to motion
on the grade at design speeds.
Limiting Gradient:

 A gradient steeper than the ruling gradient which may be used in restricted
length, where keeping with in the ruling gradient is not possible due to
topography.
Exceptional Gradients:
  A gradient steeper than the limiting gradient which may be used in very
short distances only (i. e < 60 m in 1 m road length (or) should not exceed
100 m at a stretch) in exceptional situations.
Minimum Gradient:

 It is provided for drainage purpose & it depends on the rainfall, type of

soil & other site conditions.
 A minimum of 1 in 500 as minimum gradient of road may be sufficient
for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open soil drains are found to give
satisfactory performance.
Gradients for roads in different terrains

Ruling Limiting Exceptional

Terrain
Gradient Gradient Gradient

Plain (or) Rolling terrain 3.3% (1 in 30) 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7)

Mountainous terrain 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.28)

Steep terrain 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.28) 8% (1 in 12.5)

Grade compensation (GC)

 It is the reduction given to the gradient when a gradient comes along with horizontal
curve.
 As per IRC, Grade compensation will not be given to the gradients less than equal to
4%
30+ R 75
 Grade compensation¿ ( ¿) whichever is less
R R
Where,

R = radius of the curve, in ‘m’

 Compensated gradient is the gradient to be provided on the road after grade

compensation.
Compensated gradient should not be less than 4% as per IRC.

Critical length of grade

 It is defined as the maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck
can operate without undue reduction in speed.
 A reduction in speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable value
Vertical Curves:
The vertical curves used in highways are classified into two types;
1. Summit Curves
2. Valley Curves
Summit curves

 These are vertical curves with convexity upwards.

 These are formed when two gradients meet as drawn below in any of the following
four ways.

 The design of summit curves is governed by consideration of sight distance.

 The common practice has been to use parabolic curves in summit curves.
 The use of parabolic curves were found to give excellent riding comfort
Summit curve formula

The simple parabolic equation of the summit curve is given by y ' =a x 2 +bx +c
'
dy
=2 ax +b
dx
'
dy
@ x=0 ; =b=n1−−−−−1
dx

d y'
@ x=L ; =2 aL+b=n2−−−−2
dx

n2−n 1
a=
2L

@ x=0 , y =0 → c=0

y 1= ( n2−n1 2
2L )
x + n1 x

1
y=n1 x− y

y=n1 x− ( n 2−nL ) x −n x
2 1 2
1
 n2 −n1 2
y= x
2L

N 2
y= x
2L

[∵ N =n1−n 2]

Where L= Length of Summit curve

Radius of curvature of summit curve

We know that curvature is given by

d2 y
2
dx
Curvature=

[ ( )]
2 3 /2
dy
1+
dx

Vertical curves are generally flat, hence curvature can be written as

2
1 d y N
Curvature= = 2 =
R dx L

L
∴ Radius of curvature=
N

When L = Length of curve

N=n1-n2

Highest point on summit curve

 It is useful for layout of drainage appurtenances & for ascertain vertical clearance in
restricted locations as road under bridges etc.
n1 L
 The highest point is given by x=
N
Where n1 = 1st gradient

L=length of curve

N=n1-n2

Note- When the two grades are equal the curve would be symmetrical about the vertical
bisector of the intersecting angle and the highest point would also lie on this bisector
otherwise, the curve would be tilted and the highest point would lies on flatter gradient

Design of Summit curves

  The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length of
the curve (L) which is parabolic.
 The length of the curve (L) is guided by the sight distance consideration(S). ‘S’ may
be SSD/ISD/OSD
Length of summit curve for SSD

Case i . when L ≥ SSD

NS2 N S2
L= =
[ √ 2 H + √2 h ]
2
4.4

Where

N= deviation angle

S= SSD

H= Height of driver’s eye level=1.2m as per IRC

h=height of object = 0.15m as per IRC

Case ii. when L<SSD

2
[ √ 2 H + √2 h ] 4.4
L=2 s− =2 s−
N N

b. Length of summit curve for OSD (or) ISD

Case i. when L≥ OSD ( ¿ ) ISD

2 2
NS NS
L= =
8H 9.6

Case (ii) when L < OSD (OR) ISD

8H
L=2 s−
N

9.6
¿ 2 s−
N

When the deviation angle is small, the length of summit curve generally work out less than
sight distance.

Valley Curves

 In Valley curves, cubic parabola is preferred.

 Valley curves (or) sag curves are vertical with convexity downwards.
  They are farmed when two gradients meet as illustrated in the following figures.

Design of valley curves

 Thus the most important design factors considered in valley curves are:
(1) Impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and
(2) Availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for night
driving
 In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting down words, the best shape that
could be given for a valley cure is transition curve.
 Generally cubic parabola is preferred in vertical valley curves.
Length of valley curve

 The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves
of equal length (Ls).
2N 3
 For transitional curves, we use cubic parabola y= 2 x flowerer for small deviation
3L
angles we prefer parabolic curve design.
 The length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:
Comfort Criteria

In this, allowable rete of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited to a comfortable

level of about 0.6 m/sec3

Let c= rate of change of acceleration

R= minimum radius of the curve, m

V=design speed, m/sec

t=time, sec
 2 2
v v
−0 −0
R R v3
i .e c= = =
t L LR
V
3
v
Ls =
CR

The value of ‘R’ for length ‘Ls’is given by

Ls
R=
N

√
3 3
v NV
Ls = → L=2 [∵ L=2 Ls ]
( )
Ls c
c
N

b. Safety criteria

Case (i) when L≥ SSD

2 2
NS NS
L= =
(2h1 +25 tanα ) (1.5+0.035 s)

Where

H1=height of head light = 0.75m

o
α =head light beam angle=1 as per IRC

While calculating SSD in this case neglect the effect of slope because minimum sight is at
lowest point and beyond that there is gradient.

Case (ii) When L < SSD

( 2 h1 +2 S tanα ) (1.5+0.035 S )
L=2 S− =2 S−
N N

 While calculating SSD, we should neglect the effect of grade because SSD will be
both in up & down grades.
 OSD, is not a problem for valley curves as during night, other vehicles with head
lights can be seen from a considerable distance.
 Head light sight distance available shall be at least equal to SSD
Location of deepest point in valley curve
 n1
x= ×L
N

Where

x=location from initial tangent

n1=Gradient of initial tangent.

N=deviation angle

Impact factor

The ratio of the maximum centrifugal force to the weight of the vehicle and is expressed as
percentage.

P
i .e I =
W

I =1.6 ( )
NV 2
L
% ≤17 % as per IRC

QUESTIONS
1. For a vehicle negotiating curve, centrifugal force P, is
1. Directly proportional to weight of vehicle.
2. Inversely proportional to square of velocity.
3. Inversely proportional to radius of curve.
Which of the above statements are true?
1&2
1&3
2&3
1, 2 & 3
1. Answer: B
2
WV
centrifugal force ( P )=
9R

2. If the safe stopping sight distance is equal the total length of the curve, the true length of curve will be
________ m. assume ,(g1=2.25 % , g 2=1.71 %) and observes eye level above the ground = 1.2 m

2. Answer:
2
Ns
Length of Summit curve for SSD ( Ls ) =
4.4
As per given data, LS =2.× SSD
0.04 × S2
=2 × S
4.4
S=220 m
Ls =2× 220=440 m
3. A 150 m long vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradient + 4Q-5% at what
distance from start of ascending gradient. Point of intersection will be (i. e.)?
66.66 m
75 m
83.33 m
90 m

3. Answer: B
L=150 m
h1 =4 % n2=−5 %
N=4−(−5 ) =9 %
L 150
Point of intersection always lies at (n) ¿ = =75 m
2 2

4. The relationship between the length (l ) and radius (r ) of an ideal transition curve is given by
l ∝r
l ∝r 2
l
l∝
r
l
l∝ 2
r

4. Answer: C
5. In heavy rainfall area a 2 lane cement concrete road is constructed with parabolic camber the equation of
road cross – section is given by (Take width of road = 7m)
x2
g=
175
2
x
y=
350
x2
y=
140
x2
y=
280
5. Answer: A
For heavy rainfall area, camber of cement
Concrete road = 1to 50
2
2x
y=
nW
2 x2 x2
y= =
50 ×7 175
6. A two lane national highways is passing through rolling terrain in heavy area .the design speed on
highway is 100 kmph. There is a horizontal curve of radius 400 m on a certain section. By keeping
allowable rate of introduction of super elevation as 1 in 150 the length of transition curve is _____ m.
Given e=0.07
Design speed = 100 Kmph=27.78 m/ s
V3
By canfart criterion LS =
CR

Answer:
80 80
C= = =0.45
75+V 50+ 100
R=400 m
( 27.78 )3
Ls = =107.193 ≈ 107.19
0.45 × 400
By super elevation criterian
V
2
( 100 )2
e=e+ f = ⟹ =0.11>0.07
225 R 225 × 400
V
2
( 100 )2
So, e=e+ f = ⟹ =0.196
225 R 225 × 400
F=0.196−0.07
f =0.126< 0.15
∴ f =0.126
Ls =0.07 ×7 ×150=73.5 m
2
By IRC criterian, Ls =2.7
V
R
2
100
¿ 2.7 × =67.5 m
400
∴ Length of transition curve=107.19 m

7. As ascending gradient of 1 in 100 metal a descending gradient of gradient of 1 in 120. A summit curve
is to be designed for a speed of 100 kmph, So as to have an over taking sight distance of 490 m. The length
of summit curve provided is ___________ m

1 −1
n1 = ; n2 = ⟹ N=n1−n2
C∞ 120
1 1
+ =0.0183
100 120
V =100 kmph; OSD=490 M
Let L>OSD
N S 2 0.0183 × 4902
L= = =457.69 m<OSD ( ≈ 490 )
9.6 9.6
∴ L<OSD
 9.6
Ls =2 S−
N
9.6
¿ 2 ×490− =455.41 m< OSD ( ≈ 490 )
0.0183
∴ Length of summit curve =455.41 m
8. The ruling min radius of horizontal curve of a national highway in plain terrain for a ruling design speed
of 120 kmph with e=0.07∧f =0.15 is
377 m
467 m
516 m
567 m
8. Answer: C
V2
e +f =
127 R
( 120 )2
0.07+ 0.15= → Rmin =515.40 m ≈516 m
127 R min
9. On a hill road a ruling gradient of 5% is provided and has a radius of horizontal curve of som. Design
speed on the road is 50 kmph. The compensated gradient of the curve is _____

9. Answer:
30+ R 30+50
Grade compensation = = =1.6 %
R 50
75 75
= =1.5 %
R 50
Min of these
Compensated gradient = 5−1.5=3.5 % <4 %
It should not be < 4% provided gradient= 4%
10. Horizontal transition curves are provided on roads to
1. Introduce centrifugal force gradually
2. Provided sufficient overtaking distance
3. Improve aesthetic appearance
1, 2 & 3
1&2
2&3
1 only
10. Answer: D
Overtaking criterion is not considered in horizontal transition curve.
11. A two lane road with a design speed of 80 kmph has a horizontal curve of radius 250 m. psychological
widening should provide on road is _____ m.
11. Answer:
V
Psychological widening is given by
9.5 √ R
80
¿ =0.532m
9.5 √ 250
12. A vehicle with track width of 2.5 m and height of center of gravity 3.8 m is moving on a horizontal
curved road way. The value of stability factor is _____

12. Answer:
Stability factor is defined as
b 2.5
= =0.328
2h 2 ×3.8
13. In a braking test, a vehicle traveling at a speed of 50 kmph was stopped by applying brakes fully and
skid marks were 16 m in length average skid resistance of pavement surface is _____
m
V =50 kmph=13.89 ; skid length=16 m
s
2 2
V =U +20 s
2
0=13.89 + 2× a ×16
6.029
a=6.029=f × g → f = =0.614
9.81

14. A vehicle travelling on dry, level pavement at 80 kmph had to apply the brakes. The vehicle travelled
80 m before stopping .the coefficient of friction that has developed is ____

14. Answer:
After the application of brakes, the work done against the frictional force for stopping the vehicle will be
equal to kinetic energy of the vehicle
1 2
M V =μ . mg .l
2

( )
1 80 2
2 306
=μ ×9.81 ×80 → 0.3146 ≈ 0.315

∴ μ=0.315
15. For a highway carrying two way traffic with design speed of 100 kmph the overtaking sight distance is
m
[Assume acceleration as 0.6 t =2 sec ]
s2
670 m
1050 m
805 m
715 m

15. Answer: D
OSD=d 1 +d 2 +d 3
V b =V −16=100−16=84 kmph
d 1=V b × t
84
¿ ×2=46.67 m
3.6
84
d 2= (12.2 ) +2 × ( 22.83 )
3.6
¿ 329.33 m
d 2=V b T +2 S
S=0.7 ×V b + R
84
S=0.7 × +6=22.33
36

T=
√ √
4S
a
=
4 × 22.33

100
0.6
=12.2 sec

d 3=VT → ×12.2=338.89m
3.6
OSD=d 1 +d 2 +d 3
¿ 46.07+ 329.33+338.89
OSD=714.9 m≈ 715 m
16. For a road with center of 6% and design speed of 85 kmph the minimum radius of the curve beyond
which no super elevation is needed is ____ m

16. Answer:
If super elevation is not available, then take camber as per elevation
e=6 %=0.06
2 2
V 85
Rmin = = =535.19m
225 e 225 ×0.06

17. An automobile travelling at 25 m/s crests a hill of radius 625 m just as the driver slams an the brakes
and skids to a shop. If the coefficient of friction between car and road is 0.7. find the cars declaration
( m/ s2 ) at the instant the brakes are applied.[Take g=10 m/s2 ]
3.3
4.5
5.4
6.3
17. Answer:
f k μk N
a= =
m m

N=mg−
mV 2
→ a=
[
0.7 m g−
V2
R ]
R m

[
¿ 0.7 10−
625
625 ]
2
¿ 6.3 m/s

18. For a national highway, the design speed is 100 kmph. If the length of vehicle is 6 m and reaction time
at minimum spacing is 0.75 sec. Then the minimum spacing between vehicles is _____ m

18. Answer:
Speed of slow moving vehicle ( V )=100−16=84 Kmph=22.33 m/s
Spacing ¿ 0.7 v+ 6
¿ 0.7 ×23.33=22.331 m≈ 23.5 m
19. While driving at a speed of 50 kmph (with available friction of 0.35) down the grade, the driver
requires a braking distance twice that required for stopping the vehicle when he travel. Up the same grade
the grade is ______ %.

19. Answer:
Braking distance for travelling upgrade
2
V
S1= (Up grade)
2 g (f + 0.0/n)
V2
S1= (down grade)
2 g (f + 0.0/n)
S2=2 S1
1 2
=
( f −0.01 n ) (f + 0.01n)
f 0.35
n= = =11.67 %
0.03 0.03

20. In case of hill roads, the extra widening is generally provided

a. Equally an inner and outer side of the curve.
b. fully an the inner side of the curve.
C. Fully an the outer side of the curve
d. One – fourth on inner side and three fourth on outer side of the curve.

20. Answer: B

21. While aligning a hill road with a roling gradient of 1 in 25, a horizontal curve of radius 50 m
encountered the compensated gradient an the curve according to IRC will be
1 in 40
1 in 42
1 in 25
1 in 20

21. Answer: C
IRC has suggested not be compensate the grade when gradient is flatter than 4% (or) 1 in 25
i. e. gradient should not be eased beyond 4%.

22. A two lane national highway passing through a rolling terrain has a horizontal curve of 400 m radius,
Assuming design speed of 70 kmph. Pavement width of 7.5 m, wheel base of 6m, the extra width of the
pavement required for this curve is ______ m.

22. Answer: D
As per IRC code extra widening for radius greater than 300 m is zero.

23. The maximum length of ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate without under reduction
in speed is called
Ruling gradient
Critical gradient
Critical length of grade
Limiting length of grade.

Answer: C
24. Which of the following type of loading is not reconvened by IRC.
Class A loading
Class B loading
Class AB loading
Class AA loading

Answer: C
 Pavement Design
 The objective of laying pavement is to support wheel loads and to transfer the load stresses through a
wider area, thus pavement is also act as the load bearing and load distributing component of a road.
 The Pavement structure typically consists of the following layers
1. Soil Subgrade
2. Sub Base
3. Base Course
4. Surface Course

 Pavements can be classified as

a. Flexible Pavement
b. Rigid Pavement
c. Semi Rigid Pavement
d. Composite pavement
e. Interlocking cement concrete block pavement
a. Flexible Pavement:

 Flexible pavement is made up on a series of layers with the highest quality materials at or near the
surface
 Loads are transmitted through layers, care being taken to ensure that the stresses in each layer are
within the permissible values
 The load caring capacity of the flexible pavement is derived from the load distribution property & not
from its flexural or bending strength
 It stability depends upon aggregate interlock ,particle friction & cohesion
 It functions by the way of load distribution through the component layers
 Flexible pavement design is based on IRC: 37-2018
 The layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layer by grain to grain transfer
through the points of contact in granular structure

 Major pavement failure are cracking fatigue, rutting & thermal cracking.
 IRC considers fatigue cracking & rutting for flexible pavement design.

B. Rigid Pavement:

 It consists of one course Portland Concrete slab of relatively high bending resistance.
 It is structural capacity is supplied by the pavement slab itself by beam action
 Flexural strength is the major factor for design.
 Plain cement concrete slabs are expected to take up about 40 kg/cm2 flexural stress.
 Rigid pavements are usually designed & stresses are analysed using elastic theory.
 Design of Rigid Pavement is based on IRC: 58-2015.

C. Semi Rigid Pavement:

  It represents the intermediate stage between the flexible & rigid types:
 It derives the strength by load spreading & flexural action
D. Composite Pavement:

 A composite pavements has a mixture of the above types in its layer

 Ex. A pavement consisting of lean concrete base a roller compacted concrete slab over it & a surfacing
of bituminous concrete
Design Terms & Concept of Pavement:

 For pavements design we consider the vehicle having heavy loads which are termed as commercial
vehicles
 As per IRC, vehicles having gross load greater than3 tonnes are called as “Commercial Vehicles”
a. Contact pressure & tyre pressure:

 While analysing load transfer through wheels we need to consider total wheel load contact area &
distribution pressure over contact area
 At low pressure, the tyre comes under compression
 Hence contact pressure is greater than tyre pressure

 At high tyre pressure ,tyre comes under tension

 Hence contact pressure is less. Than tyre pressure
Contact pressure
 Rigidity factor¿
Tyre Pressure
 Generally for design purpose,
 If tyre pressure¿ 0.7 MPa ; R . F=1
 If tyre pressure¿> 0.7 MPa ; R . F<1
 If tyre Pressure¿ 0.7 MPa ; R . F >1
Wheel Load
 Contact pressure¿
Area of Imprint
 Note: The imprint area is generally taken as circular area for design purpose
B. Design load Consideration:

The following effects are considered while computing the design load

i) The traffic volume in each year will increase on the road

ii) Different vehicles will have different weight
iii) Wheel loads are applied over different portion of pavement, not at a single location.

Type of load Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Maximum single axle load

65kN 100kN
1. Single wheel on
 either side
2. Dual wheel on either
80kN
side

Maximum Tandem Axle Load 148kN 186kN

Maximum Tridem axle load 224kN 235kN

 The load influences the thickness requirements of pavements

 Tyre pressure influences the quality of surface course
 Design of pavement is based on the 98th Percentile of axle load
C. Computation of Design Traffic:

In this case we estimate numbers of commercial vehicles that is going to utilize the road over the design life

Cumulative no. of commercial vehicles during design life is

365 A [ ( 1+r )n−1 ] × D × F

N= ;C . S. A
r
Where,
x
A=Initial design traffic ∈the year of completion of construction=P ( 1+r )
r =¿
P=No . of commercial vehcile per day at last count
x=Construction period∈ year
n=Design period
D=Lane distribution factor ( LDF )
F=Vehicle damage Facor ( VDF )
IRC recommends LDF as follows:

i. Single lane road

LDF=1
ii. Two lane single carriage way (with divider) here, 75% of total no. of commercial vehicle in both direction

LDF=0.75
iii. For lane single carriage way. Here 40% of total no. of traffic in both direction

LDF=0.4
iv. Dual Three lane carriage way:

Here, 60% of each direction in 3 lane

LDF¿ 0.6

V. Dual four lane carriage way:

Here, 45% of each direction in 4 lane

 LDF¿ 0.45

d. Vehicle damage factor (VDF):

The designer should take relative values of VDF after conducting axle load surveys

Initial Traffic volume in terms of Terrain

no. of cv/day Plain/Rolling Hilly

0-150 1.5 0.5

150-1500 3.5 1.5
>1500 4.5 2.5

Note: Traffic in one direction is equal to half of the total traffic in both the direction If significant difference
between two streams occur then maximum traffic should be considered for the design

E. Equivalency Factor:

 It is the damaging factor for different axle loads with respect to standard load

[ ]
4
Actual axle load
∴ Equivalency Factor=
Stanadard Axle laod
2.2 Flexible Pavement:
 Various approach for flexible pavement design may be classified in a three broad groups:
i. Empirical Method:

These are based on physical properties and strength parameter of soil subgrade

a. Group Index Method

b. CBR Method

c. Mc-Lead Method

A. Group Index Method:

Group index value is assigned to the soil types in numerical equations based on the percent fines liquid limit &
plasticity index

The Range of G.I is 0 to 20

G.I¿( 0.2+ 0.005 ac+ 0.01bd )

Where,

a=P−35 ≯ 40 [∴ 0< a<40]

b=P−15 ≯ 40 [∴ 0<b <40]
c=W L −40≯ 20 [ ∴0< c< 20 ]

d=I P−10 ≯ 20 [ ∴ 0<d <20 ]

P=Percentage finer which passing¿ 0.075 mm sieve
W L =Liquid limit

I P =Plasticity Index=W L −W P
 Higher the G.I value weaker the soil subgrade hence greater thickness of pavement required
Limitations:

 G I method does not consider quality of material used for pavement

 Thickness is suggested same for poor or good quality
B. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Method:

 It is based on strength of pavement of subgrade soil and subsequent pavement material

 The total thickness of pavement needed to cover the subgrade of the known CBR value is obtained
 Thickness of subbase is the total thickness minus the thickness over the subcase
 Based on CBR value of any material over which a flexible pavement is required

∴ Thickness of pavement is given by ( t )=

√ 1.75 P 1
CBR π
−

t=Pavement thickness , cm
P=Wheel load , kg
CBR=California Bearing Ratio , percent
2
P=Tyre pressure , kg/cm
 This formula is applicable only when the CBR value of the subgrade soil is less than 12%
C. Mc-Load Method:

From the plate load tests on empirical design equations was recommended

Thickness( T )=K log 10 ( PS )

Where,

K=Base courseconstant
P=Gross wheel load , kg
S=Total subgrade support , kg
 It is found that the base course constant ‘K’ depends on the loaded area
 The sub grade support (S) for the design of high way pavement is calculated from the support measured
or calculated for 30cm diameter plate at 0.5cm deflection & ten repetitions.
ii. Semi Empirical or Semi theoretical Method:

 These methods are based on stress-strain function and experience i.e., Triaxial test method
Triaxial Test Method:

The pavement thickness consisting of material with modulus is given by the equations:

√( )
2
3 P ×Y
T S= −a 2
2 π ES ∆

Where,

P=Wheel load , kg
X =Traffic coefficient
Y =Saturation coefficient
2
E S=Modulus of elasticity , kg / cm
 ∆=Design deflection=0.25 cm
The recommended values of coefficients X & Y based on ADT of design traffic & rainfall

If the pavement & subgrade are considered as a two layer system a stiffness factor has to be introduced to take
in to account

( )
1
Es 3
The modified pavement thickness is done using the stiffness factor
Ep
Where,

E S=Modulus of elasticity of subgrade

E P=Modulus of elasticity of pavement

{√( ) }( )
1
3 P ×Y Es
∴ Thickness of pavement ( T P ) = −a2 3
2 π ES ∆ Ep

Therefore the relation between pavement layer thicknesses t 1∧t 2 of elastic modulus E1∧E 2 is given by

( )
1
t1 E 2 3
=
t2 E 1

iii. Theoretical Method:

 These are based on mathematical computation which is based on elastic two layer theory i.e., Burmister
method
Burmister Method:

a. Materials in each layers are isotropic, homogenous & elastic

b. Pavement form a stiffer layer having higher value of ‘E’ than that of subgrade

c. The surface layer is infinite in horizontal directions but finite in vertical direction i.e., length and width

of infinite height is finite

d. The Flexible pavement sections are composed of layers and the elastic modulus of the top layer is
highest

 This method is based on modulus of Elasticity of different layers:

As per layered system

E B > ESB > E SG
 Young’s modulus of Elasticity of upper should be higher as compared to that of lower layer
 Vertical stress on the subgrade is reduced from 70% to 30% by introducing a pavement layer of
thickness equal to the radius of the load, having elastic modulus 10 time higher than the elastic
EP
modulus of subgrade soil i.e., =10
Es
Displacement Relationship by Burmister’s:

A. For flexible plate:

 The wheel load acting over a pavement on any other surface is considered flexible plate base
 P.a
∆=1.5 . F2
Es

Where,

∆=Design Deflection
P=Contact pressure at road surface due ¿ wheel load
a=Radius of contact Area
E S=Modulus of Elasticity of soil subgrade

h=Thichness of reinforcinglayer
Es
∧h
Ep
F 2=Value as per value of =Deflection factor
a
B. For rigid plate:

Pa
 Displacement is given by ( ∆ )=1.18 . .F
Es 2
 In this case thickness of pavement
h=0 , that is called single layer system , For which F2 =1.0
 Plate diameter for load tests may be taken as 30cm and design deflection may be taken as 0.5cm or
0.25cm
 It is has been recommended that nine trial sections be constructed three each on fill, cut & level areas.
2
In each typical locality, three pavement thickness values equal to h , h∧1.5 h are adopted and the
3
actual pavement thickness required for the critical deflection found
2.3 Rigid pavements:
 Rigid pavements are constructed using cement concrete
 Rigidity is due to high modules of elasticity of concrete
 Here soil foundations are treated as a spring having spring constant ‘K’ which is called Modulus of sub
grade reaction
 ‘K’ is found out using plate load test
 Upward reaction is proportional to deflection
i.e., P ∝∆ ⟹ P=K ∆

Where,

P=Pressure below the plate

K= Modulus of grade reaction

∆=Deflection at the centre of plate

 Modulus of sub grade reaction is calculated corresponding to the settlement of 1.25mm
P P P kg
i.e., =K= ⟹K= , /cm
∆ 0.125 cm 0.125 cm 2

 As per IRC the modulus of sub grade reaction corresponding to 75cm Plate used for testing is half of
that using 30cm plate
 i.e., K 75 cm =0.5 K 30cm

 Generally design of rigid pavement is done using 75cm dia. Plate

Relative Stiffness:

 The subgrade deformation is same as the slab deflection. Hence the slab deflection is a direct
measurement of the magnitude of the subgrade pressure
 This pressure deformation characteristics of rigid pavement lead westergaard to define the term called
radius of relative stiffness

[ ]
1
Eh3 4
i .e l= 2
, cm
12 K (1−μ )
Where,

kg
E=Modulus of Elasticity of cement concrete , 2
cm
5 2
¿ 3 ×10 Kg/cm

μ=Poisso n' s ratio of concrete=0.15

h=Slab thickness, cm
K= Modulus of subgrade reaction
Critical Load Positions:

Intensity of maximum stress in the slab depends on the location of load on the pavement

There are three typical locations are considered as critical

a. Interior loading

b. Edge loading

c. Corner loading

Westergaard stress Equation for loading:

Wester Gard assumed Winkler foundation and the slab was assumed to be homogenous & isotropic

a. Interior loading:

σ i=
0.316 P
h 2 [ ()
4 log 10
l
b
+1.069
]
b. Edge loading:

σ e=
0.572 P
h2 [ ()
4 log10
l
b
+ 0.359
]
c. Corner loading:

[ ( )]
0.6
3P a √2
σ c= 1−
h 2
l

Where,
 σ i=Internaltensile stress at slab bottom

σ e =Edge tensile stress at slabbottom

σ c =Corner tensile stress at top of slab

P=Wheel load , kg
h=Thickness of slab , cm
l=Radius of relative stiffness , cm
B=Radius of resistingsection , cm
Temperature Stresses:

 These are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variation in the slab temperature & resistance
against deformation provided by the weight of slab & friction between slab & ground
 Stresses are caused by
a. Daily variation
b. Seasonal variation
Day time:
 Here slab tries to expand at top but weight tries to resist it, hence compression developed at top

Warping Stresses:

σ w(i)=
2 (
E ∝t C x + μC y
1−μ
2 )
σ w(e)=max { C x Eαt C y Eαt
2
,
2 }
σ w (c )=
Eαt
√ a
3 ( 1−μ ) l
Where,

μ=Poissans ratio−0.15
∝=thermal expension coefficient
Lx Ly
C x ∧C y =Coefficients depends up on , respectively
l l
l=radius of relative stiffness
a=radius of contact ∧t=temperature
Frictional Stresses:

 These are developed due to seasonal variation of temperature and in this case there is no temperature
gradient across the thickness
 Frictional stresses are induced in bottom fibre due to contact with soil
 Force in cement concrete pavement due to movement frictional resistance due to sub grade
 i.e. σ f ×h × B= B ×( L
2 )
×h × γ c × f

γC × f × L
σf=
2
Where,

σ f =Unit stress devloped ∈cement conrete

γ C =Unit weight of concrete =2400 kg/ m3

f =coefficient of friction=1.5 as per IRC
L=Slab length
B=Slab width
Critical Combination of Stresses:

 The cumulative effect of the different stresses give rise to the following three critical cases
A. Summer midday:

 Here edge is the critical region and critical stress is given by

σ critical=σ e + σ w(e)−σ f
B. Winter, midday:

Here, edge is the critical region and critical stress is given by

σ critical=σ e + σ w(e) +σ f
C. Winter, midnights:

Here, corner is the critical region and the critical stress is given by

σ critical=σ c + σ w (c)
Where,

σ e =Edge stress

σ c =Corner stress

σ w(e)=Warping stress @edge

σ w (c )=Warping stres @corner

σ f =Frictional stress
Note: Generally frictional stresses are assumed to be constant along the length but in reality it is not constant

 It is zero at ends and max at centre of slab. Hence in midnight combinations are not taken in effects of
seasonal variation
Type of Joints:

 Various types of joints are provided in the cement concrete pavement are:
a. Expansion Joint:
  The purpose of the expansion joint is too allow the expansion of pavement due to rise in temperature
with respect to construction temperature
 To design the joint, we find out the joint spacing for a given joint thickness of 2.5cm max as specified
by IRC
 The maximum spacing between expansions joint is 140m

 Fillers are to be compressed by 50% if its thickness during expansion hence the gap of the joint should
be twice the expansion in concrete
δ =originalthickness of filler
δ
=compressed thickness of filler
2
δ
Lα ∆ T =
2
δ
L=
2α∆T
Where,

L=Maximum spacing between expansion joint

δ=gap of expansion joint
α =coefficient of thermal expansion
∆ T =Rise∈temperature
 Design is based on
A. maximum temperature variation

B. width of joint

C. Dowel bars placed

B. Contraction Joint:

It is provided to control crack due to shrinkage & moisture variation

To regular the crack i.e., to ensure that crack forms at predetermined location slab is weakend at certain
intervals. These locations are called “Contraction Joint”

Spacing of contraction Joint:

 When no reinforcement has been provided in the concrete slab

 Length of contraction joint is calculated as follows:
1
f γc A
2 γc× f × L
σ. =
A 2
2σ
L=
f × γc
Where,
 σ =Permissible tensile stress∈concrete
f =Coefficient of fricition between concrete∧base=1.5
L=Spacingbetween contraction joint
3
γ C =Unit wt . of concrete=24 kN /m
When reinforcement is provided in the slab it is assumed that all tension is taken by reinforcing steel

2× σ st × A st
L=
B× h × γ C × f
Where,

σ st =Permissible tensile stress∈steel

A st = Area of steel∈complete width of slab

f =Coefficient of friction
Longitudinal Joint:

 These are required it the pavement width is more than 4.5m

 Tie bars are provided across longitudinal joints
 Longitudinal joint reduces warping stress
 These are provided along the length of pavement
 Tie bars are bounded with concrete and we mostly used deformed bars of size 10mm dia.
approximately
A st × σ st =1 × B× h × γ c × f (∵ Assuming unit length of Slab)
B × h× γ c × f
A st =
σ st
Where,

A st = Areaof steel per unit length

1400 kg
σ st =Permissible tensile stress∈the steel= 2
cm
The length of Tie bar is decided on the basis of development length

∴ Length of tie ¯
¿ 2 × Devlopment length
σ st
¿2×
4 τ bd
∅ . σ st
length of tie ¯
¿
2 τ bd
∅=diameter of the ¯¿
τ bd=bond stress between steel ¯¿ concrete
Design of Dowel bar:

 Dowel bars are mild steel round bars of short length

  These act as load transfer devices across transverse joint and they keep two slab at the same height
 They are mild steel round bars bonded on one side and free on the other side

 Normally 25mm to 40mm dia. &400, 500mm length are provided

 Stresses in the dowel bar are
a. Shear stress

b. Bending stress

c. Bearing stress

Load transfer capacity of single dowel bar is given by

a. In shear:

π
PS = d 2 × σ s
4
Where,

PS =Load transfer capacity of dowel ¯¿ shear

σ s=Permissible shearing stress∈ steel

d= Dia. of dowel ¯¿
B. In Bending:

2 ×d 3 ×σ b
P b=
L+ 8.8 δ
Where,

kg
σ b= permissible bending stress∈ dowel ,̄
cm 2
δ =Gap of joint , cm
L=embedded length of dowel ,̄ cm
C. In Bearing:

σ br × L2 × d kg
Pbearing= σ br = permissible bearing stress∈dowel ,̄
12.5 ( L+1.5 δ ) cm2
Design steps:

Step 1: Find L by assuming dia. of bar (d) & joint width

It is obtained by equating strength in bending & bearing

∴ L=5 d
√ σ b (L+ 1.5 δ)
σ br ( L+ 8.8 δ)
Step 2: Find Load transfer capacity PS , Pb , P br

Step 3:

a. Load transfer capacity of the level bar system is assumed to be 40% of the wheel load

b. Distance on either side of load position¿ 1.8 l; where l= radius of relative stiffness

Step 4:

The load capacity factor required is calculated as

Max
{ 0.4 P 0.4 P 0.4 P
PS
,
Pb
,
Pbr }
Where, P=Wheel load

Step 5: The capacity factor of dowel bas is

{
One, just below the wheel
¿ Zero , at distance of 1.8 l the wheel ¿
¿

 Load capacity¿ 1+ ( 1.81.8l−δl )+( 1.81.8l−2l δ )+( 1.81.8l−3l δ )+⋯ ⋯

 Dowel bars are not provided for slab thickness <150mm
 The spacing (δ) should be chosen such that the load capacity is greater than the load capacity factor
 Actual length of dowel bar would be L+δ
Design of tie bars:

 These are used across the longitudinal joints.

 These ensure two adjacent slabs to remain firmly together
 Here, load transfer is though aggregate interlocking
 The bars are designed to with stand tensile stress induced due to friction at bottom
Step 1: Diameter & spacing

B × f × γc
A st =
σ st
Ast=Area of Steel, mm2 per metre length (Since, considering unit length of joint)

B = lane width

σst= allowable tensile stress, mPa.

F = coefficient of friction = 1.5

Step 2:

Lt =2× Ld
 ∅ . σ st ∅ . σ st
Lt =2× =
4 τ bd 2 τ bd
∅ . σ st
∴ Lt =
2 τ bd
Where,

Lt =length of tie ¯¿

τ bd= permissible stress of concete

 To permit warping at the joint the maximum dia. of the bars may be limited to 20mm and to avoid
concentration of tensile stresses they should not be spaced more than 75cm apart
 The calculate length may be increased by 5cm to 8cm to account for any inaccuracy in placement
during construction

QUESTIONS
1. The number of commercial vehicle in the year of completing overlay construction is estimated to be
4000 per day with an average growth rate of 7.5 % per year. If the average vehicle damage factor is ‘S’
what is the design period! [Assuming a lane distribution factor of 0.75]
56
76
124
143
N=4000 , r=7.5 % ; F=5 , D=0.75; n=15 years
365 NFD
Design tarffic , CSA=
r
[ ( 1+ r )n−1 ]
365× 4000 ×5 × 0.75
¿
0.075
[ ( 1+0.075 )15−1 ]
¿ 143 MSA
2. Width of expansion joint gap is3 cm cement concrete pavement. The spacing (m) between expansion
joint for a maximum rise in temperature of 30 ° is [Assume coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete as
−6
10 ×10 /° c ]
25
50
75
100
3 −2
Maximum expansion allowed ( δ )= =1.5 cm=1.5 ×10 m
2
∆ T =T 2−T 1=30 ° C
δ 1.5 × 10−2
Spacing of expansion joint, L= = =50 cm
∝(T 2 −T 1 ) 10 ×10−6 × 30
3. If it is found that tyre walls of a vehicle are in tension then rigidity factor is
Greater than 1
Equal to 1
Less than 1
Cannot be determined
 Conatct pressure
Rigidity factor =
Tyre pressure
4. Following observation were made for an axle load survey on a road
Axle load (kN) Repetition per day

20 – 30 2000
30 – 40 1000

40 – 50 1500

60 – 60 500
If the standard axle load is 80 kN and 2100 vehicle passes every day then the vehicle damage factor is
_______
Axle load Mean Load Repetition
(kN) axle load factor

( 80 )
(kN) 4
L

20 – 30 25 9.536 ×10 2000

3 19.072

30 – 40 35 0.0366 1000 36.60

40 – 50 45 0.100 1500 150

60 – 60 55 0.223 500 111.5

Σ N S=5000 Σ 317.172
317.172
Vehicles damage factor ( VDF ) = =0.15
2100
5. The radius of relative stiffness for a 25cm thick slab with E=2× 105 kg/c m 2 and poisson’s ratio
¿ 0.15 is resting on a sub grade having subgrade reaction modulus of 8 kg /c m3 is ______M.

5. Answer:

[ ]
3 1/ 4
Eh
L=
12 K ( 1−μ )
2

[ ]
5 3 1/ 4
2 ×10 × ( 25 )
¿ =75.96 cm=0.759 M
12× 8 × ( 1−0.15 )
2

6. A plate bearing taste was carried out on a subgrade using 30cm diameter plate. A deflection of 1.25mm
was caused by pressure of0.84 kg/c m2 . The modulus of subgrade reaction is ___________ kg / c m3.

6. Answer:
P 0.84
For rigid plate ( K 1 ) = = =6.72 kg /c m3
D 0.125
K 1 a1=K 2 a2
6.72 ×30=K 2 × 75 [Standard plate diameter = 75cm]
 3
K 2=2.688 kg/c m

7. The plate load taste conducted with 30cm diameter plate on soil subgrade yielded a deflection of 0.25cm
under a stress of 600 kg /c m 2. The modulus of elasticity of the subgrade soil in ( kg /c m2 ) is.
84960
42480
54000
108000

7. Answer: B
1.18 Pa 30 cm
E= ⟹ a= =15 cm
∆ 2
1.18× 600× 15 2
¿ =42480 kg/c m
0.25

8. The average daily traffic on a stretch of road is 450cv per lane per day. Design traffic repetition for 15
years when the vehicle damage factor is 2.25 & traffic growth rate is 7% is
8.79 M.S.a
9.29 M.S.a
11.74 M.S.a
6.59 M.S.a

8. Answer: B
365 [ ( 1+r )n−1 ] ADF
N=
r
365
0.07
[ ( 1+0.07 )15−1 ] × 450 ×1 ×2.25
N=9.29 M . S .a

9. A 30cm thich concrete pavement is having with transverse joints & longitudinal joints at 4.5 m & 3.6m
interval respectively. The modulus of subgrade reaction is 6 kg /c m3 . Assume temperature for day
condition to be 18 ℃ & radius of contact area as 15cm. The warping stress at corner region is
___________ kg /c m2. The additional data is given below:
−6 5 2
∝=10 ×10 /℃ ; E=3 ×10 kg / c m ; μ=0.15 ; C x =0.8∧C y =0.45

9. Answer:

[ ]
3 1/ 4
Eh
Radius of relative stiffness ( l )=
12 K ( l−μ )
2

[ ]
5 3 1/4
3 ×10 ( 30 )
¿ =103.58 cm
12× 6 ( 1−0.15 )
2
Warping stress at corner region

√ √
5 −6
E∝ t a 3 × 10 × 10× 10 ×18 15
σ c= =
3 (1−μ) l 3(1−0.15) 103.58
2
σ c =8.059 kg / c m
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Introduction

The basic objective of traffic engineering is to achieve free & rapid flow of traffic with least
number of accidents.

The various objectives of traffic studies are

i. To obtain knowledge of type and volume of traffic at present in future.

ii. To study the road facilities & improvement to be done.
iii. To design geometric features & pavement thickness
iv. To analyze accidents.
The various studies are carried out in traffic analysis are divided in to.

 Traffic characteristics
 Traffic studies & analysis.
 Traffic control regulation
1. Traffic Characteristics

In traffic characteristics, we generally study

 Road user characteristics.

 Vehicular characteristics.
 Breaking characteristics.
2. Traffic Studies

These studies help in deciding the geometric design feature & traffic control for safe &
efficient traffic movements.

The various traffic studies generally carried out are

i. Traffic volume study.

ii. Speed studies.
a. spot speed study
b. Speed & delay study
iii. Origin & Destination (O & D) study.
iv. Traffic flow characteristics
v. Traffic capacity study
vi. Parking study
vii. Accident studies.
i. Traffic volume study

Traffic volume is the no of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time.

It is used to measure the quantity of traffic flow [Vehicles/day (or) vehicles/hr].

n × 3600
∴ q= veh /hr
T

Where

q = The equivalent hourly flow.

N = no of vehicles passing a point in the road way in ‘T’ secs.

Traffic Volume calculation

 Traffic volume varies from time to time as hourly traffic volume varies considerably
during day.
 Traffic volume counts is done with the help of mechanical counters (or) manually,
using pneumatic tube multipen recorder.
 At first the fluctuations of traffic volume during the hours of day & the daily
variations are observed.
 After that with the help of statistics the peak hourly traffic volumes and average daily
traffic volumes are calculated.
Presentation of traffic volume data

a. Annual average daily traffic (AADT)

It is the average 24-hr traffic volume at a given location over a full 365- days.

It helps in deciding the relative importance of a route & road development.

b. Average Dally traffic (ADT)

It is the average 24- hr. volume at a given location for same period of time less than year.

For this minimum of 7 days count is done to include the daily variation.

c. Trend chart

It shows volume trends over a period of years.

This data is useful for planning future expansion, design & regulation.

Variation charts showing hourly, daily & seasonal variations are also prepared.

d. Thirtieth (30th) highest hourly volume

The hourly volume that will be exceeded only 29 times in a year and all other hourly volumes
of the year will be less than this volume.

Congestion only during 29 hours in the year

This is generally taken as hourly volume for design

30th highest hourly volume gives a satisfactory results in terms of performance and is also
economic in nature.

As per Indian condition, 30th highest hourly volume is 8% - 10% of AADT.

Highway facilities are generally designed for this volume, which is satisfactory from both
facility and economic considerations.

e. Periodic Volume counts

These are used to calculate expansion factors needed to estimate the annual traffic volume.

Total volume for 24 hr . per i od

Hourly expansion factor=
Volume for particular hour

Avg . total volume for a week

Daily expansion factor =
Avg volume for particular day

AADT
Monthly expansion factor=
ADT for particular Month

f. Peak hour factor (PHF)

It is a measure of traffic demand fluctuations within the peak hour.

q
i .e PHF =
4 [ q 15 ]

Where

q=peak hour volume (veh/hr).

q15=Volume during the peak 15- minute of flow (veh/15 min).

 Typical peak hour traffic for freeways (Highways) range between 0.8 and 0.95
 Lower factors are more common in rural highways (or) off peak conditions.
 If the factor is unity indicates same traffic flow during peak hours.
 PHF is used to determine number of lanes on a road design flow of traffic on a road is
decided.
Traffic∈peak hour
∴ Design traffic flow=
PHF

ii. Speed studies

Speed of different vehicles vary with respect to time & space.

a. Spot Speed

It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location (or) instant.

It is used to design

i. Horizontal & Vertical curve

ii. Location & size of signs.
iii. Design of signals
iv. Accident analysis.
Spot speed is measured using Enoscope.

Average speed

It is the avg. of spot speed (or) 50th percentile speed of all vehicles passing a given point on
the road

There are two types of average speed.

i. Time mean speed (VT)

It is the arithmetic mean of the speed of the vehicles passing a point on a highway during an
interval of time.
n

∑Vi
i=1
¿ is fand by V T =
n

Where

Vi= observed speed of ith vehicle, kmph n= no.of vehicles observed

ii. Space Mean Speed(Vs)

It is the average: Speed of all the vehicles occupying a given section of a highway over same
specified time period.

It is harmonic mean of spot speed.

It is the speed used for flow density relationship i.e., (In traffic flow studies)

n
V s=

( V1 )
n

∑
i=1 i

If the speed study is given in the form of frequency distribution table, then
i.Time mean speed =
∑ ( qi v i )
∑ qi

Space mean speed=

∑ qi
ii.
∑ ()
qi
vi

Where

qi= No of vehicles in ith speed range.

vi = Mean velocity of vehicles in the speed range.

Relation b/w VT & Vs

σ2
V T =V s +
Vs

Where

σ =standard deviation

Both mean speeds will always be different from each other except in the unlikely event that
all vehicles are travelling at the same speed.

length of t ravel
Running speed =
Total time∈which the vehicle was running

It excludes stop delays.

Length of travel
Journey Speed=
Total journey time

It includes stop delays.

Time mean speed is greater than space mean speed, as As Arithmetic mean is always greater
than harmonic mean.

b. Speed & delay study

These studies are carried out over a long distance & hence it is possible to determine density
of traffic.

Various methods of carrying out speed & delay study.

i. Floating car Method

It is suitable for two lane traffic. And four observers are required in this method.
Observer – 1

Notes time at various control points such as interaction bridges and any other fixed points in
each trip. And also notes the amount of delay at each point.

Observer – 2

Notes the time, location & cause of these delays.

Observer – 3

Notes no of vehicles travelling in the opposite direction in each trip.

In this test is carried out in two directions ie N-S as well as S – N directions.

Flow & average Journey time in N-S direction is calculated as follows.

x+ y
i. Flow(q)=
t a+ t w

{
ii. Average journey time ( t )= t w −
y
( t +t )
x+ y a w }
where x= No of vehicles in N-S direction when the test Vehicle was moving in S-N direction.

Y=No of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle in N-S direction No of Vehicles overtaken by
the test vehicle in N-S direction.

tw = Travel time of test vehicle in N-S direction.

Ta = Travel time of test vehicle in S-N direction.

iii. Origin & destination studies (O & D) studies

O & D studies of vehicles determines their numbers origin & destination in the concerned
zone of study.

These Studies are very helpful in planning new highways & improving new existing services.

Also used in planning mass rapid transit system.

Method of collection of O & D data are as follows.

a. License Plate Method

The observers notes the license plate numbers of the vehicles entering & leaving the marked
area & time

After collecting the field data, office computations & analysis by tracking each vehicle
number & its time of entering & leaving the marked area.
The method is quite advantageous when the area under consideration is small like a
intersection (or) a small business centre.

b. Return post card method

Pre-paid business reply post cards with return address are distributed to the road users at
same selected points along the route.

Questionnaire to be filled in by the road user is printed on the card along with a request for
co-operation and purpose of the study.

C. Hane interview method

A random sample of 0.5 to 10 % of the population is selected & their residences are visited
by the trained personal who collect the travel data from each member of the house hold.

The problem of stopping vehicle & consequent difficulties are avoided.

Core should be taken in deciding the sample size by keeping in view the desired acarecy.

d. Traffic flow characteristics

Diverging merging & crossing are the basic maneuvers

Diverging on the left & merging from left side but diverging to the right and merging from
the right create same problems in traffic regulation

No of points of conflicts on two lane roads meeting at right angles are as follows

s.no Type of traffic No of conflicting points

1 Both the roads two way 24

One road one way 11

Both the roads one way 6

e. Traffic Capacity Studies

Traffic volume (q)

It is the number of vehicles that pass a given points during specified unit of time. & expressed
as veh/hrs (or) veh/day

Traffic density (K)

It is the no of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane of road way at a given instant usually
expressed as veh/km

Traffic volume(q=KV s )

Vs= space mean speed.

Time head way(h i )

It is the time interval between the passes of rear bumper of successive vehicle at a point

1
(veh/hr )=
i.e Traffic volume
Avg . time head way ( veh
hr
)
3600
hi = , sec
q

q=f t affic flow , veh /hr

Space head way(s i )

It is the avg distance (or) space b/w two successive vehicles (OR) Inverse of density

1
i .e s i=
k

Poisson’s distribution of time headway

Time head way is generally assumed to be constant in calculations but in reality, it follows a
random variation.

Thus the probability of having ‘n’ vehicles arriving in time ‘t’ we follow poisons distribution.

(λt )n e− λt
i .e p (h)=
n!

Where

λ= Average vehicle flow , veh/sec

t = Duration of time interval over which vehicles are counted

P(n)= probability of having n vehicles arriving in time t

Basic Capacity
It is the maximum number numbers of passenger car that can pass a given point on a lane
during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway & traffic conditions.

It is the theoretical capacity

Two roads of same physical features will have same basic capacities.

i.e. s=vt+L; for theoretical capacity

where v=design speed m/sec

t= reaction time of drivers = 0.7 sec

L= length of rigid wheel base

Practical capacity

It is the design capacity that the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point.

Capacity of single lane road is

S=SSD+L; for practical capacity

Where

SSD=stopping sight distance

The oritical maximum (or) basic capacity of a single lane is given as

1000 × v
c=
s

Where

C = capacity of a single lane, veh/hr

V = speed,kmph.

S = Avg centre to centre spacing of vehicles.

Maximum theoretical capacity from time headway

It is calculated, if the head way is minimum

3600
C a pacity (c )=
Ht
Relation between speed density & volume

i. Green shields macroscopic stream model

As per green shield the relationship should be assumed as linear.

When density is zero i.e when there is no vehicle on road, the speed will be maximum called
“free mean speed”

[ ]
i .e v s =v f 1−
ki
kj

But q=k v s

q=v f 1−
[ ] k
kJ
vf 2
× k →q=v f k − k
kJ

This, the relationship between volume & density will be parabolic.

q=v s k

[
q=v s ( v f −v s )
kJ
vf ]
2 kJ
q ¿ v s k J v f −v f
vf
Thus relation between volume & speed is parabolic

For maximum flow, both density (K) & speed (v) should be half from each other

K V k k
i .e qmax = × → q max= j f
2 2 4

k j kf
q max =
4

ii. Greenberg’s logarithmic model

v=v f ln ( kk ) j

kf k j
q max =
e

Where k=0.318kj for max flow

In this model, density becomes zero, when speed tends to infinity,

iii. Under woods exponential model

k
→ v=v fe =
kj

Where v f =free flow speed

k j=density corresponding ¿ maximum flow

In this model, speed becomes zero only when density reaches infinity which is the drawback
of the model

K=0.4 k j ; for maximum flow

Passenger car unit (P.C.U)

It is the standard vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle classes.

It is developed when the traffic volume & capacity of road way under mixed traffic flow,

Hence, in mixed traffic flow, the traffic volume & capacity are expressed as PCU/hr/lane and
traffic density as pcu/km/lane.

PCU value of a vehicle class may be considered as the ratio of the capacity of a road way
when there are passenger cars only to the capacity of the same road way when there are
vehicles of that class only.

Factors affecting PCU values

a. Length & width of the vehicle

b. speed of the vehicle & traffic conditions within the desired speed range.

c. Transverse gap & longitudinal gap allowed between the vehicles of the same class.

S.No Vehicle class Equivalency

factors

1 Passenger car, Auto- rickshaw , 1.0

tractor

Bus, truck 3.0

Motor cycle, scoter & cycle 0.5

Cycle rick Shaw 1.5

Horse drawn vehicles 4.0

Large bullock cart 8.0

f. Parking study

There are two basic types of parking facilities

a. on street (or) kerb facilities

Angle parking (or) parallel parking may be allowed in the kerb parking. Angle parking may
be at angles 30o, 60o, 90o degrees.

Out of various angles used in angle parking 45o angle is considered the best from all
consideration discussed above

b. Off – street parking

When parking facility is provided at a separate place away from the kerb, it is known as off –
street parking”

The main advantage of this method is that there is no undue congestion and delay on the road
as in kerb parking.

Parking studies are covered out using video recording.

g. Accident studies

These are used to find out the reason & cause behind accident & to take preventive measures
in term of design control.

The various records that are maintained in accident studies are:

a. Location files

Useful in identification of points of high accidents.

b. Spot maps

Accident location spot maps show accidents by spots, pins (or) symbols (or) maps

c. condition diagram

A drawing is prepared to the scale showing all the important physical condition of an
accident to be studied.

d. Collision diagram

These diagram showing the approximate path & of vehicles & pedestrians involved in the
accidents.

INTERSECTION

It is the area where two (or) more roads join (or) cross

Due to movement of traffic, at intersection varies type of conflicts occur like crossing
conflict, merging conflict, and diverging conflict.

Crossing conflicts are the major conflicts and merging diverging are minor conflicts.

To reduce conflict we resort to intersection control.

Type of intersection

1. At grade intersection

2. Grade separated intersection

1. At – grade intersection

All road intersection which meet at about the same level allowing traffic maneuvers like
merging diverging, crossing and weaving are called “Intersection at grade”

These intersection may be further classified as un channelized, channelized and Rotary

intersection.

Traffic Islands

These are raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through
which the vehicular traffic may be guided.

Traffic inlands may be classified based on function are

i. Divisional islands

These are intended to separate opposing flow of traffic on a highway with four (or) more
lanes.

The width of the divisional islands should be large, if the head light glare is to be reduced
during night driving.

ii. Channelizing islands

These are used to guide the traffic in to proper channel through the intersection area.

The are very useful as traffic control devices for intersection at grads, particularly when the
area is large.

iii. Pedestrian loading

These are provided at regular bus stops and similar places for the protection of passengers.

A pedestrian island at or near a cross walk to aid and protect pedestrian crossing the carriage
way may be termed as “pedestrian refuge islands”.

iv. Rotary island

It is the large central island of a rotary intersection this island is much larger than the central
island of channelized intersection.

The crossing man oeuvre is converted to weaving by providing sufficient weaving length.

2. Grade separated intersection

The structure that permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without interruption.

A grade separation is a crossing of two highways, a highway and a rain road (or) a pedestrian
walk, Q a high way at different levels.

An overpass & an underpass are the grade separation phenomenons

Interchange

It is a grade separated intersection with connecting roadways (ramps) for turning traffic
between highway approaches

Types

Interchanges are generally described by the pattern of the various turning roadways (or)
ramps which determine their geometric configuration

Left tuning roadways referred to as diagonal ramp (or) outer connection depending on its
shape.

A loop which is a ramp for night turns accomplished by a left exit & turn to the left through
about 170o

The common geometric configuration of interchanges are the trumpet, diamond clover leaf,
rotary & directional

a. Trumpet interchange

This is the simplest interchange form adaptable to T or Y intersections

Of the two right turning movements are is negotiated by a loop while the other is by a semi
direct connection

Diagonal ramps are provided for left turning movements.

The ramps catering for heavy traffic volumes should preferably be provided with direct
connections.
b. Diamond interchange

It is the simplest of 4 leg interchange designs.

The diamond design requires minimum land involves only a small extra travel distance for
right turning traffic is the least costly and will be found ideal for most of the cases both in
urban & rural areas.

c. Cloverleaf interchange

The design consists of one loop ramp for right turning traffic and one outer connection for
left turning traffic in each quadrant

This type of interchange provides for continuous movement to all interchanging traffic

Cloverleaf design involves appreciable extra travel distance for the right moving traffic and
requires a large space.

Rotary Interchange

This type of design is particularly useful where a number of loads intersect at the interchange
and in locations where sufficient land is available

The main highway goes over (or) under the rotary intersection and turning movements are
accommodated by the diagonal tamps.

e. Directional interchange

These have ramps for right turning traffic which follow the natural direction of movement

This type of design required more than are structure (or) a 3- level structure

Though operationally more efficient than other designs these generally turn out to be very
expensive.

Traffic Rotaries

It is a specialized form of at grade intersection where vehicles from the converging arms are
forced to move round an is/and in one direction

Rotaries reduces the complexity of crossing traffic by forcing them in to weaving operations.

Capacity assessment of a rotary is done by analyzing the section having the greatest propation
of weaving traffic

Design Elements:
i. Design Speed:

All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary.

∴The design speed of a Rotary will be much lower than the roads leading to it.

Design speed is 30 kmph and 40 kmph for urban and rural areas respectively.

Ii. Radius of curves at entry and exit:

At entry:-Entry to the Rotary is not stripped rather than a curvature is introduced. This will
face the driver to reduce speed.

Rotary Design speed (V) Radius at entry (R)

(Kmph) (m)

40 20-35

30 15-25

At exit:

The radius of the car at exit should be larger than that of the central Island.

1
Radius of exit curves ¿ ¿ 2 times radius at entry
2

iii. Radius of Central Island:

Radius of Central Island = radius at entry, it is a theoretical approach.

But, in practice, it is kept slightly larger than radius at entry.

A value of 1.33 times the radius of entry curve is suggested as a General guidance for
adoption.

iv. Weaving length:

The web length is decided on the basis of factors such as the width of the weaving section,
average width of entry, total traffic and proportion of weaving traffic in it.

Design speed Minimum Weaving length

(Kmph) (m)

40 45

30 30

v. Width on non-weaving section:

It should be equal to the widest single entry into the rotary and should generally be loss then
the width of the weaving section.

vi. Width of weaving section:

It should be on traffic lane (3.5m) wider than the mean entry width

e1 +e 2
i.e. N weaving = +3.5
2

Where,

e 1=¿Entry width, m

e 2=¿ Exit width, m

vii. Entry and exit angles:

Entry angles should be larger than exit angle and it is desirable that the entry angles 60°.

The exist angles should be small, an idealized design showing entry angles of 60° and exist
angle of 30°.

viii. Capacity of rotary:

Capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section. The overall
capacity of the Rotary is reported as the minimum value.
Q=
( )( )
280 W 1+
e
w
1−
p
3
w
1+
l

Where,

Q=¿Practical capacity of the weaving section of the rotary in PCU/hour.

W =¿Width of the weaving section, m[ range=6 m¿18 m ]

e=¿ Everage entry width, m [ e

w
range=0.4 ¿ 1.0 ]
l=¿ Length of the weaving section, m [ w
l
range=0.12¿ 0.4
]
b+c
p=¿Weaving proportion of traffic¿ [ range=0.4¿1.0 ]
a+b+ c+ d

Note: ‘P’ will be calculated at all the weaving section height value is adopted.

Weaving traffic
Also P=
Weaving + Non−weaving traffic

Analysis of traffic at signalized intersection:

Cycle: a signal cycle is one complete rotation through all the indications provided.

Cycle length(C): It is the time in seconds that it takes a Signal to complete on full cycle of
indication.

i.e. Time interval between the starting of green for one app till next time the green starts.

Green interval (Gi): This is the actual duration the green light of traffic is turn on.

Lost time: the time during a given phase in which traffic could not be discharging through
the intersection.

∴ t L=Startup lost time+Clearence lost time

Saturation flow rate: (S)

The maximum number of vehicles from group that would pass through the intersection in one
hour if the lane is given and green signal for that hour.

Effective Green time:

It is the actual time available for vehicle to cross the intersection.

It is the actual green time + yellow - lost time

i .e Ge =Gi+ y i−t L

Where,

Ge =¿ Effective green time

y i=¿ Yellow time

t L =¿Lost time

Gi=¿ Actual green time

Capacity of a Lane:

Ge
Capacity of a lane with signal ( q max ) =Si
Co

Where,

Si=¿Saturation flow on lane.

Ge =¿ Effective green time.

C o=¿ Cycle time

Ge
=¿ Green ratio
Co

3600
Number of cycles in an hour¿
C

Where, C=¿Cycle length, sec

3600
∴Total effective green time in an hour¿ ×Ge
C

Note: Time required to clear ‘n’ number of vehicles is (T)

T =N ×h ×l

Where,

N=¿Number of vehicles.

h=¿Saturation head way (Time head way)

l=¿ Startup loss time.

Green time for pedestrian crossing:

 W
G P=t s +
Up

Where,

t s=¿ Startup lost time (4.7 sec as per IRC)

W =¿Width of road.

U p =¿Walking speed of pedestrian (Usually 15% speed, 1.2 m/s as per IRC)

Various signal design method:

1. Trial cycle method

2. Approximate method.

3. Webster method.

4. IRC method

1. Trial cycle method:

Assume of cycle time¿ C o

Consider two roads A and B noted during the design peak hour flow.

No. of vehicles passing in one cycle time on

Road' A ' ( x A ) =[ nA
]
C
15× 60 o

) [ ]
nB
Road ' B ' ( x B = C
15 × 60 o

⇒ G1=R 2−A 1
Minimum green time.
G2=R1− A 2

But green time should also account for vehicular movement.

∴following steps are taken for calculation of green time.

Step 1: If n1 & n2 our approach volume of heaviest traffic per hour per lane on road-1 and
road-2 respectively then

G 1 n1
=
G 2 n2

Step 2: If is taken from vehicular consideration,

 1 n2
ThenG2=G1 ×
n1

Here ' G12 ' should not be less than G 2

Step 3: If ' G12 ' is less than G2 take G 2 as that from pedestrain movement and find out G1
1
Thus the new value of G1 will be.

1 n1
G1=G2 ×
n2

These new college of G1 and G2 are then adopted.

Here 15 minutes count nA & nB on road A and B are noted during the design peak hour flow.

Average time required for one cycle to cross the intersection is equal to time head way (2.5
sec).

The green period G A ∧GB will be calculated as

G A =x A × h=2.5 x A

GB =x B ×h=2.5 x B

∴Total cycle time¿ G A + R A + A A

HenceC 1=G A + A A + ( GB + A B ) [ ∴ R A=G B + A B ]

If the calculated cycle time C1 is equal to assumed cycle time ‘C’ then the calculated cycle
time is taken as the actual (or) design cycle time.

2. Approximate method:

In this case the green time is calculated based on pedestrain time as well as traffic volume.

W1
Green time for pedestrian on road−2 ( G P 2) = +7
1.2
Minimum red time is G P 1=R1

G P 2=R2

& G1 + A 1=R2 (for two phase signal)

3. Webster Method:

In this method optimum cycle time is calculated from list total dealer at signalized
intersection.

1.5 L+5
∴Optimum cycle time( C o )=
1−Y

Where,

L=¿ Lost time per cycle¿ 2 n+ R

n=¿Number of phases.

R=¿All red time

This is a national method

Saturation flow (s) and normal flow (q) Village per unit time and Road meeting at junction
are required for signal design.

q
Υ = ∧Υ = y 1 + y 2
s

q1 q
y 1= ∧ y 2= 2 … … … so on
s1 s2

It is noted that ' Υ ' should not be greater than a

Green time on road number 1 is given by

y1
G 1=
y o
[ C −L ]∧¿

Similarly for road number 2 is

y2
G 2=
y o
[ C −L ]

4. IRC Method:

In this method signal time is decided by approximate method and design is checked.
The pedestrain green time required for major and minor roads are calculated based on
working speed of 1.2 m/sec and initial walk period of 7.0 sec. these are the minimum green
time required for the vehicular traffic and minor and major roads respectively.

Total cycle length (c) is calculated as

C=G A + A A +GB + A B

Where,

A A =¿ (Clearance Amber + initial amber) A

A B=¿ (Clearance Amber + initial amber) B

Not: each off clearance Amber and initial Amber is taken as 2 sec.

Immediate higher multiple of 5 seconds is taken as the cycle time and additional seconds may
be apportioned in green time in proportion to the critical lane volume on the two roads.

Check for optimum cycle time:

It is done using Webster method.

1.5 L+5 qi
C o= ∧Y =Σ y i , y i=
1−Y si

L=2 × 4+¿ Total number time in two phases

If both conditions are satisfied this optimized cycle time is adopted. If modification required
do appropriate modification.

Traffic signs:

Classification of traffic signs is as follows.

1. Mandatory / regulatory signs:

These inform the road users of laws and regulations.

Violation is a legal offence.

Figures

2. Cautionary / warning signs:

These signs warn road users of the existence of certain hazardous conditions.

Figures
3. Informatory Signs:

For information and guidance of road users.

Figures

QUESTIONS
1. The speed – density (U-k) relationship on a single lane road with unidirectional flow is
U =65−0.65 k , where ‘u’ is in km/hr and ‘k’ is in veh/km. The capacity of the road ( veh/km) is
1235 veh/hr
1460 veh/hr
1625 veh/hr
1730 veh/hr

2. Capacity=Velocity × Density
C=U ×k
dc
=65−1.3 k=0
dk
k =50
2
Capacity ( c )=65 × 50−0.65 ×50
¿ 1625 veh /hr
2. An observer travelling at a constant speed of 70 kmph with traffic stream on a 8 km stretch is passed by
21 vehicle more than what he passed, when the observer travels against the stream at the same speed the
number of vehicle he meets while travelling in the direction of stream is 350. The flow of traffic is
________ veh/hr.
n a=21 , nw =350 ; V =70 kmph
8
t w =T a= hr
70
n a+ n w 350+ 21
q= = =1624 veh / hr
T a+T w
( 8 8
+
70 70 )
3. The minimum value of peak hour factor 10 min is _____
V 1
¿ = =0.67
Min PHF 10 min
( )
60
10
v
6

4. It was observed that 200 vehicle crossed a particular location of highway in 30 minute. Assume that
vehicle arrival follow a negative exponential distribution. The probability of time head way greater than 5
sec is _____
( λt )n e− λt
p ( n )=
n!
200 1
λ=¿ Average rate of arrival = = veh/ sec
30× 60 9
t=¿ time interval
n=¿ Number of vehicle.
(9 )
1

( )
° − ×5
1
×5 e −5
9
P ( n ≤5 )= =e 9 =0.573
0!
5. Which of the following method of O –D traffic survey is conducted for compressive analysis of traffic
and transportation data?
Hane interview
Road side interview
Tag on car method
Return post card method

6. The percentage of vehicles which move with more than the design speed is ______ %.

98th percentile speed is design speed.

7. On a roadway, traffic volume is 1800 veh/hr. then space headway is ______

3600 3600
Space headway (S) = = =2 sec
q 1800

8. A round about is provided with an average entry width of 8 m, width of weaving section is 11.5 m and
length of weaving section between chamelising island is 48 m. The extreme left and right turning traffic
and weaving traffic on the section are 100 and 200 per hour respectively. The capacity of round about
(¿ PCU /hr) is
1850
2866
3426
3947

C=8 m ,W =11.5 , L=48 m

Weaving traffic 200
prepartioning ratio ( P )= = =0.67
Total traffic 100+ 200

Q=
280 w 1+[ ][ ]
w
e
1−
p
3
=
280 ×11.5 1+ [ 8
11.5 ][
1−
0.67
3 ]
(
1+
W
L ) (1+
11.5
48 )
pcu
Q=3426
hr
9. The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A & B during rush hour are 480 and 300 pcu per hour.
The saturation flow values an these roads are estimated as 1450 and 100 pcu per hour. The all red time for
pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. The effective green time for road ‘A’ is
33 sec
48 sec
53 sec
58 sec
y 1=480 pcu /hour
 y 2=300 pcu/hr
q 1=1450 pcu /hr
q 2=1000 pcu /hr
L=2 n+ R
¿ 2 ×2+12=16 sec
Cycle length by Webster method
1.5 × L+5 1.5 ×16+5
C 0= = =78.6 sec
1−
( y1 y2
+
q1 q2 ) (
1−
480 300
+
1450 1000 )
yA
gA= ( C −L )
y A+ yB o
480/1450
gA= [ 78.6−16 ] =32.79 sec ≈ 33 sec
480 300
+
1450 1000
−K
10. On a section of a highway the speed – density relationship is exponential and is given by V =80 e 180 ,
where V is in kmph and ‘k’ is in veh/km. The capacity of this section of highway is ________ veh/hr.
−k
V =80 e 180

( 180 )=0
−k
180 −1
q=KV → q=k 80 e

K=180 veh/km
−180
180
q=180 ×80 e → 5297.46 veh /hr .

11. Maximum parking density can be achieved on a street parking by keeping vehicles at an angle of
_____ degrees from the street wall.
Maximum density can be achieved by keeping vehicle perpendicular to street wall.
i. e. 90 °

12. If 25,000 vehicle crosses a road in a day and 5000 vehicle cross the road between 9 am to 10 am then
hourly expansion factor is _______
25000
Hourly expansion factor ¿ =5
5000

13. Which of the following statement is/are correct for an uncontrolled right angle intersection of two, 2
lane roads an which traffic is allowed in both direction?
1. Ratio of merging conflict points to crossing conflict points is ‘2’.
2. Ratio of weaving conflict points to merging conflict point is 2/3.
1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither ‘1’ nor ‘2’

14. The lost time due to starting delay on traffic signal is noted to be 3 second, the actual green time is 25
sec and yellow time is 3 sec, effective green time is _____ sec.
Effective green time = Green time + Amber time – Starting loses time – clearance loss time.
¿ 25+3−3−3=22 sec

15. A driver travelling at a speed of 60 kmph was sighted crossing an intersection. If a 6 m long vehicle is
crossing 7 m road and reaction time of driver is 2.5 sec, then the minimum amber time should be ______
sec.
(Take longitudinal friction coefficient as 0.35)
2
v
SSD=vt+
2 gf
( 16.67 )2
¿ 16.67 ×2.5+ =82.14 m
2 ×9.81 ×0.35
SSD +W + L 82.14 +6+7
T amber = = =5.7 sec
V 16.67
16. Enoscope method is used to calculate
Traffic volume
Traffic density
Spot density
Space headway

17. On road, the free speed is 85 kmph and space way at jam density is 6.3 m. The expected maximum
flow on this road will be _____ VPh.

100
Jam density =
Space head way
100
k j= =158.7
6.3
V × k j 85 ×158.7
maximum flow= f = =3373 vph
4 4

18. For the sight distance of 150 m and grade difference of the intersecting gradient as 0.08, the required
length of summit parabolic curve is ____ M(Consider the height of driver’s eye as 1.5 m and height of
obstacle as 15 cm)
Let length of summit curve ( Lsc ) > Sight distance ( SSD )
NS
2
0.08× ( 150 )2
Lsc = 2
= 2
=346.33 M >150 M
[ √2 H +√ 2 h ] ( √ 2× 1.5+ √ 2× 0.15 )
Hence our assumption is correct Lsc =346.33 m

19. An observer counts 360 veh/hr at a specific highway location. Assume that vehicle arrival at the
location is poison distributed. The probability of having one vehicle arriving over 1 minute interval is
______ %.
λ=360 veh /hr
360
¿ =6 veh /hr
60
e− λt ( λt )n e−6 × 1 ( 6 ×1 )1
P ( n , t )= = =0.01487 ×100
n! 1!
 ¿ 1.487 %

20. The set of traffic studies needed for functional design as well as for highway capacity design are
known as
Speed and volume studies
Origin and destination studies
Axle load studies
Parking and accident studies
 Railway Engineering
-Railway engineering mainly deals with design of railways track

-Railways track is also known as permanent way whose ballast width is 3.35 M per track

Rails:

-The rails on the track can be considered as steel girders for the purpose of carrying axle load

-In India Rails are manufactured by open hearth duplex process

-Rails convert the rolling loads in to point load which acts on the sleepers

-Rails transfer axle load to the subgrade through sleepers & ballast

-Centre of gravity of the rail section must lie approximately at mid height, so that maximum
tensile & compressive stresses are equal

-The minimum tensile strength of rail should be 72kg/mm2

Type of rails:

1. Double headed rails (D.H Rails):

-These rails were used in the beginning

-The purpose of using these rails was, when the head will worn out in course of time the roil
can be inverted

2. Bull Headed Rails (B.H. Rails):

-In B.H rails the head was made a little thicker & stronger than the lower part

3. Flat fated rails (F.F rails):

These rails are designed by wt of rails per unit length

-F.F rails are also called Vignola’s rails after the name of the inventor

-These are most commonly used rails in India

Length of the rails:

Rails of larger lengths are preferred to smaller length for more strength & economy

-In longer rails no. of joints and fish plates are less thus lesser maintenance cost

-Length of each rail is 12.8 M (say 13 M) for B.G tracks 11.89 M (Say 12 M) M.G tracks are
used by Indian rails

Note: When wear of head exceeds 5% of total weight the rail must be replaced
Permanent way (or) Railway track:

Combination of rails sleepers, ballast and subgrade is called permanent way

-Sometimes temporary tracks are also laid for the transportation of the materials so
distinguish the final alignment the term permanent track us used

-The number of trains that can be run safety on a track per hour is known as “Capacity of
railway track”

-The capacity of track can be increased by

i. Achieving faster movement of trains on a track

ii. By decreasing the distance between successive trains

-In a permanent way the rails are joined in series by fish plates & bolts and they are fixed to
sleepers by fastening

-The permanent way is regards as semi elastic in nature due to packing of ballast cushion

Gauge: It is the clear distance between inner (or) running faces of two track rails

Type of Gauge:

i. Broad Gauge (B G) = 1.676 M

ii. Meter Gauge (M G) = 1.0 M

iii. Narrow Gauge (N G) = 0.762 M & 0.16 M

iv. Standard Gauge (S G) = 1.435 M

Factors Considered in Gauge selection:

a. Cost of construction

b. Volume &Nature of Traffic

c. Speed of Movement

d. Topography of the country

e. Development of the area

Coning of the wheel:

-The distance between the inside edges of wheel flanges is generally kept less than the gauge
of the track

-Normally the tread of wheels is absolutely dead center of the head of the rail, as the wheel is
coned to keep it in the central position automatically
-These wheels are coned at a slope of 1 in 20

Advantages:

-To provide a possibility of lateral movement of the axle with its wheels

-To prevent the wheels from slipping to same extent

-To reduce the wear & tear of the wheel flanges and rails which is due to rubbing action of
flanges with inside faces of the rail head

Adzing of Sleepers:

-For the effective use of coming of wheels the rails are not laid horizontal these are laid at a
slope of 1 in 20 on sleepers. This is known as “Adzing of sleepers or Tilting of rails”

-The rails are tilled at a slope of 1 in 20 in curve

-On the curves advantages of coming of wheel is not effectively utilized

Rail Joints:

-These are necessary to hold to gather the adjoining ends of the rails in the correct position
both in horizontal & vertical

-Strength of the rail joint is any 50% of the strength of rail

Types:

1. Supported rail joint:

-When the rail ends rest on a single sleeper called a “Joint sleepers” the joint is termed as
“supported joint”

2. Suspend Rails Joint:

-When rail ends are projected beyond sleepers called “Shoulder sleepers” the joint is termed
as “suspends rail joint”
3. Bridge Rail Joint:

-When rail ends are projected beyond sleepers as in case of suspended joint and they are
connected by a flat (or) corrugated plate the joints are termed as expansion joint

-The gap of 2.2cm in case of mitered rail & 7.2cm in case of halved joint is provided

5. Welded Joint:

-Welded Joint are considered as the most perfect & strongest type of points

Welding of Rails:

-The idea behind using the welding of rails is to provided sufficient restraint at the ends of
rails

-Success of welded rails depends up on better degree of fixity of rails with the sleeper’s better
measure against buckling of rail and regular maintains

Type of welded Rails:

a. Short Welded Rail (SWR):

If 3, 5 or 10 rail lengths are welded together at the both ends of the track, the rails are known
as “Short Welded Rails”

Due to temperature variation SWR contracts expands through its entire length

-SWR of 3 rail length is standardized by Indian railways

B. Long Welded Rail:

-If minimum rail length of zoom (For BG) or 300m (For BG) is welded at both ends. The rail
is known as “Long welded Rail”

-The maximum LWR length allowed is 1000m

C. Continues welded Rail:

-The welded rail longer than 1km and extending from 1 station to other with switch
expansion joint

Note: The length of the welded Rail(L)=( n−1 ) S

Where,

S=Sleeper spacing

∝T E S A S
n=No. of sleepers required=
R

A S=Cross section of rail

∝=coefficient of thermal expansion

T =Rise ∈temperature

R=Resisting force per sleeper

Breathing length:

-In case of LWR the minimum length of rail required to be welded at the end of track so the
portion of rail between welded rail does not undergo any thermal expansion contraction is
known as “Breathing Length”

-Breathing length at the both ends¿ ( n−1 ) s

-Total bearing length¿ 2 ( n−1 )

Sleepers:

-The members which support the rail & are laid transverse to the rail is known as “Sleepers”

-They are also called as rail road ties

-These transfer the axle load to subgrade through ballast

Functions of sleepers:

-To distribute the load from rail to ballast

-Sleepers transfer point load into uniformly distributed line load

-To act as elastic medium in between ballast & rail

-To hold the rail to correct gauge in proper level

Classification of sleepers:
1. Wooden sleepers:

-These are regards as beast sleepers because easy to lay relay pack lift and maintain

-Low initial & maintenance cost less deflection and capable of absorbing shock and vibration

-These are easily subjected to wear decay warping & cracking so the life of sleepers is
minimum 12 to 15 years

Composite sleepers Index (C.S.I):

-C.S.I measures the mechanical strength of timber derived from its composite properties of
strength & hardness

S+ 10 H
∴C .S. I=
20

Where,

S=strength index at 12 % moisture cantent

H=Hardness index at 12 % mositure content

2. Metal sleepers:

It is a inverted channel with folded ends. This folded ands & edges resist the damage caused
by the packing of ballast

-Cast-iron sleepers are more in usage due to less prone to corrosion

-Metal sleepers are unsuitable for bridges & level crossing

-These are uniform in strength & durability

3. Concrete sleepers:

-Due to chronic shortage of timber for wooden sleeper the concrete sleepers same in to
picture

-Later it is known that these sleepers are very useful for Indian railways for developed high
speed tracks
-They have maximum life of 40 to 60 years as compare to 15-20 years for wooden sleepers

-Prestressing technique eliminates the limitations of reinforced concrete sleepers

-Due to high value of initial compression MSS & M60 grades are used for this purpose

-Design is based on

i. Maximum permissible compressive strength of 211kg/cm

ii. Minimum cube crushing strength of concrete in the sleepers in 422kg¿ cm 2 at 28 days

iii. The pre-stressed wires are stressed to a initial stress of 8.82 kg¿ cm 2

Note: Interlaced sleepers have the difficulty in packing of ballast during maintenance

Sleeper density & Spacing:

-Sleepers provide lateral stability to the track thus more no. of sleepers more is the lateral
stability

-The number of sleepers per unit rail length is termmine as sleeper density

-In India sleeper density is represented by (M+x)

Where,

M =Rail≤n gth , m

x=number which varies ¿ 3 ro 7

-For B.G tack sleeper density is represented by (M+5)

-Sleeper spacing on a particular line depends on

i. The strength of rail

ii. Depth of ballast cushion & it type

iii. The type &design of sleeper

iv. Bearing capacity of formation

v. Volume & speed of traffic

Squaring of sleepers:

-The process of adjusting ballast under the sleepers to space them parallel to each other is
known as “squaring of sleepers”

-While packing the sleepers are squared and brought to specified spacing at straight length on
the curves
Ballast:

-It is the broken stone granular material which is placed and packed below & surrounding to
the sleeper

-Ballast transmit the load from sleepers to subgrade

-The main advantages of providing Ballast in permanent way is it provides good drainage

Functions:

-To transfer load from sleepers to subgrade and it distributes uniformly over larger area

-To import degree of elasticity to the track

-To hold sleepers in position & to prevent lateral and longitudinal movements due to
dynamics loads

To maintain super elevation on curved tracks

Types of ballast:

1. Broken Stone

2. Gravel River Rabbles

3. Sand & murum

4. Ashes

5. Brick Ballast

6. Blast furnace slag

-The size of ballast various in between 1.9 cm to 5.1 cm

-For different type sleeper, Different size of ballast is used such as:

i. For wooden sleepers = 5.1cm

ii. For steel sleepers = 3.8cm

iii. For switches &crossings = 2.54cm

Subgrade:

-It is the naturally occurring soil, which is prepared to receive ballast sleepers, rails for
constructing railways track

-Width of formation = width of prepared surface to receive ballast

Functions of subgrade:
-To provide good drainage

-To give stable conditions

-To prevent the ballast from puncturing into it

-To bear all the moving loads transmitted through ballast

Survey works for track alignment:

-For survey works are carried out during railways project they are

1. Traffic Survey:

-The object is to make accurate determination of the potential of available traffic

-It is essential for determining the visibility of new track proposed

-It. considers the future potential of both passenger and good traffic

2. Reconnaissance survey:

-It is done to find various suitable alignment

3. Preliminary Survey:

-It undercharge detailed analysis of all suitable routes

-In this tachometer theodolite dumpy level etc. are used

4. Detailed survey (or) Location survey:

-In this detailed study of final route is done

Creep of Rail:

-Creep of rail is longitudinal movement of rail with respect to sleepers in a track

Causes of creep:

i. Improper expansion gap

ii. Lack of proper drainage

iii. Yielding formation resulting in unseen cross-levels

iv. Loose unseen packing

v. In adequate ballast resistance to the movement of sleepers due to poor (or) Insufficient
ballast

Effects of creep in Rails:

-Bucking of the track which can derail a train

-Sleepers more out of position results in damage of gauge & alignments of track

-Smashing of fish plates bending of bars are caused by creep

Measurement of Creep:

-Creep is measured by creep indicators

-maximum permitted creep on B.G track is 150mm

-Creep should be measured at an interval of about 3 months

-No creep should be permitted an approaches of points & crossing

Stresses on Railways Track:

-The analysis of stresses an railways track is government by theory of elasticity

-Overall elastic property of track is represented by track modulus

Track modulus:

-It is index for stiffness (or) resistance to deformation of the permanent way

-It is defined as load per unit length of the rail required to produce unit deformation in the
track

-It depends on gauge, type of rails, and sleeper density section of ballast & subgrade

-For computation of track modulus initial load is ‘4’ tones for BG track & ‘3’ tones for M.G
track

Geometric Design of Track:

-Visible features of railways track & its alignment is known as “Genetric design of track”

-The following parameters are considered while designing railways track

1. Gradient & Grade compensation

2. Radius (or) Degree of the curves

3. Cant (or) super elevation

4. Speed of the train

5. Widening of Gauge an curves

6. Curves

1. Gradients:
-Any rise (or) fall in the track level is known as gradient

-It is represented in ‘1 in x farm’

Types:

A. Ruling Gradient:

-It is defined as the gradient which determines the maximum load that the engine can haul on
the section

-It is the maximum gradient allowed on the track section

-There is no fixed & specified values of ruling gradient but in general for plain terrain 1 in
150 to 1 in 250 and for hilly terrain 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

B. Momentum Gradient:

-If a falling gradient is followed by a raising gradient the train is able to climb the rising
gradient more easily due to momentum required by it over the falling gradient. Such a rising
gradient is called as “momentum gradient”

-It is may be more steeper than the ruling gradient but do not determine the maximum load
capacity

-Signals should not be provided at momentum gradient

C. Pusher (or) helper gradient:

-A severe gradient where pusher (or) helper engine is provided at the end of the train is called
pusher helper gradient

-It is mainly useful where sever gradient having longer length of the track there must be
unused power of locomotive to carry the load on the plain track

-On B.G track of Western Ghats pusher gradient is of 1 in 37

-In General for gradient of 1 in 75 & above, Pusher engine is used

D. Gradient in Station yards:

-It is provided to drain off the water used for cleaning rains

-It is should be low, because

a. To present the movement of standing vehicle

b. To prevent additional permitted is 1 in 400 and minimum gradient is 1 in 1000

Grade compensation:

-The reduction in gradient on curves to avoid resistance beyond the allowable limit is known
as Grade Compensation

-Compensation for curvature is for

B .G → 0.04 % per degree of curves

M .G → 0.03% per degree of curves

N .G → 0.02 % per degree of curves

2. Radius of curves/Degree of curve:

-A curve is defined either by its radius (or) by its degree

-The degree of a curve (D) is the angle subtended at its centre by a 30.5m (or) 100ft chard

1720
-Degree(D)=
R

Where,

D=Degree of curve ,∈degrees

R=Radius of curves∈metres

-The maximum degree of curvature is

For B .G−10 °

For M .G−16 °

For N . G−40°

3. Super elevation (or) Cant:

-It is the raised elevation of outer rail above inner rail. It is denoted by ‘e’

-It is provided

a. To above equal distribution of wheel loads on both rails and perpendicular to the track
b. To introduce centripetal force for counteracting the effect of centrifugal force

c. To provided smooth track for comfortable movement of train

GV 2
Cant ( e )=
127 R

Where,

V =Velocity , kmph

G=Dynamic gauge

R=Radius of curve , m

Note: Dynamic gauge is the centre to centre horizontal distance between the rails

1th 1th
-The maximum value of super elevation is to of the gauge
10 12

Equilibrium Cant:

-When the pressure on both the rail is equal then the cant provided is known as “equilibrium
cant”

-It is provided on the basis of average speed

Equilibrium Speed:

-When sanction speed>50 kmph on BG & MG

}
3
i. V eq = V max
4 Leaser ∧both is adopted
'
ii . Safe speed as per mati n s formula

b. When sanction speed<50kmph on BG & MG

i. V eq =V max
ii . Safe speed as per mati n' s formula }
Leaser ∧both is adopted

c. Weighted avg. speed

V 1 n1 +V 2 n2 +… … … … .
V eq =
n 1+ n2+ … … … ..

Where,

n=No. of train s

V =Speed

Can’t deficiency:
-It is the difference between equilibrium cant necessary for the maximum permissible speed
on a curve and the actual cant provided on the basis of average speed of trains

-Cant deficiency is limited because

i. Higher cant deficiency gives much discomfort to passengers

ii. Extra pressure and lateral force an outer rail

The maximum cant deficiency is

Gauge Speed up to 100kmph Speed>100kmph

B.G 75mm 100mm

M.G 50mm -

N.G 40mm -

Negative super elevation:

-If the level of outer rail is above the level of inner rail, super elevation is known as + ve
super elevation

-If the level of outer rail is below the level of inner rail is known as “−ve super elevation

-When a main line on a curve has a turnout of opposite curvature leading to a branch line then
the level of outer rail in branch line is always kept lower than level of inner rail. This leads to
−ve super elevation for branch line

4. Speed of the train:

-The speed of train depends up on the strength of the track and the power of the locomotive

-Safe speed on a railways track should be minimum of the following

1. Safe speed on curves as per martin’s formula:

a. For speed < 100kmph

i. On a transition curves

V max =4.35 √ R−67 , For B . G∧M .G

V max =3.6 √ R−6.1 , For N .G

ii. On Non-transition curves

80% of the above given speed in (i)

b. For High speed >100kmph

Where, R=Radius of curvature' M '

2. Speed calculated as per cant formula allowing cant deficiency

3. Max speed as per length of transition curve

4. Max specified speed as per railways board

5. Widening of gauge on curves:

-When the outer wheel of rear axle does not follow the same path as by frant axle due to
rigidity of wheel base.
2
13( B+ L)
-Extra width of gauge( d )= , CM
R

Where,

B=rigid wheel base , m {¿ 4.88

¿ 6 m→ B . G
m → M .G

L=Lap of flange , M =0.02 √ h + D . h

2

H = depth of flange below top of the rail C.M

D = Dia. Of wheel C.M

R = Radius of curves, M

D = Extra widening, CM

6. Curves:

-Curves are essential while change in the alignment through horizontal curves and change in
the gradient through vertical curves

-There are two types of curves

1. Horizontal curves

2. Vertical curves

-Simple circular curves accompanied by two transition curves at both end is used in
horizontals curves

1. Horizontal curves:

-These are provided when there is changes in the direction of the alignment of the track
Transition Curves:

-It is defined as a curve introduced between a straight and a circular curve between two
branches of a compound curve

-Radius of transition curve uniformly decreases from infinity near the start portion of the
track to the minimum at the junction point with the circular curves

Types of transition curves:

1. Spiral Curve:

-It is ideal transition curve which satisfies all the requirements

-It is used in highways because the curvature of the curve deflection is more and highway
spiral curves allows deflection more than9 °

1
-Radius of curvature¿
len g th of curve

2. Curves Parabola:

-It is used for railways because deflection allowed in tracks are below 9 ° and within this limit
cubic parabola traces spiral curve and setting out the parabola is also easy

3. Lemniscate:

-It satisfies the requirement of hesitation curves up to deflection angle of 30 °

Application: Used in Railways:

-Cubic parabola is used in Indian railways it can be easily set out by offset method

-Cubic parabola is also known as “Frauds Curve”

3
x
-Equation of cubic parabola( y )=
6 RL
 2
x
-Spiral angle (∅) is tan ∅=
2 RL

1
-Deflection is the slope of the line joining any point on the curve to origin tan δ tan δ
3

Where,

X = distance of any point on the tangent from the beginning of the curve

Y = perpendicular off set of transition at a distance ‘x’ from the commencement of curve

R = radius of circular curve

L = Total length of transition curve

Length of transition curve:

It is the length along the center line of the track from its meeting point with the straight to
that of circular curve

-Greatest of the following shall be taken

L=7.20 × e

L=0.073× e ×V max

L=0.073× D× V max

Where,

e=super elevationC . M

V max =Max speed allowed kmph

D=Cant d eficiency C . M

2. Vertical curves:

-These are provided whenever there is change in gradient

-Two types of vertical curves are used

a. vertical summit curves

b. Vertical valley curves

-When train passes over the summit of the curves, acceleration beings to act, speed of the
train increases drawbar pull increase behind each wagons

-When train passes over the vertical valley curves the front of the train ascends on upgrade
while rear wagons tend to compress the coupling and buffers
-The parabolic curve is also provided with the vertical curves

-The length of vertical curves depends up on algebraic sum of the grades and determined by
the rate of change of the gradient of the line

Shift:

-The distance by which the circular curve is shifted to a new position to accommodate
transition curve is called “shift”
2
Ls
-Shift( S )= , for cubic parabola transition curve
24 R

Where, Ls =Length of the transition curve

R=Radius of the cicular curve

 Airport Engineering
-Air transportation began in India in 1911 for military purpose

Airport:

-It is the area which is to be regularly used for landing and takeoff of aircraft

Characteristics of aircraft:

1. Field length:

Field length of aircraft is demonstrated based on the following cases

a. To complete a takeoff to 10.5m altitude with all engines

b. to complete a takeoff to 10.5m altitude with an engine at a critical point

c. To stop after landing from a height 15m

2. Type of Propulsion:

Propeller usually has two more blades which are driven round in circular path

Size of aircraft speed characteristics weight carrying capacity etc. depends upon type
of propulsion generate

3. Size of aircraft:

-Length of aircraft decides the widening of taxiways on curves width of exit taxiway
etc.

-The height of aircraft also known as “empennage height”

4. Min. Turning radius:

-To determine the minimum turning radius drawn a line through the axis of nose gear which
it is at maximum angle of rotation

-Distance of farther wing tip from the center of rotation represent the minimum turning radius

5. Min. Circular radius:

-It is the min radius with which the traffic volume & weather condition

-It depends up on the type of aircraft air traffic volume & weather condition

6. Capacity of air Craft:

-It is the measure of number of passenger cargo and fuel to be accommodated in the air craft

-Capacity of runway depends up on capacity of aircraft

7. Fuel Spillage:

-At loading aprons & hangers, it is difficult to avoid spillage completely

-It is necessary to provide to have constant supervision by airport authority

Wind Rose Diagram:

-The graphical representation of wind data i e. direction duration & intensity is called “Wind
rose diagram”

-The wind data of at least five years and preferably or 10 years should be considered while
designing an airport

-It is used for runways orientation

-Wind rose diagram can be plotted in two types as following:

Case 1: Showing direction & duration of wind:

-The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest line on wind rose
diagram

-The radius line indicates the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of wind

-The percentages of time during which wind intensity is less than 6.4 Kmph

Fig.: Wind rose diagram: Type 1:

Case 2: Showing direction duration & direction of wind:

-Each circle represent the wind intensity to same exactly

-Wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the percentage shown in segment

-The runway should be oriented along the direction indicated by central line

Fig: wind rose diagram: Type 2:

Basis Runway length (BRL):

-The length of runway based on the following assumable conditions is known as the basic
runways length

i. No wind is blowing on the runway

ii. Airport is situated at sea level

iii. The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity

iv. The runway is level in the longitudinal directions

v. The standard temperature is maintained along the ways

vi. The standard temperature of 15 ° C exists at the airport

Corrections of basic runways length:

-Necessary corrections are to be applied for elevation temperature & gradient for actual site
of construction

a. correction for Elevation:

-As per the recommendation of ICAO the basic run ways length should be increased at the
rate of 7% per 300m rise in elevation of airport above the M.S.L

-This correction is required because the air density reduces as the elevation increases

-Also to achieve greater ground speed, longer length of runways Required

B. correction for temperature:

-Airport reference temperature ( ART )=T a + ( T −T

m
3 )
a

Where, T a=¿ monthly mean of average daily temperature of hottest month

T m=¿ Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature

-The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in its
elevation above mean sea-level

-According to ICAO BRL after have corrected for elevation should further increase by 11%
for 1° for 1 ° rise in ART above the standard atmosphere temperature

-The temperature gradient is −0.0065 ° C per meter height from M.S.L

-The temperature gradient became zero above the elevation where temp. is 15 °C

C. Check for Combined correction of elevation & temperature:

-According to ICAO if combined correction exceed 35% of BRL then these correction should
be further check by specific study at the site by model tests

D. Correction for gradient:

-As the gradient becomes steep, more consumption of energy takes place and longer length of
the runways will be required to attain the desired ground speed

-ICAO does not recommend any correction for gradient

-But FAA recommend the correction

i e. After combined correction, BRL should increase by rate of 20% for every 1% in effective
gradient
-Effective gradient is defined as maximum

Taxiway design:

-The main function of taxiways is to provide access from runways to the terminal area and
service hangers

-Route of taxiway should be shortest from apron to run away

-The intersection between Runway and taxiway should be avoided

Geometric design of taxiway:

The design of taxiways system is governed by the volume of aircraft movements the runway
configuration

The following standards are considered during Geometric design of taxiway

i. length of taxiway:

-It depends upon the distance between the apron and entry and or exit end of the runway

-no specific recommendation buy any agencies

-it should be short as practice cable for fuel saving

ii. Width of taxiway:

-It should be lower than runway

-Width is normally varies from 22.5m to 7.5m

iii. Longitudinal gradient:

-If the gradient is steep there will greater consumption of fuel

-ICAO recommend that longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5% for A & B airport type
& 3% for other type

iv. Transverse gradient:

-It is provided for quick drainage

-It should not exceed 1.5% for A, B, & C types and for D & E types of airport

v. Sight distance:

-ICAO recommend:

1. For A, B, C type airport, surface of taxi way visible from 3m height at 300m distance

2. For D, E type airport surface of taxiway visible from 2.1m height at 250m distance
vi. Turning radius:

-A horizontal curve is to be provided whenever there is a change in the direction of the

taxiway

V2
-Railway of the curve (R)=
125 f

Where,

V =speed , Kmph

R=Radius , m

f =Transverse coefficient of friction=0.13

Note:

For large subsonic jet transports, Min ‘R’ = 120m.

For supersonic transport, min ‘R’ =180m

According to horonjeff, the radius of curve should be such that a minimum distance of 6m is
maintained between the nearby main gear & the edge of pavement. The Horonjeff equation is
2
0.388 W
given by R=
0.5 T −S

Where W =Wheel base of aircraft ,m

T =Width of taxiway pavement , m

S= Distancebetween midway point of the main gears∧¿

edge of taxiway pavement , m

Capacity of runway
Note: Number of gate position¿ × Avg . gate occupancy time
60 × 2

In above formula, it is assumed that each air craft occupying a gate position represent two air
craft movement i e. landing & take off

Generally the Ramp time for small crafts is looming and for large crafts, it is 60 min

QUESTIONS
1. grade compensation on curve in Indian railways for BG is
0.02% per degree of curve
0.2% per degree of curve
0.04 % per degree of curve
0.4 % per degree of curve
2. A board gauge curved track is having 4 ° curvature and cant of 12 cm. the maximum permissible speed
on curve is 80 kmph. The length of transition curve is ______ m.

2. Answer:
e=12 cm; V max=80 kmph D °=4
L=7.2 × e
L=7.2 ×12=86.4 m
L=0.073 D V max
D=7.6 cm for B . G .
L=0.073× 7.6× 80=44.38 m
L=0.073e V max
¿ 0.073 ×12 ×80=70.08 m
Use maximum of above three condition i. e. 86.4 m

3. On a board gauge 3 ° curve, the equilibrium cant is provided for a speed of 75 km/hr. The value of
maximum allowable speed after a maximum cant deficiency is ______ kmph.

3. Answer:
1720
R= =573.33 m
3
ϵ V2 1.676 ×752
e= = =0.1295 m≈ 12.95 cm
127 R 127 × 573.33
e max =12.945+7.6=20.54 cm=0.2054 m

Check using martin’s formula

V max =
√ 0.2054 ×127 ×573.33
1.676
=94.46 kmph

4.32 √( R−67)=4.35 √573.33−67

¿ 97.88 kmph>V max =94.46 kmph
Hence ok

4. Which of the following type of steel is used in manufacturing of soils?

Mild steel
Manganese steel
Cast steel
Bessemer steel

5. A BG track is subjected to temperature variation of 35 ° C, rails have cross sectional area of 75 c m2

and coefficient of temperature variation is 11.2 ×10−6 /° C . Sleepers are provided at 65 cm center to
center spacing and each sleeper provides resistance of 210 kg then minimum breathing length requirement
is ______ m.
[ Take Es =2.1× 106 kg/c m2 ]
5. Answer:
Stress due to temperature variation ¿ E ∝ ∆T
6 −6
¿ 2.1 ×10 ×11.2 ×10 ×35
¿ 823.2 kg /c m2
Force=stress× area
823.2 ×75=61740 kg
F 61740
No. of sleepers require = = =394
fn 210
Breathing length ¿( n−1)× 3
¿ ( 294−1 ) × 65
¿ 190 ° 45 m

7. A new BG track with 3 ° curve has been proposed the average train’s speed is designed as 90 kmph
what will be safe cant value !
18.6 cm
8.6 cm
16 cm
None of these

6. Answer: D
1720
R= =573.33
3
GV2 1.676 ×90 2
e= = =0.186 m=18.6 cm
127 R 127 × 573.33
But e max =16.5 cm

7. For a broad gauge track, total number of sleepers requirement for 5 km length of track is, sleeper density
is given as n+5
6920
7038
7089
7128

7. Answer: B
Sleeper density = 13+5=18
Length of one rail = 12.8 m
3
Number of rails ¿
5× 10
=391
12.8
Total number of sleepers = 391 ×18=7038

8. The ruling gradient is 1 in 250 on a section of a broad gauge track. If the track is laid in that place at a
curve of 4 °, the allowable ruling gradient an the curve shall be 1 in
8. Answer:
Grade compensation for BG = 0.04 % per degree of curvature
1 0.04
Allowable ruling gradient = − ×4
250 100
¿ 1∈416.667 .

9. For a sleeper density of (n+5), the number of sleepers required for constructing a BG railway track of
length 650 m is _______

9. Answer:
Length of BG rail = 12.8 m
650
Number of BG rails in 650 m ¿ =51
12.8
Sleeper density ¿ 13+5
¿ 18 per rail

10. An electric locomotive is running at 60 kmph an a curved track of 1.676 m gauge laid at 700 m radius.
The super elevation provided would be ________ mm.

Answer:
2 2
V 60
e= = =0.04049
127 R 127 × 700
y
e=tanθ= =0.04049
x
y=0.04049× 1676
y=67.86 mm

11. The safe speed an a curve having radius of 300 m for high speed train be ________ kmph.

11. Answer:
As per martin’s formula (For high speed train’s)
V =4.58 √ R
¿ 4.58 √ 300=79.327 kmph
12. A cross over of a 1 in 10 exists between two broad gauge parallel tracks with centers 5 m apart. The
length of the straight track is _________

12. Answer:
Length of track ( l )=4 GN + ( D−G ) N −G 1+ N 2√
N=10 , D=5 m, G=1.676 m
l=4 ×1.676 × 10+ ( 5−1.676 ) 10−1.676 √ 1+10 =83.44 m
2

Length of straight distance = ¿ l−4 GN

¿ 83.44−4 ×1.676 ×10
¿ 16.4 M

13. A rail road freight car weighs 1000 KN with wheels having a radius of 750 mm. If the rolling
resistance of the rail road freight car is 30N. Then the coefficient of rolling resistance of the rail road
freight car is 30N. Then the coefficient of rolling resistance is
−3
20.5 ×10 mm
−3
22.5 ×10 mm
−3
22.5 ×10 mm
27.5 ×10−3 mm

13. Answer:

14. The maximum speed of a train on a broad gauge track having a curvature of 2 ° and craft of 100 mm
with allowable cant deficiency of 48 mm is,
86.4 kmph
92.5 kmph
98.2 kmph
104.6 kmph

14. Answer: C

Maximum speed (V max )=

√ 127 R × eth
G
1720 1720
R= = =860 m
D 2
e th =0.1 m+ 0.048 m=0.148 m
G=1.676 m

V max =
√ 127 × 860 ×0.148
1.676
=98.2 kmph
3. 12 gates of an airport serve three classes of aircraft
Aircraft class Aircraft mix (%)
1 15%
2 35%
3 50%
By following data, the capacity of gates will be ______ [Assume each gate is equally available for all
crafts]

3. Answer:
1
Capacity of single gate (C) ¿
Weighted service
1
¿
0.15× 25+0.35 × 45+0.5 ×0.6
¿ 0.0202 aircraft /min /gate
Capacity of all gates = 0.0202 ×12
¿ 0.2424 aircraft /min
¿ 14.544 aircraft /hr .
4. The runway length for an airport located at 460 m above MSL, corrected for elevation is 3680 m. The
monthly means of maximum and mean daily temperatures for the hottest month of the year are
27 ° C∧18 ° C respectively. The final corrected length of runway (in m to nearest integer) with
corrections incorporated also due to temperature effects is _______

4. Answer:
Final corrected length of runway = given runway length t length correction incorporated due to
temperature effects = 3680 +L
1
L=Runway length × × [ ART −standard temperature ]
100

(
ART =T a + m
T −T a
3 )
¿ 18+ ( 27−18
7 )
=21° C